Maas Revolution: Mobility Beyond the First/Last Mile in Black Communities

MaaS Revolution: Mobility Beyond the First/Last Mile in Black Communities

Sally Ayuk, Transportation Equity Fellow January

Transportation Disparities in Black Communities

Public transportation agencies are experimenting with ondemand, shared, and dynamic models in the United States to augment traditional fixed-route bus and train services.1 Despite ongoing efforts, transportation disparities remain a considerable challenge, with Black communities experiencing a disproportionate impact. The public sector is actively committed to easing access to transportation, recognizing it as a key priority. This commitment aims to empower individuals by fostering connections to employment opportunities, essential services, and recreational activities and facilitating the seamless movement of goods.2

The mean travel time for Black American workers increased from 22 minutes in 1990 to 29 minutes in 2020, with public transportation users enduring the longest commute of 52 minutes.

The nation’s deep-rooted history of racial segregation, stemming from historical race-based zoning laws and restrictive covenants that excluded Black individuals from residing in affluent neighborhoods near urban and suburban employment hubs, has led to extended commute times for Black Americans compared to their White counterparts. Redlining, racially restrictive housing covenants, and the dispossession of land from indigenous communities have economically displaced and marginalized communities. Furthermore, these practices have increased the susceptibility of such communities to displacement through gentrification, and the widening gap in housing costs between urban and non-urban areas is pushing an escalating number of Black Americans away from their workplaces.3 Additionally, the scarcity of high-quality public transportation in most American cities contributes to prolonged commutes for Black Americans.4 Transit agencies have, in essence, established two systems with different standards for “choice” and “dependent” riders, reflecting distinctions between White and Black riders.5

Data source: IPUMS USA | National Equity Atlas 3

Eighteen percent of Black households (2.62 million households) have no access to a car. 6

Public transportation encompasses several modes: buses, trains, trams, trolleys, ferries, paratransit, or fast transit systems. 11

Racial disparities in income and wealth have led to limited access to cars for Black individuals in the United States. Consequently, people from racially and ethnically minoritized groups are more prone to experiencing poverty and a lack of inherited wealth compared to their White counterparts. This situation is further compounded by the practice of charging varying prices for auto loans based on race.7 In communities where the Black American population exceeds 75%, car insurance premiums are, on average, 70% higher than in communities where less than 25% of the population is Black American.8 This contributes to increased expenses associated with car ownership and exacerbates the disparities in car accessibility between White and Black individuals.6 AAA reports a significant increase in the average annual expenditure for owning and operating a new vehicle in 2023, totaling $12,182 per year or $1,015 per month.9 However, car ownership does not always translate to reduced commuting time for Black workers.10

FIGURE 1: AVERAGE TRAVEL TIME TO WORK (MINUTES) BY RACE/ETHNICITY FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION IN ALL INCOME LEVELS (2020)

| MaaS

Data source: IPUMS USA | National Equity Atlas6

This policy brief delves into the feasibility of leveraging mobility as a service (MaaS) to seamlessly integrate microtransit and micromobility for first/last mile solutions, specifically focusing on mitigating inequalities in Black neighborhoods. The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) emerges as a linchpin in advancing these progressive mobility options, channeling substantial funding and concerted efforts toward enhancing mobility, connectivity, and equity.

CPAR

Revolution: Mobility Beyond the First/Last Mile in Black Communities

FIGURE 2: PERCENT OF HOUSEHOLDS WITHOUT A VEHICLE BY RACE/ETHNICITY IN ALL INCOME LEVELS (2020)

The Intersection between Mobility as a Service (MaaS), Microtransit, and Micromobility for First/Last Mile Solutions

Considering the limitations of public transportation, including inflexible schedules, restricted access to transit stations, and the considerable costs of owning and maintaining a personal vehicle, there is an imperative to tackle these challenges using shared mobility options. Shared mobility refers to transportation services designed for use by multiple users. Examples encompass ridesharing services like Uber and Lyft, carsharing programs exemplified by Zipcar, bikesharing initiatives, scootersharing programs, peer-to-peer car rental platforms such as Turo, carpooling services facilitated by various platforms, vanpooling arrangements, and shuttle services.12

The U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) Volpe Center has proactively undertaken initiatives to rectify transportation disparities and champion safe, affordable, and multimodal access to opportunities and services.13

This dedication is in harmony with the acknowledgment that the future of transportation is progressively becoming multimodal14, including microtransit and micromobility Microtransit refers to IT-enabled private multi-passenger transportation services that use dynamically generated routes to serve passengers and may expect passengers to go to and from common pick-up or drop-off spots. Its vehicles can be vans, shuttles, or buses, and they differ from typical public transportation systems in numerous essential ways, including: flexibility and dynamic routing based on real-time demand, size, and capacity; correspondence with the number of passengers on a given route; and reliance on technology, such as mobile apps for booking trips, real-time vehicle tracking, and route optimization based on demand patterns. Microtransit is generally operated by private enterprises or public-private partnerships and focuses on solving the “first/last mile problem” problem by providing transportation to and from transit hubs, residential neighborhoods, or other destinations not efficiently covered by fixed-route public transportation.12

MICROTRANSIT

IT-enabled private multi-passenger transportation services that use dynamically generated routes to serve passengers and may expect passengers to go to and from common pick-up or drop-off spots.

MICROMOBILITY

Compact, slow-moving means of transportation powered by humans or electricity.

“

FIRST MILE ”

The initial segment of a journey, typically from the origin location, such as one’s residence or employment, to the public transportation station.

“

LAST MILE ”

The concluding portion of an individual’s journey, which involves traveling from a transportation station to their ultimate destination.

Micromobility refers to compact, slow-moving means of transportation powered by humans or electricity. This includes bicycles, scooters, electric-assist bicycles, electric scooters (e-scooters), and other small, lightweight, wheeled vehicles.15

Multimodal access to public transportation considers and accommodates how users reach and depart from a public transportation stop or center to utilize public transportation services. These methods encompass walking, bicycling, using feeder public transportation systems (such as taking a bus to connect to commuter rail at a station), and driving.16 Promoting multimodal access has significantly improved the functionality and appeal of innovative transportation concepts designed to address the challenges associated with accessing and departing from public transportation networks. Solutions like microtransit and micromobility, particularly for first/last mile connections, have been enhanced by integrating Mobility as a Service (MaaS). The term “first mile” denotes the initial segment of a journey, typically from the origin location, such as one’s residence or employment, to the public transportation station. The “last mile” refers to the concluding portion of an individual’s journey, which involves traveling from a transportation station to their ultimate destination.17

Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is a unified marketplace that consolidates many transportation choices into a single platform, allowing users to plan trips on demand, access real-time information, and make payments for uninterrupted journeys from start to finish.

18

MaaS facilitates transportation choices where users can share vehicles such as cars or scooters and engage in shared trips using shuttles or cars. Notably, according to the National Transit Database’s 2020 report, nearly 25% of all transit stations in the U.S. were inaccessible.19 This is particularly significant for individuals with lower income, those belonging to Black or Hispanic communities, immigrants, or those under 50, as they are more likely to rely on public transportation regularly.20, 21

CPAR

MaaS Revolution: Mobility Beyond the First/Last Mile in Black Communities

How can Microtransit, Micromobility, and MaaS be Integrated in the Black Community to Solve the First/Last Mile Problem?

Addressing the “first/last mile problem” is a critical challenge in contemporary public transportation. It is particularly acute for marginalized groups, including people with disabilities, Black, Indigenous, and low-income travelers, who often rely on transit at higher rates. They may face challenges being dropped off or picked up from transit stations, especially if they live where walking or cycling to a station is unpleasant.22 Recent data from 2021 underscores that 45% of the American population cannot utilize public transportation systems.23

Underserved populations, relying heavily on transit systems, are particularly susceptible to the “first/last problem”, contributing to increased disparities and inequities in transportation systems. Any challenges encountered in completing the first/last mile trip can substantially impact their ability to access nutritious food and essential healthcare services.24, 25 Notably, commuters from Black, Filipino, South Asian, and Indigenous backgrounds are disproportionately present during nighttime hours, and those engaged in evening and night shifts tend to rely more on carpooling, public transportation, or walking.26

MICROTRANSIT

To address the challenges related to the first/last mile issue, several agencies are actively implementing microtransit services,27–31 recognizing on-demand microtransit as a potential solution to significantly reduce city traffic congestion by 15% to 30%.32 Despite associated costs, agencies have found ways to mitigate expenses through partnerships (employer-sponsored, agency-sponsored) and diverse vanpool options. Furthermore, healthcare centers are adopting microtransit to provide convenient patient transportation during medical journeys.33, 34

Several Black communities have successfully implemented microtransit services, showcasing a proactive response that emphasizes a commitment to meeting the evolving transportation needs of the Black community. Alabama’s Birmingham On-Demand , launched in December 2019, has successfully addressed historical transit gaps by providing on-demand rides to underserved areas, prioritizing inclusivity with affordable fares and wheelchair accessibility. The initiative significantly improved job accessibility

from 10% to an impressive 90%, remarkably expanding service hours and coverage to additional neighborhoods. Similarly, in Memphis, Tennessee, Groove On-Demand addresses transit gaps in communities like New Chicago, offering Downtown Memphis affordable access to jobs, businesses, and medical services. The service reflects a concerted effort by local leadership to enhance accessibility and address transportation challenges in underserved areas.35

In Detroit, Michigan, SMART Flex , an on-demand microtransit service, has prioritized addressing first/last mile connectivity gaps, significantly expanding the city’s transit network and improving connectivity with over 70% of riders to areas not covered by existing fixed routes and 12% of rides contribute to improving connectivity by linking to existing public transportation options, marking a notable enhancement in accessibility and efficiency. St. Louis, Missouri’s Metro Transit introduced Via Metro STL in response to evolving mobility needs during the COVID-19 pandemic. The program’s success led to its extension, serving nearly 300,000 residents, predominantly Black Americans, across various zones. The commitment to equity is evident in the substantial ridership growth, nearly tripling in 2022 compared to 2021.35 While not precisely focused on a Black community, the Kansas City Area Transportation Authority (KCATA), an inter-state agency established through an agreement between the states of Missouri and Kansas, has actively evolved in the microtransit landscape, demonstrating a commitment to enhancing services. Flexible scheduling, diverse transportation options, and a focus on equity through ADA-compliant services showcase KCATA’s dedication to delivering prompt and efficient transportation solutions.36

MICROMOBILITY

Micromobility devices and shared systems offer innovative solutions to transportation needs, with over 260 shared micromobility systems in the United States as of August 2020.15 A 2022 report from the National Association of City Transportation Officials (NACTO) reveals a significant increase in usage as U.S. users took 67 million trips in 2022, a 17% rise from the previous year.37 In a tale of transformative urban mobility, the partnership between First Transit and Lyft has reshaped Portland’s transportation landscape. Taking the reins of operational responsibilities for BIKETOWN, Portland’s all-electric bike-share system, First Transit, navigates a network spanning 30 square miles, boasting 1,500 bikes across 140 strategically placed stations. Their role encompasses a symphony of tasks, from meticulous battery monitoring to the orchestrated deployment, retrieval, and the delicate art of bike inventory rebalancing. The collaboration, however, extends beyond bikes, reaching the heart of inclusivity with Lyft’s Wheelchair Accessible Vehicle (WAV) service. This extension ensures reliable and accessible transportation for passengers with non-collapsible wheelchairs, painting a vibrant picture of commitment to inclusivity.38

Meanwhile, Kansas City’s streets echo the RideKC initiative’s success, a harmonious collaboration between KCATA, BikeWalkKC , and Drop Mobility . Since its inception in July 2019, RideKC has seamlessly woven public transit with shared-use mobility, offering an array of choices through traditional pedal bikes, electric-assist bikes, and nimble scooters. Positioned within the RideKC regional transit family, this initiative emerges as a beacon of commitment, promising accessible, healthy, and environmentally friendly mobility options in the heart of Kansas City. Venturing west to the San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency (SFMTA) unfurls an innovative tapestry of mobility solutions, particularly for individuals with disabilities. The start of 2020 marked the initiation of four adaptive scooter pilot programs, a collaboration with scooter operators Jump, Lime, Scoot, and Spin, aiming to enhance mobility options and foster inclusivity in micromobility services. The deployment of 50 adaptive scooters paints a canvas of progress, illustrating SFMTA’s commitment to providing accessible and tailored transportation solutions, thereby contributing to an inclusive urban mobility landscape.39, 40

In the heart of Ohio, Dayton’s Greater Dayton RTA promotes shared bikes and scooters as essential elements of a vibrant transportation mosaic. RTA envisions a comprehensive “Mobility-as-a-Service” offering. Introducing account-based ticketing for Tapp Pay

on Mobile elevates efficiency and convenience for public transportation.41 Finally, Sacramento’s Regional Transit District (SacRT) unfolds an inspiring tale of micromobility innovation. Since 2019, in collaboration with JUMP, SacRT has tackled the infamous “first/ last mile problem” with on-demand access to and from light rail stations. The ingenuity shines in integrating charging bays within stations for e-bikes, symbolizing a collaborative effort to enhance accessibility and convenience in public transportation.

Together, these stories weave a narrative of transformation, where partnerships redefine mobility, accessibility is paramount, and inclusivity becomes the guiding star in the urban transit constellations that can be applied in Black communities across America. For example, 77% of NACTO member cities offer discounted memberships for station-based bike shares to income-eligible individuals, representing significant progress since 2016, when only 24% of shared micromobility systems embraced income-based subsidies.37 In Santa Monica, California, operators exceed regulatory requirements to enhance mobility for all. While obligated to provide low-income rates, they proactively introduce incentives, such as educational programs, outreach efforts, and flexible payment plans. This reflects their genuine commitment to making shared micromobility accessible to individuals with lower incomes or facing disadvantages, going above and beyond mere compliance.42

Mobility as a Service (MaaS)

According to the U.S. Department of Transportation, an effective Mobility as a Service (MaaS) platform should adhere to key MOD (Mobility on Demand) innovation principles. These include being traveler-centric, prioritizing personal choice in mobility with inclusivity in design, mode-agnostic, and promoting seamless integration of various travel modes for a comprehensive trip experience. Incorporating technology-enabled solutions, including emerging and existing technologies, data connectivity, and standardization, is crucial for supporting personal mobility choices. Additionally, a successful MaaS ecosystem should be partnership-driven, encouraging collaborations between public and private entities to facilitate the deployment of emerging mobility options.43

Tech giants, including Google, Apple, Transit App, Cubic, Moovit, and Whim, are instrumental in propelling Mobility as a Service (MaaS) forward. Google Maps stands out, providing a comprehensive snapshot of rates, times, and routes for various MaaS transportation modes in a single journey. Whim takes the lead, offering a city-wide MaaS platform covering routing, booking, and payment with flexible subscription plans.

The future landscape may see other tech players, particularly those in autonomous vehicles (AVs), stepping in to provide MaaS services for cities or act as open platforms for any transportation company. Moovel encapsulates the essence of MaaS, consolidating diverse transportation services into a unified platform. These platforms facilitate smooth transitions between transportation modes, utilizing real-time data and streamlined payment processes.44, 45 RideKC Flex epitomizes MaaS, demonstrating the KCATA’s commitment to modernizing urban mobility, allowing users to book trips effortlessly through a mobile app and pay with different methods, including cash.46

CPAR | MaaS Revolution: Mobility Beyond the First/Last Mile in Black Communities

FIGURE 3: RIDEKC FLEX APP

Source: Kansas City Area Transportation Authority46

Acknowledging the challenges the unbanked population faces in Black communities is crucial, as they often lack access to the digital payment methods commonly used by MaaS providers. The underbanked rates, particularly prevalent among minoritized groups, are higher, especially in Black and Hispanic households with a family income below $15,000. The statistics reveal that Black individuals are more likely to be part of this population, with 11.3% being unbanked and 24.7% underbanked, in contrast to 2.1% of unbanked and 9.3% underbanked among White individuals. Additionally, people with disabilities are approximately four times more likely to be unbanked than those without disabilities. 47

To successfully implement Mobility as a Service in Black communities, key considerations should include offering flexible subscription options, ensuring user-friendly journey planning, and understanding residents’ perceptions of existing transportation infrastructure. Tailoring MaaS services to align with residents’ current information and payment preferences is crucial. The benefits of MaaS, such as the inclusion of wheelchair routing, align with universal design principles and improve accessibility for a wide range of users.

CPAR | MaaS Revolution: Mobility Beyond the First/Last Mile in Black Communities

FIGURE 4: UNBANKED RATES BY INCOME LEVEL AND RACE AND ETHNICITY, 2021 (PERCENT)

Source: 2021 FDIC National Survey of Unbanked and Underbanked Households47

Policy Recommendations

The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) primarily focuses on allocating funds towards developing and improving the country’s infrastructure, including sectors such as transportation, broadband, water systems, environmental cleanup, and clean energy. While the Act does not overtly single out particular racial or ethnic communities, it can have an indirect effect on different groups, notably Black communities. The IIJA underscores the significance of equity in advancing infrastructure. Explicit provisions may include prerequisites for project assessment that consider the possible influence on marginalized communities, emphasizing a dedication to equity.

The Rebuilding American Infrastructure with Sustainability and Equity (RAISE) grant program, which allocates $7.5 billion in financing, seeks to enhance transportation infrastructure. These programs can improve economic access and job possibilities for Black neighborhoods and provide reliable internet access. Their mission is to foster initiatives that directly focus on and empower Black communities. Transit agencies, transportation planners, and the Black communities are encouraged to embrace MaaS strategies, integrating microtransit and micromobility for first/last mile transportation solutions. Considering the distinctive obstacles and opportunities in Black communities, it is advisable to incorporate the following recommendations into the implementation process.

1. Promote Microtransit and Micromobility Expansions Beyond Pilot Programs

The proposed initiative seeks to comprehensively expand microtransit and micromobility pilot programs, focusing on underserved areas and communities to enhance last-mile connectivity to public transportation. This expansion goes beyond pilot programs, aiming to establish permanent first and last mile solutions in Black communities. Law makers, transit agencies and government officials at federal, state, and local levels should leverage infrastructure funding from the IIJA’s Strengthening Mobility and Revolutionizing Transportation (SMART) Grants and Pilot Program for Enhanced Mobility to create dedicated lanes and safe pathways for micromobility solutions, such as electric scooters and bicycles, while fostering partnerships between private companies and public transit agencies.

2. Promote MaaS Integration

There is need to promote efficient integration of the uptake of MaaS solutions, specifically emphasizing affordability and accessibility, especially within Black communities, and aligning closely with the equity-focused objectives outlined in the IIJA. Legislators and local government agencies should utilize the University Transportation Centers (UTC)

Program, which is supported by a substantial $500 million funding and fosters progress in transportation research and technology while nurturing the future generation of transportation experts. This program comprises transportation operations aimed at advancing U.S. technological innovation and expertise through education and research. It focuses on developing solutions, transferring technology, and engaging in the exploration and exchange of innovative ideas and methods.

3. Integrate Community Engagement

This strategy actively involves the community in addressing first/last mile challenges in Black neighborhoods, aligning services with local preferences. Resident awareness programs boost understanding and increase the likelihood of embracing microtransit, micromobility, and Mobility as a Service (MaaS).

4. Foster Digital Inclusion

Digital inclusion initiatives can ensure effective access to MaaS platforms and services for all community members by harnessing these three key initiatives: The Broadband Equity, Access, and Deployment Program, the Affordable Connectivity Program, and the State Digital Equity Capacity Grant. These efforts target diverse populations, including aging individuals, incarcerated individuals, veterans, people with disabilities, those with language barriers, and rural residents, and can be used specifically foster digital inclusion and equity in Black communities.

5. Enable Diverse Transportation Options and Universal Design

Planning for diverse transportation options must incorporate universal design to cater to disabled and aging populations by utilizing the Enhanced Mobility of Seniors and Individuals with Disabilities program to support initiatives in Black communities, ensuring accessibility and affordability.

6. Advance Sustainability

Enhancing sustainability can be achieved by employing innovative initiatives in the Research, Development, Demonstration, and Deployment Projects. These initiatives are tailored to improve public transportation’s environmental sustainability, safety, and efficiency. This approach encompasses promoting shared mobility initiatives explicitly engineered to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.

CPAR | MaaS Revolution: Mobility Beyond the First/Last Mile in Black Communities

Conclusion

The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act and its associated projects represent substantial progress in tackling transportation inequalities improving fairness, effectiveness, and environmental friendliness in transportation. Empowering Black communities and bridging inequities necessitates prioritizing affordability, accessibility, and community participation. The effective implementation of mobility as a service (MaaS) to seamlessly integrate microtransit and micromobility for first/last mile solutions enable innovative business models and streamlined methods for managing mobility options. Encouraging employers to offer incentives for transportation alternatives can further bolster transportation equity and accessibility. The implementation of comprehensive and all-encompassing new methods of transportation, advancements, and the development of infrastructure centered around public transportation and shared mobility incentives are crucial in establishing a transportation system that is equitable and effective.

CPAR | MaaS Revolution: Mobility Beyond the First/Last Mile in Black Communities

Endnotes

1. ENO Center for Transportation. (2018). Uprouted: Exploring Microtransit in the United States. https://enotrans.org/wp-content/ uploads/2023/02/UpRouted-18.pdf

2. Ray, R. A. (2020). Increasing Access to Essential Health Functions: The Role of Transportation in Improving America’s Health. https:// enotrans.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/The-Role-of-Transportation-in-Improving-Americas-Health.pdf

3. Swistara, M. (2020). A Fare Share: A Proposed Solution to Address the Racial Disparity in Access to Public Transportation Funding in America. Mich. J. Race & L., 26, 521. https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1378&context=mjrl

4. National Equity Atlas. (2023). Commute Time. https://nationalequityatlas.org/indicators/Commute_time

5. Kinder Institute for Urban Research. (2020). Racism has Shaped Public Transit, and it’s Riddled with Inequities. https://kinder.rice. edu/urbanedge/racism-has-shaped-public-transit-and-its-riddled-inequities

6. National Equity Atlas. (2023). Car Access. https://nationalequityatlas.org/indicators/Car_access

7. National Consumer Law Center (NCLC). (2019). Report Documents Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Auto Sales and Finance; NCLC Attorney to Testify at U.S. House Committee Hearing. https://www.nclc.org/report-documents-racial-and-ethnic-disparities-inauto-sales-and-finance-national-consumer-law-center-attorney-to-testify-at-u-s-house-committee-hearing-on-may-1/

8. Consumer Federation of America (CFA). (2015). High Price of Mandatory Auto Insurance in Predominantly African American Communities. https://consumerfed.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/151118_ insuranceinpredominantlyafricanamericancommunities_CFA.pdf

9. Moye, B. (2023). Annual New Car Ownership Costs Boil Over $12K. AAA NewsRoom. https://newsroom.aaa.com/2023/08/ annual-new-car-ownership-costs-boil-over-12k/

10. Wilson, K. (2022). Study: Car Ownership Doesn’t Always Cut Black Workers’ Commutes. Streetsblog USA. https://usa. streetsblog.org/2022/04/20/study-car-ownership-doesnt-help-black-workers-commutes

11. U.S. Department of Transportation (U.S. DOT). (2015). Expand Public Transportation Systems and Offer Incentives. https:// www.transportation.gov/mission/health/Expand-Public-Transportation-Systems-and-Offer-Incentives#:~:text=Public%20 transportation%20can%20include%20buses,improving%20associated%20personal%20health%20outcomes.

12. Feigon, S., & Murphy, C. (2016). Shared Mobility and the Transformation of Public Transit (No. Project J-11, Task 21).

13. U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) Volpe Center. (2022). Advancing a More Equitable, Accessible, and Inclusive Transportation System. https://www.volpe.dot.gov/news/advancing-more-equitable-accessible-and-inclusive-transportationsystem

14. The Dirt Contributor. (2022). The Future of Transportation is More Multimodal. https://dirt.asla.org/2022/01/18/a-new-frameworkfor-better-transportation/

15. Price, J., Blackshear, D., Blount, Jr, W., & Sandt, L. (2021). Micromobility: A Travel Mode Innovation. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), Public Roads - Spring 2021. https://highways.dot.gov/public-roads/spring-2021/02

16. U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT). (2015). Multimodal Access to Public Transportation. https://www.transportation.gov/ mission/health/Multimodal-Access-to-Public-Transportation

17. Jones, R. (2022). Potential Solutions to the First Mile/Last Mile Problem. University of Michigan Law School, Journal of Law and Mobility. https://futurist.law.umich.edu/potential-solutions-to-the-first-mile-last-mile-problem/

18. Oregon Department of Transportation (ODOT) & Trillium Solutions. (2020). Mobility as a Services in Oregon: Implications for the Oregon Department of Transportation. https://www.oregon.gov/odot/Planning/Documents/MaaS%20White%20Paper%20 Final_2020May.pdf

19. U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT). (2023). Multimodal Accessibility of Public Transportation Facilities, Vehicles, and Rights-of-Way. https://www.transportation.gov/mission/accessibility/priorities/multimodal-accessibility

20. Anderson, M. (2016). Who Relies on Public Transit in the U.S. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/shortreads/2016/04/07/who-relies-on-public-transit-in-the-u-s/

21. Fu, E., Rolheiser, L., & Severen, C. (2023). The Problem has Existed over Endless Years: Racialized Difference in Commuting, 1980–2019. Journal of Urban Economics, 103542.

22. Brown, A., Manville, M., & Weber, A. (2021). Can Mobility on Demand Bridge the First-Last Mile Transit Gap? Equity implications of Los Angeles’ pilot program. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 10, 100396.

23. American Public Transportation Association (APTA). (2023). Public Transportation Facts. https://www.apta.com/newspublications/public-transportation-facts/

CPAR | MaaS Revolution: Mobility Beyond the First/Last Mile in Black Communities

24. Krize, N. (2018). Geisinger Unveils New Transportation Program. WNEP. https://www.wnep.com/article/news/local/montourcounty/geisinger-unveils-new-transportation-program/523-4a55efa5-bc1f-413a-96e7-7cd470e96911

25. Morris, E. A. (2011). Access and Outcomes: Transportation, Location, and Subjective Well-Being (Vol. 73, No. 06).

26. Palm, M., Allen, J., & Farber, S. (2023). Shifted Out: The Well-Being and Justice Implications of Evening and Night Commuting. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 122, 103875.

27. Riverside Transit Agency. (2017). First & Last Mile Mobility Plan. https://www.riversidetransit.com/images/DOWNLOADS/ PUBLICATIONS/FIRST_MILE_LAST_MILE/First%20and%20Last%20Mile%20Mobility%20Plan%20Report%202017-04-25_r.pdf

28. Nelson\Nygaard Consulting Associates Inc. (2019). Richmond First Mile/Last Mile Transportation Strategic Plan Draft Report. City of Richmond, CA. https://www.ci.richmond.ca.us/DocumentCenter/View/48451/Richmond-FLM-Plan_Draft-Report-

29. Cardoso, D., Amiri, S., Chawla, N., Mateer, S., & Oster, A. (2014). First Last Mile Strategic Plan & Planning Guidelines.

30. Authority, U. T. (2015). First/Last Mile Strategies Study. Utah Transit Authority: Salt Lake City, UT, USA.

31. Barnes, F. (2019). A Scoot, Skip, and a JUMP Away: Learning from Shared Micromobility Systems in San Francisco.

32. Hazan, J., Lang, N., Wegscheider, A., & Fassenot, B. (2019). On-Demand Transit can Unlock Urban Mobility. Boston Consulting Group (BCG) Henderson Institute. https://orenvia.wpenginepowered.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/On-Demand-TransitCan-Unlock-Urban-Mobility_EN.pdf

33. The American Hospital Association. (2017). Social Determinants of Health Series: Transportation and the Role of Hospitals. https://www.aha.org/system/files/hpoe/Reports-HPOE/2017/sdoh-transportation-role-of-hospitals.pdf

34. Ely, T., & Teske, P. (2014). Success Express: Transportation Innovation in Denver Public Schools. Denver: University of Colorado Denver.

35. Jiang, M. (2023). 4 Black Communities are Building Equity-Focused Transit with New Technology. Via Transportation, Inc. https:// ridewithvia.com/resources/articles/4-black-communities-are-building-equity-focused-transit-with-new-technology/

36. Kansas City Area Transportation Authority. (n.d.). RideKC. https://ridekc.org

37. National Association of City Transportation Officials (NACTO). (2022). 130 Million Trips Across the U.S. and Canada in 2022nacto.org. https://nacto.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/NACTO_sharedmicromobilitysnapshot_correctedNov3-2023-1.pdf

38. FirstGroup. (2021). First Transit enters Agreement with Lyft for Bike Share Operations at BIKETOWN. https://www.firstgroupplc. com/news-and-media/latest-news/2021/14-01-21a.aspx

39. American Public Transportation Association (APTA). (2023). First Last/Mile Solutions. https://www.apta.com/research-technicalresources/mobility-innovation-hub/first-last-mile-solutions/

40. Kansas City Area Transportation Authority. (2018). RideKC. https://ridekc.org/news/bikewalkkc-to-pilot-regions-first-smart-bikeshare-program

41. Greater Dayton Regional Transit Authority (RTA). (n.d.). Greater Dayton Regional Transit Authority, Masabi and Transit app Launch Account-Based Ticketing for Tapp Pay on Mobile. https://www.iriderta.org/about/news-and-media/greater-daytonregional-transit-authority-masabi-and-transit-app-launch

42. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). (2020). Improving Access and Safety for Shared Micromobility Users in Santa Monica, CA. https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/livability/case_studies/santa_monica/?_gl=1*1odrmgl*_ ga*NjQ5MjMzMTM5LjE3MDAwNjkzMjg.*_ga_VW1SFWJKBB*MTcwMDA3OTIzNi4zLjEuMTcwMDA3OTU1Ny4wLjAuMA.

43. Bob Sheehan, “Mobility Marketplace Connecting Trips for All,” International Conference on Demand Responsive and Innovative Transportation Services, Tuesday, April 16, 2019, Baltimore, MD

44. Moovel (n.d.). We Help Transit Agencies Acquire, Retain and Delight Riders. https://www.moovelus.com/

45. The Nexus (n.d.). Mobility as a Service. https://www.urbanismnext.org/technologies/mobility-as-aservice#:~:text=Technology%20companies%20such%20as%20Google,mapping%20and%20transportation%20 scheduling%20platforms.

46. Kansas City Area Transportation Authority. (n.d.). RideKC Service. https://ridekc.org/rider-guide/flex-service

47. FEDERAL DEPOSIT INSURANCE CORPORATION (FDIC). (2021). 2021 FDIC National Survey of Unbanked and Underbanked Households. https://www.fdic.gov/analysis/household-survey/2021execsum.pdf

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