DOC: WOMEN BEHIND BARS Volume 2, Fall 2014
Special Report: “Pregnant Inmates: A Special Population.� This magazine was published to share information on studies and issues among pregnant women incarcerated in the United States. Image courtesy of slate.com
Veronica Jacobs
Veronica Jacobs is from High Point, NC. She is a senior at North Carolina Central University. Her major is Criminal Justice and she aspires to be a federal agent. Her hobbies include: indoor sports, watching movies, and swimming.
Tashuna Littles
Myraida Melendez
Myraida Melendez is from Puerto Rico. She is a senior at North Carolina Central University. Her major is Criminal Justice and she aspires to begin law school shortly after graduation. Her hobbies include: reading, kayaking and snorkeling.
This magazine is created in satisfaction of a requirement of the Senior Seminar CRJU 4600 at North Carolina Central University, Department of Criminal Justice. Its information herein, the opinions, or writings are not to be construed to be the opinion or policy of any employee, department, division or office of the University. Š No portion of the magazine’s work may be reproduced without the permission of the author. North Carolina Central University 1801 Fayetteville St
Tashuna Littles is from Atlanta, Georgia. She is a senior at North Carolina Central University. Her major is Criminal Justice and she aspires to be a federal agent. Her hobbies include: sleeping, swimming, and spending time with family.
Durham, NC 27707 PH: (919) 530-6100
Opinion Editorial
4
A Book Review
5-6
A Professional Interview
7-9
Emerging Technology
10
Article Summary
11-12
Literature Review
13-16
Infographic
17
Reference Page
18
are in a very weak state, which would make it difficult to be a flight risk. If an inmate is accompanied by an armed guard, perhaps even two, she will have a difficult time escaping.
Opinion Editorial By Myraida Melendez Shackling Pregnant Prisoners: An Unconstitutional Practice
The practice of shackling needs to be illegal in all states. Not only is it humiliating, it is dangerous. There are numerous cases in which lives have been lost because of this (Griggs, 2011). Pregnant women have a difficult time walking as they did because of the changes in their bodies (Griggs, 2011). Shackling them only makes it more difficult for them to walk and thus increases the chance of a dangerous fall. Also, labor is a difficult process in which things can take a turn for the worse at any time (Griggs, 2011). If there is an emergency and medical staff needs to wait for the inmate to be unshackled, the consequences could be dire.
Shackling pregnant women in prison is one of the most controversial topics in corrections. Shackling refers to chaining pregnant inmates to a bed while they are in labor and are being transported to the hospital or go during through the difficult task of giving birth. This practice can occur during pre-labor, labor or post-labor. Many states, including Illinois, California and New York have made shackling an illegal practice (Griggs, 2011). However, even within these states, complaints of shackling during birth are still received (Griggs, 2011).
Of course, this does not meant that precautions should not be taken. The inmate should always be accompanied and she should only be left alone with trustworthy hospital staff. I would suggest that each case be evaluated and that the inmate be assessed to see exactly what type of threat she poses. In the case where the inmate is not classified as a high threat, she should simply be accompanied by an officer during this process. In the event that the inmate is considered extremely dangerous, she can be accompanied by two or maybe three officers who stay be her side. Not only is shackling during childbirth unconstitutional, it also gives the impression that a correctional officer cannot handle one pregnant woman in her most vulnerable state, while she is in the process of giving life (Shackling Incarcerated Pregnant Women, 2011).
The practice of shackling pregnant inmates has been around for decades. Several states have since enacted legislation that prohibits the practice; nevertheless, many lawsuits have been submitted citing cruel and unusual punishment due to shackling. This shows that even in states in which it is banned, shackling continues to occur (Shackling Incarcerated Pregnant Women, 2011). Shackling women during labor is a completely unnecessary practice that serves no purpose. During labor, women 4
reproductive concerns. Readers also gain more insight about discussion and policies in place to deal with this growing problem.
A Book Review By Tashuna Littles “Women, Incarceration and Human Rights Violations: Feminist Criminology and Corrections” By: A. Van Gundy & A.
Gundy and Baumann-Gray (2013) state that; Incarcerated women have gender-specific pregnancy and reproductive needs that must be addressed. Although studies have shown that a small percent of women enter prison/jail pregnant; a larger percent are mothers before incarceration (Gundy and Baumann-Grau, 2013). However, of those who enter jail/prison not pregnant; turn up to be pregnant due to sexual abuse. Sexual abuse is a sexual activity performed on a victim who doesn‟t give consent. In the book it states that prisons/jails that house women, there are mostly men guards who are likely to use their power to manipulate women into sex.
Baumann-Grau
This is what is called definitely sexual abuse. This type of sexual abuse performed on women prisoners by male guards often leads to pregnancy. No matter how the incarcerated woman ends up bearing a child, she is faced with pregnancy and reproductive issues. What risks does the pregnant woman entering jail/prison have? Gundy and BaumannGray (2011) argues that they are susceptible to additional danger from other inmates and correctional staff. Second, the child they are carrying becomes a victim of any circumstances experienced by the mother (including stress, mental, physical and sexual abuse; and sometimes death). Third, many societies highly value pregnancy and children. Those societies do not want to hurt what they value, but to protect it. Fourth, many correctional staff, including medical staff, are not educated in the special needs of pregnant women. And lastly, the special needs and
Image courtesy of www.salon.com
How does a pregnancy and reproductive concern affect women in prison? How are women who are pregnant in prison treated----do they even survive pregnancy? In the book, “Women, Incarceration and Human Rights Violations: Feminist Criminology and Corrections; the authors delve into case studies and class action suits from around the world. These case studies and suits on pregnancies in prison bring light to a hidden issue that has been swept under the rug for years. The text provides evidence of the argument-----women in prison are apt to issues such as pregnancy and 5
circumstances surrounding the safety of incarcerated pregnant women are difficult to prove, misunderstood, and are very expensive. In addition to risks while pregnant, incarcerated women face reproductive issues. The authors of the book points out, pregnant women require vast amounts of rest, rest that is sometimes not given due security checks in jail/prisons. Without rest, women suffer long term affects such as memory problems, depression, and a weakened immune system. All listed above can affect the ability to reproduce children in their future. Also, since pregnant women require consistent medical visits during pregnancy, not getting medical attention can lead to medical issues and violating their human rights. This results into reproductive concerns. Vital health checks for things such as HIV, other STDs, and diabetes sometimes go undone in jails/prisons. Based on the research done by the authors, I would suggest that this is more than just alarming. The text points out that there has been some discussion about pregnancy, reproductive concerns, and human rights of incarcerated women. Gundy and Baumann-Grau (2011), state programs should be in place that addresses specific risk factors and offending patterns of male guards. The text also describes policies that specifically address pregnant inmates and their care.
Image courtesy of www.prisonfellowship.org
The purpose of this book was to share studies of incarcerated pregnant women and the risk they face while pregnant. This indicates that this issue of pregnancy and incarceration is more prevalent than most people are aware of. Women who become incarcerated and pregnant are a growing issue, as well as those who enter pregnant and donâ€&#x;t receive fair treatment. All in all, incarcerated or not, pregnant women and unborn children deserve to receive adequate prenatal services. After reading the book, “Women, Incarceration and Human Rights Violations: Feminist Criminology and Correctionsâ€? I discovered that this book would be beneficial to someone seeking knowledge on abuse and neglect from women that have been affected by being or getting pregnancy while in prison. This book provides comparison of women in various correctional facilities domestic and international.
6
experience may substitute their education if they have a degree in corrections, criminal justice, or a related field.
An Interview with Officer Tammy Barefoot at the High Point Detention Center By Veronica Jacobs
VJ: What are the general job duties of your position? TB: The general duties include the basic care and custody of individuals who have been arrested or sentenced by the courts. Daily duties include: frequent pat and strip searches, cell inspections, observation rounds, distributing meals, headcounts, transporting inmates to court and medical appointments, and diffusing or eliminating conflict among inmates in housing units. Also, there are post orders assigned every position whether one is working in the booking area, housing unit, or master control. The post orders outline the daily functions.
Image from HPE.com
VJ: How long have you worked in the field of corrections? TB: Overall, I have been working in the field for ten years. I began my career as a Correctional Officer at the womenâ€&#x;s prison in Raleigh, North Carolina where I worked for two years. Afterwards, I moved to the triad area where I continued my career at the Guilford County Sheriff Department. I have been working here for eight years.
VJ: What additional training/qualifications do you possess pertaining to your position? TB: I received my certification as a transport officer for the Department of Corrections. After two years of working with the GCSO I gained my certification as an ADO (Armed Detention Officer) which also allows me to transport inmates outside the facility.
VJ: What are the basic job qualifications of a Correction/Detention Officer? TB: Candidates applying for a position here at the Guilford County Sheriff Department must possess a high school diploma and have previous work experience in the field or military. However, those who donâ€&#x;t have any work
VJ: As an ADO, what policies are in place for transporting pregnant inmates? 7
TB: Transportation policies apply to all inmates regardless of their condition. However, there are few exceptions when it comes to pregnant inmates. When transporting inmates out of the facility, we are required to place them in full restraints which include handcuffs, shackles, and a belly chain. We are required to ask every female if she is pregnant prior to applying these restraints because we donâ€&#x;t use belly chains for pregnant women. Also, we must be very careful with assisting pregnant inmates in and out of the van to ensure they donâ€&#x;t trip or fall due to the restraints. Basically, we just use our best judgment with making pregnant women comfortable without jeopardizing security.
pregnant women incarcerated at a time. VJ: Where do pregnant women receive checkups and updates regarding their pregnancy? TB: The medical department and staff are responsible for setting appointments with contracted doctors and facilities for pregnant women to receive their checkups. The inmate will then be transported to the appointment by an ADO. The inmates are never told when these appointments will be to avoid a breach of security.
VJ: Are there any restrictions for housing pregnant inmates? TB: Pregnant inmates are only allowed to be housed on the lower level of the female housing unit for safety reasons. They are allowed to access the stairs to shower and receive visits. If an inmate is found to be having a high risk pregnancy, she will then be housed in the medical unit where nurses will keep her under observation.
Image courtesy of playingworkblog.com
VJ: What is the procedure when a pregnant inmate goes into labor while in the facility? TB: If a pregnant woman was to go into labor while in the facility the Officer would first contact the nurses on duty and then shift supervisor who would notify EMS. Authorization is required in order to transport the inmate to a local hospital and she must be accompanied by an Officer during the entire hospital stay including the delivery. The inmate must be secured to the bed by restraints at
VJ: What is the average population of pregnant inmates in the facility? TB: The average population of female inmates housed in the High Point jail ranges between 20-40 inmates although the jail is designed to house over 50. Generally, there are about 2-3 8
all times. The phone is to be placed out of reach as well as any other items that can be used as a weapon. Also, Officers must be careful so that their firearm is not easy to reach. Family and friends are not allowed to be contacted while the inmate is in the hospital. The departments of social services are there to reach out to family members in search of a home for the infant.
Image courtesy of newrepublic.com
VJ: Do you support or oppose the theory that incarceration benefits pregnant women and their unborn infants? Why? TB: I support the theory because a lot of the pregnant women who enter the facility havenâ€&#x;t received any form of prenatal care. Also, many of these women are addicts who continue to abuse substances during their pregnancy and being incarcerated forces them to stop. I have had several pregnant women tell me that being incarcerated saved them and their childâ€&#x;s life.
Image courtesy of Haverford.edu
VJ: Do you believe that pregnant inmates should be separated from non-pregnant inmates? TB: No, during my career I havenâ€&#x;t seen any instances where pregnant women were injured by other inmates. Generally, other inmates tend to care, respect, and assist pregnant inmates more. Women who are incarcerated survive off of the social interactions with others and isolating them would only worsen their emotional state which could also affect their physical condition.
Courtesy of bellyitchblog.com
9
to major health care savings as well as improving documentation to enable healthcare provider‟s accuracy of diagnoses and treat inmates in house. This EHR system reduces the need for transportation and security of inmates that would have to transfer outside of medical facilities. This helps the prison to properly house inmates according to their health and mental state. The EHR would serve a population to 120 state prisons, 3 federal prisons, 15 youth prison and as well as county jails (Texas Curbs Spending by $1B by Deploying EHRs, Telehealth in Prisons).
Emerging Technology By: Tashuna A. Littles Electronic Health Records (EHR)
Courtesy of ncpa.org
The world we live in today revolves around technology. In the Federal Prisons, a new technology system has been created in the state of Texas. Electronic Health Records (EHR,) is a system that allows healthcare providers the ability to input inmates‟ data, keep track of medical, dental, mental health and prescription drug information or services. It also supports more advanced functions including telemedicine for X-rays. “Business Computer Applications” developed this electronic health record system in the Texas department of criminal justice. This system was founded in 1977. Business Computer applications created a medical software application for the public, private, and the correctional healthcare facility. This technology system is important to the correctional facility because it improves the cost per inmate tremendously. The EHR system will lead
Courtesy of thehealthymind.com
In the future, this Electronic Health Record system will help doctors and their staff tremendously by being able to track an inmates‟ medical and health records electronically and correctly store information. It will also help change the speed of the progression of continuity of care and follow-ups while decreasing costs.
10
health risks for pregnant women and their unborn infants due to an increase of stress from the separation from family and friends (Crum et al., 2011). Although, some studies oppose, stating that, incarceration helps by supplying high risk women with shelter, regular meals, and by eliminating the access to alcohol and illicit drugs (Crum et al., 2011). The purpose of this article is to undermine past studies and illustrate a positive link between the incarceration of pregnant women and the birth weight of their infants. This article used two methods of exposure to develop three sampling phases to illustrate the necessary methods needed to develop accurate data.
An Article Summary By Veronica Jacobs Maternal Incarceration during Pregnancy and Infant Birth weight
Image from DailyMail.co.uk
Introduction: The main focus of this research article is to determine the relationship between incarceration during pregnancy and the birth weight of infants born to women in Texas state prisons. In addition, this article also explains that the methods used to calculate data is imperative to the outcome. The sample included 360 infants born to women in prison over a period of two years. The findings showed a positive relationship between incarceration and the birth weight of infants among women who entered prison during their first trimester.
Courtesy of lifemartini.com
Purpose: Methods:
In the United States, over the past 20 years there has been a dramatic increase in the number of women incarcerated in state and federal prisons. Also, of these imprisoned women, nearly half are of childbearing age. Previous studies have concluded that incarceration increases
The sample included 360 infants born to women incarcerated in a Texas state prison between 2002 and 2004. Data regarding these births consisted of electronic and paper-based records obtained from three sources. Infant birth 11
weight was used as a constant variable in the study while descriptive and multivariate analyses methods were used to measure the exposure. The exposure was measured by two methods. Method A consisted of the number of weeks of pregnancy spent incarcerated. While method B consisted of the gestational age of the infant at admission to the institution. There were also four modeling scenarios in which the collected data was separated between all deliveries and term deliveries, both being grouped with linear spline regression and traditional categorical analyses.
Courtesy of chicagoist.com
The study only involved women who entered prison pregnant. The study did not include the previous medical record or condition of these women. Also, there was no comparison between incarcerated and free women. Therefore, the results of the data should not be used to enforce strict incarceration laws for pregnant women. The study pointed out that African Americans are most likely to have a preterm delivery if they entered the prison system after the first trimester.
Findings: The findings proved to support the theory that incarceration has a positive relationship with the birth weight of infants born to women in prison. However, the results show that there is only a positive relationship in the birth weight of infants born to women who entered prison during their first trimester. Also, the data concluded that women who entered prison during their second trimester had the highest rate of preterm deliveries. In addition, those pregnant women who were incarcerated after 34 weeks showed no signs of preterm deliveries or low birth weights. The data examined consisted of black, white, and Hispanic women and infants.
Courtesy of bet.com
Studies should also be conducted to discover the cause of this issue. The prison system is often a safe and healthy environment for high risk women to receive adequate healthcare for themselves and their unborn infants.
Implications: The issue with this article is whether the findings will increase the incarceration rate of pregnant women. Although incarceration appears to have a positive effect on birth weight, itâ€&#x;s important to understand the limitations of the study. 12
Purpose of Review
A Literature Review
The topic of illegal immigrants and their children has continued to gain national attention, perhaps due to the continued implementation of legislation regarding the matter. To understand and find solutions to the nationâ€&#x;s social problems, they must be studied. There are many aspects of illegal immigration that need to be further researched and the purpose of this paper is to bring forth some of those topics.
By: Myraida Melendez Illegal Immigration During Pregnancy
Review of Literature
Courtesy of the British Journal of Midwifery
Introduction Illegal immigration has always been a topic of heated debate. The government is very concerned with not letting illegal immigrants enter the country. The Department of Homeland Security and U.S. Border Control recruit and train thousands of agents and use countless resources to prevent people from illegally entering the country. However, once they enter the country, illegal immigrants are given many resources and services as if they were U.S. citizens. This has drawn national attention to this problem, specifically to those women who cross the border illegally while being pregnant and then give birth in the U.S., making their children legal citizens of the U.S. This paper will discuss the different aspects of the illegal immigration of women, pregnant women, the subsequent childbirth in our country and the implications for criminal justice practitioners. Opportunities for further research and suggestions will also be discussed.
13
In 1986, the US Immigration Reform and Control Act passed in order to control somewhat the high numbers of illegal immigrants that were entering the country. Since then, there have been many more laws enacted to control this growing problem (Lozano & Lopez, 2013). For example, Operation Hold the Line, enacted in 1993 in El Paso, TX; Operation Gatekeeper, enacted in 1994 in San Diego and California and Operation Safeguard, implemented in southern Arizona in 1994, were all put into place with the same goal (Lozano & Lopez, 2013). The budget to control the border has increased significantly, from $400 million in 1992 to $1.94 billion in 2007 (Lozano & Lopez, 2013). New technology, such as night vision cameras, sensors in the ground and infrared surveillance equipment, have improved the odds of detaining immigrants as they attempt to enter the country (Lozano & Lopez, 2013). However, this increased spending and new technology have not been successful in preventing immigrants from entering the country. In the 1980â€&#x;s the majority of the immigrants crossing illegally into the U.S. from Mexico were men (Lozano & Lopez, 2013). This makes sense considering men were also most likely the main source of income within a household. However, this has since changed and research has since
shown that in 2008, 43% of the immigrants who had come from Mexico were women (Lozano & Lopez, 2013). The increase in the number of women coincides with the increased security at the border, which make it more difficult to cross the border successfully (Chavez, 2011).
border is significantly more dangerous for women than for men. Additionally, when these women are pregnant, the stress and strain caused on the body is much more dangerous because the fetus could suffer tremendously. Furthermore, there is a higher risk for women to raped, assaulted or killed than there is for men (Cisneros, 2013). In fact, it is common for women to take some form of birth control before crossing the border to prevent pregnancy in the event of a sexual assault (Cisneros, 2013). However, illegal immigrants who are pregnant are willing to take this risk because are well aware of the fact that once they enter the U.S. their fetus immediately becomes a U.S. citizen (Cisneros, 2013).
Courtesy of joemiller.us
Crossing the border has never been as challenging as it is today. The combination of the high number of border patrol agents and new technology has made it much more difficult and dangerous for immigrants to cross over (Sarabia, 2012). In fact, there has been a sharp increase in deaths, the majority a consequence of hyperthermia, hypothermia and dehydration (Sarabia, 2012).
Courtesy of ocregister.com
This is another cause for heated debate because while some believe that every human should have access to decent medical care, others stand to reason that illegal aliens should not have benefits as they entered the country by breaking the law (Cisneros, 2013). The fact is that there is a lack of research in the subject because since these women are undocumented, they are reluctant to participate in studies and give information (Munro, Jarvis, Munoz, D'souza, & Graves, 2013). Still, the number
Courtesy of capsweb.org
This is particularly disturbing because the process of crossing the Mexican 14
of women entering the U.S. illegally to have their baby here continues to grow.
There are several ways illegal immigrants passing through the borders into the country affects our criminal justice system and thus its practitioners. One concern for criminal justice practitioners is the rise in delinquency because of immigrants are entering the country, possibly with criminal records or a violent past, they will undoubtedly continue to commit crime. Seeing how they are not citizens, they rarely use real identities and can easily elude authorities. This makes it much more difficult to find them should they engage in criminal activity, which in turn means that more law enforcement resources are necessary. Another concern for border control agents, as well as all criminal justice practitioners, is drug trafficking. Enormous amounts of drugs from South America pass through the Mexico and U.S. border every year. The implications are catastrophic for our criminal justice system because the drugs are then distributed throughout the country, causing an infinite numbers of crimes.
Implications for Criminal Justice Practitioners
Courtesy of texasbordervoluteers.org
Illegal immigration affects every aspect of our criminal justice system. From the law enforcement officers who must subsequently arrest the immigrants, to the officers within the judicial system who must process them, to the correctional officers who must deal with jails being overcrowded, all are affected. However, the practitioners who are affected the most are border control agents. They are the front men who are out there in the field in charge of securing the nationâ€&#x;s border and when immigrants pass through, they are held responsible.
Illegal immigration, specifically of women and pregnant women, has several implications for criminal justice practitioners as well. Border control agents must be more concerned with women because of the high risk they have of being sexually assaulted while trying to cross the border. Once they do migrate, if they are found, they can be deported for their illegal status. However, once entered into the states, their fetus becomes a citizen and the situation becomes difficult because a mother may have to leave their child behind.
Courtesy of Jobstr.com
15
return? If left alone in the U.S., do they automatically enter the foster care system?
Courtesy of immigrationlaw.us.com
Opportunities for Further Research This paper is specific to pregnant women and the children they have once they cross the border. An opportunity for further research would be to consider the children that cross into the country illegally without a parent. These children, known as border children, come into this country alone and have no food, shelter or any other resource (Sรกnchez, 2009). It would be interesting to study what each state does when they come across a situation like this. Do they deport immediately without question? Do they first try to confirm whether the child has any relatives in Mexico before deporting? What resources are provided to the child in the mean time? For example, are they afforded schooling and medical care? Another aspect that would be interesting to research further would be the effects on children who are born into the U.S. and then had their parents deported. This can occur if the mother enters the country as an illegal immigrant and then is deported after the child is born in the U.S. and becomes a citizen. One can only imagine the devastating psychological effects this process can have on a child. What happens to the children? Can the parents decide to return with them to Mexico? Does Mexico afford them Mexican citizenship if they
16
Finally, another interesting aspect to study would be the effects that crossing the border has on the fetus. Crossing the Mexican border is an extremely difficult and stressful process. Psychologically, the expecting mother is constantly under stress, fearful and nervous. Physically, she may become dehydrated, she may be forced to engage in vigorous physical activity and she may go long periods of time without food. Undoubtedly, all of these factors combined must have some effect of the fetus and it would be remarkable to study what they are. Conclusion In conclusion, as innovative technology and increasing funds continue to assist in the fight against illegal immigration, it becomes more and more dangerous to attempt to cross into the U.S. Sadly, the number of women who are attempting to make the trip is also rising and this has not been without consequences. Women, including pregnant women, are being raped, dying due to the strenuous trip or being murdered. Those who do make it to the other side must live in constant fear of deportation and possibly being separated from their children. It is a sad and ironic idea because the reality is that these women are risking death for a better life.
Courtesy of zimbio.com
An Infographic
17
References Chavez, S. (2011). Navigating the USMexico border: the crossing strategies of undocumented workers in Tijuana, Mexico. Ethnic & Racial Studies, 34(8), 1320-1337. Cisneros, N. (2013). „Alien‟ Sexuality: race, maternity, and citizenship. Hypatia, 28(2), 290-306.
Texas Curbs Spending by $1B by Deploying EHRs, Telehealth in Prisons. August 26, 2011. Van Gundy, A., & Baumann-Grau, A. (2013). Women, incarceration, and human rights violations: Feminist criminology and corrections. Surrey, England: Ashgate Publishing Limited, pp, 147.
Crum, R., Howard, D., Sherman, S., Strobino, D., (2011). Maternal incarceration during pregnancy and infant birthweight. Maternal & Child Health Journal, 15(4), 478-486. 9p. 1 Diagram, 2 Charts, 2 Graphs. Griggs, C. L. (2011). Birthing barbarism: the unconstitutionality of shackling pregnant prisoners. The American University Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law, 20(1), 247-271. Lozano, F., & Lopez, M. (2013). Border enforcement and selection of Mexican immigrants in the United States. Feminist Economics, 19(1), 76-110. Munro, K., Jarvis, C., Munoz, M., D'souza, V., & Graves, L. (2013). Undocumented pregnant women: What does the literature tell us? Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 15(2), 281-91 Sánchez, M. (2009). Institutional overflow: Tales from deported children along the border. Journal of the Southwest, 51(4), 491-501. Sarabia, H. (2012). Perpetual illegality: results of border enforcement and policies for Mexican undocumented migrants in the United States. Analysis of Social Issues & Public Policy,12(1), 49-67. Shackling Incarcerated Pregnant Women. (2011). JOGNN: Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing, 40(6), 817-818.
18