History of the Western Alphabet The Late 20th Century
Typography 223 - Group 6 Taryn Ballentine, Taylor Stobbe & Connor Dahlke
History of the Western Alphabet The Late 20th Century, 1960 - 1990 Taryn Ballentine + Taylor Stobbe + Connor Dahlke
Herb Lubalin Art Directors Club, 1977
Contents Places 06 The Road Sign 08 The Basel School of Design Designers 10 Armin Hofmann 12 Saul Bass 14 Paul Rand 15 Herb Lubalin 16 Wolfgang Weingart 17 Karl Gerstner 18 Gerald Holtom 19 Emil Ruder 20 Wim Crouwel 22 Lo-Res Family 24 Philippe Apeloig 25 Neville Brody 26 28 30
The Digital World The Rise of Digital Communication Pixel Based Fonts Post Script
31 References
The Road Sign
How Typography Changed Travel In the 1960s designers, architects, urban planners and many others were interested in the ways that design could aid and transform transportation. Highway Gothic, the common name for the FHWA series of fonts is the typeface commonly used in signage for North American countries. Highway Gothic was developed in 1945 by Ted Forbes to be extremely legible from long distances and throughout the decades has had modifications and variations. The typeface is commonly used throughout the United States but as recently as the mid-2000s, has seen competition from Clearview. Clearview was created by the Terminal Design Foundry to have larger counter-space than the Highway Gothic type family. Clearview is used by various states in positive contrast signs but the FHWA does not grant approval for Clearview's use in negative contrast road signs and widespread adaptation of the typeface remains under the scrutiny of readability and legibility research. Between 1957 and 1963, Jock Kinneir and Margaret Calvert began to develop the typeface "Transport" commissioned by the Ministry of Transport to become the typeface for roadways in the United Kingdom. A wide variety of tests were conducted for legibility in far away distances and examples compared to other European roadway signage.
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Ultimately Transport was roadready by 1963 and began to be used in road signage for British Commonwealth countries. The typeface also made its way into countries that use Arabic script.
three lines; the IRT, BMT and the IND. Mosaic signs and enamel signs in different typefaces created an inconsistent labyrinth to an already complicated transportation system.
The majority of European countries do not have a unified typeface though there are choices such as Frutiger by Adrian Frutiger that was originally commissioned for the Charles De Gaulle Airport and soon made its way into print, that are found in a wide variety of countries in Europe. Interestingly in France, the home of Charles De Gaulle Airport, instead of adopting Frutiger as the official typeface, the specially commissioned "Caracteres" is used for autoroutes. Another unique European road typeface to look at is the German DIN1451 family.
In 1965 Massimo Vignelli alongside Bob Noorda of Unimark International, a design firm in New York City, received a commission from the New York City Transit Authority to redesign the subway signage system. The story of the NYC Subway System and Helvetica is one that resulted in the creation of NYCTA Standard Medium Typeface and a Manual that set the standard for the signage. In 1989 Helvetica Medium was officially designated as the official typeface for the NYCTA after many years of issues acquiring the typeface. Through the years many elements such as the colored disks, text placement and graphical elements have remained the same as the original design manual, though there are variations.
DIN1451 was developed in 1931 by the DIN Institute. The typeface was to be used in a variety of environmental signage. Since its inception, it has been adopted by other countries such as Austria and is modified slightly by a variety of different type foundries, making its way into varies publications and logos. Finally it is important to note how typography began to influence environmental signage in more than just roadways. It is also public transportation serving the same exact purpose - to legibly and clearly provide directions. The New York City Subway system, for example, in the mid-twentieth century was a complex maze of
Today the signage is one of the most iconic examples of type in environmental signage and how legibility is important in public transportation environments.
Highway Gothic Typeface used in North American roadway signage
Transport Typeface used in roadways for United Kingdoms Commonwealth Countries and Middle Eastern Countries
Helvetica Typeface used by the NYCTA Subway System
Frutiger Typefaces used in various European Countries
DIN 1451 Typeface used in German Roadways
Clearview Highway New Typeface used in American Roadway Signage
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The Basel School of Design An Institution of Good Design If there was one institution in the later half of the twentieth century that produced more successful designers and became an icon of the Swiss Stle, it'd be the Basel School of Design. Established in 1968 in Basel, Switzerland, and designed by Hermann Baur. The School is a post-graduate school of design disciplines for designers who whished to expand their skill set. The buildings on the campus are heavily and boldly similar concreate blocks and shapes. In the center of the campus is a geometrical concrete Jean Arp sculpture.
The school had many influential designers teach and learn within its halls, such as Armin Hofmann, Emil Ruder and Wolfgang Weingart. The school produced an "Advanced class for Graphic Design" from 1968 to 1999 which was an intensive design study that became the model for other schools to follow. Following the year 2000, the school split into offering it's international degree in a Bachelor's as well as a Master's. The creation of "Visual Communication" department ushered in a new era for the
school by offering an international bachelor degree program. Today the Visual Communication Department, alongside the Basel School of Design, offers rigorous research-based Bachelor's and post-graduate degrees in design. The International Master of Design degree is a collaboration with the University of Illinois - Chicago and the FHNW/HGK Visual Communication Institute that focuses on designers interested in the Swiss style that was pioneered by such ex-faculty as Armin Hofmann.
Maurer Halle Hermann Baur was the designer of a handful of buildings on this campus, this one was completed in 1961.
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Hermann Baur & Jean Arp The Jean Arp sculpture sits in the center of the campus.
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Armin Hoffman A poster describing his work, 1957
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Armin Hofmann The Teacher of Design Armin Hofmann is one of the most influential design teachers in the professional field and also a leading Swiss Graphic Design practitioner that exemplicies the aesthetic ideals of minimalism. Armin was born on June 29, 1920 in Winterthur, Switzerland and began his career as a teacher at the Basel School of Design in 1947 at the age of twenty-six. He would work at the school for forty years, later becoming the head of the graphic design department in 1973. In 1955 he taught at the Philadelphia College of Art and afterwards began working at Yale University, until his resignation in 1991. Armin also published the "Graphic Design Manual" in 1965, which to this day continues to be an influential and in-print text source for graphic design instruction.
Armin Hofmann Courtesy / AIGA
Armin was an instrumental designer in the creation and development of Swiss style graphic design. His designs for posters, for instance, had an emphasis in typography. Armin's designs were typically stark black and white. He designed a large body of work that ranged from posters and logos, to glass paintings, scultpure, and acoustic walls. Armin's students included influential future designers and educators such as April Greiman, Robert Probst and Kenneth Hiebert. Die Gute Form (Good Form), 1958
Giselle Photolithograph, 1959
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Saul Bass Courtesy / AIGA
Saul Bass
Breaking the Limits of Cinema Saul Bass may best be remembered as an inovator of cinema; creating opening title sequences for films such as Alfred Hitchcock's "Psycho" and movie posters for films such as "West Side Story" among many others. Saul Bass redefined the conventionality of traditional firm opening titles by creating visually stunning, intriguing title sequences with kinetic typography for everything from Alfred Hitchock, Stanley Kubrick and Martin Scorsese among many other filmmakers. Saul is also remembered in the world of cinema for his poster designs
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that explored concepts of minimalism and bold typography. Saul Bass did not just design for film, he also developed the logo for AT&T in 1969, the Continental Airlines logo in 1968 and the United Airlines logo in 1974, among others. Saul had a career that spanned 40 years and included creative endeavors that, apart from typical poster and logo design and his famous career as a title designer for films, included other endeavors such as packaging, products and architecture as well.
Saul surprisingly only created one major motion picture in his entire life, a 1974 science fiction film "Phase IV". He was often credited as a "visual consultant" in films for his work in storyboarding and visualizing scenes. Saul also made a short film titled "The Searching Eye" that was shown in the 1964 New York World's Fair and a short documentary, "Why Man Creates" (1968) that earned him an Academy Award in the Documentary Short Subject category.
Psycho Saul Bass
Saul Bass Notable Movie-Title Sequences
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Paul Rand
Multiple Identities Paul Rand was born on August 15th, 1914 and died on November 26th, 1996. Within his lifetime he was able to construct the corporate identities of some of the most well known brands in the world. Paul attended the Pratt Institute, the Parsons School of Design and the Art Persons League between 1929 and 1934. Rand later began to teach design himself at Yale University between 1956 and 1969. Paul Rand was known all over the world for his corporate identities such as those for IBM, ABC, Enron, NeXT and UPC. One of Paul's greatest talents was his ability to sell the brands and the concepts of branding. Paul believed in simplicity and minimalism, once saying, "ideas do not need to be esoteric to be original or exciting."
Paul Rand Courtesy / AIGA
In the 1990s he also famously collaborated with the late Steve Jobs on creating the branding and logo for Steve Job's NeXT computer. Steve Jobs adored his design and praised Paul by saying he was, "the greatest living graphic designer."
Logo Designs Corporate identities designed by Paul Rand
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Herb Lubalin
Pushing the Avant Garde Herb Lubalin was the typographer and creator behind the creation of the typeface, Avant Garde. On March 17, 1918, Lubalin was born in New York. At the age of seventeen, he was enrolled in a privately funded college located in the East Village, Cooper Union. An array of possibilities offered by the field of typography as a communicative implement fascinated him. Lubalin learned about the fundamentals of typography and was awestruck by the impact a typeface can have if traded with another and how it affects the whole text’s interpretation. Upon receiving his graduation degree in 1939, he had a rough time searching a suitable job. He was able to get a job at a display firm, though he got sacked after requesting a two dollar raise on his weekly salary. Herb Lubalin Courtesy / AIGA
Herb Lubalin is known for breaking boundaries on both the visual and social level during the 1960s and 1970s. Lubalin was also involved in founding the ITC (International Typeface Corporation) and the founder of Herb Lubalin Inc. He was always looking for something new, Lubalin traveled to various places looking for new and innovative design. He had offices in both Paris and London which allowed him to partner with several creative thinkers over the years. Most of his iconic work was with Ralph Ginzberg on the creation of three Ginzberg Magazines which showcased his artistic skill.
Avant Garde Magazine Designed by Herb Lubalin, 1969
Anti-War Poster Part of the Avant Garde Magazine
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Wolfgang Weingart L'enfant Terrible Wolfgang Weingart was born in Germany in 1941, and most of his childhood was spent there until 1954 when he and his family moved to Lisbon. Shortly after, Weingart moved back to Germany and enrolled in Merz Academy in Stuttgart and opted into a two-year program in applied graphic arts. At the academy Weingart honed his skills in linocut, woodblock printing and typesetting. He took these skills and progressed them into a fine craftsmanship of typesetting in hot metal hand composition. Weingart became one of the most inspiring teachers at the Advanced Program for Graphic Design before accepting a position per Armin Hofmann’s request with the Yale Summer Program in Graphic Design. Wolfgang Weingart Courtesy / AIGA
Throughout the years Weingart has taught in 6 countries, and wrote a book on typography. He was regarded as the "enfant terrible" of Swiss typography, because of the constant rules he broke involving his work. Through his investigations, he even sought to capture the spontaneity and vigor of his own deliberately distorted handwriting as a form of typography, in posters announcing his 1990 retrospective exhibition at the Institute for New Technical Form in Darmstadt, Germany. The American Institute of Graphic Arts has recognized his creative genius mind and for his extensive explorations in teaching and awarded him with an AIGA medal in 2013.
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18th Didacta/Eurodidac Poster for the convention on teaching aids
Film Techniques Weingart layered film to create a collage
Karl Gerstner Modernist Design Karl Gerstner was born in Basel, Switzerland in 1930, where he succeeded in both painting and graphic design. Gerstner studied design under well-known Emil Ruder. In 1959 Gerstner formed the Gerstner+Kutter agency with Markus Kutter (later known as GGK with Paul Gredinger as a partner). The agency soon became one of the most successful design agencies. Gerstner is most known for his use of unjustified ragged-right text. He saw a type as a way to communicate the “greater sum of words and their meanings.” Gerstner was known in the design world for his “holistic pursuit” of understanding the problems in design and finding its solution. He was able to pick out certain elements of designs and combine them to make a better understanding. He also worked on grids which allowed users to keep from starting over every time they were to work on a new spread and allowed consistency throughout the document.
Karl Gerstner Zurich Concert Hall Poster
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Gerald Holtom For Peace
Gerald Holtom was born January 20th, 1914 and died on September 18th, 1985. He was a British professional designer and artist. In 1958 he designed the logo of the British Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND), which became an international peace symbol. Holtom was a graduate of the Royal College of Art and had been a conscientious objector in World War II. He designed the nuclear disarmament logo for the first Aldermaston March, organised by the Direct Action Committee against Nuclear War in Easter 1958.
The Sign for Peace This symbol, now culturally understood as the Peace Sign, is originally a symbol for nuclear disarmament.
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Gerald Holtom Courtesy/AIGA
Emil Ruder Courtesy / AIGA
Typographie Emil Ruder's Manaul of Design
Emil Ruder Swiss Design
Ruder began his education in design at the age of fifteen when he took a compositor's apprenticeship. By his late twenty's, he began attending the Zurich School of Arts and Crafts when the principles of Bauhaus and Tschichold's new typography were taught. Ruder first began teaching in 1942 at the Allgemeine Gewerbeschule in the Swiss city of Basel. There, he was in charge of typography for trade students. He became the head of the Department of Apprentices in Applied arts by 1947. That year, Ruder met the artist-printer Armin Hofmann.
Ruder and Hoffman began a long period of collaboration. Their teaching achieved an international reputation by the mid-1950s. By the mid-1960s their courses were maintaining lengthy waiting lists. He was a contributing writer and editor for Typografische Monatsblätter (Typographic Monthly), which was a popular trade publication of the time. During the post war years when, in almost every field of applied art, there was still no sign of transition to a new form of expression better fitted to the times, Emil Ruder was one of the first pioneers to discard all of the conventional rules of
traditional typography and to establish new laws of composition more in accord with the modern era. In spite of his bent for pictorial thinking, he is never tempted to indulge in merely playful designs in which the actual purpose of printing - legibility - is lost. Ruder's insistence that the primary aim of typography was communication did not exclude aesthetic affects. Contrast was one of his methods. He was essentially devoted to the craft of letterpress printing.
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Wim Crouwel Gridwork
Wim Crouwel was born in the Netherlands in 1928. Today he's well-known for his distinguished work and his inventive spirit and visions. In 1952 Wim designed his very first poster, after discovering the “pleasure” in effectively organizing visual information in a “aesthetical” context. Wim had a strong interest in serial and mass production stating although he reminded many that no machine will replace the precision of the human eye.
New Alphabet Type for computers created by Wim Crouwel, 1967
Many admire Crouwel for his creative handling of letter shapes and his systematic approach. He focused on the readability of his work and getting the needed information across to the viewer with ease however with that in mind also wanted to achieve an effective aesthetic. Wim worked a lot with the typefaces Helvetica, Gill and Universe. While Crouwel designed many font sets, today his typeface New Alphabet is best known. After seeing the digital production of the typeface Garamond, Wim thought that it would be more beneficial to create a type face that better suitable for a machine.
Vormgevers Completed in 1968, located in Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam
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Leger Poster Wim Crouwel, 1957
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Lo-Res Typefaces The top and bottom left are all Lo-Res 9 variations, while the bottom right is Lo-Res 22
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Lo-Res Family
Created by Zuzana Licko Licko who was born in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia. Licko came to the United States when she was a child, along with her family. She studied architecture, photography and computer programming before earning a degree in graphic communications at the University of California at Berkeley. When she started her university education, her goal was to earn a degree in architecture, but she changed to a visual studies major because she believed becoming an architect was too similar to going to business school. While at Berkeley, Licko took a calligraphy class, which was her least favorite because she had to write with her right hand even though she was left handed. This experience influenced her when she started working on type design, which was more computer-based. The Lo-Res family of fonts is a synthesis of pixelated designs, including Emigre's earlier coarse resolution fonts, as well as bitmap representations of Base 9. It replaces the preexisting Emigre, Emperor, Oakland and Universal families and groups these related bitmap designs under one family name in the font menu, thereby simplifying their naming. The Lo-Res fonts also offer technical improvements, including a more complete character set, more consistent character shapes among styles and weights, as well as improved alignment among the various resolutions.
Zuzana Licko Courtesy / AIGA
Coarse Typefaces This shows the number of pixels that make up the capital height
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Philippe Apeloig Pushing Posters He was the Graphic Designer for the Musée d’Orsay and Artistic Director of the Louvre Museum, Philippe Apeloig has forged a distinguished career as one of the foremost designers in the cultural arena, noted for his posters and typography. After studying design in Paris, Philippe took up an internship with Wim Crouwel’s studio in Amsterdam and at 23 was appointed Graphic Designer for Musée d’Orsay, where he implemented the visual identity and designed the emblematic poster for its first exhibition, ‘Chicago, birth of a city’. Awarded an arts grant, Philippe worked in Los Angeles with April Greiman, a leading New Wave designer. Returning to France, he created his own studio and also taught typography. He moved his studio to New York and was appointed a teacher at the Cooper Union School of Art and curator of the Herb Lubalin Study Center of Design and Typography.
Philippe Apeloig Courtesy / AIGA
Back in Paris, Philippe became a design consultant to the Louvre, then Artistic Director for five years until 2008. Subsequent work has included posters for exhibitions and cultural events and visual identities and logos for prestigious institutions, publishing houses and luxury brands. He is currently working on the signage for the Louvre Abu Dhabi, which opens in 2016. Saison Theatre Poster by Philippe Apeloig
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An American in Paris Theatre Poster by Philippe Apeloig
Fuse Day Poster Designed by Neville Brody
Neville Brody Courtesy / AIGA
Neville Brody Breaking Rules Neville Brody was born in Southgate, London where he was a lover of fine art and painting. He had an obsession with art in the 1960s and 1970s. He commented that he does not remember a time in his life when he was planning to do anything other than art or painting. He attended Minchenden Grammar school and studied A-Level Art, very much from a fine art viewpoint. In 1975 Brody went on to do a Fine Art foundation course at Hornsey College of Art, once renowned for its late sixties agitation, now part of Middlesex University.
Neville also studied design in Britian during the 1970s. He spent three years studying at the London College of Printing where his work, which was quite experimental in nature, was met with quite unfavorable criticism because the school generally taught traditional printing methods. He gained a fair amount of attention as an art director for The Face magazine, where he worked from 1980 to 1993. The magazine was very popular in the 1980s, it was called a "fashion bible" and set many of the trends of design which enjoyed success during the same time period.
In 1994 he formed Neville Brody Studio, now Research Studios, which has enjoyed much success and has since expanded to include offices in London, Paris, Berlin and Barcelona. He is a founding member of the London based type foundry Fontworks and has designed over 20 different typefaces during his career. Brody was also a major contributor to FUSE, which was a publication about the practice of experimental typography and was an avid user of the computer as a design tool during its developmental stages.
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Digital Communication Before Computers Before the computer, there was much more complex methods of of designing and forming layouts. First, it would start with a board with blue lines. These lines were non-reproductive, which meant that the stat camera wouldn't actually see the lines. These layout boards enabled the designer to work in straight lines and right angles, keeping it clean. The Designer of the olden days would fix down the layout board to the drawing table. Carefully using the instruments to make sure everything was cut just right, the artist would begin the process of collaging what goes on the page and how many lines of type would fit. Around that point, the proportion wheel would have been used in order to tell what size of Photostats would have been needed, and figured out how many lines of text.
Reviewing Layout An artist at work on his art board
With adhesives teh board would be coated and then dried. Once it was dried, the sticky stat would be placed down on the board. If it wasn't straight, the artist had to peel it up and place it down for a second time. This was a long and arduous process, which some designers still cling to. The process involved many cuts, chemicals and thinners.
Pre-Computers Graphic methods done by hand before computers
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Technological Revolution Macintosh made the NeXT computer next. They integrated PostScript as a part of the operating system. PostScript and other printing software were no longer separate programs, but instead worked seamlessly with the machine.
Adobe responded to Apple's announcement by making PostScript fonts also render better on screen with the "Adobe Typer Manager" add-on (which would be integrated into operating systems a decade later), and even got to the market first.
Even though there was much progress in the 1980s, it still looked bad on screen. Even if you had a PostScript typeface that printed cleanly, you still viewed the type as a bitmap. You couldn't scale the type without destroying how it looked. No matter what you did, the type looked jagged and overall bad no matter the point size.
Between these two moves, a second typography revolution occurred in the early 90s. Suddenly fonts looked great on screen and you could print them at full resolution to just about any printer.
In 1989-1981, Macintosh developed True Type to remedy this problem. This gave the Macintosh users the ability to properly scale the type, without losing any quality.
True Type This altered the way type was viewed
While these have been improved upon since the time of Jobs, these ideas are ones they made mainstream and now are key to the functionality of desktop publishing for designers. They started a revolution, and designers around the world are glad for it.
Macintosh The original Macintosh released in 1984
Fonts for Macintosh Above is an example of Geneva, created by Susan Kare
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Pixel Based Fonts Sticking Around The original pixel based fonts were ultimately necessary. Due to the format of the computer, pixels per inches resolution. The pixel based font was a given. Pixels, being the small squares that compose the entire computer screen, didn't make for very good viewing of the traditional typefaces that were popular at the time. To remedy this glaring problem, typographers and designers started to make the pixelated typefaces so that words and type could be seen and read clearly. These functioned on a strict grid pattern, and they were stuck at the size that they were designed at. For example, if you took a nine point size typeface and blew it up, it would become distorted and ugly. So every point size created had to have an entire iteration of the family to go along with it.
Some of the benefits of the type include the clarity they have at their intended size, and they can be very easy and fast to render. There are two different types of bitmap types. There is the monochrome and the type dubbed "shades of gray". The monochrome type is strctly black and whtie with no shades in the middle. An example of that would be the typefaces on the right, such as the Superscript and Technical. The shades of gray feature the in-between shades of the letter to optically smooth out the letter. It makes it less choppy for printing and smoother to the eye.
8
9
10
12
14
18
24
36
48
72
96 Bitmapped Type The Left 'e' is an example of monochrome type and the Right 'e' has shades of gray
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Type Scaling Standard method for sizing fonts
Pixel Based Fonts These are just a few examples of pixel based fonts
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Post Script
The Language of Printing PostScript was created in 1984 by John Warnock and Chuck Greschke. They were the cofounders and developers for Adobe, Doug Brotz, Ed Taft, and finally Bill Paxton. Boiled down to its core, PostScript is the page description language that is telling your printer what to actually print. It's the software that actually does the communicating between computer and printer. PostScript was created around the same time the first laser printer was created, in 1985. The creators needed a standard language for printing text and graphics that were flexible. Instead of having information that would be specific to a resolution of printer, embedded into the type, the PostScript description would be universal, independent of any printer settings or criteria. The same description, then, could be used for any printer.
The printer is told to treat type and images as objects, rather than a bitmap. A bitmap was essentially just a grid that was filled in. This outlined the characters into lines with mathematical value. This caused the characters to have the ability to be blown up without the quality worsening. PostScript typefaces are outline typefaces. Bitmap typefaces almost require a whole new set of letters for every size they are being set, because they are designed to be at a set size and the quality of the type will suffer if you take it out of that particular size. This revolutionized design and graphics. Designers and typographers could now print in as cleanly and precisely as they were working. It streamlined the entire process so people could work in one program and not have to depend on the hand or another program entirely.
PostScript vs. Bitmap type There was no competition between the quality difference of the two types
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John Warnock Courtesy / AIGA
Chuck Geschke Courtesy / ComputerHistory.org
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Thinking for a Living. Duane King, Thinking for a Living, 28 Jan. 2010. Web 3 Oct. 2016
"Design and Use Policy for Clearview Alphabet." FHWA MUTCD. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Nov. 2014.
Driver, Christopher. The Disarmers. A Study in Protest. Hodder & Stoughton: London, 1964. Print.
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"Frutiger | Typophile." Fruitger | Typophile. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Oct. 2016.
Garfield, Simon. "Breaking the Rules." Just My Type. New York: Penguin Group (USA), 2010. Print.
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Gerstner, Karl. The Art of Karl Gerstner: Nine Picture Chapters and Selected Essays. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT, 1981. Print.
Helvetica. Dir. Gary Hustwit. NewVideo, 2007.
Hall, Peter. "Philippe Apeloig: Experimental Modernist." FontShop. Monotype. Web. 3 Oct. 2016.
"Akzidenz-Grotesk Pro (WGL)." Akzidenz-Grotesk Pro (WGL). N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Oct. 2016. "Font Designer - ???." ???. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Oct. 2016.
"Lo-Res." Emigre Fonts. Emigre, 1 Jan. 2001. Web. 3 Oct. 2016. Mangat, Conor. "Apeloig Type Library." Typographica. Typographica, 11 Mar. 2014. Web. 3 Oct. 2016.
"Armin Hofmann." AIGA. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Oct. 2016. "Saul Bass Poster Archive." Saul Bass Poster Archive About Comments. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Oct. 2016. "Saul Bass." AIGA. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Oct. 2016. "Saul Bass." Art of the Title RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Oct. 2016. "Paul-Rand.com" Biography. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Oct. 2016.
Phinney, Thomas. "The Impact of Steve Jobs on Typography." Extensis. Celartem, Inc., 12 Oct 2011. Web. 3 Oct. 2016. PostScript Turns 20. Adobe. Adobe, n.d. PDF. 3 Oct. 2016. "Professor Neville Brody." Royal College of Art. Royal College of Art. Web. 3 Oct. 2016. "A Brief History of Digital Type." Fonts.com. Ed. Ilene Strizver. Monotype. Web. 3 Oct. 2016.
"Herb Lubalin." AIGA. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Oct. 2016. "Wolfgang Weingart." AIGA. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Oct. 2016. Apeloig, Philippe. "Apeloig." Philippe Apeloig N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Oct. 2016.
Weingartner, Peter. "A First Guide to PostScript." A First Guide to PostScript. 24 Feb. 2006. Web. 3 Oct. 2016. Westcott, Kathryn. "World's Best-known Protest Symbol Turns 50." BBC News. BBC, 20 Mar. 2008. Web. 3 Oct. 2016.
Bzdok, Shane. "A Brief History of Emil Ruder."
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