What is Culture? Culture: Norms, Values, Beliefs & Roles This week we will take a look at culture – what culture is (how it is to be defined), and what actually makes-up the culture of a people, or society. After defining and exploring the ‘building blocks’ of culture – we move on to look at some examples of cultural associations with the kiss and kissing.
What is Culture?
What is Culture? Culture is not an easily defined concept, nor is there universal agreement as to what exactly the concept should include. Here, we are going to explore some of the broad-ranging issues that exist about the concept of culture Look in any pre-1960’s Dictionary - and you will find a definition of culture which states that, it is associated with: 1. The cultivation of soil 2. The raising, improvement, or development of some plant, animal or product The word itself derives from the ancient Latin word cultura, which means "cultivation" or "tending,"; its entrance into the English language is dated at 1430 (Oxford English Dictionary). Within the last 40 years a very different definition has become popular: Culture - has come to mean: The training, development, and refinement of mind, tastes, and manners Therefore a more contemporary definition (for example from an up to date ‘English Dictionary’), will offer the following – or similar – definition of culture:
The totality of socially transmitted behaviourpatterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and all other products of human work and thought"
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What is Culture?
Cultural norms are promoted as templates (behaviour expectations which a society nurtures). Norms therefore act to shape and pass on behaviour, prohibitions and ways of thinking. Our cultural heritage resides in all of our thoughts, actions and learned behaviour. A key characteristic of culture, is that it is a system of meaning – promoted by language, symbols, norms & expectations, and beliefs. The cultural system of meaning serves to organise both individual and collective (social) actions and behaviour. Several important principles follow from this definition of culture: The way we absorb culture is a learned process. Because this is an essential characteristic of culture, the way that culture is taught is also a crucial characteristic. The way it is taught and reproduced is itself an important element of culture. Many qualities of human life are transmitted genetically e.g. a baby’s desire for food is triggered by physiological characteristics - determined within the human genetic code. However, an adult's desire for tea, coffee, chocolate, shopping, etc. cannot be explained genetically; rather, they are learned (cultural) tastes. Because people learn culture - the relationship between what is taught and what is learned is never totally predictable or absolute, as a result of this, cultures exist in a constant state of change. Cultural meaning systems consist of negotiated agreements - members of a human society or group must agree on the relationships between a word, behaviour, or other symbol - and its corresponding significance or meaning. Cultural meaning systems involve relationships are not necessarily ‘truths’, words have no essential connection to that which they signify - people simply agree that the word should have the meaning that we ascribe to it.
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What is Culture?
Think of 1 or 2 of your own cultural examples (of norms, language) that may seem strange to a different culture:
Kissing is one of the most complex interpersonal behaviours human cultures display. It can signify many things, such as intimacy, affection, romance etc. The following is a brief examination of kissing - where it ‘arguably’ comes from and what it has come to signify: Where did the process [and meaning] of the "kiss" originate? One popular anthropological theory suggests that kissing derives from a much older practice called "premastication". Premastication is where an adult (frequently a mother), chews food and then transfers the soft food into the mouth of an infant or young child. Modern, industrialized cultures have developed soft, enriched baby foods that are readily available. It is easy to imagine how premastication could lead to what we know today as the maternal kiss between a mother and child. The process of premastication may also, in some cultures, have influenced the development of the "romantic kiss."
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What is Culture?
In the Ziller Valley of Central Europe, for example, the exchange of premasticated tobacco between a male and a female continues to be a popular romantic gesture. (Wickler. 1974):
“The young man would let a tip of the piece of [tobacco] show between his closed teeth and invite the girl to grasp it with her teeth - which of course obliged her to press her mouth firmly on that of the young man - and pull it out. If a girl accepted the wad of premasticated tobacco, it meant she returned the boy's love.” (ibid: 242)
Another theory is that the act of kissing arose from various gestures symbolizing the fusion or union of souls, where individuals bring their faces together in a gesture of spiritual union. For example, North American Indians believed that the exhaled breath was part of the soul; therefore, bringing one's mouth close to that of a fellow represented the intermingling of the souls. This is a clear antecedent of the "nose kiss," popularly attributed to the Eskimos. By bringing their faces together, two individuals exchange their breaths in a sort of spiritual union. Here we have two alternative explanations: one based on the practical processes of exchanging food, the other – a purely symbolic act expressing soulful union. [Can you think of any additions or alternatives to these?]
Cultural meanings of the kiss People who share a common culture also share a common ‘system of meaning’ by which they interpret social behaviours. Those from similar cultural backgrounds can expect to share similar notions of what certain behaviours mean. For example, there are certain types of kissing in western culture, that most people would agree upon and understand:
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What is Culture?
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Parent/child kissing: This is among the most common forms of kissing - light, fast, and with pursed lips. This gesture is easily recognized as an act of love and affection. The symbolism changes dramatically if an adult/child kiss is too long or intense.
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Friends/family kissing (the social kiss): A quick kiss on the cheek or lips between family members or close friends - an easily recognizable and interpretable cultural sign which conveys affection and love.
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The ceremonial kiss: Particularly common in European countries (France, for example); Heads of state or other dignitaries offer a ceremonial kiss upon meeting. Moving beyond social symbolism to a political symbolism, signifying goodwill on the part of both parties.
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The erotic kiss: The Romans were among the first to adopt and document this particular behaviour, but its history goes back further still. [As far as our own use is concerned – nuff said].
The main ‘cultural’ point to be made here, is that kissing - like many learned behaviours - is an important aspect of culture, because of the significant meanings we attach to it. It can be innocent or erotic, relaxing or intense, the many variations of kissing are behaviours that people from a common culture can easily interpret in similar ways.
Wickler, W. (1974) Sexual Code: Social Behaviour of Animals and Men. Weidenfeld.
For next week: Pick four items and/or aspects and/or behaviours from within your house or home environment Describe them, and explain their relationship within the context of your culture: Identify whether you think they form examples of a cultural value (belief) or a cultural norm (formal or informal rule)
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