Judo_for_the_West by CLUBUL SPORTIV OLIMPIA SLOBOZIA

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JUDO

FOR THE WEST

Here is a book which breaks entirely new ground in judo teaching. It outlines contemporary theories of learning, class teaching technique, and shows how the various theories and principles can be built into a simple but effective method of introducing novices to judo. Another chapter is devoted to how such introductory methods can be moulded into an intermediate judo skill. Lastly, Japanese terminology is explained in a completely new way, which will be of great interest to both old and new judo players. The author has evolved this approach to the teaching of judo over the last few years in his capacity as National Coach to the British Judo Association. Compared with the traditional methods of judo teaching, it is quite revolutionary, even though its intrinsic principles are accepted in educational circles. The results of the new method have been impressive; skill has been acquired far more quickly and on a far broader base than ever before. This method of teaching judo has been used all over the British Isles in clubs, colleges, schools, youth clubs etc., and is also gradually spreading abroad. As yet the spread is thin on the ground, but the object of this book is to help those who have heard of the method and who want to know more. It is unique in explaining fully the history and development of Mr Gleeson's method of teaching judo which fully utilizes the knowledge of the West and the capacities of the Westerner.

$6.00

G. R. GLEESON

Born '927. First appearance in British team '949. Finalist in Open and 3rd Dan European Championships '951. First special research student of the Kodokan (Tokyo) '952-55. During this period also studied kendo, aikido and calligraphy. Chief instructor of the Budokwai '955-60. Captain of first team to win European Championship for Britain '957; captain of various teams '949-57. Served on Executive Committee of British Judo Association '955-60. Read Japanese at London University '955-58. Honorary National Coach '958-60. Full-time National Coach '960 to the present. Originally trained as an engineer, holds higher National Certificate of Engineering. Swam in County and Southern Counties Championships, interest and participation in several other sports. Presently studying motive writing.

....

A. S. Barnes and Co., Inc. South Brunswick and New York.

1 .1 J Printed

in Grrat BriJiJin

r ;a..

JUDD fORTHElEST by G. R. GLEESON

'1 keep six honest serving men, (They taught me all 1 knew). Their names are What and Why and When, And How and Where and Who.' Rudyard Kipling.

South Brunswick and New York: A. S. Barnes and Company

CONTENTS

I First American Edition 1967 Published by A. S. Barnes and Co., Inc. Cranbury, N. J. 08512 By arrangement with Kaye & Ward Ltd (t) 1967 Kaye & Ward Ltd

Printed in England by Adlard & Son Ltd Bartholomew Press Dorking, Surrey

Teaching

Method and Coaching

Technique

Learning by Imitation 20 The utilization of education 2I Instructional Technique 24 Planning for a Period 24 Planning for a Session 24 Skill 25 Competition 28 Interest 29 Enjoyment 3I A Coach's Characteristics 33 Class Control 34 Discipline 34 Hygiene 35 Class Technique 35 The Importance of Demonstration 35 The Use of Floor Area 37 Class Appreciation of Initial Demonstration 38 Progress Variation 39 Use of Habit 39 Explanations 40 Use of Voice 42 Observation 43 Imagination 45 Judo Leaders 47 The Position and Importance of the Instructor, Coach and Teacher 48,49 Conclusion 50 BibliograPhy 5I

General Factors

Types of Throw

Speed and Movement 56 Posture 57 Movement 60 Power Point 6I Power Curve 65 Control Curve 68 Acceleration 69 Body Movement 72 Chest Contact 72 Turning 74 Legs 75 Feet 78 Head 80 Tsukuri 82 Hands 83 Arms 85 Ne-waza 89 General Factors: Conclusion 9I Supplementary Factors 9I Falling 92 U chikomi 96 Forms of Training IOO Randori I02 Shiai I04 Observation I05 Kinaesthetic Appreciation I09 Aesthetic Appreciation I09 Coaching Hooks III Imagination III Conclusion I I2 Bibliograplry II3

Group 3 I34 Dynamic Defence I37 Ne-waza I40 Linked Systems I44 Coaching Hooks (Elementary) I48 Conclusion: Objects of Group Method

3 Elementary Judo II4 The Introductory Group Method Group I II9 Dynamic Defence I25 Combined Attack and Defence Ukemi I27 Group 2 I27 Major Sub-group u8 Dynamic Defence I30 Minor Sub-group I32

An outline of the requirements for: The Club Instructors Award I86 The Coach Award I88 Senior Coach Award I9I The Promotion Syllabus, with full explanation and definition I94 The Gokyo 20I Japanese pronunciation 202 Glossary 204

Intermediate

Judo

I4B

ISO

Example from Group I: Tai-otoshi I5I Example from Group 2: O-soto-gari I54 Example from Group 3: Harai-Goshi I57 Hairi-Kata I58 Coaching Points for Various Techniques I60 Tai-otoshi I6I Tsuikomi-goshi I6I Seoi-nage (ippon) I62 O-soto-gari I64 O-uchi-gari I65 Ko-uchi-gari. I65 Ko-soto-gari I66 Harai-goshi I68 Uchi-mata I69 Hane-goshi I7 I Ashi-waza I72 Sutemi-waza I74 Kaeshi-waza I75 Ne-waza I75 A Ne-waza Sequence for an Intermediate Student Conclusion I82 5 II7

British Judo Association

Coaching Examinations

I76

I85

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Photographs I-

Drawings

between pages I28 and I29 Fig. I Skill progression graph page 27 2 Posture: good and bad page 59 3 Power peak in other sports--cricket, pages 63,64

GROUP ONE: ATTACKS

7, 8 9-I2 I3-I7 I8-2I 22-26

GROUP GROUP GROUP GROUP GROUP

ONE : ONE: TWO: TWO: TWO:

AVOIDANCES ATTACK VARIATIONS ATTACKS-MAJOR SUB-GROUP AVOIDANCES-MAJOR SUB-GROUP ATTACKS-MINOR SUB-GROUP

27-32 33-37

GROUP TWO: AVOIDANCES-MINOR GROUP THREE: ATTACKS

38, 39 40,4I 42-50

GROUP THREE: AVOIDANCES GROUP THREE: ATTACK VARIATIONS A NE-WAZA SEQ.UENCE FOR THE INTERMEDIATE

athletics, tennis

4 Schematictraining tree pageIOI

SUB-GROUP

STUDENT

5I Broken, ugly lines indicate a less than satisfactory throw 52 Notice how the lines are now smooth and unbroken 53 Method to develop full throwing action 54-56 Tai-otoshi 57, 58 Tsurikomi-goshi 59 I ppon seoi-nage 60-63 Osoto-gari 64, 65 Ouchi-gari 66, 67 Harai-goshi 68,69 Uchimata 70 Hane-goshi 7I Sasai-tsurikomi-ashi 72 Oil painting depicting 'swirl' of a throw

5 6 7 8 9 IO II I2 I3 I4 IS I6 I7 I8

Effect of convention page I06 Effect of extraneous items page I07 Effect of bias page I07 Effect of viewpoint page I08 The Group Method diagram page II7 Analysis of leg sweep actions page I33 Preferred leg sweep action page I34 'Headend' holding page I42 The 'bridge' page I43 Weight into throw page IS3 A common fault in tai-otoshi page I53 A bad static form of tai-otoshi page I54 Ouchi-gari. A very bad one! page I68 The 'family tree' of technique pageI93

,ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

FOREWORD

Here I would like to record my deep gratitude to the following people who have unselfishly helped me during various stages in my judo career. First there is Mr T. P. Leggett, who not only taught me most of the judo I know, but many other things besides. Second, Mr M. Takasaki, who not only let me become a member of his family for three years, but showed me what generosity of spirit really means-to him I shall always be indebted. I must not forget the small group of anonymous donors who contributed towards my fare to Japan and without which I could not have gone. There are the many judo men, both here and in Japan who helped me enormously during judo training, men like Daigo, Osawa, Otaki, Koyasu and Tashiro. Lastly, coming nearer to the present, I must thank Mr Sweeney and Mr Welsh for posing for the drawings, Judo Ltd. for supplying many of the action pictures and also the B.J.A. and the Budokwai for allowing me to print the promotion syllabus and the coaching qualifications. Finally, my grateful thanks to my wife for her untiring typing, correcting and inspiring.

G. R. GLEESON

A sport that resists change dies. Who now plays Pall Mall? Fortunately, the resistance of most sports to change is not insuperable. The historian surveying a sport's past can easily see how a simple game or physical feat originates with an enthusiastic individual or group and is gradually taken up by thousands of like-minded men and women. The sport becomes organized, it must be governed by rules, specific techniques are devised, handed on and written down. After a time, a block occurs. The sport may lose adherents or spectators or it may become enshrined as in a temple or museum. It ceases to develop. Perhaps some club or team modifies the traditions of the game and wins a world championship as has happened more than once in association football; perhaps the sport becomes a new and independent variant as did American football, and its development continues. Mr Gleeson believes that some such crisis has occurred for judo and I agree with him. Judo is very far from declining. It has, on the contrary, attracted an enormous number of new adherents in Europe during the last twenty years. The increase of clubs and organizations in Britain, the growth of classes in evening institutes and the formation of a Schools Judo Association bears witness to the appeal of judo. Nevertheless, there are many, very many, who have abandoned the sport in disappointment and frustration, and judoka cannot be content to rest on their traditions and dogmas. The author of this book starts from an analysis not of what ought to happen in the dojo, but of what does happen. Learning must come from the throws themselves not from artificially devised practices. Many of these latter come in for severe criticism, not least the standard use of the arm-beat method of falling. However, what is now needed is not an approach to judo as a stylized form of Japanese wrestling nor as unarmed combat nor as a twentieth century alternative to the 'noble art

of self defence' but an analysis ofjudo as a positive and dynamic sport for the West as well as the East. We none of us know all the answers in teaching or learning judo, but this book offers all who read it the chance to think ahead. Peter C. McIntosh, B.A. (axon) Dip. P.E. (Carnegie) Once Lecturer in Physical Education, Birmingham University. Now Senior Inspector of Physical Education, Greater London Council.

INTRODUCTION

THE reader, having seen the title of the book may, by inference, imagine that I advocate a style of judo different from that practised inJapan. This is far from the truth. I have experienced far too much and have far too great an admiration for 'Japanese Judo' to want to change it-although naturally enough I should like Britain to surpass the standards set by the Japanese! What I do consider needs radical change to suit the temperament of the Britisher are the methods of teaching and training. The teaching and training of any skill is to a greater or lesser extent a reflection of the national characteristics of the country involved; when the skill is indigenous the extent is greater. Therefore when a skill or sport is transferred to another country that country should replace the foreign training methods with methods reflecting and exploiting its own characteristics, needs and virtues. The main purpose of this book is to indicate how this could be done with judo in Britain and the West. The general educational background is shown, indicating what constitutes learning and how these principles are incorporated into a judo teaching method; then more specifically an introductory method is shown with a follow-up at the intermediate stage of learning. Other specialized aspects, like the advanced skills, kata training etc. will, it is hoped, be covered in detail in later books. In addition to reassessing the value of training and relating it to existent circumstances, another main object of the book is to reveal the actual bones of the game. I have, in other words, tried to clear away some of the cobwebs and dust accumulated over the past half-century, which have obscured the true value of judo training. Judo, because it had its origin in a period of time which was virtually feudalistic, has become somewhat contaminated with an obfuscatory aura of feudalistic mumbojumbo, with the result that subsequent teachers, for various reasons, have insisted on treating judo as a feudalistic, esoteric

INTRODUCTION

JUDO FOR THE WEST

'art' and have taught it as such, mistaking the original or early environmental manifestations of the training as the essence of the skill. In an attempt to substantiate such an approach these teachers have 'nudged' historical events somewhat out of context to support this interpretation. For example, Kano (the founder of judo) was made out to be a little man inspired to invent a series of clever tricks merely to overcome the bully, which he then passed on to a few 'enlightened' followers. When the truth is known, Kano was in fact one of Japan's most brilliant educationalists, who not only saw the need for a national sport (with as many recreational as patriotic benefits), but was visionary enough to see how such a sport might develop and possibly even attract people other than the Japanese. Judo was his own contribution to the overall fitness and recreational enjoyment of his countrymen. It had no connection with self-defence or ju-jitsu. A careful study of its underlying principles will prove that. It was intended solely to fill a gap in the physical, recreational and educational requirements of a people needing to play purposefully and beneficially. He did not attach any grandiose pseudo-philosophic trappings to the sport; he intended it simply as a physical developer. If the individual could acquire satisfaction and self-expression from the training, then judo had more than achieved its original task. Lastly there is a personal objective in writing the book; to try to help other people find as much pleasure from the game as I have done. Judo has been my chief sport for almost twenty years now. With very few exceptions, in whatever conditions and places I have found myself doing it, I have enjoyed every minute. It has brought me satisfaction, much excitement, travel, knowledge and many friends. By attempting to clarify some of the many things which always puzzled me in my early training days, others may be able to take shortcuts and avoid bewilderment. At one time or another I have met many of the famous contemporary judo personalities and have heard them talk about their judo hobby-horses, expounding what in their opinion is judo's object and purpose. Because of their personal example and opinions (let me be frank and add-despite some others) I started off and have remained a judo enthusiast. I thought then, as now, that judo, given the right presentation, can do

much for any person who plays it conscientiously and sincerely. The main purpose for the accumulation of knowledge is, in my opinion, to help the possessor live a fuller and richer life. Judo can be looked upon as a special type of knowledge which can be transferred to other fields of experience, and in so doing help the trainee to live a fuller life than if he had not taken up judo. For this to happen the teacher or coach must have a clear picture of the aims and purposes of all aspects of his trade-teaching judo. By his example, both on and off the mat, he will stimulate his class to strive towards more knowledge and increased awareness of all things. If this is achieved to any degree then judo will have served a very real purpose in society. ENFIELD1965

G. R. Gleeson

CHAPTER I

TEACHING METHODS AND COACHING TECHNIQUES

THEjudo coach's first task is to learn how to present his knowledge to his students in the best possible way. There should always be a definite teaching method, in which the coach has confidence. It is often said that teachers are born and not made; perhaps on the higher pedagogic planes this is true, but generally speaking, providing the man wants to teach, he can learnthe general 'rules' of teaching and apply them thoughtfully. These will be of great use to him and will help him over many difficulties that might arise the first time he stands in front of a class. Gradually his experience, application of knowledge and imagination will give him the basis to form his own 'rules', but until that time the following may be of help. Before attempting to layout these 'rules of teaching' we had better first look at the learning process. For whatever is needed for the process of learning must directly affect the method of teaching. To give a full account of the arguments put forward by the many and various protagonists of the different schools of psychology, all claiming the know-how of what is learning, would be too ambitious an objective for this book. Instead I will give a brief description of the two main lines of development which can, for the sake of convenience, be titled 'hindsight' and 'insight'. Hindsight (atomic) deals with the form of learning based on trial and error progression, whereas insight (gestalt) deals with learning through the application of knowledge and experience to a specific problem. Teaching and learning has, of course, taken place since man has been man, but it is only over the last century or so that a conscious effort has been made to find out exactly what is involved. Before the latter part of the nineteeth century it was generally considered that the term 'learning' covered the same

JUDO FOR THE WEST

TEACHING METHODS AND COACHING TECHNIQUES

process, possibly on different levels, both in man and animals. But towards the end of the century there arose the 'Behaviour School' which attempted to explain the behaviour of animals simply in terms of reflexes. The great example here of course is Pavlov1 and his famous experiments on dogs. The results of these experiments, designed to implant certain inhibitions, are too well known to be repeated here. Another great exponent of the 'automation' attitude towards learning by animals was Thorndike* 2 His experiments with cats are almost as famous as Pavlov's with dogs. Thorndike's theories on learning had a great influence on teaching methods for many years. The results of his cat experiments lead him to postulate that animals learnt by trial and error. Only experience enabled the errors to be minimized until a specific object could be achieved with no, or negligible, repetitions. Neither insight nor intelligent appreciation of the whole problem were allowed for. By the I920S opposition to Thorndike and his followers' ideas had grown. Leaders of the opposition were Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler. These men founded the 'Gestalt School of Psychology' (from the German, meaning pattern or configuration). Kohler8 said that Thorndike got the results he did from his cats, because they were put in an unnatural situation. (He maintained that men would have acted in exactly the same way.) If problems were set them which were within their mental capacities, they would show some form of insight. Set a problem which the animal can see as a whole and it will solve it comparatively quickly and easily. Here is the essence of the gestalt theory; perception or insight is all important: when the whole problem is fully perceived, insight is experienced and the problem can be solved more easily. Education in general was split by these two schools, each having its own enthusiastic followers. During the past few

decades or so the gestalt approach has gradually gained ascendency over its old rival, the atomist. However, each has its own advantages in specific teaching conditions and in sport, as in academic circles, each of the two approaches to teaching has its adherents. Perhaps today the whole-part-whole (the common name for the gestalt approach) has, in the main, the greater following. Knapp4 in her book somewhat compromises and says that possibly the part-whole (atomic) approach is of better use in teaching team games, whereas the whole-part-whole is better for the individual type of activity. In judo, in the past, certainly the part-whole method has always been used. A throw was broken down into its various parts and the beginner taught each part; where to put the right foot, where to put the left foot, where each hand should be, etc. etc. When he had 'mastered' all the parts he was allowed to try the whole-the throw. The throw was seldom, if ever, shown to him as such, (even the instructor demonstrated just one part at a time) so the novice had no idea what the final product was to look like. The outcome was an erratic, jerky progression from movement to movement, which was as ineffective as it was ugly. The gestalt theory would maintain that practising the parts with the intention of adding them together finally, would produce something other than the original whole. The general product of the old teaching method in judo would certainly appear to confirm this! The whole-part-whole approach is to let the novice try 'the whole' first; the throw(trying to imitate the instructor who has demonstrated 'the whole'). It does not matter how poor an effort it is, providing some feeling of the throw is obtained. The instructor then isolates parts which he feels could be improved upon, works on improving them, and replaces them back into the whole before the final product is lost sight of. The whole is kept in mind all the time; no single 'part' is allowed to take a dominant role in the development. In addition, each person is encouraged to try and achieve the 'whole' in their own particular way; such 'self expression' being deemed better than any imposed characteristics arbitrarily set by an instructor. However, teaching is never a simple subject and although the advantages of the whole-part-whole are, to me, very apparent,

* An example of the type of experiment used is as follows. Cats were put in cages with food on the outside. By finding and pressing a lever the cat could open the door and so get at the food. Records were kept of the number of repetitions necessary before the cat could go directly to the lever.

t An example of Kohler's experiments: He would put a chimpanzee in a cage with some bamboo poles and boxes. Food was hung on the ceiling out of reach. The monkey quickly found how to stack the boxes to reach the fruit with the sticks.

JUDO FOR THE WEST

TEACHING METHODS AND COACHING TECHNIQUES

and therefore prominent in the Group Method, there are undoubtedly times when part teaching has certain advantages in certain conditions. For as Cross says, 'Probably the practice of the parts proved most valuable as much because of the simplifYing of the intellectual concepts, as because of the simplifying of the motor-eo-ordination'. 6

quite different from what he did. The result: confusion and bewilderment! Here lies the reason why most skilled performers make poor instructors. They seldom understand basic principles, let alone the important ingredients of their own peculiar skill. Their skill has been developed pragmatically rather than intellectually, and therefore it is much better if a person who is 'outside' the skill attempts to analyse what happens during its execution. Naturally the coach must have some personal experience of skill development, but it need not be to a very high level; hisjob is to 'interpret' the actions of the very skilled man for his group's understanding. The two jobs-performance and 'interpreting'-are quite different and very few can do both. Certainly experience has shown both in judo and in other sports that dissemination of skill is very much the responsibility of the coach-not the performer.

LEARNING BY IMITATION Finally, in this section devoted to learning processes, mention had better be made of learning by imitation, which has always had a strong hold on judo instructional methods. 'Imitation is an indispensable expedient for the developing personality of youth. It has a beneficial effect as long as it does not merely serve as a means of accommodation, thus hindering the development of a suitable individual method.'6 A rather apt remark by Jung! For this reason (imitation) there has been a steady twoway traffic between Britain and Japan. Men have gone to Japan to round off their training and on return have done much to improve the judo standards in Britain. Some highly skilled Japanese performers have also been brought to England to act as living examples for the 'lower' grades to imitate. This exchange has had excellent results, and some of the 'local' highgrades have been able to learn much from the examples thus provided. Because they had already acquired experience and knowledge, the 'locals' were able to watch constructively, seeing the movements and tactics used; and during personal practice with the Japanese were able to 'feel' the 'build-ups' for various attacks. The great pity was that this knowledge was not 'translated' for the lower, less-accomplished grades. It was tacitly assumed that all could learn just as easily as the few senior, experienced men. If the instruction had been left on a purely imitation basis, with the students simply copying as best they could, something might have been achieved in the way of skill improvement. The trouble was that the highly-skilled performer would insist on telling his class how he performed the skill (throw). The skilled man invariably has very little knowledge of how he really performs his skill and what he told the class was usually

THE UTILIZATION OF EDUCATION There is little practical value in clarifYingthe mental processes of learning if there is not an accompanying indication of the uses to which that learning can be put. A teacher must have some idea of what, in his terms, are the objects of education. Here is no place for a discourse on educational philosophy, yet at the same time it would not go amiss, I feel, if a brief digression were made to discuss some of these objectives-if only in a judo context. For simplicity's sake, I will use the Aristotelian headings for the two main forms of education, vocational and liberal. As to definitions of these two terms, we can do no better than quote the main protagonists of these forms from the nineteenth century. Spencer first on vocational education: 'Education of whatever kind, has for its approximate end to prepare a child for the business of life-to produce a citizen who, while he is well conducted is also able to make his way in the world'. 7 Then Newman for the liberals: '. . . the cultivation of the force, the steadiness, the comprehensiveness, the versatility of the intellect' .8 In practice, it is difficult to decide which camp to join (if indeed there is such a clear bifurcation as the headings

JUDO FOR THE WEST

indicate) for each has sound qualities, but in general I tend to lean toward the liberal form of education, because I feel it is more sympathetic towards the individual's achieving joyfulness. However, even the most enthusiastic advocators of the two methods will, under pressure of argument, both admit that the right of the individual to full expression of his personality is all important. For taken too far, both attitudes can produce 'inert ideas'9, the bane of any educational system. Much of past judo instruction has had many similarities with the worst of vocational training. The continual dogmatic emphasis in tautological technicalities has tended to produce unimaginative performers with a surfeit of knowledge, which confuses rather than clarifies. If learning-in whatever form it takes-is to develop and improve the individual, then the instruction must be devised with that object in mind. The judo instructor could take note of the comment made by the Spanish philosopher, Ortega10: 'He (the insular specialist) reaches the point where he proclaims it a virtue not to take any notice of all that remains outside the narrow domain he himself cultivates, and denounces as dilettantist the activity that aims at the synthesis of all knowledge.' Originality, of course, starts with the coach; it is he who must set the pace, he who must break away from the restrictions of irrational traditions, he who must stimulate his group or class into originality and spontaneity. It is the coach's responsibility to see that the method he uses does the most to help each person attain the fulfilment of their desires. As Whitehead succintly put it: 'The process of exhibiting the application of knowledge must, for its success, essentially depend upon the character of the pupils, and the genius of the teacher' 9 The first step toward such apperception, to use the terminology of Herbart, would seem to be; instruct with the 'whole' well to the fore-whatever forms the 'whole' takes. The 'whole' can, for example, in the context of a liberal education, apply to life itself, for as Schroedingerll advises any teacher, 'Never lose sight of the role your particular object has within the great performance of the tragi-comedy of life; keep in touch with life-not so much with practical life as with the ideal background of life, which is ever so much more important; and, keeplife in touchwithyou. If you cannot-in the

TEACHING METHODS AND COACHING TECHNIQUES

long run-tell everyone what you have been doing, your doing has been worthless'. One of the fundamental reasons why the gestalt approach to teaching has been advocated mainly in this book, is because I believe it goes further in this direction of stimulation than does the older 'part' teaching. Yet is this enough? Does it still not depend too much upon the coach's or teacher's personal fund of knowledge? If possible the system adopted must go beyond the confines of the coach's present knowledge; it must germinate in the students' minds newer knowledge, and in turn stimulate the coach to greater efforts. From the 'wholes' presented initially by the coach, the class must try to achieve projects set also by the coach; it is by the achieving of these projects that-it is hoped-the class acquires new and exciting skills. Whitehead put it this way: 'Their expert knowledge (the teachers') will give them the ground to start from, and then culture (the general judo environment!) will lead them as deep as philosophy and as high as art.' It is with this idealistic viewpoint in mind, that the project method of teaching has been adapted for judo instruction. The coach, by utilizing the knowledge he has available, will set the class projects or problems, the achieving or solving of which will widen the scope of each individual's skill. Being nurtured in such a stimulating, if somewhat specialized form of training, the attitudes of exploration and investigation developed by the individual may beneficially influence other aspects of his life. Some readers may consider this too idealistic for judo instruction: 'Surely,' they will say, 'it is sufficient to teach just the physical skills.' Looking at sport participation merely as a physical recreation, this may be true, but I feel it is not enough. Sport can be physical education, in which case it is a part of the individual's general educational programme, and thus it can, and should, be used for more than developing just the body. Along with the improved awareness of body should go an improved awareness of culture in general, for the wider a man's range of knowledge is, the greater chance he has of living a fuller life. To conclude with a quotation from Dewey,12 whose writings deal largely with the question of society and the individual: 'Viewed both psychologically and socially, the arts represent not luxuries or superficialities, but fundamental forces of development.'

JUDO FOR THE WEST

INSTRUCTIONAL

TECHNIQUE

First there are the very important three 'Ps' of every good coach: Planning; Preparation; Progression. The first two take place before the lessQn or period (of time) and the last mainly during the teaching period itself. It is essential for an instructional period to be planned and prepared so that students receive the maximum benefit from it. It is not good enough for the instructor to turn up on the night and as he steps on to the mat to start thinking, 'What shall I do? -o-soto?' That is indefensible and cannot produce a coherent or understandable progression. There must be purpose. In the same way there should be a linking theme between two successive sessions, so that again there is consistency and the class are aware of an overall objective.

TEACHING METHODS AND COACHING TECHNIQ.UES

\raining aspect) and then the session built from this, giving the times for each stage. Here is where the third P, progression, comes in. When the object is set, the class form is made so that it develops progressively towards the object laid out. Each step is built rationally and constructively upon the previous one, absorbing the content of the previous step into the body of the following step. Again, although the plan is well laid out, it must not be treated as inflexible. The class is always the controlling factor and if, for any reason, the plan is not suitable-too fast or too slow-then it must be changed. With experience, of course, a detailed plan need not always be written out; a good coach may be able to do it in his head, but whenever or however it is done, preparation there must be. SESSION CONTENT

Planning for a Period First plan out a long period-say six months or a year (if an evening institute is involved two or three terms). Set out some objectives, arrange for various higWights to be included in the period (e.g. promotion examinations, inter-club competition etc.). Some of the time could be planned to act as a 'build-up' to these specific events. For example, work on the examination syllabus before the promotion examination, and have contest training sometime before the inter-club match. The plan, of course, should not be too detailed; many things may happen which will make the coach alter certain parts of it. But all this does not affect the important fact that the coach will have some definite idea where he is going and that the class will benefit from his sense of purpose. Such a plan can even be shown to the class members, so that they will know not only what is arranged, but that the coach really has their interests at heart. The class or group must have confidence in their instructor and if they feel he knows what he is doing, it will go a long way to develop this confidence.

In the main there are four basic factors which should be incorporated into any type of lesson, be it academic or physical: (I) Skill (or special knowledge) (2) Competition (3) Interest (4) Enjoyment The importance and proportion of each will vary from lesson to lesson, but providing they all are present, the students should have spent their time in a satisfactory way. Becausejudo is a physical activity two other secondary factors should be present in any lesson. These are physical activity and physical development. A judo class should not have to stand around for long periods of time, for example, watching the instructor 'take on the class'. All should be actively involved in learning the skill, and because of this participation and the nature of judo training, there should be a general improvement in physique. Let us look at these four main factors more closely and elaborate on their composition.

Plann;ng for a Session This will follow the same general outline of the 'plan for a period' only more detail will be included. There should be an object set (e.g. a technique, an experience of speed, endurance,

Skill First, what is skill? Can we define it? Its meaning will vary somewhat depending upon the context it is used in4 so, to stimulate thought, here is my definition:

TEACHING METHODS AND COACHING TECHNIQUES

JUDO FOR THE WEST

Skill is a set of movements made to achieve a predetermined objective, with the least amount of effort and with the greatest degree of certainty and regularity. First, it must be understood that it is the SETof movements which comprise th~ skill. There is little benefit in repeating a part of that set (see uchikomi, Chapter 3). If the skill is to be improved, the whole, or complete set of movements, must be repeated, but not in an insensitive manner. 'Transfer (of a skill) is not an automatic process and it is not enough that the similarities should exist, but it is necessary that they should be recognized and appreciated.' Munn.13 So many seem to have the impression that if a set of movements is repeated often enough, they will somehow sort themselves out and into a skill. Automatic improvement simply as a result of participation is a very dubious premise. 'Repetition of a connection in the sense of two or the mere sequence of two things in time has very, very little power, perhaps none, as a cause of learning.' Thorndike. 2 Inadequate skills as well as efficient ones can be learnt (see uchikomi, Chapter 2). One has only to see a man who has overindulged in uchikomi to see this borne out-he cannot progress past the point of kake. Therefore the students need to be controlled all the time and never left completely to their own devices. They should always have objects or tasks to achieve. This does not mean the coach should always be in front of the class talking, teaching, and demonstrating. Sometimes he is, of course, but sometimes he remains unostentatiously in the background, ensuring that the class is attempting to achieve the set tasks-however loose those objects are. The class must knowit istrying to achievesomething specific and then it will achieve it. Skill learning is not a regular or constant process. It progresses in what are called 'skill learning plateaus' (see Fig. 1), or in the form of steps. When the pupil is on one of these plateaus or steps, he can become very discouraged and a part of the coach's job is to help him overcome this depression. I always think of these periods as battery charging. At this time nothing appears to be happening because the battery is not driving a motor or lighting a light, but something is happening and it is only when the battery is recharged that it creates and maintains

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% 7 VI 1&1 6

~5 IIJ

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3 2

50 60

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TRIALS Fig I

Ski11 progression

graph.

Rings were pitched on to a nail from varying distances as shown. An average of 20 students took part in each case (W. C. F. Krueger, 1947).

sufficient power. Similarly with skill-learning, the plateaus are times when the skill is being absorbed. 'In order that any complex series of bodily movements should be given a chance to be consolidated or organized, very persistent and prolonged repetition should be avoided.' Bartlett.14 This 'absorption' time must be taken into account during training, in order to acquire the 'power' to drive the skill higher. Here of course is one of the dangers of 'fringe activities' i.e. strength improvement etc. It is so much easier to see an improvement in strength, that the motivation for doing weight training can be higher than that to improve judo skill. For although it is easy enough to see the difference in skill between the 1St Kyu and 6th Kyu, it is not so easy to see that between a 1StKyu and a 1St Dan. The coach must see that the motivation for the improvement of skill is kept high, which in turn means that the coach must be continually racking his brains to devise newer and better ways of improving skill training.

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JUDO FOR THE WEST

Competition

Competition, in a skill learning context, usually means motivation for further skill improvement. Because A beats B, B wants to improve his skill in order to beat A. If this is so, most will say there is no need to look very far in judo, for as judo is a competitive sport, shiai and randori will provide all the competition that is required. Is this strictly true? It would appear to me that there are in fact two purposes of competition: one to stimulate the acquisition of skill and the other to simply maintain interest and eleviate boredom. I will treat these two objectives separately, for each has important implications. There is a commonly accepted dogma in judo circles that if one wants to improve skill, practice should be with a higher grade. This appears to me to be fallacious. If repetition is an essential part of skill improvement and all authorities agree that it is, then the throw must be repeated often. To quote Knapp, ( one among many, 'The skillsinvolved in physical education and physical recreation are usually complex and require many repetitions and considerable time.' (It should not be just a slavish repetition, of course, see page 96; there must be conscious purpose in the repetition.) J udowise, the skill is the throw and if a 1StDan is practising with a 5th Dan, how often does he repeat his skill? Generally never! He may be getting other benefits; falling better, improving stamina, getting stimulation for widening his range of skill, but improving his own actual skillno! To do this he must, in fact, practisewithpeopleof a lowerskill standardthanhis own. Only in this way can he 'repeat his skill' sufficiently for improvement. I noticed, for example, while in Japan that the senior players would never train or practise together, i.e. no 5th dan would practise with another 5th dan. I could not understand it at the time, but now I realize why. It is ironic that the Japanese, too, seldom appreciate why this happens! It means that the coach must concentrate on the throw of the higher grade man and the resultantfall ofthe lower grade. Now the coach has two further complications which he has to unravel as best he can. The high grade is often tempted to do 'lazy' or poor versions of his particular throwing skill on the inferior player. Knowing, as he does, that he can throw the low grade with almost anything, he will invariably try to do just that. The coach has got to see that he uses the whole or the

TEACHING METHODS AND COACHING TECHNIQ.UES

real skill of the throw in 'all its glory' 1 Here is the second complication; the coach whilst ensuring that the senior man throws completely, must equally ensure that the low skilled opponent does not have a heavy landing. It is a question of pace variation in the attack. Competition in sessions can take many other forms besides contest. It can be used in the 'warm up' periods, in the form of games,16or to see who has the most individual practices. A form of competition can be used by the coach for electing the man with the best style; who trains the hardest etc. etc. A table can be made out for each individual in the class or group and a 'score' in all these parts kept so that at the end of every week or month the best club member can be chosen. He could be given some small token prize for his efforts. (Competition, it should be remembered, is a sop to the masculine ego, it is not nearly so much in evidence in the woman's make-up.) Competition can help to keep the class interested and willing to learn, but too much of it can discourage or satiate some; the coach must be able to judge which in his class are which, and which group is in the majority. Interest Interest, like competition, is dealt with in two parts: one is closely linked with motivation in the actual skill learning process, whilst the other is involved with general interest concerned with the sport itself. Let us look at the more direct part, skill learning itself. There have been many tests16showing the importance of motivation. Take the example given by Schwab17 when he had boys hanging from a bar by their hands. They would hang for twice as long when they were offered money (a tangible incentive) than when simply asked to 'hang for as long as they could I' The type of motivation will usually vary to suit the standard of skill. For example, success provides vital motivation at an early stage of learning to spur the beginner on to greater efforts. This is the reason why in the Group Method the beginner is throwing within fifteen minutes or so of first stepping on to the mat. At the other end of the scale, the class can be over-motivated, so that their interest in progress declines. A demonstration of

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TEACHING METHODS AND COACHING TECHNIQUES

a good throw by the coach will usually have the effect of inspiring his classto greater efforts, but ifhe turns his demonstration into a performance, a scintillating display of spectacular combinations and throws, he leaves his class bewildered and stunned. 'It is very natural for those who are unacquainted with the cause of anything extraordinary to be astonished at the effect and to consider it a kind of magic. They, who have never observed the graduation by which art is acquired; who see only what is the full result of a long labour and application of an infinite number and infinite variety of acts, are apt to conclude from their entire inability to do the same at once, that it is not only inaccessible to themselves, but can be done by those who have some gift of the nature of inspiration bestowed upon them.' Sir Joshua Reynolds.18 Then, of course, judo has its own very particular type of motivation-that of grade. Most sports have to be content with merely taking part as incentive (not a bad one in my opinion) whereas judo has this imported one from Japan. No doubt it does make people work harder for the next coloured belt, but there again it is a double-edged weapon. If the next grade is not achieved after what the individual considers the right amount of effort (and who knows what that is?) then he can easily lose all interest and drop out of the sport entirely. Some of the judo splinter groups have started in this way. A man fails to get his black belt, so he leaves, starts up his own association, and gives himself-via the new association-a black belt. There is no copyright in the name! Motivation in terms of general interest, covers a wide range of activity. It can include the actual presentation of a progressive plan (shown to the class or club, proving that they are being catered for in every technical respect) and talks by the coach on subjects concerned with the background to the sport, such as the structure of national, area, or club organization past and present, champions and personalities, or the history of judo in Britain and Japan; outside specialists can be invited to give talks on coaching in their own particular sport or on a recent development in the physical education world (e.g. Test and Measure etc.). Any and all such effort will help to keep the run-of-the-mill player interested and absorbed in his sport.

With his interest goes his support and with his support goes progress.

Enjoyment Last, but not least, is the factor of enjoyment. For the best type of learning to take place, there must be enjoyment of the learning process.19 Sometimes when visiting a judo club it is difficult to understand just why the people are playing judo. The faces are so long and glum and the atmosphere so depressive, it is a wonder any learning takes place at all. Naturally there should be a quietness, entirely the product of concen.,. tration and effort, but that does not mean there need be depression. Enjoyment can mean many things in many conditions, so first let us look at aspects of enjoyment we can call play. 'Play' plays a large part in human learning. Karl Groos20 states how the higher animals are born helpless and during the early period when they are protected by their parents, indulge in 'play' to learn about their environment. The catharsis doctrine, developed from these early researches, says: 'Play is cathartic in its action, that is to say, it provides an outlet for certain pent-up instincts and emotions which, whether in childhood or in adult life, cannot find sufficient direct expression. In civilized life the instinct of pugnacity, for example, finds insufficient scope for exercise. By nature we are fighters and fight we must, so the civilized man fights in play. Every game is a sham fight, in which no blood is shed, or even anger displayed, but which nevertheless releases the energy of this instinct, providing a vicarious channel for its expression.' J. S. Ross.21Play, even in this context has its ingredient of enjoyment, for without it the play will not be repeated. This does not mean that the activities should be frivolous and pointless (the planning of the session should have ensured that this does not happen), but there should be a recognizable feeling of enjoyment-with purpose. For example, after a particularly hard period of training (e.g. contest), when ofnecessity the attitude is severe, serious and taciturn, why not interpolate a quick, fast ball-game? It will add the required element of enjoyment: it changes the class

TEACHINGMETHODS ANDCOACHING TECHNIQ.UES 32

JUDO FOR THE WEST

pace (doing it this way there need be no actual period of rest, continuous activity can be maintained) and yet some contribution can still be made to the general mobility-speed and quickness of footwork. This does not mean enjoyment is simply the introduction of various games forms during a training period (although I think this helps), but should also be inherent in the judo itself. The coach must look hard at the various activities in the training session and try to think of ways he can make them more enjoyable and yet retain benefit and purpose. With too much randori the members can become bored (revealed in the dissatisfaction at the little progress they make). With boredom comes lack of enthusiasm and once this vicious circle has started they may as well all go home! All kinds of randori forms can be devised in order to make it interesting, e.g. one man with his jacket off (the other keeping his on); one man's feet tied together with about two-foot play in the rope (it is better if the tied man is of a higher grade than the other, it helps to 'equate' the skills); in ne-waza, jackets can be taken off, or one man versus two. All these and many others can be used to help maintain interest and enjoyment. Lastly, enjoyment must be had in the actual movements. The full rhythmic movements must in some way be made to appeal to the students, so that they actually enjoy performing the various attacks and avoidances. One has only to think of the enormous amount of energy spent by teenagers over long periods whilst they are 'twisting' or 'rocking' to see what the effect of rhythm has on effort expenditure. Indeed it would seem to be a profitable field of research to see how rhythms and music could be made use ofin training schedules. With the right combination of rhythm and fitness, I am sure quicker improvements of his standards could be made by the individual. For the movement to rhythm as well as rhythmic movement is somehow intrinsically satisfying and enjoyable to man and the coach should try and cultivate this in his class. I am sure that skill improvement could be helped enormously if this were exploited correctly. Every item listed above offers a challenge to the perspicacious coach and he will need all his guile and experience to wring the most out of every aspect.

A Coach's Characteristics What are some of the ingredients of a coach? Or to put it another way, what should the class see in him? Let me try to make a list. I. He must set a good example-in all things. Not only in the things he teaches in the sport, but in matters outside judo as well, for he is the personification of his sport. It can often be difficult, for it can be like a curtailment of his liberty, but that is a part of being a coach. If a man is not prepared to accept the responsibility he should not be a coach. 2. His example is important not only in the more social graces, but in the more mundane too. He should keep himself clean and tidy, having a clean suit correctly worn. 3. His posture should be good, upright and active, looking as if he is interested in what's going on. A slack or slovenly posture usually indicates a slack attitude and hence a defective teaching standard. 4. He must be obviously interested in his class. This can be done in several ways: he should talk to everyone (learning their names if he can), so they know they are a part of a whole. He should create a good environment so that individuals can easily ask questions. (He should not, of course, be too familiar, but always remain somewhat aloof-sometimes a difficult compromise to establish.) 5. He should be consistent. He should establish certain attitudes and standards and then stick to them. If unpunctuality is disapproved of, then he should be critical of everybody who is not punctual-himself included if that is necessary! 6. He must be confident. The best way to be confident is to know! The coach should never stop learning about his subject or anything else remotely connected with it. 7. He must be original-or appear original! He should not copy other people's teaching styles. He may by all means 'steal' ideas and methods, but he should modify them to suit particular conditions, adding original ingredients of his own. In this way improvements can be made. Remember, the coach's attitude to his sport, and to some extent to life, will be reflected in his class. It is his moral responsibility to make that reflected image as good as possible. 2

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34 Clas. Control

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TEACHING METHODS AND COACHING TECHNIQUES

HYGIENE DISCIPLINE

When a group of people get together to achieve a common purpose, there must be discipline. Without it chaos reigns and nothing is achieved. In a judo class the man to impose that discipline is, of course, the coach and his task is easier if he already has a personal discipline. There are several forms of orthodox discipline, each contributing something to the development of the group or individual. The least (although not unimportant) are the social disciplines of punctuality, politeness etc., which help to make the group a pleasant one to belong to, or be associated with. Then there is the discipline needed to safeguard the members of the group, seeing that the right kind of judo is played for the particular conditions, that care is taken of the less experienced players, and that obstruction of other players both on and off the mat is avoided. Judo being an antagonistic sport can be extremely rough-unintentionally-so these safeguards and courtesies are essential. Some misguided men play it intentionally rough, the excuse for this bad behaviour coming usually in the guise of 'It's to toughen you up', which means the bigger or more skilful man throwing the smaller or less skilful one off the mat, into the walls (if there are any). In other words, it is plain old-fashioned bullying. Such attitudes are as despicable as they are worthless. At every opportunity the good coach will encourage the best type of sportsmanship; judo is hard enough without such stupid, bullying attitudes and practices. Lastly there is the discipline necessary for the group to progress. The individual is a part of the group, so he must discipline himself not only to help the group but, much more important, to help himself. Only with strong self-discipline can the rigorous training programme be completed and this is necessary to reach the highest standards of skill. Read the biography or autobiography of any champion and it is always this factor which comes out the most strongly. One of Kano's two basic maxims for judo is JI TA KYOEI, 'By helping each other, all benefit'. Self-discipline should be one of the main functions of any sport's training and a part of that self-discipline is to help others just as much as it is to help oneself.

In a close body contact sport like judo, hygiene is very important. It is obvious why the mats and surrounds should be kept immaculate, and it should go without saying that kits and the body should be clean at all times. Shoes (of one kind or another) can and should be worn between changing rooms and mats, and left at the edge of the training area to secure maximum cleanliness. CLASS TECHNIQUE

Here are some general 'rules' that should be known by anybody who steps out in front of a class; they can be found in various disguised forms in most teaching textbooks,22 but I have tried to bring them all together so that they can be read easily. Most are commonsense. Many readers will know them already (even if they could not actually quote them), but to see them written down makes them even more clear. I. The Importance of Demonstration

If the whole-part-whole approach is being used to teach a particular throw, then much will depend upon the presentation of the initial demonstration, in which case the following should be remembered: (a) Perform the demonstration as well as possible. The first 'picture' of the technique seen by the class is all-important, it may stick with them for life! So make it good. Do not do it slowly-'so they can see what happens'-remember a throw done slowly is NOTthe same as a throw done fast! If the coach wants the class to 'see' a slow one, he can do a slow demonstration AFTERthe first fast ones, but again there should be a concluding FASTdemonstration. It is essential that the class get the 'true picture' of the technique-speed and accuracy. Make the start and finish of the demonstration clean and crisp, so the class knows exactly when it started and when it finishedit helps to emphasize the 'picture'. (b) When the class are asked to try to copy the demonstration of the coach they too must try it at full speed. Knapp, in her excellent book,4 when discussing speed says: 'It would seem from this (the various experiments carried out in America and Britain on speed) that where speed is vital to performance, speed is a part of form and should therefore be emphasized

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from the beginning.' Speed is essential in judo (among other things) so it should therefore be stressed as early as possible in the general training. (c) If ever a wrong demonstration is used to illustrate the fault of the class it must be 'erased' by several successive right demonstrations.23 Even so, the wrong ones must be kept to the minimum. It is a peculiar psychological quirk that people tend to remember the wrong ones more effortlessly than the right. Every care must therefore be taken to see that the wrong demonstrations have little chance of getting absorbed, so certainlydo not finish with a wrong demonstration.Always finish with several right ones! (d) Do not finish a session or a period of instruction with a demonstration. This leaves a very dissatisfied class, for not having tried the technique they can justifiably feel frustrated and cheated. The class must always try whatever the coach has shown--or the coach should not show it. It is fairly common in the judo world for a man to teach a particular technique to his class (say tai-otoshi) then, just to finish the class off, he says something like, 'Tai-otoshi is a good technique, for it can make many combinations like. . . '. He then proceeds to show half-adozen combinations which dazzle the class (good for the instructor's ego) and then says, 'Now let's all go home!' The class is now disappointed because they could not try the stuff, puzzled because they do not know what it was, confused because all the combination 'pictures' have been superimposed on the earlier instructional 'pictures'. A bad if not catastrophic ending! (e) When demonstrating a throw make sure the man has an easy landing. It requires some control on the part of the coach, but nothing out of his range. If the throws are heavy, apart from putting the man himself off (so that he may not come again) it can also affect the rest of the class. They may not try very hard in case they too have a similar hard 'knock'. A beginner is very susceptible and bad impressions are to be avoided like the plague. In any case, do not pick the same partner every time. 'Share the load' and let others have the experience of being thrown. In this way the coach can avoid sowing the seed of apprehension in anyone bosom. (f) Sometimes it is a good 'psychological booster' ifmembers of the class are chosen to demonstrate some particular point.

TEACHING METHODSAND COACHINGTECHNIQ.UES

It will boost the performer's confidence and let the class know that if two of them can do it, then certainly the others can as well. One point must be remembered by the coach, the chosen students MUSTdo it correctly. If done incorrectly it can be catastrophic. The class reaction is, 'If they cannot do it, and they have been picked out, what chance have we!' It is a good tip, if in doubt, to rehearse the two carefully on the side before putting them in front of the class, to make sure they will repeat it correctly. Such a demonstration also has the advantage of giving the class a different movement picture from that of the coach. If the coach does each and every demonstration there is some danger that his personal method of movement may be copied. This is not always good. It is the general movement picture which ought to be transmitted, not necessarily the private idiosyncratic movements of an individual. 2. Full Use of all the Floor Area

When teaching a large class the coach should feel no need to limit himself to the mat area, providing the surrounding area is suitable. Naturally, if the floor is very dirty or splinter-ridden or both, activity must be kept to the mat area, and the coach must cope with the numbers as best he can. But if the group is held in a school gymna.sium (or a hall of a similar nature) the surrounding floor can easily and beneficially be used. (One of the features of the film I made for the B.] .A. illustrates how this can be done with a group of about forty.) Certainly when dealing with an elementary group and using the Group Method, much of the movement can be done on the floor, savingjust the actual throwing movements for the mat. Cleanliness is of course a point to be eonsidered and the coach has (as always) to decide whether he can afford to use the floor. In order to do so, he may have to arrange for some kind of 'foot wiper' to be installed between mat and floor space. (This is another reason for using a coloured canvas rather than a white one, which shows the dirt and also gives more glare and reflection.) However, the floor space should never be automatically ignored, but every effort made to include it in the class plan. It is rare indeed to find a vast and completely adequate mat area on hand. One of the good side-issues of the Group Method is that it does lend itself so easily to this kind of adapta-

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tion. It makes the teaching oflarge groups comparatively simple. For example, the group can be split into several smaller groups, each one doing a specific part of the Group Method (e.g. one an attack from Group I, another a defence to Group 2, another something from Group 3 and another group doing ne-waza). The whole class is kept active, all doing something positive toward a skill end. At regular intervals the groups can be moved round, so that each has a go at every task. One possible snag with such 'activity pockets' is that there can be too many. With more than about three or four the starting of the session could become cumbersome and delayed while the activities are eXplained or demonstrated. Again, the coach must decide the optimum number of 'pockets' and could possibly lead up to them over a period, e.g. doing one group activity as a class activity one week; the following week doing another group activity with the class; next week splitting the class into two groups for these activities, or three groups introducing one 'new' one. The same scheme can even be worked at the Intermediate stage, this time with the 'pockets' containing particular skills appropriate to the standard being catered for. The same too with the Advanced level. However, the higher the standard, the greater the amount of careful thought required from the coach in making the 'pockets' relevant and containing the right material.

3. ClassAppreciation of Initial Demonstration Before the coach does his demonstration he could explain to the class what to look for and add that he will expect them to copy as best they can. The demonstration follows (see Importanceof Demonstration);then, with no verbal help, the class is immediately allowed to try and imitate the coach's efforts whilst the picture is fresh in their minds. The class must try for the general feeling of the technique rather than any specific detail. It is this 'feeling' which is all-important at the early stage; the way the body 'flows' into action; the long strong continuous movement necessary to throw the other man on to his back. The coach's job is to help them towards this. Meredith 24said, 'The job of the instructor should not primarily be to persuade his pupil to make certain movements, but first to

39 identify and then to communicate the information which determines the control of these movements.' Only after they have tried on their own will the coach 'step in' and start correcting and helping. He will then be helping each individual, eXploiting the peculiarities of each to achieve the general movement pattern that has been set. Remember, the individual is not to be force-fitted into some abstract mould of what the coach thinks is 'right', but is to be helped to achieve the objective within his, the student's, limits. Mter having tried the suggestionsmade by the coach, the improvement is incorporated back into the technique as a whole. It is important that the feeling of the throw as a whole is retained and not that of its parts. Each student should get a word of advice or help from the coach (the coach must not stand in the middle of the mat looking like some immovable statue). The right word of encouragement and guidance at the right time, in the right ear, can make all the difference in the world. The coach must endeavour to make some contact with everyone, to make each feel the possibility of receiving a word of encouragement is not remote. TEACHING METHODS AND COACHING TECHNIQ.UES

4. Progression Variation

Sometimes this simple step of going from a demonstration to the class's attempt can be expanded. I have done this in the Group Method. If, for some reason, it is considered unsatisfactory to take this direct step (in the Group Method, the consideration of safety can warrant a gradual build-up to the throw, rather than allowing the 'straight-in-and-have-a-go' approach) a 'breakdown' can be introduced, so that the class can work up to the objective set. However, this does not alter the general principle of first showing them and then letting them try-the gestalt approach. 5. Use of Habit Habit formation does not strictly come under the heading of 'teaching techniques'; it does, however, obviously affect when, how and where a particular instructional point is introduced into the class programme. The use of habit appertaining to skill acquisition, is discussed in the section Uchikomi, so here the discussion is confined to general terms.

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TEACHING METHODS AND COACHING TECHNIQUES

The class progression will normally start with the 'fringe' movements of a skill, those easily converted to habit, as this frees the concentration for learning specific skill factors in the programme. The coach must keep in mind that skill is not habit. 'Habit demands conformity to a prescribed standard sequence of motor acts, while in skilled behaviour the same act is, strictly speaking NEVERrepeated.' Bartlett.14 The coach's job then is to devise situations which produce a skill from a largely habitual movement.

(e) Don't bring in irrelevancies. Keep to the point when teaching a technique. Tangential information in certain circumstances can be interesting, but in the middle of a skilllearning period when full concentration is necessary it can be distracting and very confusing. (f) Tie in with the demonstration. Extra care should be taken when an explanation is to be illustrated by a demonstration. Be sure that the points in the demonstration DO coincide with those in the explanation. It is bewildering if one thing is said and something different done. If in doubt, have a little rehearsal before the class starts in order to check the various points to be made. (g) Don't assume that knowledge exists in the class. The whole lesson plan can be undermined when knowledge has been taken for granted and from the class's blank response found not to exist. Normally, of course, this is not much of a hazard, assuming the coach has had the particular group right from the start. However, when a coach visits an existing group it is as well to avoid the danger. (h) Whenever possible use the positive approach to instruction and minimize the negative. Prefer the use of 'do' to 'don't'. This was a fault with the old style of teaching judo when there were far too many 'don'ts'. In fact, often the novice was so busy doing 'don'ts', that he did not get on with doing 'dos'! The whole atmosphere generated by the Group Method is intended to be a positive one. Jump in to throw-commitment; avoid it-commitment; eventually counter-attack-commitment. (i) Encourage each individual. It is important, from a psychological point of view that the learner is encouraged in his efforts. This does not mean that praise should be thrown out indiscriminately. Corrections will naturally have to be made, which means some will be told they are doing it wrongly, but in this case the coach must stay with them till they are doing it properly and so deserve a word of encouragement. (I t is' useless to wander off as soon as the fault has been pointed out.) The process is similar to the right and wrong demonstrations, final praise or encouragement is used to 'erase' the earlier criticism. In this way the class feel that they are improving.

6. ExPlanations

The class's learning ability will be greatly influenced by the form in which the coach presents the instruction. Therefore, the coach must be aware of what and how he tells his class. A few general pointers may help towards this end for clarity. (a) Ifin doubt write it out. When the coach is inexperienced it will pay him to write out what he intends saying before the class starts. He may not even use it, but it will clarify it in his own head. (b) Keep the talking brief. Provided all the necessary points are covered, the shorter the better. Remember the class wants to do judo not listen to a speech. (c) Be succinct. The coach must first know clearly the theories involved with any technique he intends to teach. He must then be able to select the important points in order of priority, and finally he must be able to present those points clearly and concisely to his class. Their confidence in him as a coach (and hence their potential to learn) will increase greatly when they feel he knows his subject. (d) Vary the approach. If the class or individual does not understand the form of the instruction, do not keep simply repeating the order (the situation will steadily deteriorate). Change the words, change the approach, bring in different illustrations (both verbal and diagrammatic). Here is where a wide knowledge of many subjects can be very useful! The coach should assume that if the class or individual has not understood his direction, it is the coach's fault (it may not be, of course, but this is a safer and more realistic assumption). He will then keep changing the form of direction till it is understood.

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(j) Use visual aids. Supplementary aids to verbal explanations are of value, for they help to highlight the various points made by the coach. Films of one kind or another (e.g. instructional films, films of championships, loops, slides) are of great benefit and so are photographs or illustrations from books and journals. The coach does not have to stick to illustrations of his own sport. He may also find his class stimulated by examples from other subjects, history, art, music, literature. Not only may a particular point in judo be seen more clearly in this way, but some aspect of an underlying principle could suddenly be illuminated. The coach's main task is to decide whereabouts in the programme to introduce these illustrations and the best way of using them once they have been introduced. There are a great many kinds of visual aids in the educational world and the coach could spend some time investigating this field. Who knows what he could find!

7. Useof Voice Just as the words chosen are important, so equally is the way they are said. (a) Make sure the class is listening before you start talking. To ensure that this happens it is convenient to have some audible signal, i.e. hand clap or whistle, which tells the class to stop what they are doing and listen. Do not try talking over the class when it is working (on occasions, short, sharp comments are permissible, of course, but not continuous instruction against their activity). Not only will they not listen, but it will spoil their concentration. (b) Get the class into a position where all can hear easily. This usually means the class members should all be in front of the coach, not ranged around him (in which case those behind the coach will have difficulty in hearing what is being said). (c) Speak up so that they can all hear. Do not mumble or gabble. Experience will help with this eventually. Decide what is going to be said, then say it slowly and clearly with the minimum of 'ums' and 'ahs'. (d) Put variety of pace and pitch into the voice. Some tips from the acting profession can be of help here.25 Do not be frightened to shout occasionally, particularly if the class is 'dying' on you. Equally, to drop the voice to a stage whisper

TEACHING METHODSAND COACHINGTECHNIQ.UES

can have good effects-ears prick up and attention improves. Occasionally an important point can be half whispered for special emphasis. A voice of even pitch is usually a monotonous one, and a monotonous voice is a tiring one. With tiredness comes lack of attention and diminished effort. Use the voice pitch to keep the class active and on their toes. (e) Be careful of speech mannerisms! The two most popular ones are 'o.k.' and 'all right'. Sometimes every other sentence can end in one of these nervous verbal twitches. (I remember in a coach examination a candidate repeated 'o.k.' forty-two times in fifteen minutes!) Such repetitions can be very distracting and the class will start waiting for them, becoming so engrossed with anticipating, perhaps even counting them, that they will forget what they are supposed to be doing! The coach must check himself on this at fairly frequent intervals, if only to ensure that he has not substituted one mannerism for another. (f) Always speak from an established place on the mat. No matter how or where you move to (and you should move around a lot, getting to all in turn) you should always return to the same place before making the next general point. In this way the class will always know, as soon as they hear the signal, just where to turn and look. Such a place is usually best chosen on the edge of the mat; then, by implication, the class is already in front. However, if it is a very large mat, another position may have to be selected.

8. Observation The ability of the coach to see what goes on during an acted or real attack is of fundamental importance. The knowledge gathered from such observation will obviously dictate the type of skill he teaches. (This aspect of observation is fully dealt with in Chapter 2, so here it is strictly related to class control only.) (a) Check at frequent intervals whether the pace of teaching is too fast or too slow for the class. Notice whether the class is keeping up with the flow of information; is it looking bewildered and confused, or bored and dissatisfied? Again the coach must train himself to notice (or even feel) this atmosphere in the class. If he does see it or sense it, then he should change

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accordingly; his class plan must not be adhered to at all costs, but should be capable of immediate adaptation to the class and the occasion. Such an ability will be even more important if the coach has varied groups to work with, i.e. women, children, older men; for each group will need a different pace and rhythm and the coach must be able to provide it. (b) Try to move around the outside of the mat area, so that you can see all the class at once. You will, of course, also mingle with the class from time to time, helping individuals as you see their need. To some extent the proportion of general observation to pair correction will depend upon the standard of coaching being used. (c) Not only will the pace of the class as a whole be variable, but the individual members too, as some will 'catch on' and want to race ahead, whereas the slow ones will have quite enough to do to keep abreast. This is a difficult problem. In general the coach must gear his lesson to the slowest set (not necessarily the slowest ONE,such a one could be taken aside and given individual 'catching up' instruction) for no one must be left out-nothing destroys a group feeling quicker than when parts are separated from the others. But then comes the problem of the fast ones. They could be given additional targets or extensions of the group work entailing greater effort on their part. For example, if harai-goshi is being taught and the stage is reached when the partner is moving backward with the attacker trying the throw, and assuming a few of the class are finding this too simple, a circular movement could be substituted as an opportunity-condition for trying the same attacking movement. (d) Whilst looking at a particular pair, a coach is usually concentrating on movement errors in the one man, so that he can suggest ways of eliminating the mistakes, but he must not lose sight of the fact that the errors could be due to reasons other than the man's own intrinsic inability to perform correctly. For example, it could be his partner. If the partner is particularly clumsy, or too big, or too small, or has a disjointed and erratic reaction, one or any of these could ruin the other man's attacking movement. The coach may well decide that this is the case and that a change of partner is called for. Then

TEACHINGMETHODS ANDCOACHING TECHNIQ.UES

the class as a whole should 'share the burden' of a clumsy mover. When coaching at a high level, international competitors for example, inability to perform the skill training satisfactorily may be due to emotional aspects (a sudden tax demand, a child in hospital critically ill). The coach should take an interest in the background of the people in his care, so that he may be able to understand or help in some circumstances. In a more general case, I have noticed how an instructional approach needs to be varied to suit people in various parts of the country. The East Anglian is quite different from the Welshman, who in turn is different from the Geordie. To get the best out of each an appreciative understanding is needed. (e) Lastly, and although it appears the most obvious it is often overlooked, there is the problem of the odd man out! Judo is a pair activity and there is often an odd man; it can be a nuisance, but there is no need for him to be left on his own during the instructional period. There are two ways of absorbing him; either put him in with one pair, so that they can take it in turns to do and to watch; or put him into one pair then take that resulting odd man and put him into another pair and so on. Each way has its merits and demerits.

g. Imagination Judo is a part of physical education, physical education is a part of education in general and an important educational objective is to stimulate the imagination of the individual. The roots and objectives of the Project Method of teaching, have already been discussed, so here let me tabulate the prin-

ciplesapplied to classteaching.

(a) Because of the nature of this method, the coach will have to spend a lot of time on preparation. Paradoxically, because the broader lesson plan is so loose, he will have to have tighter control than usual on his actual class plan. (b) Naturally the project set will depend upon the standard of the class. In the early stages it could take the form of a 'bridge' project; that is to teach two techniques, the task being to get from one to the other-bridging the gap! Later on, it could take the form of an 'open-ended' project, that is, an initial situation is devised and the coach then seeswhat develops

TEACHINGMETHODS ANDCOACHING TECHNIQ.UES

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as the class progress out or away from that initial situation. The first way is more controlled than the second. (c) The coach must not have fixed ideas of right and wrong technique. Provided he has clearly in his head the general basic dynamic principles of throwing and holding (see Chapter 2) he should then be concerned only with 'nudging' his class, so they incorporate these principles into their solutions to the projects set. (d) The coach should remember that it is not always the best approach to a learning situation to assume the best way is to move from the easy to the difficult. Sir F. C. Bartlett26 says in one of his books, 'There is more transfer of skill from the difficult to the easy than vice versa.' It is useful to keep this in mind when devising projects. (e) If at any time the coach feels it necessary to give some form of demonstration during a project session, he should keep any repetitions down to an absolute minimum. If this is not done, there is a risk that the class will start to copy the idosyncratic movement of the coach. That would defeat the whole object of the exercise, namely to develop individual and original movement. (f) Possibly one of the main subsidiary advantages of using the Project Method in general class work, is the ability to satisfYseveral standards simultaneously. It has always been a bane, on judo courses for example, when the skill standard has ranged from say 2nd Dan to 6th Kyu. How to teach such a motley group? Aim the instruction at the high grades, the low suffer; teach the white belts and the black belts have to twiddle their thumbs. A well-constructed and imaginative project satisfies all, as each solves the problem from its own store of knowledge and experience. All the coach need do is to control the ensuing development. CONCLUDING

GENERAL

COMMENTS ON THE

'TEACHING

RULES'

These 'rules' like all rules of conduct, after being thoroughly learnt, should be forgotten! There is a Zen story which starts by saying 'Fish is good for you'. It then goes on to say 'but it is no good whilst it is lying on the plate, or in the mouth or even laying in the stomach. Only when it has stopped being fish (completely absorbed by the digestive system) is it good for you'.

So with rules of teaching-or anything else for that matteronly when they are completely absorbed can they be of real benefit. The judo coach should try to see himself as a part of a general educational system. His duty is not only making his pupils better judo men, although that is an essential part of his job, but also trying to improve them as citizens. By widening their fields of interest, by increasing their knowledge of all kinds of subjects, he will help them to be fuller and happier people, which brings me suitably to the last topic of this chapter. JUDO LEADERS 'Great truths do not take hold of the hearts of the masses. And now, as all the world is in error, how shall I, though I know the true path, guide? If I know I cannot succeed and yet try to force success, this would be another source of error. Better then to desist, and strive no more. But if I do not strive, who will?' Chuang Tsu. To conclude this chapter I would like to talk about the leaders or, to keep within the context of this book, the instructor

or coach of judo. The reader already knows what I consider . to be the overriding object ofjudo training-betterment of the individual-so now I want to discuss the individual who has to try to set these standards. Irrespective of walk of life, leadership is all important: the leader sets the pace in every respect-the rest follow. Montgomery27 says: 'The beginning of leadership is a battle for the hearts and minds of men.' And again 'True greatness cannot be achieved without moral virtues; once they are mixed with talents of a lesser kind, the latter becomes improved-perhaps inspired.' I feel he is a man who should know something about leadership! In my experience of the judo world (to say nothing of the 'outside' world) the onus of development, whether for good or bad has rested with the local leader. It applies equally at club, or area or national level. A personality permeates the whole environment which becomes dominated by that man. One can only hope that the influence is for good! In order to try to give the individual something to aim for, I have laid out a hierarchy of 'leaders', similar to grade progression.

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I have called the three 'steps', instructor,coach,and teacher; they have nothing to do with a judo grade, but simply indicate the man's capability of helping others. After all, grades only indicate a personal performance standard and have very little to do with the man's standing as a human being. The individual must be judged first as a man, then as a judo player, if he fails on the first count, it does not matter how skilful he is, he is still no great asset. Tbe Instructor The instructor is the man who knows the superficialities ofjudo technique. For many and sundry reasons he has not thought deeply about the subject. He has an excellent idea and a correct one of the difference, for example, between oguruma and ashiguruma, and can instruct on both adequately. But he has not tried to find out what makes kata, kata; he does not understand the application of the essential principles of various types of technique in all circumstances. In general he is a man who has been content to 'soak up' his knowledge of judo from other people. Therefore it is good (provided of course he has listened to 'good' judo men!) but very limited. He can help most over the small obstacle (how to do this throw, how to do that hold) but he will not make any new contribution to the sport, although in terms of people taught his direct contribution could be considerable. Such a man has a very important part in the organization. Much of the development at low level will depend on men of this calibre. In fact it is they who spread the word and encourage the novice to make greater efforts and progress. Indeed I have often seen an 'instructor' (in my sense of the word) teaching high grades to advantage, but usually his activities are perforce limited to low grades. Simply because of the built-in limitation, the teaching is sterile, non-productive and produces little or nothing on a long-term basis, i.e. his pupils are not capable of passing on anything of value from his instruction, although they themselves benefit. At the low grade end of development then, the 'instructor' is a great asset, his knowledge gets people started and pointing in the right direction. However, for various reasons-lack of time, other interests, conceit, indifference-he does not attempt to

TEACHINGMETHODS ANDCOACHING TECHNIQUES

broaden his range of knowledge to attain the next stage of development and so his contribution to judo is limited.

The Coach The coach has the same general technical knowledge of the instructor, but also has studied (and is studying) every aspect ofjudo he possibly can. The man who has ambitions to become a good coach (as distinct from an 'ordinary' one) knows that he cannot know too much-about anything. With such an attitude as this his specialized knowledge is bound to increase. But this is not enough. He must also acquire some working knowledge of the immediately related subjects, anatomy, physiology, psychology, mechanics; he must find out about physical activities which impinge on judo-weight training, circuit training, test and measurement, stamina schedules. And to make a real job of it, art, history, music and science (in all its ramifications) will all help him to understand his job the better. The good coach has never the time to sit back and say 'I know it'-no matter to what he is referring. Knowledge is expanding every day, so should the coach's! I have given the coach a hopeless task. He cannot possibly know much about all these subjects. But, as discussed earlier in the chapter, it is essential that he tries! He must not become the blinkered specialist that Ortega was so disdainful of. One can never tell when some piece of apparently irrelevant (unconnected with judo) scrap of knowledge will suddenly leap out of the subconscious and throw brilliant light upon some present problem. Yet such an aim of widespread knowledge must not be founded just on enthusiasm for the sport, but also upon enthusiasm for knowledge. This desire for knowledge has generally to be acquired. The coach must drive himself harder than he ever drives his students! The Teacher The top of the leadership tree! Very few will reach this level; a mere handful every generation-if that. Nevertheless it is a position all coaches should be aspiring to; the status would be something like that of the Indian guru. The teacher would have all the qualifications of the coach, but whereas the coach's influence would be mainly limited to the dojo (not entirely of

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TEACHING METHODS AND COACHING TECHNIQ.UES

course) the teacher's would extend well beyond those confines. To define the qualities of a teacher at this level is very difficult because they are so nebulous and yet so real. In addition to all the knowledge outlined under the heading of coach (both of the sport and its connected subjects) there are important extra qualities difficult to define objectively. As Montgomery says, a leader (teacher) must have moral virtues and through some inner kind of peace be able to influence and lead men. He must set an example others will rarely be able to equal, but will always inspire them to try. In the trying they will become better men. For now of course the 'teacher' is not limited strictly to teaching judo-although he will be doing that, and doing it extremely well-but will be helping his pupils to become better men as well as better judo men. Judo will be simply a tool the teacher will be using (unconsciously) to help others with. Sport should not be an end in itself, only a means to an end-the end is the better, fuller person. Perhaps I have made the teacher an 'out of reach' ideal, but as I have implied elsewhere I think sport ought to and must have ideals. Without them sport becomes just another way. of expending energy in a rather futile manner. By establishing such ideals the sport can contribute something to life, for ideals do have a transfer quality!

belt has been considered as impertinence-almost sacrilege! The tide 'black belt' has carried with it the implication that whoever holds it has some mystical union with universal omniscience. Thus, utterances of the black belt have been accepted without question-even when they are directly contradicting some other black belt's pearls of wisdom. The listener thinks it is his own stupidity which cannot reconcile the two statements. For the good of judo this attitude of unquestioning acceptance must cease! It should be realized that a black belt is invariably a mark of personal efficiency in the skill of throwing people about, it has no relationship to the man's ability as a teacher; it is certainly no indication of his acadeInic or theoretical knowledge. Often these days, with improved coaching, black belts can be produced in two years or under, so what can these holders know about judo in general? Lastly it is no indication of him as a man (a black belt can be just as big an oaf as a white belt). Each man's ability as an instructor, as a coach, or as a man, must be judged on that individual's merits alone. A title, depending on a very narrow specialized skill (however good), is not a substitute for knowledge and integrity. Each man has to earn standing and respect by his own untiring efforts, both in the dojo and out of it. Judo offers a grand opportunity for self-expressionand if a man achieves a high standard in that self-expression, he will earn respect for that effort-provided he has been sincere, humble and unselfish. Judo wants such men. Let's hope it finds them!

CONCLUSION

As I said at the beginning of this section, progress depends upon the leaders. In this book I have confined myself to the leaders in the instructional field, but it does not mean that I undervalue the leadership of the 'organizers'-the club secretary, the area secretary, or indeed men who prefer to have no 'official' job, but exert an influence by simply being around. Each can make as large a mark and contribution as anyone else. But as the book deals with and is meant for judo teaching leaders, I talk only of them. Judo in the past has tended to encourage blind following, the unquestioning acceptance of well-masticated phrases; in fact it has discouraged individual thought altogether. The worship of the 'black belt' has gone a long way in producing a mental blank in most judo men. To ask searching questions of the black

BmLIOGRAPHY I. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8. g.

Pavlov, I. P., CONDmONED REFLEXES AND PSYCHIATRY, Trans. W. H. Gartt. Thorndike, E. L., HUMAN LEARNING, The Century Co. KoWer, W., THE MENTALITY OF APES, Penguin. Knapp, B., SKILL IN SPORT, Routledge, & Kegan Paul. Cross, T.J., A COMPARISONOF THE WHOLE METHOD. The minor game method and the whole-part method of teaching basketball to ninth-grade boys, Research QuarterlJ, vol. 8, NO.4, 1937. Jung, C. G., PSYCHOLOGICALTypES, Routledge, & Kegan Paul. Curtis, S. J., PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION, University Tutorial Press. Curtis, S. J. and M. E. A. Boultwood, INTRODUCTORYHIsTORY OF ENGLISH EDUCATION SINCE 1800, University Tutorial Press. Whitehead, A. N., THE AIMS OF EDUCATION, Methuen.

52 10. II. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

JUDO FOR THE WEST Ortega, Jose y Gasset, THE REVOLT OF THE MAssES, Allen & Unwin. SchrOdinger, E., SCIENCE AND HUMANISM,Cambridge University Press. Dewey,J., DEMOCRACYAND EDUCATION, Macmillan. Munn, M. L., PSYCHOLOGY,Harrap. BARTLETT, F. C., PsYCHOLOGYANDTHE SOLDIER, Cambridge University Press. Joynson, D. C., A GUIDE FOR GAMES, Kaye . Ward. Lovell, K., EDUCATIONALPSYCHOLOGYAND CHILDREN, University of London Press.

17. Schwab, R. 5., MOTIVATION IN MEASUREMENT OF FATIGUE, SYMPOSIUMOF FATIGUE, Ed. Floyd & Welford. 18. Reynolds, Sir J., DISCOURSESON ART, Ig. Woodworth & Marquis, PSYCHOLOGY, A STUDY OF MENTAL LIFE, Methuen. 20. Groos, K., THE PLAY OF ANIMALS; THE PLAY OF MAN, London, 18g8; 1901. 21. Ross,J. 5., GROUNDWORKOF EDUCATIONALPSYCHOLOGY,Harrap. 22. Hughes & Hughes, LEARNING AND TEACHING, Longmans. 23. Gilbreth, F. B., APPLIED MOTION STUDY, Macmillan. 24. Meridith, G. P., INFORMATIONAND SKILL, Talk on B.B.C. 1958. 25. Thurburn, G. L., VOICE AND SPEECH, Nisbet. 26. Bartlett, F. C., THE MIND AT WORK AND PLAY, Allen & Unwin. 27. Montgomery, Fidd Marshal, THE PATH TO LEADERSHIP, Fontana Library.

Further

Reading

Vernon, P. E., THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN ABILITIES, Methuen. Randall, M. W., MODERN IDEAS ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION, Bell. McDougal, W., OUTLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY,Methuen. H.M.S.O., MOVEMENT AND GROWING, Russell, B., A HISTORY OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY, Allen & Unwin. Moran, Lord, ANATOMYOF COURAGE, Constable.

CHAPTER 2

GENERAL FACTORS

As Professor Adams1 said, 'The verb of teaching has two accusatives, one of the person, one of the teaching', which means there are two subjects a teacher or coach must know about: the person or people he teaches and the subject he is teaching. I have tried to indicate how to start learning about teaching people in Chapter I, by studying psychology when related to education. Now let us start examining the subject we want to teach-judo. The first task is the attempt to discover what the underlying principles are concerning throwing and holding. Many judo theorists have attempted to define these basic principles in the past, but all have approached the subject from the concept of stability or balance; that is, technical analysis has been made on a purely mechanical basis with the body and its limbs treated as a manifestation of force diagrams, couples and turning moments. The analogies of wheels, sticks and boxes have been the regular equipment used to illustrate these principles. Such an approach may have value (provided it is supported by a truly sound mechanical knowledge-which it so seldom is) for it may shed light upon certain dark corners of judo technique. But care should be taken that the over-simplification of a mechanical force diagram does not hypnotize and blind us to what is really taking place. It should be remembered that sticks and boxes are only analogies and are often unsuitable for many circumstances that develop in physical situations. Man's great claim to anthropological continuance is his ability to bend and adapt, posturally as well as mentally. Indeed the interaction of mind upon body2 cannot be ignored when discussing physical effectiveness. 3

The famous case leaps to mind of the American mother who lifted a wrecked car off the body of her son-a feat of strength which cannot be explained simply by a force diagram!

-GENERAL

JUDO FOR THE WEST

Because of these many predecessors who have written on 'basic principles', this title already has certain connotations I wish to avoid, so I have not called this chapter by such a name, but by the vaguer one of 'general factors'. These factors I have no intention ofjustifYingor supporting with mechanical theories; my knowledge is not sufficient for such a complex task. Instead I intend to write them down as a contribution based upon empirical knowledge resulting from years of doing judo, studying under various excellent teachers (both here and in Japan) and competing against some of the best men in Japan, Britain and Europe. I think many readers will find a fresh, if not startling approach to the question of basic factors. Much of what is written is directly opposed to the normally-accepted theories on judo technique. I believe the subject of throwing must be approached from a purely dynamic basis. Any throw, as well as a hold, is movement-a palpable, but often overlooked, truth; it is a combination of skill and power, applied dynamically. I believe the throws as done in top competition must be studied and basic factors deduced from them. It is wrong, in my opinion, to work out a theory based on sticks and boxes and then attempt to make a man comply with the action of a box-to state the obvious, a man is not a box! Working back therefore initially from the real throws, I have tried to ascertain what does happen as distinct from what ought to happen. Armed with this knowledge, I then try to discover if what happens in one particular throw happens in other throws. The results I have found are fascinating and very useful when it comes to teaching technique. For a basic factor to be basic it must of course apply to all techniques at all levels of skill, the only difference being in the application of it. I have tried to keep this in mind at all times and have attempted to ensure that the following factors do apply both in nage- and katame-waza at all levels. There are of course slight modifications made to suit the various standards of efficiency, but essentially the factors are constant throughout. In this chapter the factors are general and their actual application to specific throws is postponed to later chapters, so the reader should keep this generalization in mind as he reads.

FACTORS

Types of Throw The reason I first started to examine throwing technique closely was to discover whether the throws had a 'personality' of their own, either because they were different from all others, or because they were similar to all others. The answer to this query seemed to me to affect the whole teaching approach to judo. If they were all different,each having its own specific technique of application and execution, then the teaching method would have to be general to present lots of small 'packages' in as attractive a way as possible. It would be difficult to apply, but if it had to be done, well it would have to be done. However, if it was decided that all the throws were essentiallythesame,the presentation would be entirely different. The points common to all could be extracted, taught as such, then specific techniques developed from them. I decided that the latter solution was the better one, for it fitted the facts more closely than the former, and from that concept I devised the Group Method. Further thinking round this subject of similarity rather than diversity gradually brought me to the conclusion that in fact there are only two types of throw: one the 'roll-over' type, where the attacker rolls his opponent over a leg, hip, body etc. and the other is the 'kick-the-Iegs-from-under-him' type (a crude way of putting it, but nevertheless true). A possible third type could be admitted as a combination of the two. Once this rather startling conclusion was accepted, it clarified many points of throwing technique which till then I had always had difficulty in reconciling. Here too was the explanation of why some men had (rather pointlessly I felt) tried to prove that judo was derived from some other form of wrestling. Because of the limitations of man's equipment, i.e. two arms, two legs, a trunk and a head, he can only possibly throw a man two wayseither roll him over or kick his legs from under him-he can vary the application by wearing clothes or not wearing clothes, but he cannot escapefrom the fact that whichever form he adopts the throws must necessarily come out looking very similar.*

. I am reminded of the story by C. S. Lewis of the man on the planet Venus who was very surprised to see how similar the boat was on a glutinous lake there to the boats on earth, till he realized that for an object to float on a liquid and carry people, it has got to have bottom and sides and some sort of streamlining, conditions which limit all variations.

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GENERAL FACTORS

Looking at any throwing technique with the intention of discovering its essentials in terms of~is it a 'roll down' or a 'kick down', made analysing so much easier. The best method of rolling down could easily be decided (i.e. bending the opponent's head down) and then streamlined to a skilful movement. Similarly with a 'kick down'; obviously the upper part of the body has to be held virtually still whilst the legs are knocked away. Again, once understood, this could then be converted into a skilful movement.

efficient. The problem is further complicated, of course, by the fact that there are two men, each trying to stop the other from making a successful attack. With all these permutations of individual and pair movement, size and emotional make-up, surely it is quite impossible to construct a 'perfect' throw? It is the exploitation of these variations which make the skill of judo such an exciting one! To attempt to ascertain why speed has always been omitted from the judo training programme, is an interesting digression. Certainly when highly skilled judo men have visited this country their speed of movement has always been greatly admired and commented on. Yet, in spite of that, still nothing was done to improve speed directly. Why? I feel it was somehow mixed up with tsukuri and boxes. If tsukuri was performed well, and great stress was placed on this aspect of technique, the man would tilt out of position like a box. In this form of suspended animation the other man could simply move into position and throw. Because of the complete hopelessness of the opponent's position and his inability to move, speed was quite unimportant. It never seemed to occur to anyone that tsukuri is only what it says; it is the destroyer of the state of equilibrium, it says nothing about keeping the man immobile and rigid. The opponent can-and does-move when tsukuri is applied to him. So speed in the form of a large movement is essential to allow the attacker to move into place before the opponent moves out of position.

Speed and Movement At a high performance level ofjudo skill, speed and movement play an essential part. The opponent is not unaware of the attacker's intentions and is ready at all times to repel any attack. Therefore, for success, the attack must be skilful and fast, fast so that the opponent has not the opportunity to see or feel it coming, in the sense that the attack arrives before it can be registered in his brain and counter-moves taken. Knapp" says, 'Where speed is vital to performance, speed as a part of form should from the beginning, be emphasized'. So speed and large movement should be taught to the beginner and this is why both factors are incorporated into the Group Method (see Chapter 3). In the past both speed and (general) movement have usually been omitted from the teaching programme. It was assumed, tacitly, that speed would somehow be acquired with the passing of time. Indeed, at times, it was even implied that it was not necessary; if the throw was performed 'perfectly' it did not matter whether it was done fast or slow, the effect was the same -the opponent finished on his back. No one questioned what the 'perfect' throw was, in spite of the fact that if considered rationally it will be seen that no such throw can exist. Mter all, this implies a judo technique existing independently of man, a manifest absurdity. A judo technique only exists when a man is doing it, therefore it is only as good as its executor and is limited by his attributes. The 'doer's' task (and the coach's) is to make that personal performance as good as possible. By applying his knowledge of movement and the skill necessary for success, the coach must modifYthe man's attack to make it more

Posture An important adjunct of speed and movement is posture. N either speed nor freedom of movement can be acquired if the posture is distorted. In the past some terrible 'crimes' have been perpetrated in the judo world under the heading of 'posture'. Even at the top of the judo pyramid some strange ideas have been advanced, but when these same ideas have percolated down through the various stratas of ignorance and incuriousness, the result has been alarming. Let us look at the picture of the 'true-judo-man', as depicted by these past hypotheses on 'correct posture'. First, the standing

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position: weight on the heels, toes slightly raised from the ground, knees bent, pelvis tilted as far forward as possible, so producing bulging abdomen, the head tilted slightly up to enable the eyes 'to look at trees on far horizons'! If this is not bad enough, wait till 'it' has to move! Second-movement: feet to maintain contact with the ground at all times, weight kept on heels, feet not to get closer than shoulder width. To progress to the right, the right foot moves first then the left foot follows (but does not catch up with it) and so on. The arms are raised to the height of the shoulders with elbows pointing outward (these are to hold the opponent with!). How ludicrous. This slithering 'gibbet'-shaped apparition was supposed to be the personification of the judo fighting spirit. It would be funny if it were not so tragic. For this example of a ~udo posture' has blighted the development of the sport for years. What is good posture?3 A difficult question to answer; even physiological authorities have trouble defining good posture clearly.5 But let it sufficehere to say that it is the natural upright position (in Japanese, shizenhontai). The feeling should be that the person is being pulled up into the ceiling by a rope round a hook in the top of the head-the rest of the body hangs from this hook. A good posture will always look full of potential energy and movement, even during the quietest of movements. No real athlete should ever, could ever, look completely non-active as does the man who adopts the forward-tilting-pelvis stance. (See Fig. 2b). Art and the artists can give a lead here, for the movement factor in its various forms has attracted many artists. The Greek sculptors tried to capture potential movement in the human form.8 I think particularly of the creations of Polyclitus; the figure of Doryphonos is one of the best ones. Or, again, there is the completely different genre of Niten (or to use his full name Miyamoto Musashi) :who tried to capture the same quality through the brush (see his painting of the shrike). Such an ability to look always ready for action (and to BEalways ready for action) is not something merely inherited from one's grandparents but must be worked for and trained for. To look alive, be alive. To be ready for instant action should be an intrinsic objective of any training judo man and good

GENERAL FACTORS

Fig z Posture. (a) good, upright. (b) bad, slouched,pelvic tilted.

posture will go a long way towards helping him achieve that objective. In the same way that good static posture will look like movement, so will good postural movement look like the original static posture. For example, in an attacking movement, let us say of the harai-goshi type of throw (but any throw would serve) at the point of impact between the attacker and his

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opponent, the attacker's chest should be open! In the same way that a normal standing posture would be bad if the shoulders were rounded and trunk slouched forward, so in an attack. If at the moment of impact, or kake to be technical, the trunk is curved forward (in both planes laterally and longitudinally) then there is very little (if any) power available and movement is extremely restricted. The shoulders must be expanded (again in BOTHplanes, longitudinal and lateral), the attacker must feel he is expansive and powerful and in this way he is (seeplates 67 and 71; also notes on physical shape and its influence upon psychological attitudes, page 67, and the Power Curve).

a basis must be true movement. It cannot happen if the novice is 'hamstrung' by a list of false rules. Movement must be free in order to be fast. If the novice wants to cross his feet let him, all right he will get caught in the early days, but gradually his training will point out to him when not to cross them. One of the objects of randori is to experiment and discover the limitations of movement. Of the many judo men I have known, all have crossed their feet at some time, for some reason, but during the passing of time they have learnt when not to do it! By moving easily and quickly the novice will be able to discover various attacking opportunities which he could never find while plodding around. Gradually, as his skill improves, he will want to modify his movement pattern. This he can easily do if he has started right. He may want to use a defensive crouch (jigotai) for some specific reason; ifso he should be able to use it and return to his normal fast movement whenever he wants to. Only with the cultivation of free movement can he develop the awareness of specific movement. 7 The same free type of movement is also required in ne-waza, although the pace here will be different. There is more time available on the ground, and greater care can be taken at the various stages of technique. But continuous movement must still be apparent. If one technique fails-for any reason-the attacker must be able to move on easily to another. A famous Zen passage talks of the necessity of 'no-stopping' in skilled movement. Ways of achieving this type of continuous movement can be found in Chapter 3.

Movement As can be seen by the above description, movement in the judo world in the past has meant a very strange phenomenon. I started my judo education in the days when this type of movement was 'all the rage', but fortunately before I too was crippled I found a true teacher. Nevertheless, the movement pattern was so strong that upon my arrival in Japan I was still surprised to see people moving freely about on their toes, bouncing and jumping into the various positions and attacks with spirited, gay abandonment. So here is the 'secret' of a good skill foundation: movement must be free, unrestricted, void of artificial posturizing. Certainly the novice will make movement mistakes, but he will make many other mistakes too-that is why he is a novice. For example, a common reason given in the past for the novice not to cross his feet was that he would be easily caught with certain ashi-waza. Is it good for the novices to be worried about defence in this negative way? Is it not more important to learn the more positive skill of throwing? If postural defence against specific attack is the criterion of movement instruction, why not teach the novice to have his ankles pressed together at all times, moving the feet only sufficiently to progress. By so doing he will never be thrown by uchi-mata. But surely this is nonsense. The coach's job is not helping the novice to avoid being thrown by a particular technique, but to provide him with a sound basis upon which to build his own technique in the future; such

Power Point It has become necessary when talking or writing about these 'new' factors, to coin some new words. The following two are cases in point. The power point is the moment in a technique when the power of the attacker is at its greatest (the power point can be considered synonomous with kake, but the word kake has certain connotations which need to be avoided here and so it is not used). Taking the advice of Spinoza who said: 'If you wish to argue with me, define your terms', some definitions had better be given. First, power: here is meant the product of the whole

GENERAL FACTORS

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body movement, which is the addition of muscle-group strength to dynamic movement. Strength here means the result of muscle contraction. An attack comprises a surge of power, starting when the technique is launched, culminating at the power point, and then tapering off back to zero after the opponent has hit the ground. Because the opponent can get a form of strength (or stability) from the ground, in order to resist attack, the quicker the feet are off the ground, the better. (The tsukuri effect of the attack will of course help a lot towards this end.) So to achieve success, the attacker

has to exert power to overcome

this

'adhesion'. This peak of power is not limited to judo but can be seen in any activity in which a surge of movement to maximum power is required (Fig. 3a, b, c and d). For example, in the tennis smash when the racquet hits the ball, or in field events-as when the discus leaves the hand. One of the objects of training is to increase the supply of power available, and then to achieve full control over it. The power must be available for use at a moment's notice, preferably with little or no warning to the opponent. The possessor must not only be able to produce power instantaneously, but also be able to control its direction like the beam of a searchlight. He must be able to 'focus' it on to a particular part of the opponent. Only with such control can the attacker produce the surge of power necessary to 'peak' at the moment of impact. And only then is there any truth in the judo claim that the small man can beat the big man-and he certainly can! Only by being able to direct all his power at one area on the big man can the lighter man win. Although the above may seem to imply that only the lighter man need learn the skill of 'direction of power', it is just as important for the big man to acquire the ability. Usually because his training in the past did not admit the existence of power (and he was often embarrassed by his strength), the big man spends much of his time trying to look 'theoretically skilful'-which generally means he just looks clumsy. His attack is then unco-ordinated and disjointed. (The Japanese would say the power runs out of the ends of his fingers and toes.) In order that he too can become efficient, he also must learn how to gather all his power into a 'ball' so that he can

Fig 3 (.:I)Crickets

(6) Athledc8:

Power peak in other sports.

the bowler winding into his release;

the momentous effort to break the tape by the sprinter;

640

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(d) Tezml81 working up to maximum power during the serve.

GENERAL FACTORS

hurl it solidly at his opponent. What is good for one man is good for another. With such an ability, plus his weight, he is formidable indeed. Possibly the best two examples of these different types were Osawa and Daigo. Osawa, small, about eleven-twelve stones, once Tokyo Champion, with lots of 'fight' would leap at his opponent immediately after bowing, attacking continuously and violently. Here was his version of throwing the weight, because of his small size, hard and often. The opponent would need all his skill and perseverance to survive the first onslaught (few did!). Each attack followed closely on the heels of the last, but each as strong and dangerous as the last. If the opponent relaxed for a moment (thinking that perhaps there was a lull in the storm) then down he would go to the next attack. There were only two ways of beating this tactic, at least I only saw two ways succeed: either to get in quickly before the attacks started, which meant almost super-speed off the mark, or to try and tuck the head in and 'weather the storm' so that a counterblast could be attempted when there was a lull. Daigo was the other extreme (sixteen-and-a-halfstones, twice all-Japan Champion). His shiai was not greatly different from his randori (apart from purpose) his movement was very smooth and graceful, then with no warning-woosh I-he could hurl his entire bulk straight at the other man. It was like being hit by an express train. His throwing of weight was paced with comparatively long periods between. His style, even in contest, was so relaxed, that many criticized him for being too easygoing. However, he could 'channel' his power into several techniques with equal effectiveness and few could stop them once started. It is interesting to speculate (with these as examples) which comes first, 'the egg or the chicken'. Are tactics a reflection of personal characteristics or are they a product of a certain type of physical training? Power Curve Possibly because of the past general acceptance of the premise that box-or stick-like qualities are intrinsic in man, and hence he can be thrown like a box or a stick, little analytical observation has been given to the dynamic movement which produces the power so necessary to achieve a throwing success. 3

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Many judo players, having absorbed the theory of the 'stick', do try to imitate a stick or a box, some with a remarkable amount of success. During their puppet-like perambulations they will from time to time rise stiffly on to their toes in order to try and pin the opponent to the ground like some giant moth. Such gyrations seldom, if ever, meet with success, but this does not appear to deter the performer. One can only assume he is satisfying some deep-seated abstract metaphysical yearning for perfection which does not need mundane proof of effectiveness.

What then doeshappen when the body is producing power? By looking at any form of powerful movement, which is momentary and maximal (e.g. javelin throwing and shot putting) it can be seen that the body arches into the action. Certainly in ajudo throwing technique this happens (see Plates 63 and 71). Because maximum power is required at the power point, just prior to that moment the body can be seen to arch into the direction of the throw. It is quite a momentary thing, for immediately its object is achieved (the throwing of the other man) the body will start tucking forward in order to guide the opponent onto his back. Because it is only there for a fleeting moment, it is seldom caught by still photography, but can be seen quite clearly in loop films of skilful competitive throws. This body curve is not a simple fore and aft bend in the sagittal plane for, if it were, strains and tears would be an ever-present hazard, as this is not a strong body shape. In the curve, I recommend a horizontal rotation in the pelvic region as well as the overall body curve. It is the resultant combination of these two movements-linear curve and lateral twist-which gives the kind of power required. To generalize, the leg on the inside of the throwing arc drives the body into the sagittal arc and at the same time the straight leg (see 'Legs' page 75) offers a fixed point about which the outside hip rotates forwards or backwards to obtain the desired power effect. It is not always easy to see this movement in all throws, but I do insist that it is there and can be found, for it is a 'natural' movement (demonstrated when anyone is asked to push or pull strongly for any purpose) so that if initial care is taken and the right kind of guidance given, the class should do this type of movement with very little direct instruction (certainly it would only be mentioned specifically at an advanced level of skill). The greatest

GENERAL FACTORS

difficulty usually comes in projecting this type of movement on to a class when they have been 'got at' already and have had natural movement taught out of them. It should be appreciated that it is just as easy to teach things 'in' as out. (One of the relevant contemporary queries in coaching is, to what extent can sport be over taught?) However, if the coach uses his professional cunning, his class will unconsciously appreciate the necessity of this type of movement during an attack, so that by the time they have reached an advanced stage he will only have to put a few finishing touches to make it a very powerful 'tsukure-ing' movement. As a brief digression, it is interesting to note how body shapes project emotion; and how the strong shapes are used for 'strong' emotions (i.e. courage, happiness) and the weak shapes for the 'weak' emotions (i.e. caution, meanness, misery etc.). The various forms of dancing, ballet,8 ethnic, 9 educational,10 epitomize emotions expressed through movement, where the expanded, open chest, arched back, and arms wide stance, expresses joy, honesty etc. and the forward, chest hollowed crouch indicates the sad, desolate, lonely person. Could it therefore be said that just as much as the 'better' types of emotion are expressed by an 'open' posture, the 'open' posture generates the better feeling? If this were true, one of the ways that the enjoyment factor (see Chapter 1) in a class could be improved, would be to see that the class moved in this kind of 'open-chested' manner. Because such a movement style was enjoyed, it would help them to retain this general postural movement when an attack was made. For although the actual form of power curve would vary somewhat according to the flexibility of the man doing it and the type of throw being attempted (a backward throw requires something slightly different to a forward throw) the basic ingredients of back curved, chest expanded and a twist at the hip level, would always be there. It should be appreciated here that such a shape is essentially dynamic and therefore to use posed pictures as a guide to throwing requirements can be extremely misleading. Dynamic power is not needed then because the opponent is passive and a set of throwing conditions can thus be manufactured which are completely different to those existing in a practical competitive environment. .

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Although this discussion of a power curve has been in connection with throwing, it does not mean it is inapplicable to ne-waza, although dynamic power in ne-waza is not often required in maximum amounts or instantaneously. Usually the performer can use applications of power of less than maximum at more frequent intervals as compared with his power expenditure during throwing attacks. Be that as it may, the postural shape is still the same; when the attack is made, be it osaekomi, shime or kansetsu, the hips drive forward arching the back with the head high or back (in relation to chest). It was often confusing in the past because the basic ingredient of nage-waza and katame-waza differed. In nage-waza it was advocated that the body should be curved forward, whereas in katamewaza the body was said to curve back. I for one always had difficulty in reconciling these two opposing manifestations presumably stemming from the same principle. If a principle or a factor is to be basic, then it must apply in all circumstances.

such a posture. For once a man is mentally geared to defence or negative play, his ability to improve skill will decline rapidly. It is difficult to get speed from a negativecrouch as distinct from a cautiouscrouch, for instance, and as we have agreed (I hope) speed is essential.

Control Curve When control of the body must be sure, a curve forward will be naturally produced. In the power curve, for example, the body is fully committed in a certain direction for a specific purposemaximum power-which means once launched the owner has very little control of it. Even to stop will take a lot of effort and will sometimes even cause injury; it is like an express train at full speed for as Newton's First Law says: 'A body in motion will move in a straight line, unless acted on by a force.' However, when the body needs control, when some kind of movement problem has to be solved, or care exercised, the body will crouch forward. But in addition to it being a 'control posture' it can also be a negative, defensive one.ll As we saw in the 'expression through posture' in dance, it can show cowardice, fear etc. and it is this aspect the coach must pay special attention to. For whilst the trainee is crouched forward in order to keep control over a situation, perhaps biding his time, trying to assessthe type of tactic to be used by his opponent, all is well and no worry need be felt, but once it becomes negative or defensive and is consistent (for naturally it will occur from time to time in the best ofjudo men) the coach will have to try to alter the frame of mind which has produced

fig

Acceleration Pursuing the important subject of speed, let us consider how it is obtained. Basically there must be a high rate of acceleration. Acceleration in mechanical terms is the rate of change of speed and the crux of the matter is in overcoming the body's moment of inertia ('take off' ability). Physically, what does this mean? Which is the best part of the body to move first in order to move away quickly? Take a simple example: stand up straight and still. The object is to move forward as quickly as possible without moving the feet. How to achieve it? Try moving the shoulders forward quickly. It will be noticed that in this instance the body will move backwards!If the hips are thrown forward first, then the body does indeed move forward. Notice how the sprinter comes off his blocks. The hips are thrown forward in order to get him up and away in the shortest possible time. So in the judo attack. The hips lead the attack (with the help of the feet-see page 78). They are thrown forward first in order to get a high rate of acceleration. If the shoulders are moved first, as often advocated in past instruction, then as was seen in the static demonstration, the body will tend to move backwards, which is not quite what is wanted. There are a couple of very useful side products of the hip forward acceleration movement. (I) The reader will readily see how it joins in extremely conveniently with the power curve; the two merge together with no break between them. The surge forward for speed links easily with the arch for power. (2) It helps the attacker to get past the opponent's arms when they are used defensively. With the 'movement of the shoulders first' theory, the obvious way of stopping the attack is to use the arms held stifflyin front to stop the movement of the shoulders. Because of the general lack of understanding of movement on the part of many instructors, this stiff arm defence became a recurring problem in the judo world. Every way one turned

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there was the great cry of 'What do I do about stiff arms?' It never seemed to occur to anybody that the problem was a product of bad movement training rather than a problem in itself. With good movement teaching, the problem virtually disappears. For when the attacks are continuous and threaten all parts of the body equally, rigid arms are no longer the most effective defence. Here is the advantage of the initiating hip action. The hips by moving first have an excellent chance of moving forward below the defender's effective arm range, and before the defender is able to adjust his hand position the attacker is in and the damage is done-a throw! Because of the fast, strong, unpredictable movement of the hip, the defender can never afford to be static in defence-keeping his arms straight. He must be ever on the move so that he can be ready to stop the attack by moving out of the way from which ever direction it comes.* The matter of acceleration links closely with power. A point often overlooked in judo training is that power is a product of mass multiplied by speed. Putting this into a basic mechanical equation:

offset by the lack of power-usually resulting in a successful counter. It is usually found empirically that the opposite is the best. The good judo man is usually prepared to sacrifice surprise in order to get power. Mter all there is little chance of catching a man unexpectedly in a contest anyway, for he is 'keyed up' to expect anything anytime-he is in competitionnot out for a walk! Then again, when a man is very good he will be widely known for the one or two throws he uses. Indeed when a common name like Watanabe is met (the Japanese equivalent of Brown) confusion is often avoided by using the man's favourite techniques as the distinguishing 'Christian' name. The chance of surprise in these circumstances is even further reduced. The opponent will be quite aware of what ought to come and will be waiting for the well-known attacks, in which case speed, power and accuracy are far more necessary than surprise. Therefore the skilful man gets as far away from his opponent as he can, so that he has the greater distance to travel; and the greater the distance, the greater the rate of acceleration, the greater the speed, the greater the power. In addition, he will often wait till the opponent is moving backwards (when throwing forward) in order to yet further increase the distance travelled (one of the reasons why this type of movement is used in the Group Method) and so again there is an increase of power. The coach and the performer must realize that the opponent is not, as he is often depicted as being, an empty-headed stick, walking quite blithely into any attack the other man cares to try. It is not enough to expect that if a leg is stuck out, the other man will vacuously trip over it and fall down. No! the opponent is a quick-thinking, highly-trained, active man. If he is to be beaten he can only be beaten by skill, supported strongly by speed, power and tactics. Again, it is an interesting diversion to speculate on how this idea that the opponent was some kind of moron, happy to walk into the crudest of attacks, came about. Perhaps it is something left over from the teaching of jujitsu. In most of the 'schools' the basic concept was the opponent (or enemy) did not know the 'tricks' used by the fighter. Hence all jujitsu was practised behind locked doors in secrecy. The element of surprise was an

Force

= Mass (weight) X velocity(distance x

time).

. = Velocity AcceleratlOn ....... Ime

_ (maximum velocity for duration of action) -

(duration of action)

An interesting fact comes out of this consideration. Distance is an important ingredient in acceleration and speed, another point seldom appreciated. For example, it was said that a throwing attack should be started as close to the opponent as possible so that he had little time (distance) to block it. But because the attacker had travelled such a short distance he had no time to build up momentum (power) and therefore any benefit he had from a surprise (usually none) was more than * It

is interesting

of many. invading strength, is hardly

to note how the 'battle

of two' can be so similar

to the battle

To read of the battle of Caen in the Normandy invasion, where the army tried different directions of attack (on both flanks) with variation of is fascinatingly like a contest between two skilled men. However, war a sport!

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essential part of the technique; therefore they could assume that the mere unexpectedness of the 'trick' supported often by a kiai scream, (momentarily stunning the enemy into non-activity), would be effective. If the 'tricks' or system became generally known, defences against them could be formulated and death could often be the price of an unsuccessful attack! In judo, of course, none of this applies; all have a very good idea of what can happen, and to base any technique on the element of complete surprise would be rather futile. The only question of surprise is when the attack is so fast that the opponent does not see it start. Only when the theory of technique is approached in such a realistic way, will real progress be made.

and attention is centred upon his arms and shoulders, and no good can come of that. When too much attention is centred on one particular part of the body, the rest will suffer. In this case it means the rest of the body has great difficulty in moving smoothly and quickly for all the energy seems drained away into the arms. The judo player has got to learn to move as a whole, not as several isolated parts. What is the supposedly good thing about 'chest contact'? I assume that it is to lock the bodies together so that as the attacker moves so does the opponent. In this case there are two points to be considered: I. Cannot the 'locking together' be achieved another way? Particularly when the opponent's straight arms will always make the achievement of it difficult anyway. 2. Is not this so-called necessity of chest contact based upon the static pose of both men? When standing still in a pose some very definite measure must be taken if there is to be any control of the 'opponent'; otherwise he simply starts moving and walks away. Chest contact might appearto be the answer, in these circumstances, but in an action where there is speed and movement, chest contact is made pointless, for speed of rotation will supply the driving or locking force. Remember static movement is not the same as dynamic movement. When we consider the practical aspects of technique we will see that the mere existence of the opponent's arms will make quite sure there never is any chest contact for as soon as the opponent feels any movement of the shoulders forward, his instinctive reaction is to push off with the hands. Therefore if some kind oflocking action of the bodies is required (and let's agree it is, see section on 'legs' page 75), it is best done at the hip level. Nothing can stop the hips moving forward and the opponent's only chance is to move completely out of the line of attack. Once they are in position the hands pull in tightly trying to maintain contact. (If chest contact is insisted upon, surely here it is, not literally, but through the stiff arms of the competitors!) The right arm attempts to make this movement easier, by going up or down, suiting the movement type of those involved (see section on 'arms'). In competition, provided there is plenty of speed and movement into the attack, there will be ample attacking tension

Body Movement It can be seen from the previous two sections, 'Power Curve' and 'Acceleration' that body movement is important. It is the source of any and all the power needed to bring off a successful attack. Therefore, as a simple dictum for the coach it can be said that in any throwing situation body weight must move in the direction required by the throw (see 'Legs' page 75). Without this, there can be very little power available for overcoming the opponent's instinctive defence.

Chest Contact We must now consider the time-wearied slogan of 'chest contact'. The theory was that with any technique of the type like harai-goshi, uchi-mata etc. the close contact between the attacker's and opponent's chests is essential. I do not consider this is necessary or even true. At best it is a piece of advice useable merely as a 'teaching cheat' i.e. taught in order that something else is actually achieved. At worst, 'chest contact' can be misleading and timewasting because it is fallacious. If it is treated as a 'teaching cheat', it can only be assumed that the object is to make the attacker try to pull the opponent in close. The resulting forward movement of the opponent would perhaps facilitate the throwing action. But this does not happen often. What does, is that the man becomes over-conscious of the importance of 'chest contact' and the continual striving for it actually restricts the real attacking movement. His whole concentration

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to hold the opponent so he cannot move away. With that object achieved, the taking of his legs from under him is easier and can be achieved without locking the upper parts of the bodies with superfluous 'chest contact'.

The head (see page 80) can be of great help in achieving such short transition periods, for the quick turn or twist of the small mass (head) is easier than turning the larger (body) initially, so that the head is used as a form of servo-mechanism; the turning of the head turns the body.

Turning Another aspect of body movement needing some consideration is the kind of turn required in frontal attacking types of throw. As has been described earlier, when the body is moving forward into an attack, at some point it must turn (through approximately 180 degrees) in order to throw the opponent forward. For speed and power to be maintained and possibly increased, the turn must happenas quicklY aspossibleandonlYwhencontactis made with the opponent.

A common fault is that the attacker starts to turn immediately he begins to move, so that his turning speed is spread out over too great a time, which means it is too slow (comparatively) and therefore power is lost. To revert to mechanical terms again, the transition from linear velocity to angular velocity must take place with the minimum time lag. In practice what does this mean? The attacker throws the hips forward (for acceleration) then the moment of change from accelerating curve to power curve is used for the turnand this turn must be made just as the bodies are about to make contact (like a friction clutch). The turn therefore takes place with a 'snap', one moment the attacker is facing one way, the next instant the opposite. The hips initially lead the shoulders, then as the hips reach the limit of their rotation, the shoulders take over and start to rotate faster. It is this 'snap', the almost jerk-round at maximum speed, which boosts the power of the attack. Typical examples are of course uchi-mata, hane-goshi, harai-goshi, tsurikomi-goshi. In technique where there is no, or very little, body contact, e.g. certain te-waza, ashi-guruma, the turn or twist must still be short and sharp and just beforekake. An excellent example of this was Osawa, famous for his spin turn ashi-guruma. He would be facing almost square to his opponent during the whole of the cross step at the start of the turn. Only when the left leg (he was left-handed) was moving across would the body flick or whip round to the new position.

Legs Legs (and feet) have a very important contribution to make to any throwing action, so let us consider them in some detail. But before doing so, I would like to make some critical comments upon past theory appertaining to leg action. The use of the legs was always seen as a means of 'jacking up' the opponent in order to throw him down. Because of the static conditions in which the theory was evolved it could easily be shown that this was an extremely effective way of throwing. The demonstrator would get close to his partner with his knees well bent and then by holding the partner tightly to him, straighten his legs and easily lift him clear of the ground (it was often accompanied by verbiage relating to the strong muscle groups of the thighs being very capable of performing such a feat). The only snag was that such circumstances were nothing like those met in real competition (see 'transference of skill' Chapter I) where the opponent is moving fast and trying to stop any possible attack. Because of such facile demonstrations and because the Japanese judo men insisted they did it this way, Britons for several generations have been slavishly trying to follow it. The time-tattered battle cry of 'get lower' has echoed across the years of training. Bitter experience has shown this 'jacking up' action to be very difficult; most men trying it would collapse in a messy heap under their opponents. But did this cast doubt on the principle? Of course not! The answer was that the Westerner had inherently weaker legs than the Japanese, * therefore in order to achieve success he would have to make his legs stronger. He must do umpteen thousand squats a day! * ParnellU implies in his book that as only Caucasians (mainly) have so far been used in the various experiments in anthropometry, it is possible that other racial types could manifest different and peculiar characteristics. But till definite experimental proof has shown that orientals in fact are stronger in the legs than occidentals, I will asstlme that for all practical considerations they are the same.

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To me, this is a good example of the need for Britons to devise their own methods of training. Ifit is true (which I doubt) that the Japanese are strong in the legs and we are weak, why try to copy them? Why try to use a national asset we do not possess? Why not turn our (so-called) weakness into a strength? If we cannot use the bent legs because of our weakness, why not keep them straight? A straight leges) can support almost any weight, certainly any normal body weight, and what is more, in my opinion, a straight leg is more efficient anyway, dynamically speaking. If we consider this as a possibility, the theory of ~acking up' must be re-examined. Is it the only way of throwing? Indeed, is it the best way? Certainly the answer to the first question is 'no'! As to the second; do we really want to lift the man up? It is strictly and truly work done (in a mechanical sense-weight through height) but it would appear to me to be unnecessary work, for we want to throw the man down, not up. If the 'two-types-of-throw-only' theory is accepted (see page 55) all that is really required is for the opponent to be rolled forward, or backward, over an obstacle put in his way-it will usually take the form of a foot, leg or body. In this way the opponent's body weight is not raised at all, making the effort needed much less.* All that is required of this 'obstacle' is that it does not collapse, or fall down when it takes the weight of the combined bodies. The easiest way to achieve this is to support it with a straight leg. Therefore I recommend that in any throw, at the intermediate or advanced level, there should be a straight 'inside' leg. By 'inside' I mean the leg which is inside the throwing arc of the attack. For example in the haraigoshi type of attack the left leg is kept straight; in the deashiharai type of attack, the right leg; in the backward throws the left leg. The straight leg has one minor and two major functions to fulfill. The minor point, as we have seen, is merely to supply a non-collapsible pivot point; the two major points are concerned with the need for a fixed radius for (vertical) rotation and a fixed rotational point for the right hip (horizontal). Let us look closely at these: 路 This principle was shown very admirably by Mr Hopper, Senior Lecturer at St Mary'. Collegc, Twickcnham, at the B.J .A.'. National Tcchnical Conference in 1961.

GENERAL FACTORS

(a) The straight leg is to act as a prop, or a vertical radius of rotation about which the attacker will move. Because the opponent's centre of gravity does not need to be raised the attacker's body need not be completely under it, so the left foot can be placed OUTSIDE the base area (trunk) of the opponent, in the OPPOSITE direction to that of his fall. The attacker's hips are now sufficiently under the centre of gravity for rotation to take place and it only requires the opponent to be moving slightly forward initially, in the direction of the throw, for success. (b) Once the left foot is in position, the leg locks straight to afford a fixed point at the left hip. (This is not strictly true physiologically speaking, but for practical purposes it is convenient to consider it so.) With this point fixed, the right hip can start to rotate forward to develop angular momentum and hence power. In the past, when a straight leg was considered one of the worst errors a beginner (or anybody else for that matter) could commit, it was again looked at from a static viewpoint. Attacking on balance or upright, as was then expected of the novice, very clearly showed that a straight leg balance was most unsuitable. Not only could the opponent easily pull him backwards (counter) but failing that he would almost certainly fall backwards. However, as soon as it is looked at dynamically, the situation is quite different. The attacker is never, at any moment, in a 'state of equilibrium'. Right from the outset the attacker is 'driving' into the direction of the throw; therefore he puts his left foot outside both his and the opponent's base in order to make the fall-away even more effective. To the 'traditional' reader this may come as something of a shock (not to have the left foot in between the opponent's feet for haraigoshi, probably sounds ridiculous) but if he thinks about it clearly, I am sure he will see how sensible this is. The next point is, can a man jump on to a straight leg? Well he can, but it is very unnatural and therefore very difficult. He will invariably land upon a bent leg so that the shock oflanding is absorbed at the joints and is not carried up to the head (to produce a good range of headaches) but this is a reflex bend, not a conscious one. So in fact he will land on a bent leg and it will then straighten, but to what purpose?

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In this particular context the straightening of the leg helps to drive the attacker into the direction of the throw, that is forward if it is a throw to the front. The upward component of the straightening force is ignored and only the forward component used. If the throw is to the front, the opponent will 'fall' forward on to the hip of the attacker and in this way he can be rolled over it. When it comes to the point of actually teaching the idea of the straight leg, the form it will take will largely depend upon the standard or type of skill being considered. With beginners, the type of throw used in Groups 2 and 3 can have the straight leg incorporated right from the start. At this stage the left foot could be insideor outsidethe partner's feet for Group 3. With the Group I variety it is sometimes better to concentrate upon a good tuck with the legs well bent, so the feeling of tucking and rolling is emphasized. Once this point has been appreciated then again the straight leg can be introduced. Perhaps difficulty is visualized when applying the principle at an advanced stage to sutemi-waza. In fact here, perhaps more than in any other technique, is the power and effectiveness of a straight leg illustrated. The issue is not clouded in any way by the body contact and it is easily seen how the body falls from the straight leg thrust close to the opponent. Much of the power will come from the positioning and the action ofthe foot, so let us look at that. Feet Feet are an essential part of acceleration and they help to drive the hips forward into the power curve. So strong feet with good ankle flexion are a very useful asset for a judo man. When the attacker's body starts to fall forward the ankle and the foot will help to support the weight. In fact, as the opponent's weight starts to move forward, the ankle extends to its maximum to reinforce the forward drive. This will apply particularly in throws like haraigoshi and uchimata (see Plates 66 and 69). I am often struck by the weakness and feebleness of the average man's feet. Only too often are they lumps of bone and skin stuck at the end of his legs, on to which he rams ill-fitting shoes or boots. He probably never sees them from one year's end to another, apart trom bath time and when he steps on to a judo mat. An indication of the indifference shown them, is

GENERAL FACTORS

when the glorious sun-tan stops at the ankle, showing the rest of the body benefits trom the sun, but not the poor old feet-they are still incarcerated in leather. It is quite amusing as well as disconcerting to see the novice on his first evening in the judo club appearing in his bare feet in much the same way as he appeared naked for the first time in front of his doctor. Shy, slightly embarrassed, with an unspoken apology which says, 'Well they are !nine, and you will have to make the best of it.' There he stands on two pale unhealthy looking slabs with bones and sinews protruding like tree roots after a flood. The toes are long and fragile, often bent over each other-evidence of wearing smart 'winkle-pickers'. It is on these he hopes to spin and gyrate in order to develop a judo skill! The picture I have painted above is a bizarre one and perhaps over-stated, but nevertheless it does occasionally exist, so if the novice has got such feet-and I sincerely hope he has not-he had better do something about them. The first thing is to go bare-foot as often as possible. Naturally the office is 'out', but what about the evenings and week-ends? Wriggle them about, try and pick things up with the toes, anything to help the feet develop a sensitivity of their own. It is much harder to do this than would at first appear, for there is a great social barrier against the 'wearing of bare feet'. Snobbery is one-'Can't you afford a pair of shoes?'; convention another-'Everyone wears socks and shoes so why not you?' Then of course there are the old wives' tales- 'You'll get flat feet!' Even people who should know better spread some weird tales about naked feet, generally because the high arched foot is taken as the norm, whereas in fact it is simply a weak foot. The budding judo man should try to ignore these prejudices and get his feet strong. In addition to benefiting his judo, pleasure can be found in using feet in their natural state-one of the real minor pleasures of life! However, to get back to judo. Not only do the feet support and drive the body forward into the direction of the throw, they also drive the body forward into its accelerating curve. The foot is stamped into the ground and the reaction from the ground plus the ankle flexion snaps the body forward into the attack. So the feet have two occasions on which to drive by extension; once to get the body moving and then again to

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change the direction of movement and drive the body forward into the throwing direction. They do not stop driving until tifter the opponent has hit the ground. If a 'kicking type' of throw is used then the toes of the leg in the air must be curled or bent backwards, this produces the right type of tension in the leg (see Plate 67). Similarly in ne-waza, the body should move on the toes. That is the toes are bent forward (see Plate 43) so that the movement made is fast and strong. If the toes are out flat (with the instep on the floor) any movement made is from the knees and therefore bound to be slow. The coach should see that his students are always moving on the toes with light, fast, but strong movement-all the time-in both tachi and ne-waza. Head Under this heading, the task of the head is to be discussed outside its normal function, which is, I hope, thinking! In a physical movement, particularly a complex one, the head has a specific role to fill, for it is almost a fifth limb.* Anthropometrically the head is approximately ten per cent of the full body weight-which makes it quite heavy. Such a weight thrown about at the end of a (body-length) lever can have some pretty formidable effects. In a complex movement, the task of the head is to guide and control the body direction and for this to happen the head must be able to move independently of the body. To discover how important such a use of the head is, one has only to ask the diver, gymnast or tumbler and he will say quickly enough (if he is aware of it at all!). Yet in judo instruction the contribution of head movement to any technique is invariably overlooked. Indeed if the head is mentioned at all it is usually to insist on its being kept still. The head serves several purposes during a throwing action. First it helps the hips to move forward, by moving quickly back, it then turns the body by itself turning and finally it plunges forward in order to help the body bend forward so that the 路 Dr D. McDonald has discussed in an article18 some extremely interesting ramifications of head movement and its relation to changes of the Moment of Inertia during free fall. His first experiments were made upon cats, concerning the famous example of how they land upon their feet when dropped from an upside down position. Later he tried similar experiments on divers (particularly Brian Phelps) to aee how they reacted to the same falling situation. The results were extremely interesting.

GENERAL FACTORS

opponent can be decisively deposited on his back. To mention head-usage specifically is an advanced instructional point, and should not be given to an elementary student, when it would only be confusing.However, if the right education is employed it is surprising how often use of the head is exploited, quite instinctively, by even the rawest of beginners. It is, after all, a natural action. In defence too, the head movement is just as important as in attack. Moving the head in a direction contrary to that of the attack is often sufficient in itself to stop the whole attacking movement. When supported by full body participation it is sufficient to stop all but the very strongest attack. In renraku-waza too, at any standard of performance, the head plays an important part, but the higher the skill attained the greater part it plays. The essence of any renraku is the change of direction-to attack with one throw, as a feint, then as the opponent resists to changedirectionand try something else. Normally once the body has started moving in one particular way, it is extremely difficult to change it. Such a change of direction must be the consequence of the head movement. With the awareness of its importance, and the subsequent ability to use the head as a 'guiding limb', judo technique should become more effective sooner. In some circumstances, dependent upon the skill and enthusiasm of the judo group concerned, it may be very beneficial if a short course of tumbling were introduced in a judo club. It would help the judo players to appreciate more quickly the range of body movement, unhampered by the 'struggles' of an opponent. Again, the same general principle applies in ne-waza too. The head will guide the attacker into the various holding and locking positions, and will move the body in the correct direction to frustrate the escaping efforts of the other man. It will 'guide' the attacker from one position to another. Conversely for the 'other man', the head movement will help him to find and use an escape direction. For this reason it is always preferable to 'fix' the opponent's head when applying an osaewaza-and also why the kami-:;hiho variety is better than the kesa variety. In attack or defence, 'standing' or 'on the ground', the body will go where the head leads. The head must therefore lead well. It should know what it is doing and where it is going. The coach's job is to see that it does.

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Tsukuri

Tsukuri is the attacker's body action, necessary to make the opponent move initially in the direction of the throw. Provided the opponent is moving, however slightly and regardless of how (i.e. feet first, shoulders first or turning) it is adequate to ensure rotation about the attacker's fulcrum (see 'Legs'). Undoubtedly it is one of the most important parts of any judo technique, but by its nature, it is very subtle and hence difficult to appreciate. Indeed I consider it is only the more experienced player who is in a position to understand its full implications and practical applications; because of this I do not teach it to the elementary judo player at all, for I consider it only bewilders and confuses him, detracting from the main objective (at that stage) of throwing the opponent. I am reminded of the second of Comenius'14 three simple teaching rules: I. Do not hurry, for learning comes easily when the proper stage is reached. 2. Avoid a difficulty which can be safely ignored, or at least postponed. 3. When the difficulty must be handled, make the boy's approach to it as gradual and as interesting as you can. Because of its importance in technique many instructors have, in their enthusiasm, taught the principle to the beginner (often on their first night). Admirable though the sentiment is it had many undesirable results. The novice would spend far too much of his time trying to do tsukuri and not getting on with the throw as such. In consequence this had the effect of lowering the success rate (of throwing) causing interest in the new sport to fade-lo and behold an absentee from the next lesson-another possible club member lost. If he did survive this despondent period (as many did) he invariably acquired the impression that tsukuri is something separate from the throw; first you perform tsukuri then, like an afterthought, you can tack on any throw you care to. It must be understood that in essence the throw is tsukuri; or to be more precise tsukuri is an intrinsic part of a technique. * 路 To cite an instance from another branch of sport, the 'long jump' has II 'run up', a 'take off', and a 'landing', The 'run up' must be considered as an essential part of the jump; it cannot be ignored because it occurs before the jump proper.

GENERAL

FACTORS

Tsukuri should be done by a whole body movement and notby some local movement of the hands or arms. It is all right to demonstrate happyo-kuzushi in the time-honoured way of standing a man up straight and tipping him over in a rigid box-like manner by use of the hands only-as long as it is understood that it is only a demonstration of the theory and not a practical way of doing it! The reader is again reminded that a man is not a box. It is worth considering, for practical purposes, that the average man has had many years' experience of the situation where his shoulders are unintentionally moved outside his base area (feet) and so he also has much experience in regaining his stable position (by moving his feet). This 'trick' he learnt when he was about a year old! Therefore, when he joins the judo club he is much better at 'regaining his balance' (from years of practice) than his partner, of a few weeks' practice, will be at tipping him in some arbitrary direction. Incidently there are of course not just eight directions to 'break the balance', the number is limitless-360 multiplied many times! Hands The illustrating of tsukuri by tipping boxes on to their sides, has had another detrimental effect upon the practical aspects of throwing. If one wants to tip a box forward on to its edge, then almost certainly the best direction to pull it is slightly above the horizontal. But if the reader now agrees that we cannot think of boxes when discussing throwing a flexible man, perhaps such a direction is now not the best. And invariably it is not the best when related to an active man. Treating the opponent for what he is, a fast mover, capable of anticipation and avoidance of any attack, the hand action is better thought of as 'fixing' him in position to the floor-pulling forward and downwards. Such a pull is only momentary and is usually in the form of a jerk. The hope is that the quick unexpected jerk will have the effect of 'freezing' him momentarily as he is, so that the body can be moved into a particular direction. Immediately the hands have achieved this 'freezing' function, they can then start to pull, although there is no break in the actions. But now the intentionis to pull tlz4 attackerto the opponentNOTthe opponent to the attacker.

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GENERAL FACTORS

In other words, the hands act something like grappling hooks, simply holding the opponent where he is, then pulling the attacker into the opponent in the next flash. There will, of course, be slight variations in hand movement, depending upon the type of throw attempted, but certainly in the early stages of training I would recommend this simple version of the hand action. Because of its simplicity there is less risk of the novice putting too much effort into his arms and shoulders and so giving 'warning' of the attack to come, which would have the reciprocal effect of making the other man's arms stiff as well, in preparation for defence! It is preferable for him to keep as much of his 'feeling' in the lower part of his body as possible, thus facilitating the foot movement essential to any good attack. Also, pulling down, in the early elementary stage, will be quite adequate for the beginner's purpose, for he has enough to think about without having to worry about his hands. To move the hands in different directions and at different speeds (both different again from that of the feet) is obviously a very skilful job and therefore the teaching of such a skill could best wait till the men concerned have much more experience ofjudo. Later on, during the later stages of the intermediate period and the advanced, the coach will have to give more attention to the use of the hands. As a necessary part of any good skill they must be able to work separately and independently, up, down, sideways and inwards. No direction is then the 'right' one; every attack will be different and require a slightly different use of the hands. The training will have to show how to use the hands as feelers: is the opponent right- or left-handed, has he fast or slow reactions, what kind of throw will he probably use? All the answers to these questions should be supplied by the hands. Depending upon his interpretations of the exploring hands the man will decide his tactics. All this will take place in the opening seconds of any competition. With tactics decided the hands will start 'playing the catch'; they will set up 'diversionary' raids, pushing this way, pulling that, trying to find a weak spot in the opponent's postural defence. The other man must equally, by the use of his hands, be attempting to decide which are the feints, which are the 'feelers' and which are the preparatory movements for the main attack. For once the

weakness is found, the hands tell the body to attack, and then skill and power take over. It is this subtle feeling for an opportunity that spectators can find so boring, but it is an essential part of any real top-class competitive judo skill.

Arms NAGE-WAZA

After considering hands in such detail we must not forget the function of the arms. Here again a close inspection of past dictums can be beneficial. The usual line of instruction has been that the left arm pulls upward, and to help achieve this the elbow must be kept high-even above the shoulder line-and the pull made along this 'high line'. I consider this extremely dubious advice from the aspects of both physiology and technique. Physiologically speaking the arm is not made to pull this way5 and if persisted in will invariably result in strains or tears. The best position is elbows in close to the body, where the arm is both safe and strong. To extend the situation beyond the limits of judo, can the reader visualize any other strong pulling activity, i.e. tug-of-war,15 where pulling is done with arms away from the side of the body? Technically too, does one really want this upward direction? It invariably helps the opponent to jump over or around the attacker. As discussed earlier it is much better to make the pull downwards, trying to fix the opponent's feet to a spot, so that he cannot move (or is at least restricted) once the attack has started. Some may say that he would simply collapse, but this is not so; his nervous tension alone, as a result of the attack, would be quite sufficient to make him instinctively brace against the attack and therefore adopt a momentary 'frozen' posture which is so conducive to defeat. The keeping of the left arm close to the body is, of course, a general comment, for a general condition. In the more advanced stages of the judo skill, the left arm may be called upon to do several kinds of special movement. These movements will depend upon specific throws. For example, if an opponent is crouched defensively, perhaps the left hand will snap upwards in order to try to get the man up a little so that the attacker can 'wedge' a part of his body in somewhere; or again it may even have to do circular actions to disturb the man's equilibrium.

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GENERAL FACTORS

Whatever use is made of the left hand, it should, if at all possible, always return to a position close to the body after its initial task has been achieved. For that is the only strongposition of the hands-close to the body. In much the same way, the use of the right arm can be studied. The right hand is usually the stronger of the two (in every respect) and therefore has quite a wide range of uses, depending on relative sizes, throws to be attempted, direction to be considered, tactics adopted; all will affect the use of the right hand and arm. So let us have a look at some of them.

inside of the collar. Such a grip affords maximum hip range and movement, particularly in such techniques as uchi-mata and harai-goshi, because the arm can swing well out of the way. It also had a very disconcerting effect upon the opposition. Very few had any 'answers' to it. Most important of all in the 'elbow up' controversy, one must face the problem squarely. If the elbow wants to go up, and the student feels more 'comfortable' that way, then let it. Do not give the student a guilt complex about it by continually telling him to keep it down. Once up, recognize it as being best (for that man) but make sure it is strong. For instance, a common weakness, particularly when the elbow is up unintentionally, is that the wrist is allowed to bend, which makes the finger-grip weak. The opponent's collar is easily torn out of such a grip, so the wrist should be held straight, thus making the grip strong. Another point to watch for-the forearm must not be allowed to go past the centre line of the body, for again a weakness will appear. It is, as always, mainly a question of studying each person's particular body-type, temperament and flexibility, and advocating accordingly elbow up or down, for the technique chosen. It must be made strong and effective in each case.

(a) As a Major Part of the TsukuriAction Here is the most 'technical' use of the right arm. It helps the attacker very obviously to achieve tsukuri, and is best seen in techniques like tai-otoshi and tsurikomi-goshi. More specifically it goes forward and up, trying to bring the opponent slightly forward, but mainly attempting to 'freeze' him whilst the attacker gets into the throwing position (inserting the fulcrum). Once the body is in position the right hand usually changes to pulling or pushing downwards as well as forwards (depending upon the comparative height of the attacker). (b) For Maintainingthe 'Status Quo' Sometimes the attacker simply wants to hold the opponent where he is so that he can better manoeuvre into position to knock his legs from under him (see page 55). Examples are uchi-mata, harai-goshi, hane-goshi and some variations of o-soto-gari. The right hand here prevents the man pulling away from the line of attack whilst his legs are knocked from under him so that he falls DOWN(not up and then down) and in such a case I see no reason why the right elbow cannot go up as does that of many highly skilled players (see Plate 67). If the elbow is arbitrarily kept down it can (and often does) restrict the hip movement of the attacker, particularly if the attacker's shoulder girdle is stiff or if there is poor flexibility at the waist region. In these circumstances the elbow should certainly go up. To illustrate this point, I noticed in a European Championship (1963) that several Russians hold 'upside-down' with the right hand; that is the thumb is downwards with the fingers on the

(c) Non-use! Here the arm is not used. Its ability to get in the way is recognized and so it is 'eliminated'. Examples are uchi and soto makikomi, ippon-seoi-nage, and ko-uchi and o-uchi makikomi. The limiting element of the right elbow when kept down is fully understood (although not often consciously) and that is why the hand is freed from the collar and the arm thrown out of the way. (One could almost say that the elbow up is halfway between (a) and (c).) Such a throwing movement of the arm can also be used to accumulate momentum and so help turn the body into an attacking position. (d) As a 'BodyPusher' This occurs when the attacker wants to obtain maximum transference of 'body push' from his own body to that of his opponent. By placing the right forearm alongside the opponent's rib cage he can use this as a 'buffer' and drive straight through it.

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GENERAL FACTORS

Examples are orthodox o-soto-gari, forms of tai-otoshi and tsurikomi-goshi. This action joins up easily with (a). Again the main point to remember is that the body is pushing through the right arm. For example, if teaching tai-otoshi, it is no good allowing the weight to remain on the attacker's left foot, because then there is no drive with body. In ouchigari the hips must be forward of the left foot so that, again, the whole weight is driving, pushing, through the right arm. As mentioned elsewhere, the body of the attacker must be committed.

This control by the hands is of course a very skilful matter. The epitome of such hand action is pure te-waza (e.g. ukiotoshi). In normal technique the use of hands is usually only required to guide the opponent on to his back.

(e) As a Spine Bender

When an opponent is being particularly defensive or negative, normal tsukuri action is invariably inadequate, due to the extremely strong postural position. In this case more positive methods need to be adopted. Usually results are achieved by moving the right hand from the collar and wrapping the right arm round the opponent's neck. With this hold the spine-which is, as it were, a symbol of the man's strength-must be bent towards the direction of the throw. Examples are osotogake and koshiguruma. It is very difficult to 'trick' a strong and experienced opponent into an 'unbalanced position' (I include tsukuri in with this) and so such extreme measures have to be employed occasionally. It should be kept in mind that 'Ju' is not the only principle accepted in judo circles, occasionally 'go' is also acceptable, i.e. strength, hardness. In order to have any effect upon such a defensive person it is more important than ever to bend his back in the direction ofthe throw. By bending the head of the opponent (using it as a lever) the spine will automatically follow the head movement. A right arm wrapped round the head will serve this purpose adequately. (f)

For Control of Direction

Occasionally the right hand is only wanted as a guide to get the opponent on to his back during his journey into the ground. Much of the real throwing work has been done (by other parts of the body) and the hands are only adding the finishing touches. Examples are orthodox ko and o-uchi-gari.

In practice of course, such use of the right hand is not always so obviously categorized (life is never that simple). Sometimes the functions will overlap; the arm possibly doing several of these jobs at the same time. The point I wish to make is that there is certainly not just one kind of action for the right arm, as is so often inferred. For instance the past general dictum invariably insisted on was 'the right elbow is kept down at all times' (so that it functions only as (a), or (d) above). To insist upon such an arbitrary 'rule of thumb' is wrong. The coach must decide first what the 'duty' of the right arm is to be and then upon that decision must he guide and help each individual pupil. So, to conclude, each case must be taken on its merits. The coach must, as always, look closely at the particular technique and decide what has to be done to improve it. The coach should not attempt to apply all-embracing dictums to specific techniques, and certainly should not accept them as an ultimate truth without a lot of thought. He must apply his knowledge and experience to discover the good and the bad points and then attempt to eliminate the latter. NE-WAZA As is said elsewhere, if a basic factor is to be basic then it must apply in all conditions. So with arms; they serve the same kind of purpose in katame-waza as they do in nage-waza. They are kept close to the body, in a strong position, pulling the attacker on to his opponent. The hands will feel for any weaknesses and will make minor local feints in order to allow the body to move powerfully in another direction. In addition to the positive side of their function, the hands and arms will act as temporary supports and pivot points on which the body can move advantageously, something less constructive than the opportunity-making purpose, but none the less important. Keeping the arms tucked in in this way, also has the secondary effect of safeguarding against the application of arm-locks

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GENERAL FACTORS

by the opponent. If, for example, the hands make a big pushing action away from the body, the opponent can utilize this movement to apply locks. Therefore if big pushing actions are required (such as to escape from osae-waza) then the whole body should be used, much in the same way as a throw is applied, only at a different pace. In this way there is no danger oflocks, the maximum power is made available and the hands are doing their correct job.

to the throw-does he really want to do it, or is he doing it because it is spectacular? Depending upon these various factors will rest the coach's decision and what to tell the student-and what a fateful decision it is!

SUMMARY

The hands are very important, but as they are the most delicate part of the instrument (the whole body) the correct manipulation of them needs to be very precise and exact. They must be able to move either together or apart, at the same speed or at different speeds or at different times. To have this control whilst the body is doing other bigger and more powerful actions, much concentration and skill is required. Therefore in the early stages of judo training, the use of hands and arms should not playa dominant part in skill instruction. It is much more important at that time for the novice to learn how to move his body around easily and quickly with a certain amount of control. Only with the increase of body control should any training in the specific use of hands begin. The arms, in general, must be used in a natural way with their function clearly understood. Their range and use will depend largely on the individual's flexibility (particularly at the shoulder girdle), rather than on the man's size (as is often advocated). In the early days of training, they can best be used by keeping them close to the body (unless the man insists on moving them in a different but consistent manner, which will generally indicate that this is the better way for him). Later on the man can be taught specific arm actions for specific conditions. The coach must decide which is the best use of the arms and hands for each man. He cannot afford to have any narrow, preconceived ideas of the use of the hands and arms. He will have to watch each individual, studying his movement patterns. If needs be he can actually test him for flexibilityISso that he has a clear idea of what he is dealing with. It goes without saying that the man's technique too will have to undergo a close examination and, in addition to this, his attitude

GENERAL FACTORS-CONCLUSION Although the various 'general factors' have been discussed at some length separately, I hope that it is realized that in practice they can never be so isolated. Each is interrelated with the other; all link so closely that it is extremely difficult to tell where one finishes and another starts. What is important is to understand that all are facets of dynamic movement. Artificial posturing resulting from hypotheses based on the 'oh-sodifferent' judo technique is not a part of dynamic movement. Dynamic movement is what the body does in any motor skill, and is common to all such skills. The individual's job, or more usually the coach's, is to mould the basic natural dynamic movements to judo as a particular sport. The coach must look at the various techniques, not as creations which have an existence of their own, but as they are-nothing, until fitted and moulded to and for an individual; an expression of that person's characteristics-physical and psychological. SUPPLEMENTARY

FACTORS

What follows are not in fact basic factors to specific techniques, although they do very much affect the general form of skill being developed, and I have considered that, as such, they deserve a place in this chapter. Although as parts of a training scheme they are already well-known, I have tried to discuss certain aspects not normally considered. The reader, whilst going through these sections, should try to keep in mind the various theoretical points discussed in Chapter I, for there is an interrelevancy which ties the theoretical in with the practical as manifested in the application of uchikomi to skill improvement. I have found that many tend to divorce judo theory from other spheres of knowledge, under the impression that in some

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peculiar way it is different from all other theories. I have merely tried to put it back into perspective.

there was a long pause just to make sure he was good and stiffthe beginner could not see the floor, for he was looking up to the ceiling-and then suddenly he was dropped, and it did hurt. The instructor said it would and by golly it did! The above scene may be a little exaggerated, but it is something like the way a beginner was invariably introduced to faIling and to judo. The only main omission in the above scene is a reference to all the many individual arm-beating exercises the beginner had to do (straight back, to the side, to the front, kneeling, sitting, standing etc. etc.). It was considered absolutely essential that everyone went through this ritual before the teaching of a throw was ever considered possible. The armbashing technique (I call it carpet-beating) went on for hours, sometimes weeks. Elbows were bleeding, heads were thumping, backs were sore, throats were caked with dust. It is interesting to note, that in spite of all this, many instructors still could not understand why they lost more than half their beginners' class in the first couple of weeks! Is all the banging necessary? In my opinion no! Falling can and should be treated as a part of throwing. There are, however, two principles to be kept in mind: I. Non-transference of skill. As said before, a skill can only be learnt in the conditions it has to be performed in. Therefore, any method of falling must be taught during the throwing action. In my opinion, arm banging whilst lying on the floor has very little, if any, transfer quality. 2. Psychological approach. The possible hazards and dangers of falling must not be told the class, or in any way stressed. All attention is concentrated upon the skill of throwing-that is the immediate object of the judo skill. I want to deal with the second point first. As I say, the attitude of the class must be geared up to attack and throw from the very start-a positive attitude. And certainly any falling instruction should be kept till after a throwing experience has been had, but exactly where in the class programme will depend upon the coach. In turn, such timing will depend (in addition to his experience, of course) upon the type of group he has under him, boys, girls, old men, young men, women etc. etc. Some will need falling training earlier than others. What the coach has to decide is, what form of falling will he use and

Falling To start this 'second stage' of basic factors in the judo training, it seems important to me to include some fresh thoughts on falling. There is much talk in judo circles about falling, or to use the correct term, ukemi. So much so that many outside judo circles are aware of it and, as usual with a sport only marginally understood, they seem to think it has almost superhuman qualities. People have been known (by whom?) to fall off skyscrapers and land quite easily because they used a 'judo fall'! So, if only because of these misconceptions, let us have a closer look at this 'falling business'. It is often said in judo circles that man is afraid offalling-in some inherent way-and that this means the fear must be overcome by a confidence-giving falling system. I do not agree with this hypothesis. I have searched for some psychological reference to this point, but could only find Freud 16 discussing falling in dreams, but there he does not relate it in any way to fear, indeed, if anything, he links it with pleasure and enjoyment. Falling, surely, is an intrinsic part oflearning to walk; it is a part of man's make-up and is not, in general, something to be frightened of. A friend of mine, who is a gymnastic coach, said he would never get people on to the apparatus if they were frightened of falling (off). To my mind the big fault with the past approach to 'judo falling' was that the novice was TOLD he was frightened offalling. Before anything else had happened, when he was still standing nervously waiting for the first session to start, the beginner heard something like this: 'In order to avoid injury when you are thrown ' 'Ah,' thought the beginner, 'I can get hurt, can I?' He may not have thought of it before (probably would never have done, if he had been left to himself), but now the idea has been planted. The whole atmosphere then went on to encourage nervous apprehension. The instructor kept saying 'Be careful', 'Move into position slowly', 'Are you ready for your first fall?' By now the beginner was frightened of falling. He was rigid with fear. His partner lifted him off the ground (usually with some kind of o-goshi)

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at what stage. For it should be understood that there is not just one way of falling, as was so often implied by past judo instructors. It should be fairly apparent that the falling method adopted will depend upon the type of fall under consideration. For example, the parachutist differs from the tumbler; the tumbler differs from the gymnast (who falls off his apparatus accidentally) and the gymnast differs &om the judo man (who is sometimes forcibly thrown down). It is possible to vary the judo man's falling method to suit the stage in his development and the conditions in which he falls (i.e. kata, shiai or randori). In the first stages of a beginner's 'life', what is the object of a falling method? Surely, at this level, it is to avoid a heavy landing, ensure that he is moving at the moment of throw (to see that the change of kinetic energy is minimal) to keep him active and dynamic. A type of falling I often use initially is briefly as follows. The class start by rolling in all kinds of ways, as individuals (this can be a 'project'). The rolling is then interrupted by each jumping to his feet and then rolling in different directions, from the landing. The object of this exercise is not only to make sure everyone can roll easily but also to take the shock oflanding through his legs and feet. As the feet strike the ground the knees buckle and he rolls (with no bumps or jars) very much like a parachutist landing. The class are then paired off and one man makes an attacking movement from Group I (see Chapter 3). Whilst he is still 'airborne', the other man jumps forward over the attacker's extended right leg, landing on his right foot and so rolls into the ground. Again there should be no bumps or jars. Remember the object is to get the man moving before the throw happens. One of the faults in the teaching of ukemi technique (as distinct from ukemi itself) was that it implied the man was stationary when thrown. This was bound to mean a heavy landing, because of the 'deadness' of the fall (any experienced judo man will testify how much easier it is to fall from a moving throw, than from a static demonstration throw). This 'freezing' became so much a conditioned response that even in competition it was noticeable that this happened momentarily as the attack came, to ensure a gl.'tod'breakfall'.

The opposite effect is really what is required in training-the man should never be static. So by training the novice to move into the throw right from the start, the heaviness of impact is avoided and the ground well-laid for subsequent counter-attacking movements at a later stage. Gradually more specific ways of falling can be introduced. Use of the feet, use of the arms; all will have their place in the development of a good falling method. The orthodox judo fall, ukemi, is of course for a very specific falling condition. It is when one man is driven remorselessly into the ground, with no freedom of movement to absorb the throw. In these conditions, he must have a way to absorb the kinetic energy generated in the falling body. He no longer has the opportunity of dispelling the force by rolling, as his opponent is preventing this, so the arm-beat is introduced as a substitute for the roll-to absorb the shock. This is a comparatively advanced stage and need only be taught when the novice has already acquired a good degree of control. It is not essential (see randori) and should normally only arise in competition. Such variations in falling method to suit varying circumstances require a large degree of body control* and awareness, skillswhich often were not encouraged or developed by the past methods. I know how I was being continually surprised to see players of black belt standard use the arm-beat method of falling irrespective of throwing conditions, e.g. in demonstrations on hard floors,seeminglywithout the ability to modify at all. With the increase in control demanded by a wide 'falling' education, the standard of competition would benefit-and improve! In conclusion, let me repeat that although I am not advocating that orthodox ukeIni should be abandoned, I am asking that it be treated as one way only of falling and not the best in all circumstances. (In spite of all the books, if I fell down in the street I would not wack my arm on the cement as I landed!) It is a specialist way of falling, for specific conditions, and there are other equally good ways which can be found for other

路

I remember seeing how much control ballet dancers had over very fine differences in movement patterns dictated by the ballet master. It made me realize how poor was the average judo man's control. Although I would not expect the same standard of control in the two activities (ballet's demands, of course, are so much more exacting) I would expect something of this quality in a skilled judo performer.

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conditions. I have used the rolling type of fall now for a couple of years-as an initial falling method-and have not found it in any way ineffective or dangerous. Indeed the contrary has been true, the class has progressed quicker with far less pain, bruises and sores than in the past. Uchikomi Uchikomi, or as it used to be called, butsukari, is the static repetition of a throwing technique to the point of kake only. I wish to criticize the form of skill training on these main counts: I. 'Grooving', or the establishment of habitual movement patterns. 2. Motivation. The effect that successful completion of skill plays in skill improvement. 3. The type of rhythmic patterns necessary in static and dynamic movement. Let us consider the first point. In the past it has been recommended that hundreds, nay thousands, of repetitions were needed to 'groove' a technique. Baldly stated like that it has some semblance of truth. Unfortunately what is implied in this statement, but what is not accommodated in uchikomi, is that it is the COMPLETE skill which must be repeated, notparts of it as in uchikomi! For a skill to be improved upon, it must be repeated in its entirety and must be done in the environment in which it is to be performed. Thorndike put it this way, that a change in one motor function alters any other, only in so far as the two functions have common elements. Because of the misunderstanding of this aspect of skill improvement, many Britishers have wasted and are wasting hours in static repetition. For skill transference to take place the two tasks must have common stimulus and response patterns. I maintain there are no common patterns between the static repetition of a throw and the dynamic performance of a throw. A good example of this non-transference of skill is in the teaching of swimming. In the days of yore, when being taught the breaststroke, the beginner laid on a bench and learned the necessary type of co-ordination between legs and arms for the frog-like movements. Once having achieved this co-ordination, he was deemed capable of swimming and so transferred to the water-where he promptly drowned! An extreme case of non-

GENERAL FACTORS

transference, but one which I consider is repeated in the example of uchikomi. One of the objects of the repeated movements of uchikomi is to produce an habitual type movement, but as mentioned earlier, habit and skill are not synonymous. Knapp4 says, 'A habit is a habit irrespective of its results, but skill can only be defined in terms of the achievement of a previously specified or understood goal.' A skilled movement must be able to 'absorb' the various movements of the opponent. For this to happen, no two skilled movements which are to achieve the same result are ever exactly the same. Welford1? says, 'Perhaps the most conclusive point that we can make about skill or skills is that they do not depend upon a fixed pattern of movement or fixed methods of thinking, but are concerned with the flexible fitting of means to ends.' Therefore, it would appear to be pointless attempting to establish an habitual movement as a major part of skilled movement. That does not mean that habit does not play a part in skill learning. It does. But habit is reserved for movements peripheral to a skill, so that it enables entire concentration to be reserved for the essential movements necessary for the performance and improvement of that skill. It is for this reason that a jumping attack is advocated in the Group Method (see Chapter 3). By producing a habit of an aggressive attacking movement in the early states of learning, when the skill as such needs to be improved upon, aggressive movement can be ignored (for that is known to exist) and the necessary movements can be concentrated upon. The establishment of habit also helps to unblock the complicated 'signal channels' of the effector-receptor system of the body. 'Delays from this cause (the blocking of "signal channels" by the deflection of the subject's attention to irrelevant data from the effectors) tend however, to drop out as the subject's performance becomes more precise and requires less monitoring. When this happens performance becomes substantially faster because central processes leading to the next action can overlap with the preceding movement.' Welford again. 17 All the coach has to do is to learn to distinguish habit from skill! But the complications of skill learning do not end there, which brings me to the second point relating to my criticism of 4

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uchikomi. In uchikomi, the throw is never (or very seldom) completed; there is no 'stamping in' by success. The performer never truly knows whether he is doing it right, because he does not complete it to test its effectiveness. He tries to talk himself into believing what he is doing is right by discussing with his partner whether the technique complies with this or that champion's version and there follows a long discussion on the merits of the precise angle of pull-is it ten degrees or fifteen degrees to the horizontal? Such chat merely emphasizes the overall futility of the exercise. When considering skill completion, the question of negative or positive feedback must also be taken into account. Although a skill must be learnt in the conditions it is to be performed in, whenever feasible, sometimes it is not possible for this to happen and other environments must be established, in which case, transference of skill will take place in proportion to the similarity of conditions, i.e. tennis can help badminton. But such a transfer can be of a negative or positive type; that is, it can help the desired skill or it can hinder it. Welford gives the example of the changing of the side of the gear lever in a continental and British car, which has the effect of a negative feedback (hindering the skill) when a man changes driving styles. The pianist practising scales (often used in the past as a justification for doing uchikomi) is in the exact conditions where he will be playing Chopin, so it will presumably be a positive feedback. In my opinion, because of the complete difference of uchikomi and competitive movement (randori and shiai) i.e. non-movement, non-completion of throw, passive partner etc. etc. there will be negative feedback from the practices of uchikomi. That is, not only will uchikomi not help to improve the skill of throwing, but will actually hinder any improvement. Is there any need at all to practise parts of a skill? Perhaps in certain specific, limited circumstances there is, but the hazards of such breaking down should be fully appreciated. Take for example a common method used when teaching a judo throw, the slowing down of a technique 'in order to see what happens'. Sperry18 says, 'Changes in speed cause extreme variations in physiological patterns underlying what, from an analytical observation might appear to be a fairly constant simple response.' In judo terms a throw done slowlyjust is not the same as

a throw done fast. A very senior coach of the Amateur Swimming Association says that breaking a crawl stroke down can be detrimental to the whole stroke performance. For example, when the swimmer is made to swim 'legs only'; the leg beat cannot develop the balancing effect it usually has on a stroke in addition to propulsion, in fact the propulsive factor is now out of perspective, and the stroke as a whole will suffer from lack of the correct amount of stabilizing. In my opinion, therefore, if a part needs to be specifically practised independently to maintain correct relation to other parts of that skill, a minimal number only (a dozen or so) of isolated repetitions should be performed, so as not to unbalance the skill as a whole. Performance of the whole should follow as soon as possible after, to establish the improvement of the part as an integral feature of the whole. Finally there is, of course, the question of rhythmic pattern involved. Because of the static nature of the partner and the oscilatory movement of the 'attacker' a regular beat rhythm is invariably cultivated by the participants of uchikomi. Indeed often they are actually told to do so! Here again is the question of transference. What in fact is the rhythm of competitive judo? To me it is an extremely involved one of double-beat and offbeat patterns with endless variations being produced first by the individual alone and then increased by countless permutations in combination with a partner and his individual movement. In the early days of a novice's life the movement pattern is usually a very simple one, but as the skill standard improves so does the standard of rhythm awareness. Indeed, I would go so far as to say, in high level competition, the winner is the man who can impose his rhythm pattern on his partner, for rhythm is an essential ingredient of skill and is why it is so aesthetically pleasing. (See section on Aesthetics, page log.) Here is the reason for the fact, which all competitors are aware of, but very few understand, that during the first few seconds of a contest, both men will often have a good idea who will win. For in that few seconds the 'feel' of the one man's strength of rhythm will emerge as stronger or weaker than the other, proclaiming him eventual winner or loser accordingly. Sometimes it is not as clear as this, in which case it is a question of which can impose his rhythmic pattern on the other. In that

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rhythmic pattern the throwing skill will be woven. If the pattern can be sensed or felt) the movement pattern can be changed just at the moment of attack) destroying any chance of its success. Because of the importance of rhythm in skill) I consider it would be advantageous for rhythm appreciation as such to have a place in the training programme (the simplest form of course would be dance of an ethnic type) as here the rhythms are very varied). But certainly because of the rhythm complications ofadvanced skills)I consider the regular beat of uchikomi a distinct disadvantage and a definite hindrance to the appreciating and developing of rhythms necessary for an advanced dynamic skill. To conclude this section) I would say that there are certain advantages to be gained from the practice of uchikomi: as a form of warm up) or as an improvement upon stamina and strength (it is a form of weight resistance exercise); but as a method of improving skill as such it has virtually no value at all! Forms or Training The three forms of training-shiai) randori) kata-are like the roots a of tree (Fig. 4)) each supplying certain ingredients to the trunk which the other two do not. Gradually) as training progresses) the differences between the contributions become less; as the roots get closer to the trunk) so the skills learnt in each become one with the whole. In the early stages of a judo man's 'life' the contributions could be quite specific and to all intents and purposes quite different; shiai would be the place for competition (not experimentation); randori the place for experiment (not hard competition); kata, the place for widening the movement experience, control and balance (not for experimentation). Providing the coach can put the contributions of these 'roots' in their true place in the training programme, there should be no need to devise artificial ways of achieving a throwing situation. Two such ways are 'French randori' in which participants throw each other in turn, one jumping for the other, and 'uchikomi on the move'-almost a contradiction in terms-where both move around, but one man keeps repeating an attacking action for a particular throw. I sympathize with the 'inventors' -at least it is an effort to correct faults in past training-but I feel they have gone completely off the tracks.

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The various factors contained in the three main forms of training should be quite sufficient to produce the necessary overall skill. In the past any new particular training method merely tried to correct faults in an already faulty system, which in turn meant replacing one bad mistake by another (i.e. 'throw-for-throw' practice may eliminate the evil of negative defence, but it simply replaces it with the falsenessof an opponent who is willing to be thrown-a circumstance never encountered in normal randori or shiai). Judo is essentially competitive, therefore only a form of competitive training will improve the competitive skill. It is a part of the coach's job to see that the training method used will produce the right type of skill. First let us look at the training form called randori.

Knapp says, 'When a person is learning a skill he frequently tends to try to correct his mistakes by going too far in the opposite direction. This method of reaching an ideal is probably

RANDORI

Randori is usually considered the backbone of judo training, and this is quite true if it is used correctly. But is it used correctly? In the past the novice has been pitchforked into randori willy-nilly with little if any explanation of its purpose. The hurly-burly of men heaving and pushing with might and main produced an immediate and strong reaction-the basic instinct of self-preservation. If there were any ideas of skill improvement at the outset they quickly evaporated in a battle to remain in the vertical! Fear invariably turned the novice into what looked like a perambulating puppet operated by a paralyzed puppeteer. An attitude not exactly conducive to skill acquisition. What then should be happening? The novice should have the object of randori clearly eXplained to him before he starts, so that when he does join in he knows what he is doing and that the rest of the group (whether they are more advanced or not) have the same objects in mind. Randori is the time for experiment, the time to explore the limits and range of movement. The novice will already know that skill can only be improved by repeating the skill-completely, so his aim is not to stop his partner from throwing him (although he will if he can actively avoid-see Chapter 3), but to find~waysand means to throw his opponent. There must be fast movement ranging over as large an area as possible. Naturally mistakes will be made (and he will get thrown) but that is a part of the experimentation intrinsic in randori.

103

a goodone, but in someactivitiesthe learner hasto beencouraged person who is afraidof makingmistakes is unlikelYto get veryfar.' (The italics are mine, a.R.a.) The to makethis variation. A

novice cannot be hampered by any rule-of-thumb restriction which in any way limits freedom of movement, * he must feel at liberty to try anything (within the rules and human decency) which will achieve the immediate object of trainingthrowing his opponent. However, mere participation is not enough. Too often it is assumed that providing the activity is done, then by some strange phenomenon, improvement will occur. This is not true. Bad as well as good movements can be repeated and take on a habit form, to quote Knapp4 again, 'an individual who has practised hard at a poor technique believing it to be satisfactory will have made the bond between stimulus and response a very strong one. He will have worn a nervous "pathway" between stimulus and response which will be very difficult to change. When he tries to alter his technique he will find his problem greater even than if he were learning for the first time. He usually has to remove the pleasurable feeling-tone and break down his own technique before he can build up anew and this makes him feel dissatisfied and unhappy'. In order to minimize the possibility of acquiring bad movements, I consider that no randori session should be left completely uncontrolled. The coach should always set some kind of object or some specific skill factor for the class to aim at. Naturally the coach will then try to see that these objectives are achieved in some way. It could probably (one could say certainly) mean that the coach does not become a part of the class, i.e. joining in the practice, but stays outside the training group helping all those he can. Later on in the trainee's programme when he has some skill, say about the intermediate stage, the points raised by the coach 路 There are still many teachers who hamper the novice with '~es' like, 'You must not cross your feet', 'Keep feet shoulder width at all times'. (The reader will be able to provide others I am sure.) Negative reasons only are given for such advice. The noyice must be taught a positive attitude; he must be made to think only of attack and winning.

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will incorporate a wider range of experience, so that he can increase his repertoire of techniques.* Can the man consciously vary his pace? A part of the training programme will be fast, another slow perhaps. There should be understanding via movement experience of how differences of speed affect the application of technique. A range of strength should be experienced; how much strength can be used before it hinders technique; how little before technique is useless. If there is a favourite technique used by a particular man he should attempt to find as many ways and opportunities as possible to attempt it. No opportunity should be lost. I do not agree that a skilled man should not use his best throw on a novice (providing that it is not a 'lazy' version see page 28). He can increase the range of application in such circumstances. Perhaps in so doing the 3rd Dan will be thrown by the 3rd Kyu, but that does not matter, for now is the time to find the limit of the movement, outside which the 3rd Dan will be beaten-a useful piece of knowledge for his contest work. To sum up, randori should be fast, aggressive and wide moving, both men trying as many attacks as possible. There should be experimentation in all aspects of attack and avoidance. Finally, and most important, every randori sessionshould be closely controlled by a coach who will always set specified objectives to be tried for by the class or group. SHIAI

Now, during contest, is the time to put all the results of experimentation (acquired in randori) into practice. The time of trial and error is finished. The man knows (or should know) the limits of his skill, stamina, strength, and tenacity. Now he knows his 'boundaries' and moves only inside them, where he knows he has full control (or almost) of his ability. His attack is as good as it can be, irrespective of the standard considered. He should have confidence in that ability; he knows the range 路 Although technique is important, it must be remembered that high standards of skill surpass mere technicality. Therefore the coach must provide a wide base of movement experience upon which the promising judo player can build. It is encouraging to read of the example of Pavlova who was not so much an accurate technician as a unique artist. The Dying Swan, one of her most famous ~les, underlined her brilliant, exquisite artistry, which transformed the very simple techniques to sheer expressiV'ebeauty.

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of his skill well, for he has tried it often enough. The only real way he can lose is if the other man is better than he and even then, granted an essential piece of luck, he may well win. Here the whole attitude is and should be completely different from randori (in the past it was often extremely difficult to tell one from the other!). The man is no longer 'expansive' and learning, he is cautious and willing only to move within his own known limits (one of the tasks of his opponent is to make him move outside of those limits). He is determined to win at all costs provided it is within the rules of contest and human decency, and before the contest he must have geared himself up to winning; it is only after the match that the result does not matter-before it is all important. I have decided not to discuss Kata in this present volume as the establishment of its aims and its position in the training programme makes for a long and somewhat involved discourse, much of it relevant only to advanced work. KATA:

Observation The ability to observe movement accurately is possibly the most important quality the coach can have and certainly it should be developed. It comes next to the ability to think, which can after all be considered as the interpretation of what the eyes see, translating the conclusions drawn from those interpretations into suitable practices. In general people take for granted the ability to see (unless they are suddenly robbed of sight) and consider it to be so simple that it is not necessary to analyse or think about it at all. Upon closer investigation, it is not all 'plain sailing'. Take for example, what is called the consistency of size phenomena 19 in landscape; distant buildings (as an example) appear to be much bigger than they should be in true perspective. What happens is that the observer, knowing them to be big, unwittingly translates them as being big. Try 'measuring' them with a pencil held close to the eye, comparing them with another building close at hand. Past experience and prejudices have given us known 'scales' by which to judge things and we use those 'scales' even if the conditions are not really suitable. Gombricht19 in his tremendous book Art and Illusion discusses how the artist does not 'paint what he sees, but sees what he can paint'. In other words he takes to the scene his preferences

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Fig 6 Efl'eet of estraneoas iteJDS. The radiating lines make the parallel lines look bent.

Fig 5

Efl'eet of convention.

Because lines of perspective are accepted as showing distance and therefore decrease in size, no attempt is made to check. Because of convention, it is presumed that the furthest away is the biggest; this is not true.

towards certain colours, his bias towards water-colours or oils technique and he sees the subject he wishes to paint in terms of these prejudices. Or to quote Vernon 20 for a more general statement: 'There are (other) cases in which the direction of attention towards the perception of some particular shape or object causes an observer to perceive what he expected to see rather than what is actually presented. Such a direction may be given by special instructions; or by what the observer has been accustomed to perceive in such circumstances and therefore he thinks will most probably appear in the present case.'

Fig 7 Efl'eet of bias. Is it a picture of one vase or two faces? It can be changed at will.

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GENERAL FAOTORS

Another aspect of perception, is the influence that extraneous environment has on the centrally observed subject. Simple illustrations of this are shown in Figs. 5, 6, 7 and 8. Possibly the best is of the men climbing the stairs (Fig. 5), all in fact the same size but the radiating lines distort the 'feeling' of size so that the man at the top looks bigger than the man at the bottom. The last point I want to mention is that of the effect of attention. The brain has the ability to alter what it sees by modifying its attention. It is a very strange phenomenon as shown simply by the box in Fig. 8. Look at it one way and you are on top of it, look again and you are underneath it. Nothing has actually changed, merely some way oflooking has been slightly modified to give a completely new appearance to the whole thing.

The coach must be aware of these 'tricks' of perception and train himself assiduously to avoid such pitfalls as much as possible. He must try to see things as they are, and not what he thinks they should be. When watching a judo technique he should have no preconceived ideas of what should be happening, but he should be able to see only what has actually happened. I think a good example of seeing what is not there is 'chest contact'. Because it was so often spoken of as essential to certain throws, and that the throw would not succeed without it, everyone always saw it when the throws were performed. In spite of the fact it was seldom there! The coach must learn not to be misled by extraneous or superfluous matters. He must be able to see straight to the essence of a technique and not be disturbed about such items as whether the attacker's hand-hold is high or low (relevant in one respect, but not important to the actual execution of the technique). The coach must be able to focus his attention on the right place at the right time so that he is able to see the salient points. Does the man straighten his left leg before or after the other man has left the ground ?-that is important.

log

Kinaesthetic Appreciation A coach looks at a good technique and knows it is a good technique. How does he know it is good?; how does he know it is bad? There are two main contributory factors; one is experience, the frequent seeing ofjudo technique and the other, which I consider much more important, is his kinaesthetic appreciation, or almost the same thing, his artistic sense. Certainly a good coach has a feeling for movement, he 'feels' a good movement in his bones. He will watch and study any and all kinds of movement-skilled movement-in order to heighten this kinaesthetic sense.

Fig 8 Efl'eet of viewpoint. Does the right-hand end project forward or drop back? Again, it can be changed at will. But what changes?

Aesthetic Appreciation Look at Plate 5 I. The first impression is of an ugly shape. The broken lines running through the figures jar on the artistic senses. Everything has obviously stopped. Only on a 'second look' will technical criticism be made, e.g. that the hips of the

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attacker are broken backwards, or that the body, which is held up, or restricted by the left leg, is quite uncommitted. (Compare with Plate 52, the same throw.) To be able to feel these 'action lines' (imaginative lines showing the force and direction of a body's movement) in a technique is, I feel, very important. Sometimes a throw may even work, yet still something is wrong. These 'action lines' can give a hint what this something is: for example, a bad technique will usually show very broken and ugly lines, whereas the good throw will show a swirling powerful action which is very exciting-so much so that the movement involved has inspired Gerry Hicks (Western Area Coach) to try to capture it on canvas (for he is also an artist). One of the results is shown in Plate 72, a taiotoshi from start to finish. The overall effect of movement and design is very stirring. It is this feeling which can be so beneficial to the coach. Immediately the aesthetical impression has been created the technical points can be assessed. If the 'action lines' flow smoothly throughout the technique it is probably sound, but if they do not, then something is u.ndoubtedly wrong. For example in Plate 52 the lines are good, they do run smoothly with no breaks-a good technique. But in Plate 51 the lines are very broken and so the technique is bad. If this technique had to be improved (with the 'artistic' factor in mind) the lines could simply be straightened, e.g. the attacker's left foot taken back much closer to the opponent, and the left leg straightened. This should have the effect of getting the right leg higher in the air, so increasing its effectiveness. The line could be taken round and down in a smoother curve which would mean the head being dropped further. By working this way, practical improvements of a technique can be made from what at first sight may appear as an abstract approach. In developing this kinaesthetic/aesthetic sense by studying all kinds of skilful movement, the coach can be directly improving his coaching ability. By enhancing his practical experience with this highly developed sense of movement, he will have an excellent idea of what makes a good technique. He will no longer have to depend on 'inherited dictums', but will be able to supply his own governing principles.

GENERAL FACTORS

III

Coaching Hooks Once armed with this type of movement appreciation, the coach need only devise ways of systematically changing these general observations into direct technical corrections and he will have achieved something useful. The method I use is that of 'coaching hooks'; to formulate a list of points which can be checked off against a technique. For example at the elementary stage, the list could look like this: I. Feet: Has the attacker moved them into the attack? 2. Weight: Is the weight moving into the throw? 3. Hands: Are they being kept close to the body? 4. Tuck: Is the attacker's body finally curled in order to get the opponent on to his back? 5. Attitude: Is he really trying to throw or just pretending? If the answers to any of the questions were 'no', then positive steps would have to be taken to correct them. Various types of lists could be made out to suit various stages. For example here is an 'advanced list': I. Position of feet. 2. Body contact (deep or shallow) 3. Head control 4. Action ofleft and right hand 5. Type of throwing action used 6. Finishing position The point being that this would give the coach something definite to work with, instead of having a haphazard approach to the subject of analysing for faults. The essential factor in any analytical criticism for good or bad, is perception or observation based on extensive experience. Without it the coach might as well be ignorant as well as blind! Imagination Another aspect of aesthetics has been discussed in Chapter I in relation to judo as an education, and a general method of developing imagination has been discussedunder the heading of 'project' teaching. Therefore in this section little need be said apart from further emphasizing the need for this factor in training. Because of the continual narrowing of skill teaching by instructors who have been blinkered by their predecessors'

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ignorance, the range of techniques available to the budding national competitor is steadily decreasing. At the moment of writing (1964) the throws used generally at national standard could almost be counted on one hand. It is essential for the development of the sport, ifit is to remain virile and progressive, for the range to be increased. Such a development will depend upon the attitude of the coach. In the past he seldom ventured outside the boundaries of accepted orthodoxy (e.g. he always called uki-goshi floating hip, even though the English was meaningless-on what does the hip float?!). Probably he felt that if he asked questions, it would show people there were things he didn't know about judo, and that must never happen! Either directly or by implication, he would communicate to his pupils that they too must not ask searching questions that would undermine the 'establishment'-the black belt status. Such an attitude must of course stop! No one knows nearly enough about judo to stop asking questions, or investigating any channel of knowledge in order to throw more light on judo appreciation. The aspiring coach must be always asking questions, of himself as well as other people. He must question every established dogma; does it contain truth, or has it 'died' in the continual regurgitation of non-understanding speakers? The stimulation of group or individual imagination is largely a question of teaching method. The project method is one of the better ways of achieving this, but it will depend on the coach. He must have an open mind, with a liberal and progressive attitude toward judo teaching; he must be prepared to change his method of teaching and experiment with other ways to find whether he can improve on the results already obtained. The search is a never-ending one!

CONCLUSION As I said at the start of this chapter, much of the abovementioned has been gathered during the years I have trained at and taught judo. Many of the suggestions are purposely vague, for I do not want people copying exactly what I say (even if they so have a mind) for that would be contrary to the very principle I advocate-individuality at all times. For this 'new' type of judo to grow every coach must contribute something of his

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own; he can no longer afford to just copy. Steal and adapt, yes; imitate directly, never! Some of the nebulosity is because I myself have not yet found a definite answer to some of the problems. I find myself continually experimenting, trying new ideas and methods; modifying where I find the objectives not attained or the objectives altered. Here is the fascination of teaching judo. The continual striving for a skill ideal makes the subject of judo a truly intriguing one. Judo need not be tied down with stale outworn theories, but can be very alive and lusty, if only it is treated with enthusiasm and sincerity. There must be a desire on the coach's part to continually improve the skill standard of the performer and, lastly, but by no means least, every attempt should be made to enlarge the participant's 'ration' of life. BmLIOGRAPHY I. Adams, London

H., MODERN DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATIONALPRACTICE, University Press.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. II. 12. 13.

Vesey, G. M. A., BoDY AND MIND, Allen & Unwin. Hornibrook, F. A., CuLTURE OF THE ABDOMEN, Penguin. Knapp, B., SKILL IN SPORT, Routledge & Kegan Paul. Wdls, K. F., KINESIOLOGY, Saunders. Clark, K., THE NUDE, Murray. Laban and Lawrence, EFFORT, MacDonald & Evans. Kinney, THE DANCE, Tudor Publishing Co. Sachs, C., WORLD HISTORY OF DANCE, Norton. Laban, R., MODERN EDUCATIONALDANCE, MacDonald & Evans. Foss, B. M., DETERMINANTSOF INFANT BEHAVIOUR, Methuen. Parnell, R. W., BEHAVIOURAND PHYSIQUE, Arnold. McDonald, D., How DOES A MAN TwIST IN THE AiR?, New Scientist, vol. 10, No. 237, 1961. 14. Curtis and Boultwood, A SHORT HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL IDEAS, University Tutorial Press.

15. 16. 17. 18.

Munrow, A. D., GYMNASTICS,PuRE AND APPLIED, Arnold. Freud, S., THE INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS, Allen & Unwin. Welford. A. T., AGEING AND HUMAN SKILL, Oxford University Press. Sperry, R. W., ACTION CURRENT STUDYIN MOVEMENT CO-ORDINATION, J. P., vol. 20, 1939. 19. Gombricht, E. H., ART AND ILLUSION, Phaidon Press. 20. Vernon, M. D., PsYCHOLOGYOF PERCEPTION. Penguin.

Further Reading Johnson, Abercrombie, M. L., THE ANATOMYOF JUDGEMENT, Hutchinson. Feldenkrais, M., BODY AND MATURE BEHAVIOUR, Routledge & Kegan Paul. Grey, Walter, THE LIVING BRAIN, Penguin. Dyson, G., THE MECHANICS OF ATHLETICS, University of London Press.

Gen.

rELEMENTARY JUDO

CHAPTER

ELEMENT AR Y JUDO

THE discussion of theory behind both the teaching and the technique of judo has now mainly been covered and here starts the practical part of the book. How are these many principles to be put into effect? When I first took on the responsibilities of national coach I really started thinking of easier and better ways of introducing people to judo. I had had many indications both in England and Japan that the way I had been taught-and thousands of others too-was possibly not the best way or the easiest. I had seen the many who were disappointed and bored by the instruction; I had seen the frustration when people could not grasp some involved complicated aspect of technique; I had seen, in spite of the lip-service paid to 'mental training' in judo circles, how individuality and originality was continually being squashed. I was well aware there were faults, I clearly saw my goal, but the means to achieve it were vague and somewhat elusive. The immediate need, as I saw it then, was to reorientate the approach to the teaching, to look again and determine afresh what the object of an introductory system should be. After much cogitation the four following points emerged as prime factors in any such system: I. Simplicity The system would have to be simple, free from technical complications. Not only simple so that people could understand easily and do just as easily, but simple so that it could be taught by virtually anyone, not only a 'judo expert'! 2. Motivation There would have to be success in the skill as early as possible (on the first night) for immediate enjoyment and satisfaction-

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the satisfaction of having done what they joined the judo class to do-throwing. This would have to mean the postponement of certain technicalities, which till then had been taken for granted as basic essentials, and in the past had been taught first, e.g. tsukuri, ukemi etc. 3. Activity Judo is a physical recreation, therefore class members must be physically involved with the skill learning process. It cannot be 'talked into' the class, they must do it, and do it often. 4. Technicalities Although technicalities are to be kept to a minimum, there must be sufficient-if the right kind-to provide the class with the necessary basis on which to build subsequent skill. Having established the principles, how to produce a system around them? I had been brought up strictly in the traditional manner, and therefore had great difficulty breaking the fetters of orthodoxy; so much so that there was almost a guilty feeling equivalent to the heretic refusing to accept some religious dogma. However, once started, iconoclasm became easier! The next step on having formed an introductory system was to set out stages or classes of progress, so that a man could develop gradually and progressively as he went through his judo-life. My past experience again supported such a step. Many times I had seen courses in which there were 4th Dans and 4th Kyus all being taught the same thing. Each time it had occurred to me this was not the best arrangement, but until now I had never pursued it. For convenience I laid out the three following stages or classes of progression: I. Elementary o-4th Kyu 2. Intermediate

3rd-2nd Kyu 3. Advanced 1St K yu-above Naturally the grade demarcation is only an arbitrary guide and would not be strictly adhered to in practice. The coach

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would decide each particular case. The technical objectives of these stages seemed fairly clear to me:

continual modification and alteration. (The reason why writing about it has been so difficult.) The form now bears a clear similarity to what was used in 1962, but many points have been modified since.

I. ELEMENTARY

The novice must be taught to attack with a great deal of movement. Only when the movement experience is wide as possible can or should a skilled movement be built on top of it. Kinaesthetic awareness is a priority, plus a sound technical basis, which will still stand him in good stead when he is of 4th Dan standard. (This is the standard to aim for rather than only 1st Dan as in the past.)

THE INTRODUCTORY GROUP THROWING METHOD For simplicity's sake all throws (with the exception of certain ashi-waza and suteIni-waza) are divided into three groups, hence the name (it is usually abbreviated to Group Method) (Fig. 9). Group 1 comprises all attacking movements (throws)

2. INTERMEDIATE

GROUPII

The large movement patterns learnt in the elementary stage are moulded into a specific skilled technique. At this level the teaching will still be concerned only with the more superficial aspects of technique, but certainly the individual's traits and characteristics should be catered for.

all i:hrol'{s to opf>Ort~ntsback.

Having established the general objective of the elementary stage and keeping all the points in mind, let us go back to the idea of an introductory system. After a lot of experimentation and thought the following system emerged. It incorporates most of the general teaching principles outlined in Chapter 1 and contains the necessary amount of basic factors as described in Chapter 2. Since it started being spread in about 1962it has been most successful,producing many more judo players with a higher standard of skill, in a shorter interval of time. Although it may appear at first sight to be a pretty rigid structure this is not true. Once the general principles are understood, the various steps in progression can be changed to suit the particular group. Certain steps can be enlarged upon, others omitted, it will always depend upon the type of class being considered. From the very beginning of the Group Method it has been undergoing

. ~

3. ADVANCED

Here the 'finishing touches' are added to the skill. These are the subtle points, which although essential to a really skilled performance, can only be appreciated by the man who has had the necessary grounding in sound movement and technical expenence.

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_~~_L___ ___ wnrard

$ i

/..

_ __ ___2BJ~/!_e!]~'_ Cf'nrfe; line

GI\OUP 1 throws frOM "twofeet:

GROUP 3 throwS fyom One foot

Fig 9 The Group Method cUagram..

in which the attacker has both feet in contact with the ground; Group 2, all throws in which the partner or opponent is thrown to his rear; finally, in Group 3, those throws for which the attacker has one foot on the ground, with the other leg in the air. Before going into detail with each group, there are certain

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'shorthand' phrases which can be used to facilitate explanations, so these I have defined first.

often as possible. It may be restricted to one particular group, or to all-in which case it is the beginning of randori!

SimpleMovement This refers to movement done by an individual on his own, without a partner. In the very early stages the contact with a partner can be very confusing. Therefore sometimes I get the man to do certain movements on his own, free of this distraction. As soon as he has some idea of the movement in question he will of course join with a partner and repeat this with him.

GROUP I The instructor demonstrates the throw to be taught (see Plates 3-6). It should be a 'lively' jump, feet landing wide and on the toes. The partner is driven forward, falling over and round the outstretched right leg of the attacker at or below the knee. The instructor will finish with his knees 'locked' back and his weight forward on his hands (see Plate 6). This throw can be done several times statically or at different speeds and in different directions (see page 35). The class should be given as good a 'picture' from as many points of view as possible, being warned beforehand that they should watch carefully and try to take a mental photograph of the general outline of the throw, so that they have something to compare and base their own effort on when it is their turn to try. From here two routes can be taken. There is the direct method as such (where the class are immediately asked to duplicate the demonstration) ; and the 'build up' direct method, where stages are introduced to 'build up' to the first attempt at the whole. The method chosen, I feel, will depend upon the group being taught. As there is a slight risk of a heavy fall, I usually apply the first way for youths, and the latter for older men, or women.

Static Movement An apparent contradiction in terms. However, it relates to one person in a pair who is trying to get the 'feel' of a particular

movement.The coupledo not move (somethinglike uchikomi, but nothing like as punctilious and it has only minimal repetitions) . Linear Movement This is fairly self-explanatory. It means the couple moving along a line, with one man jumping in and out with the attacking action. Sometimes he will conclude with a throw. In Groups 1 and 3 the attacker will be moving forward, in Group 2 he will be movingbackwards.

AttackingMovement The jumping movement into the throwing position is the attacking movement. It can also apply in ne-waza as the movement into the technique. Throwing Movement The movement

necessary to put the partner

on to his back.

IndividualMovement The next step to 'Linear Movement'. The pair move freely round the mat, going anywhere they choose, but only one man attacks, the other man has to avoid. Free Movement Here is the final stage. The couple moving around freely and unrestrictedly. Both attacking and avoiding, as quickly and as

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DIRECT METHOD

The class try to duplicate the coach's demonstration. Only after they have tried, does the coach attempt to help. But he might help for other reasons too, perhaps because he is asked, or because he sees a potentially dangerous move, or simply because he can offer help to a particular person having difficulty. 'BUILD-UP'

METHOD

If for any reason the coach feels the class is apprehensive about participation this, I think, is the safer way. The throw is approached gradually through several easy stages (similar to a gymnastic teacher giving introductory weight-bearing activities before asking his charges to attempt a handstand type of movement on apparatus). Stiffness, frequently the result of

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apprehension, can often cause injury if ignored in the introduction especially in a sport like judo, when very few beginners will have seen the real thing, * (unlike football or tennis, for example, which all will have some knowledge of).

landing so that their hands are on the floor (or mat). The legs should be kept straight and the 'seat' high in the air (see Plate 2). The jumping exercise can be done from that position; that is the feet are brought together and then from a four-point take-off (two hands and two feet) the student jumps up and round landing on all fours as in Plate 2. Some find a little difficulty with this, but it is good exercise and worth practising.

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1St Step: Simple Movem.ent First the class is taught individually. Standing on their own they are asked to open their legs as wide as possible (see Plate I). As they stand there the instructor can tell them to try to remember the 'feeling' of this position and the various pointsboth feet pointing to the front (for maximum base area) weight well forward on toes, heels touching the ground but carrying no weight: feet as wide as possible, knees loosely held straight; body upright and p1aced in the centre of the feet, hands roughly by the sides. This posture (apart from the hands) is what is to be duplicated as the instruction progresses. The class is then told to bring their feet together then to jump high in the air landing with the feet wide-as in the above static position. Bringing the feet together again on the ground, the jump is repeated. This jumping is done several times till the class is naturally landing with the feet astride. The instructor should see that all are landing on the balls of thefeet and not flat-footed.

3rd Step: Static Movem.ent Now all can pair off. The sizes should be kept roughly the same whenever possible. Too much discrepancy at this early stage can cause unnecessary confusion and difficulty. The hand hold is shown by the coach. Right hand on partner's left collar, left hand at partner's right elbow holding the sleeve (see Plate 3)' The coach shows them the practice. One man in each pair then jumps forward and round landing in front of his partner as in Plate 4. In other words he does exactly what he has done before, only this time he is holding on to a partner. The instructor should watch for the following points, but where they occur remember only one point at a time should be brought to their attention (see page 40). POINTS TO WATCH FOR

2nd Step The next step is, from the feet-together standing-position, to jump forward (covering a distance of three or four feet) at the same time turning to the left (taking the left shoulder back), landing facing the opposite direction (through 180 degrees) legs wide apart as in the initial posture. The feet are then brought together and the samejump made again. Feet together, jump forward and round (to the left), landing with feet astride body up straight. Mter several repeats it may be noticed that some (perhaps all) tend to stagger backwards on landing. This is to be avoided, for it indicates that the body is too upright and that no allowance is being made for the forward motion. To correct this the class are told to drop, fall forward on 路 Some clubs minimize this effect by showing beginners the B.j.A. instructional film at the beginning of the course.

I. The attacker must not deviate too far from the initial position: the attacker's body must be centrally placed between his feet. 2. The feet should be in line (often the attacker will drive his right foot past his partner's right foot, which is bad). 3. The weight should be well forward on the toes. 4. Both elbows close into the body. (However gradually it is done, do not allow the attacker's right elbow to persist in rising high in the air, although finally this is of no great import.) 5. The body should, at this stage, remain up straight (only when throwing should it bend forward). 6. Seethat the attacker gets right round (through 180 degrees) and isfacing the same way as his partner. 7. Yet in spite of all these particular points the most important is that the jump is fluid and free from inhibitions. If this last point is achieved the rest really do not matter!

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4th Step: Speed Speed is the next factor introduced. As I have said before speed is one of the most important factors throughout the training programme (at any level). Every attempt should be made to cultivate it at the earliest stage possible. Therefore when the student has got used to the idea of jumping into the partner with his feet apart, he should be asked to jump-with equal agility-out to where he came from then back in and quickly out again. This jumping in and out should be speeded up and up, until he is going as fast as he can go (which, of course, is not fast enough-however fast he moves); a blur of white is the objective! It is an early stage for him to appreciate to the full what speed really means, but the importance of this factor cannot be impressed upon him too much. NOTE:The next stage of instruction also has two alternatives, and either the 5th (the introduction movement) or the 6th (the throw) can be used first, depending upon circumstances. I find each has its advantages in its own situation, so I will deal with both and the reader can select for himself.

5th Step: Linear Movement Judo of course is essentially movement: that is, the various techniques have to be attempted whilst both participants are moving around at speed, the rate dependent upon the circumstance and standard of the players. (The correct environment is essential for the acquisition of skill, see page 98.) Therefore to derive most benefit from the instruction it must be given in circumstances as siInilar as possible to those existing in randori, that is when both are moving. As it is still early in the novice's ~udo life' (all the previous steps can be covered in about fifteen minutes or less) entirely free movement would' be inappropriate to introduce because it would almost certainly confuse him with many impossible 'choices', so a restricted form of movement is used as an introductory step-a straight line. The partner is told to walk straight backwards in quite a natural way (he can be shown this and allowed to try it simply on his own). Now, when it is done as a pair, the attacker has to jump in and out, as his partner walks backwards. The action is similar to that when standing still (see Plates 3 and 4).

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POINTS TO WATCH FOR

I. The jumps should be straight in and out, there should be no 'hesitant-feet-fumbling' between the forward attacking jump and the retreating jump (although the 'retreating jump' will not be as big as the 'attacking jump' due to the direction of the movement). 2. The feet must be kept wide apart on completion of the attacking jump. 3. The turn must be a full 180 degrees (a common tendency is for the attacker to turn only halfway). 4. The body should be kept upright as much as possible. 5. Arms should be kept as close to the body as possible with the right elbow down. As a class, one half can try it going one way, whilst the others try coming back. The reason for the direction of movement is explained later. 6th Step: Attacking and Throwing Movement The coach can repeat the throw to remind the class of the complete picture. (His partner need not be, and preferably is not the same as before.) The coach should ensure that the man thrown falls roundto the side and over his right leg, NOT over the top of the leg. It is important to establish a picture of a 'skip' round (rather than a big 'up and over' fall (see Plate 5) if the roll-down type of fall is to be used. For the first stage the attacker jumps into his partner just as he has done before in the static position. He throws by bending forward at the hips and leaning forward (very similar to the individual movement where he jumped, turned and 'fell' forward on to his hands (Plate 2) placing his hands on the ground about three feet in front of him (see Plate 6). This can be repeated two or three times. POINTS TO WATCH FOR

I. The knees must not collapse: they should straighten as the partner falls over, and lock back as he hits the ground. 2. The bend at the hips should be strong and purposeful. 3. The student should not reach too far ahead as this could

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throw the whole posture out of true, but just enough to ensure that weight is forward on toes. 4. The throw is done in the form of a turn.

the pattern is kept the same. Often the novice will do a very small, inadequate jump and turn for the repetitions, and then on the 'throwing-jump' will have to use an entirely different movement in order to make the throw work. Each repetition must be the same as the throwing movement. 3. The lean forward must be quite oblique to the ground in order to cancel out the force of momentum-the faster the forward movement the further th-e lean forward must be.

7th Step Immediately some facility has been acquired by the thrower the static repetitions should be stopped and movement introduced. (One or two static repetitions are usually enough; the student must not have many-it will produce skill limiting habits.) This can take the same form as previously with the partner walking backwards and the attacker jumping in and out as he does so. The difference this time is that after several repeats of the 'jump in' it is completed with a throw, in the same way as has briefly been done on the spot. Doing it this way the novice absorbs the idea that the throw is only a part of movement and not something divorced from it. As facility increases, the pace should be speeded up so that the attacker starts learning how to do the throw with greater explosiveness. As a change, the repeats can be omitted and the partner simply runs backwards, the attacker following; then with one big swirling movement the attacker leaps in and throws fast. When this has been achieved to a reasonable standard the general direction of the opponent can be altered (i.e. move sideways, to the back corner etc.) and the attack repeated-again at maximum speed. POINTS TO WATCH FOR

I. Make sure the partner does not 'help', that is he must not half turn as he feels the attack coming, nor must he 'prop' or tilt himself up on to his right toes. His solejob is to walk (or run) backwards, quite in control of his posture. If the attacker cannot throw he must try again. It is bad training if the attacker gets used to any artificial circumstances, however they have arisen. It is imperative that the man is accustomed to the feel of a 'non-helpful' partner from the beginning, even though at this stage it is simply 'negative co-operation'. The attacker must learn to appreciate how to compensate for his forward moving speed, when he actually attacks. If he keeps up straight his forward momentum will carry him backwards when he has turned to throw and so he will be unable to complete the action. 2. During the jumps in and out, the coach should watch that

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8th Step: Individual Movement To complete this part of the instruction, the class are allowed to try the jumping-in attack in general movement-that is freely moving in any direction. One man in each couple is initially designated to be the attacker, and he then tries to throw as often and as hard as he can. Both men should move as fast and as easily as possible. Mter a short while, the other man is told to try instead. Such a practice should not be maintained for too long because again there is a slightly artificial quality about it (one man is not doing anything). Because of this limitation of activity this step can be omitted and the next step of dynamic defence be tackled. For then both men will have a 'job' to do; a much better state of affairs. Also learning an avoidance movement will be beneficial to skill acquisition and maintaining class interest. I t should be appreciated that this point in the instruction will be reached after about fifteen-twenty minutes of the very first session. DYNAMIC DEFENCE Just as the attacking movement is to establish a dynamic basis for throwing, so it is essential for progress to establish a dynamic avoidance for the purposes of defence. On no account should the student be allowed to stop an attack from his partner by sinking at the knees or in anyway standing still. Such negative movements are of a 'dead-end' variety, and do not allow any further attacking situation to develop-very bad for a novice's training. The student must learn to avoidan attack so that eventually a counter-attack can be developed. I. As usual the coach shows the class what is wanted for this positive defence. The class imitate as best they can. The principle is to avoid the attack-not block it. Therefore, the pair

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ELEMENTARY JUDO

are set up in a static position and one man jumps in as before to attack. As he jumps in (whilst he is still airborne) the partner tries to leap forward off his left foot over the attacker's right leg. He should land lightly on his right foot almost facing his partner (see Plate 7), and remain standing. 2. When this jump forward has been achieved the partner can then try jumping round behind the attacker over his left leg, off his right foot (see Plate 8).

coach must realize that the atmosphere and attitude created during this free practice will affect the beginner's approach to judo for a long time to come-probably for the rest of his judo life! Therefore the coach must take every possible opportunity to stress both directly and indirectly the right attitude to randori (seepage 102). At no time during randori should either man be allowed to stop-either for attack or defence-there must be attack, in spirit as well as fact, all the time. It is better to have three minutes of this type of training than a quarter of an hour of slow ponderous introspective lumbering.

POINTS TO WATCH FOR

I. When the student jumps forward in front of the attacker, the jump need not be too high, for only the height of the right knee (and lower) need be cleared. 2. When jumping behindthe attacker, the jump must be higher for now the 'defender' must clear the hips. 3. Ensure that in take-off the defender does not cross his legs. For example, if the defender goes round the front of the attacker see that he does not take off from the rightfoot so crossing his left leg in front of his body, or when jumping behind the attacker take off from the left foot and cross the right foot in front of it. Both these ways can lead to 'helping' the attacker in the sense that it will improve the chances of a successfulattack and therefore are not to be encouraged. 4. During the whole process of avoiding the attack, the defender should be facing the attacker with this whole body; at no time should he turn away from him. COMBINED ATTACK AND DEFENCE When both forms have been done, the defender can mix them up; that is as the attacker jumps in to throw, the defender can leap round either side just as the feeling takes him. He must start learning to move by 'instinct' or by 'feel' with freedom and lack of restriction, in fact should start to enjoy the jumping. 9th Step: Free Movement Finally, all the movements, both attack and avoidance, can be tried in free movement. Both men move about quickly trying as often as possible to throw the other man, each attempting to avoid the attacks when made. Such training is, of course, the first taste of randori. The

127

General Comments This same progression can be used for any techniques in which both feet are in contact with the floor. For example, instead of spreading the feet wide, the heels can be kept close (Plate 9) so that when the attack-jump is made, the attacker's feet land insidethe partner's feet. (Such a movement would be the basis for tsurikomi-goshi.) With the appropriate modification of the hands and arms this movement can be used for seoi-nage or other similar techniques (Plates 10, I 1,12). The reason why the 'feet apart' movement is taught first is that it affords the widest base for stability. . Ukemi (FaI1ing) In a normal class programme specific falling of one kind or another can be introduced somewhere here-AFTER practical participation in Group I, the exact timing depends upon the nature of the class (see Chapter 2) and the planning by the coach. Remember, any instruction linked specifically to falling must ensure that the fall is of the gentlest, so that no possible discouragement mars the novice's enthusiasm.

GROUP 2 As with Group I there is a progression through the group. For ease of instruction, as this is a rather large group, it is divided into two parts, one called the major sub-group and the other the minor sub-group. Major and minor refers respectively to the hooking or sweeping action of the right leg. When it is wide and unrestricted by the pelvis, it is major; when the sweep is across the body, limited by the pelvis, it is the minor.

,...-Group 128

Attacks (r-5)

JUDO FOR THE WEST

There are certain differences between the progression in this Group and the others because of the differences between the throwing direction. However, the pattern is the same. Major Sub-group-First Technique The coach demonstrates the throw wanted. He jumps on the spot, hooks his right leg in behind his partner's left leg and pushes firmly backwards (see Plates 13, 14, IS) finishing in a lunge position.

!-I ,.,~

1St Step Because this is a simple fall, it is better if the class start right in and try to duplicate the demonstration of the coach. The only precaution needed is to tell the man who is thrown to sit down quickly and roll back when the other hooks and pushes.

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POINTS TO WATCH FOR

I. The attacker's body should be roughly at right-angles to the opponent-this minimizes the risk of the right knee striking the opponent in the crotch-and up straight, not bentforward at the hips. 2. The attacker'sjump should be from the toes of the left foot, truly a bounce. 3. The hopping should be done on the spot and not moving forward close to the partner. 4. The elbows should be kept close to the body. S. When the right foot hooks in, the toes should be curled back, not hooked forward (not a very important point at this stage, but if possible it should be encouraged).

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2nd Step: Linear Movement As soon as some facility has been achieved in this jumpinghooking-pushing action, movement can be introduced. The partner is asked to walk forward, keeping his legs reasonably wide, facilitating his partner's hook. The attacker hops backwards on his left foot, hooking his right leg in and behind. The attacker discovers the best time to try this. Immediately the leg is 'in' the attacker takes it 'out', so that the hopping and hooking action can be maintained continuously as the partner proceeds forwards. Partners change 'jobs' for the return journey. As soon as possible the movement is speeded up. The coach

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Tai-otoshi (54-56) Notice the straight left leg, the body rolling and tucking and the opponent going round, not up and over.

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Notice how the lines C & D and B & E are broken and roughly parallel, making a very ugly line. Note how the line A props or holds up the throwing line BE. Right leg straight, weight going well forward into the throw. Arms close in

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to body.

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(By the author.) Right leg straight, hips rotating well (indicated by the left foot). Weak point-no control of opponent's outer side.

56 Notice how the lines are now sn:ooth and unbroken.

Method

to develop

full throwing

action.

Tsurikomi-goshi

(57, 58)

11000.

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(59) 59

The right leg well straight, hips right across, rolling opponent forward. Arms close into body. Weak point, no control of opposite left arm.

The left leg straight and the attacker's body well tucked.

(By courtesy of BudokwaiBulletin

(By courtesy of Budokwai Bulletin)

I 57 Osoto-gari

(60-63) 61

58 The right leg well straight, weight falling into direction of throw. Opponent being rolled not lifted. Again a weak hand hold.

The attacker's left leg straight, weight going well into throw. Chest well open. Right leg very high.

The left leg well straight, body weight falling well forward. The right leg sweep high. The opponent has managed to duck under the attacker's right arm, so breaking contact.

Osoto-gari

(continued)

ouchi-gart

(6.. 65)

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~4 The opponent has tried to turn out of the throw. Certainly there is full participation!

M. Watanabe winning the Tokyo championship. Weight well forward, arms in close to the body.

An excellent illustration of ho,"" body power is exerted after the opponent has hit the ground.

Harai-goshi (66, 67)

66 (By courtesy of Judo Magazine)

A very good attack. Weight well forward. Right elbow up and pushing downwards.

Left leg straight. Good body position back with arms close to body.

Left leg straight. Arms close to body, with right elbow up. Attacker 'rolling' hard to the front.

Uchimata

(68,69) ELEMENTARY

JUDO

129

should see that the partner walks consistently forward, without any stopping (or being stopped) at the moment of attack. 3rd Step: Throwing At the end of the hopping movement the attacker can try to make the throw, the same as when standing still. Again the lunge forward is important. I

POINTS TO WATCH FOR

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Notice how the attacker's well to the side.

Hane-goshi

left leg is placed

(70)

.Body weight well into the throw. The bodies are fairly loose, but sufficient contact has been made.

Sasai-tsurikomi-ashi

(7 I)

째 Notice the absence of any form of chest contact.

Much has been lost due to the printing in black and white (original is in oils) but on inspection the 'swirl' of the throw can be seen moving from left to right. (By kind permission of G. A. W. Hicks, RWA. ATD)

__ Notice the body arch and hands well in close to the body.

I. Falling. The man should tuck and roll backwards easily and quickly as his partner hooks and pushes. 2. For the attacker there must be no 'pull off' during the attack, that is the hips must not bend and so pull the attacker backwards out of the attack. The hips lead, or remain forward throughout the throw. 3. The reap or sweep must be big and wide. At this stage the point of contact is immaterial as long as it has the desired effect. (This point of contact generally varies according to the height, suppleness and relative sizes of the participants.) On this occasion the attackers have to be shown the effect of movement: that is, when done on the spot the jump-attack moves very little. However, when done on the move the attacker may have to jump backwards.With the speed of the forward motion (by the partner) any movement forward on the part of the attacker would be useless. Such a backward jump fits in very well however with the rest of the practical application of 'basic factors' (e.g. power curve page 65). This change of direction occurs quite naturally as the result of correctly applied basic elements practised earlier in the lesson. 4th Step: Individual Movement The pairs are then told to move around in unrestricted movement with good posture. One man in each pair is given the job of the attacker. Whenever he can-whenever the opponent moves somewhat forward-he tries an attack-a jump, a hook, a lunge forward, or a push with both hands. After a few attempts the roles are reversed. Again this stage is not allowed to extend for too long, as only one man is 'working' at a time. Generally this stage can be saved and joined with the next technique at the same stage of development. 5

JUDO FOR THE WEST

ELEMENTARY JUDO

Major Sub-group-Second Technique Again the coach shows what is wanted, and the class copy as best they can. Taking up the static position, the attacker jumps, hopping on the spot with plenty of bounce, similar to the previous occasion, but now instead of the right foot going on the inside of his partner's left leg, it goes on the outsideof the partner's right leg. (Plates 16, 17.)

3. Weight: Attacker's weight at the completionof the throw must he well forward (seePlate 17).

to that in the other two groups. Because of the nature of the backward throw, the easiest way to avoid them is simply to pick up the leg which is attacked and lift it over the hooking leg of the attacker. If this can be done it is perfectly acceptable. But one of the objects of the Group Method is to produce the type of movement which will stand the player in good stead when he is 3rd or 4th Dan. With this in mind the novice must be taught how not to land on his back. Although in the early stages of training such methods may appear to the novice to be somewhat far-fetched, they are quite practical means of avoiding such attacks (see Plate 62). As usual the instructor demonstrates (Plate 18). The class take up their static positions in pairs. The attacker jumps slowly in, hooking his right leg on the inside of his partner's left leg (as in the first major technique of Group 2) and then STOPS. This will give the partner time to think! The man releases both hands from holding the attacker's jacket and then turning to his right, taking the right shoulder back, pivots on his right foot, till he faces-more or less-the same way as the attacker. He falls forward on to his hands (see Plate 19). Similarly when the attacker hooks his right leg round the man's right leg the partner turns to his left (taking his left shoulder back (Plates 20 and 21). In both cases the partner turns awqy from the leg which is attacked. When all are familiar with this type of movement it can be gradually speeded up. The body of the 'defender' can be twisted quickly in the appropriate direction, so 'tearing' the hands free, diving away and landing on the balls of the feet and the hands (Plate 19). It must be emphasized that the turn is done during the actual fall, not before (i.e. before the attacker actually sweeps).

4. Arms: Both arms of attacker are kept in close to his body.

3rd Step: Individual

130

1St Step: Linear Movement The pattern as before, the partner walking forward, but with his legs normally spaced this time. The attacking movement is done when the partner's left leg is advancing, the attacker hooking round the right leg. 2nd Step: Throwing After several hooking repeats on the move it is completed by a throw. POINTS TO WATCH FOR

I. Feet: Left foot remains in front of the opponent during the whole attack. It is preferable for the toes of the right foot to be curled back. 2. Posture:

Attacker's 'bottom' must not stick out backwards during the throwing action.

NOTE:In both techniques the steps can be varied, i.e. the throw can be put before the 'linear movement'.

DYNAMIC DEFENCE ~ with Group I, the avoidances are taught along with the attacks. However, in this group the object is slightly different

and Free Movement

131

Movement can then take place, first one attacking, the other defending (both really trying) then turn about. Finally both can attack and both defend. If so required by the coach this stage can be postponed until both sub-groups are covered to produce more activity. As always the timing of these various stages would depend upon particular circulDStances.

-,--I 132

JUDO FOR THE WEST

ELEMENTARY JUDO

Minor Sub-group For brevity, I will simply say that this sub-group is treated just like the major sub-group; the only difference is the positioning of the attacking right foot. In the first attacking movement the attacker's right foot goes in behind his partner's right heel (Plates 22 and 23). In the second attack the attacker's right foot goes behind the partner's left foot (Plates 24-26). The other points can all be taken as the same, i.e. lunge forward after the push, and avoidances which turn away from the foot being attacked (Plates 27-32). By making the attacks almost the same, it offers less confusion for the beginner. Having done one, he can then do them all, and this ought to please him considerably!

for the beginner, a reason which need not be considered a dominating one, but nevertheless if it can be utilized, so much the better, for it is then the same for both attacking movements in each sub-group. Secondly there is a technical reason. When throwing the opponent over the outside edge of his feet (o-soto

General Points There are several points implicit in this group that I feel should be isolated and looked at more closely. They are not points which should be made to the novice in as many words, but the coach knowing them should just see to it they are achieved. I. The general direction of the sweep or reap of the attacking foot should tend to move across in front of his body as well as forward when the sweep is from outside the partner's foot. Similarly when sweeping from the inside, the attacked foot should move outwardsas well as forwards. This should facilitate the movement of the opponent's foot. If the opponent's foot is swept only along the line of the foot it has a tendency to stick, particularly if the attacking foot strikes high, for the opponent's knee bends and the angle at knee and ankle then make the foot a prop which effectively holds the attacked foot in place (Fig. 10). However, if the foot is swept to the side, the width of the foot is not sufficient to act as a prop in this sense (Fig. II). The importance of this direction will increase as the student progresses through the grades. 2. The coach should have noticed that the general timing of these four techniques is essentially very different from the more orthodox style. I have suggested that the outside sweeps (the

eventualo-sotoand ko-soto-gari)are doneagainsta stationaryleg and the inside sweeps (eventual ko-uchi and o-uchi-gari) are done against a moving leg. There are two main reasons for this change. Firsdy, it keeps the 'build-up' simple and similar

133

and ko-soto-gari)the movementof the other legwillfacilitatethe

/' FigIO If point A is carried along parallel with the ground by horizontal sweep X, point B cannot move forward because length (radius) AB is longer than AD. Therefore, arc BC stops and prevents movement. So it is better to sweep in direction Y.

push required to drive the man's body (trunk) past or over his outside foot. When throwing from the inside, the leg is moved out from under the man's body (weight) so that he falls down. Attacking a moving leg will make this result much easier to obtain. The coach should remember that the falls to these attacks can be heavy, so every care should be taken to see that such risks are minimized. 3. The similarity between these four general types is more pronounced here than was the tendency in the past. This, of

134

ELEMENTARYJUDO

JUDO FOR THE WEST

It.. " ,

control to ensure that the fall is light. On no account must the novice-partner fall heavily to the ground. Again depending upon the coach's discretion, he can let the class attempt an immediate copy or he can take it in 'steps' as follows. The choice is his. 1St Step: Simple Movement As in Group I the class first spread out individually and start off on their own, without a partner. Standing on their left foot with the right slightly raised off the ground, they first jump forward, over a distance of about three or four feet, turning to the left (left shoulder taken backwards). The landing should be on the left foot (ball of the foot and toes, not the flat foot) with the whole body, and head, facing exactly the opposite way to which they started-a 18o-degree turn. The balance should be maintained on the left foot throughout. The jumpturn can then be taken as a continuous movement exercise.

135

FigH Directions C and D are best for maximum effectiveness when considering the garis.

course, is primarily to keep it simple yet consistent with practice and secondly, in my opinion, to conform to the type of movement required to produce power for this type of attack at a subsequent advanced level.

GROUP 3

The final group is the one in which the throws are done from one leg; that is, whilst one leg acts as the driving force for the body, the other leg, by various ways, takes the partner's legs out from underneath him. As usual to clarify the position and present a clear picture, the coach shows the class what is expected of them. Facing his partner the coach stands with all his weight on the left foot, allowing the right to lightly rest on the ground. He then jumps forwards from the left foot to land on it, swinging the right leg round forward and back to sweep the partner's legs from under him (Plates 33, 34, 35). The throw is repeated several times, the class being told what is happening and what to look for. Of course the coach must see to it that the landings of the partner are gentle ones. The coach will need

2nd Step: To indicate how the weight is to be kept forward at the completion of the jump-turn, the hands can be placed on the ground (see Plate 36). The leg should be swung through as big an arc as possible

GOING FORWARD BEFORE SWEEPING BACK, finishing

the high position shown in Plate 36. The big sweep of the right leg is important and should be encouraged in every way by the coach. Most novices have great difficulty in achieving a loose swing of this leg and for some this remains a trouble for a long time. Therefore, it is worth extra effort on the part of the coach to get it as good as possible from the start, and encourage its practice, perhaps as a warming-up activity, as often as feasible. 3rd Step: Static Movement When this jump-turn with leg swing has been achieved with some degree of success, the class can pair off and one jumps into his partner swinging the right leg up on the outside (Plates 33 and 34). The coach should see that the attacker's left foot lands somewhere close to his partner's feet (the partner should be warned to keep them fairly wide at the start-to prevent them being jumped on!). The body should remain fairly upright, with the right leg swinging quite freely-preferably

-.. JUDO FOR THE WEST

ELEMENTARY JUDO

with toes pointed. Gradually the speed ofjumping forward and back is increased, but care should now be taken to ensure that the weight is kept on the balls of the feet all the time!

4. The right leg should make a big forward (first) and backward swing in order to take the opponent's legs out ÂŁrom under him. 5. Hands to be kept close to the body, the right elbow can go high. 6. During the throw the left leg must not collapse or bend at any time. If it does the big, smooth, continuous throwing movement will be completely ruined and the other man may get a nasty landing!

136

4th Step I Linear Movement The partner is asked to walk backwards quite normally. The attacker then jumps in and out swinging the right leg forwards and backwards as he does so. This right leg should at no time touch the ground. The right leg is kept swinging and the bodyweight forward on the left toes. The backwards swing of the right leg should coincide with the left foot hitting the ground.

5th Step: Throwing The throw is done by simply jumping in as before, but now as the right leg swings back, the whole body 'leans' or sways forward pulling the partner forward on to the sweeping right leg. The final position is much like that done when the novice was doing the jump-turns on his own, resting his hands on the ground (see Plate 36). NOTE:

If the coach considers it worthwhile

he can break this stage down even further

so that the attacker really gets the feel of the swinging right leg. The attacker jumps forward into position (left foot inside partner's feet, trunk upright). Then he swings the right leg forward with toes pointed, as high as he can get it without breaking his posture (see Plate 34). He then swings back, striking it against the partner's thigh. Forward again, back again. As the swings gradually quicken the body is allowed to move with it, until the swing naturally brings the partner forward and over the leg. Such a swinging exercise can be repeated several times, till eventually, when some success has been achieved, the swing and throw can be attempted directly without any repeats. To reiterate, it is important to get a certain degree of success with this swinging leg as early as possible; otherwise, for one reason or another, it will always end similarly to Group I, with both feet on the ground.

137

6th Step: Linear Movement with Throw As usual the static throw is converted as quickly as possible to a moving one, with the minimum number of static repetitions. The full throw is then 'tacked on' to the simple linear movement. The opponent is told to walk backwards with feet apart. The attacker jumps in and out and after several repeats attempts the throw. POINTS TO WATCH FOR

I. The coach should see that the partner does not 'help' by half turning when he thinks the attacker is actually going to throw. This can ruin the whole 'feeling' of the throw for the attacker and hence is to be avoided. 2. Each successive jump by the attacker should be the same as the previous one, with only the minimum difference finally to complete the throw. There should not be one kind of repeat going along the mat (a poor one) and a different one (more explosive) for the actual throw. This destroys the whole object of the exercise. 3. After completion of the throw the attacker should be well forward on his toes, as in Plate 37, with the right leg high in the air and the left leg straight.

POINTS TO WATCH FOR

I. During the moving repetitions the attacker's body must be held as upright as possible. If the body is 'broken' too much at the waist the body control will be minimal. 2. Weight to be kept well forward on toes and balls of the left foot (particularly during the throw). 3. The opponent should be rolled round and forward, rather than lifted up during the actual throw.

DYNAMIC DEFENCE The defence for this group follows the same pattern as for Group I. First the coach shows the kind of avoidance required. The attacker jumps in as before with the right leg swinging to throw. As he jumps forward the partner jumps forward and round behind his back (Plate 38). Initially, time can be taken so that the man has time to think, but quite quickly he should

, 138

JUDO FOR THE WEST

ELEMENTARYJUDO

speed it up. The coach should watch that the defending jump is made whilst the attacker is still comingin, not waiting till after the attacker has arrived-too late! The only other point to watch for is that the defender does not jump off his left foot, meaning that the legs will cross in mid-jump-very hazardous for him and helpful for the attacker. If the jump is done well, it should carry the defender right over and round in front of the attacker, so twisting the attacker completely off his feet. The next step is for the partner to jump forward and over the sweeping right leg of the attacker. This is slightly more involved than the first one. For example, if the partner attempts to jump over the right leg by raising his knees in front, it is usually disastrous, for his feet catch the sweeping leg and the defender really gets thrown with a bang! (He jumps on to the swinging leg.) Therefore he must learn to take the legs straight back, following the sweeping right leg back and so over it (Plate 39). Even doing it this way, correctly, the man may still get caught, but he should persevere, for being thrown does not matter as long as the novice gets the 'feeling' for avoiding such an attack.

MIXING ALL GROUPS Somewhere at this stage could be introduced the session (or sessions)where the students would be asked to try any attacking movements from any of the groups, along with the suitable avoidances. This of course should resemble a normal randori, the difference remaining only in the limited range of applied technique. Such sessions act both as revision and practice periods. Throwing is of the essence! Attacks should flow free and fast, provided the rapidity of the attacks does not limit the range of movement. The students should start to realize the subtleties of pace and rhythm in free movement. Any kind of stopping, for either attack or defence, should be discouraged. The coach, watching from the side, will do his best to help and advise all in the best ways of achieving success.

7th Step: Free Movement Finally both attack and defence can be tried in free movement, first one man attacking, the other avoiding, then each changing 'jobs'. Lastly both men try hard to do both things, attack and avoid, whilst moving fast and freely round the whole of the mat area. General Comments Using this same type of progression, variations on the attacking movement could be applied. For example, the sweeping right leg of the attacker could be directed to go between the legs of the partner (an elementary form of uchi-mata) (Plate 40). Another would be that the same swinging right leg could be made to knock the partner's right leg from underneath him (a simple method of introducing the novice to hane-goshi) (Plate 4 I). If the right leg was simply raised high to the side, with no sweep, then the opponent could be rolled over it by the twist of the attacker's body (a leadin to o-guruma). It is important for the novice to appreciate at this stage in his life that the general movement for all techniques is essentially the same, so that he can absorb the movement quickly. .

139

SUMMARY The reader will notice that I have made no effort to present the various steps of progression in a teaching context. I have merely laid them out clearly (I hope) and at some length. It is up to the reader to derive his own way of presenting the 'cold items' to his class. Possibly the discerning reader will also be wondering why I have flown in the teeth of judo convention, when describing the direction of movement for the various throws, e.g. when throwing forward, attack when the opponent is going backwards; when throwing backwards, attack when he is moving forward. A detailed explanation will be found in Chapter 2, so I will only briefly mention them here. Remember two of the basic ingredients for a simple introductory throwing system: I. Speed and its companion, movement. 2. Sound basis for future development. Therefore the reasons are simple enough(a) For power there must be distance and turning through the increasing distance as the opponent moves away gives momentum and hence power. (b) If there is no 'turning power' when throwing backwardsomething must be substituted, so waiting for the opponent to come forward givesjust such an opportunity for 'impact power' .

140

JUDO FOR THE WEST

NE-WAZA To make a similar kind of system concerned with ne-waza, as I did with nage-waza, was very difficult. The basic obstacle to the establishment of such a system was coping with the multitudinous directions of possible attack. In tachi-waza the attacking direction is restricted to the horizontal (parallel with the ground)-due one could say to the limitations imposed by gravity. In ne-waza, however, there is no such limitation; the attack can come from any direction relative to the man attacked-down, up, sideways, to the rear and so on. Initially I tried to group the various techniques into three, as I had done with the throws, but it was impossible due to the wide range of movement suggested above. After giving the matter a lvt of thought, certain general points began to emerge which would have to be incorporated into any similar system devised. These points were: I. Some kind of directional grouping for ease of reference and teaching. 2. Technique would have to be taught as a part of movement. It was quite clear to me that the past way of teaching ne-waza techniques in isolation (e.g. first kesa-gatame then kata-gatame) was not the best way of achieving the best results. It stultifies movement and limits skill; people who had learnt this way just had no conception of movement on the ground. 3. In addition to the obvious advantages (to me) of using the Direct Method approach to ne-waza instruction, I can see a great future for the Project Method in this sphere of teaching. 4. Certain psychological factors implicit in ne-waza could easily be taken advantage of. For example, look first at the way holds were taught in the past. A specific hold was taught (e.g. kesa-gatame). Because of the introduction used it was supposed to work! If it did not (and this was often the case) the student would mentally cast doubts on the efficiency of the hold, first because it had been proved to him that it did not actually work (in spite of what he had been told) and then-far more insidious -he would cast. doubts on the ability of the instructor-for teaching him such a rotten hold anyway. By allowing the class to establish its own standards, by letting them discover, or experiment with, their own type of holding (possibly having seen a rough picture shown by the coach as

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some initial guide) the coach can only improve upon their efforts and in this way not only does the class acquire confidence in the coach, but really does improve, once they understand what they are trying to do. Introduction to a System. By keeping all the various points in mind and after some experimentation, a system of sorts began to emerge; not nearly as clear-cut as the throwing system, but one which has proved just as effective. For convenience of reference, holdings (osaekomi) were divided into three positional types: I. 'Head-end' type: this refers to the kami-shiho form, where the holding is positional at the head end of the partner. 2. 'Side' type: obvious enough referring to the yoko-shiho form where the holder is positioned at the side of his partner. 3. 'On top' type: the tate-shiho form, where the holder is positioned on top of his partner to hold him down. Such a grouping does not cover all types of holding, but for all practical uses at the elementary stage it is quite adequate. Introduction to Osaekomi The principle of task-setting can be used from the very beginning. The class has explained to it the object of osaekomi, i.e. holding a man (approximately) on his back for a set period of time. The rules could also be given to show clearly the range and limitations of what can be done. The class members in pairs could then be asked how a man could be held very effectively on his back from a 'top end' position by holding only one part of his body. After some thought a few may hazard the right answer, holding the head under one arm. The coach could let the others try it and then ask if they could not foresee a hazard involved. It should be fairly obvious that the neck could be broken if the struggles of the partner were too violent. Could the essential quality of the hold be retained, but the holding of a limb introduced? The limb would obviate the dangerous aspect of the original hold. The class will try and achieve the task set; the coach will give appropriate advice as the occasion arises.

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Here is the pattern, the ensuing development is up to the coach. He could proceed from this (e.g. how would the partner try to break the hold established ?), or he could gradually merge it into a more orthodox gestalt approach. He could show the class what he wanted-a hold from the head-end, perhaps using the same kind of hold as they did at the outset! The pupil is asked to thrash about trying to escape and the coach moves even more and much faster in order to retain his controlling

front, still keeping 'bridged up', but facing the ground this time. Once the general idea has been driven home, the twist over from the 'bridge' position can be made more important. The turn over must be strong; one foot kept still whilst the other foot really drives the body over on to its front. This is to be the escaping action. When the action is strong, they can go back to their pairs, one holding whilst the other one tries to bridge and turn over. Probably, initially, the twist-over and the bridge will be done very slowly and therefore it will be ineffective, for the other man can easily adjust and stop its completion. However, the man underneath must be encouraged to try and

position.

THIS DEMONSTRATION OF MOVEMENT IS VERY IMPORTANT.

Fig

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I:2

The class must be firmly impressed that lots of movement is an intrinsic part of any effective hold. The class will then attempt to duplicate the activity in its own way. When they have all tried upon each other, the coach stops them and shows them what he actually wants-perhaps an orthodox kuzure-kami-shiho-gatame, although he does not necessarily give the name (Fig. 12). Most of the class ought to have arrived at something like this on their own anyway, after the verbal description and demonstration. Having tried the correct form the coach will then give one or two specific points for the class to learn and which are essential to the technique. The next step, as with the tachi-waza, will be to help the other man, in this case the man underneath, to give him some idea how to try and escape from the hold. The basic movement to all escaping methods is the 'bridge' (Fig. 13). This can be tried in individual movement first. Each tries to get himself up into a bridge (most ought to manage it well enough). For a variation on a theme they can do a headstand first (it will help them towards a greater body awareness too) and then fall over into the bridge. They can try to twist over on to their

Fig I3 The 'bridge'.

find ways of doing it unexpectedly; lots of general wriggling first and then quite suddenly a big arch and twist: or he can even try to turn one way and then, when the other man is really pushing him back, suddenly change and twist the other way. This is real judo 'cunning' and many of them should be capable of doing it with a little practice. Any hold can be taught in this way, showing the class what is wanted and then letting them try. The coach then selects for emphasis one or two points essential to the technique. These are included in a free movement attempt to see if they can be retained in a 'heaving and pushing' session-a typical wholepart-whole approach. The avoidance is then taught with as much range of movement as possible, but invariably the 'bridge' will be the essence of the move.

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made would then have to be on the basis of what the individuals produced spontaneously. As mentioned at the start of this section, the whole link could be tackled on the basis of setting the class a problem in linkage, with no help (demonstrations) from the coach at all. The project could take the form of, 'Link two attacking movements, (one from Group 2 and one from Group 3) with avoidance moves in between attacks'. A more involved example could be, 'Starting ITom Group I, link any four attacking movements from the other two groups, with appropriate avoidances'. Initially, the individuals in each pair would have to co-operate and help each other (not a bad thing in my mind! It is not good to stress competition always). Then, as they discover how to solve the problem, they can start putting it into a competitive situation. It goes without saying of course that eventually the link must be attempted in free movement-randon. Linked Technique NE-WAZA

In some ways it is even more important to teach ne-waza techniques in movement, than it is for nage-waza. It is so easy to be seduced and see ne-waza as a static performance, because the pace is so much slower than nage-waza. Certainly this has been true in the past, techniques taught in isolation with no reference to ways of getting from one position to another. Indeed the whole immobility aspect was underlined because the first holding technique always taught was kesagatame, a particularly 'dead-end' hold with virtually no possibility of development into other holding types. (For this reason I am completely against kesa-gatame as a first technique and I only teach it at an intermediate stage at the earliest.) The novice must be made to realize the importance of movement in ne-waza from the earliest possible moment. For this reason I feel the project approach on the ground has even greater potential benefit than in tachi-waza, because movement can be made so easily an intrinsic part of the project. (This type of approach to ne-waza is illustrated in the film I made for the B.J.A.) The actual teaching can conform to the general outline as given for nage-waza. For convenience' sake I will quickly outline the methods under the particular headings.

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WHOLE-PART-WHOLE

The coach will first show the link, with the aid of a class member. How to get from one hold to another will be shown clearly in the demonstration. The class are asked to duplicate it if possible, the coach helping when necessary. Make one or two specific points in each technique. 'BRIDGE'

PROJECT

The coach shows two forms of holding, the class trying both independently. They are then asked how to get from one to the other, beforethe first one is actually applied if possible. Again the coach will help each individual effort. 'OPEN' PROJECT

The coach will specify a starting hold, and then ask the class to get from that one to another, holding (from the side to the top for example). The class work it out for themselves as best they can. HOLDING-LOCKS

(NECK AND ARM)

I have not talked specifically about this aspect of katame-waza, but naturally they can be tackled in the same way as the holdings. For example, with kansetsu, the coach explains what the general principles of arm locks are, linear bending and radial twisting ofthe elbow. In pairs they can gently experiment with the range of the elbow joint, to find out how far the elbow can bend before it begins to hurt, and what sort of locks can be devised. Once this range is appreciated, they can begin to invent arm-locks of their own-with verbal guiding and nudging from the coach. Similarly with shime, the class experience the general principle, and then make up their own forms-with the help of the coach. Such projects as making up their own kansetsu and shime-waia can of course be a part of a normal project starting from an osae-komi position. There is an enormous range and variety possible in the use of project method on the ground. Transitionary Systems Finally, but by no means less important, the novice must learn to move easily and quickly ITom tachi-waza into ne-waza. This ability has always been very clearly appreciated in judo teaching circles, but it has never been really a strong suit

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of British judo players. The fault in my opinion was simple enough, it was always considered adequate to talk about it-it was never taught or practised. I say simple because just as the novice has to be taught to move from one throw to another, and from one hold to another, so he has to be taughthow to get from the vertical position to the horizontal-in the most expedient way for him! Keeping in mind the major objective of the elementary training-movement, transference methods are again best taught in a project manner. For example, throwing with a Group 2 attack, how can the thrower complete the movement in a holding at the head-end of his partner? The problem can only be solved by a large movement (some kind of cartwheel), otherwise the thrower will not get to the required position. So the type of movement produced is dependent upon the projects set by the coach. To ring the changes the coach can of course use the same methods as before-whole-part-whole, 'bridge' project and 'open' project-the application is for him to decide, as by now he will fully understand what is wanted.

who does not understand what it is trying to achieve, it could merely become another judo dogma, where one arbitrary movement is substituted for another and original thought is destroyed as in the past. If treated with thought the Group Method is very flexible, easily adaptable to any situation provided the principles and objectives are really understood. Everything in it has a purpose, nothing is included for its own sake, and when it is applied this must be understood. Because of the importance I attach to those objectives let me reiterate:

Coaching Hooks-Elementary This is just a simple list of points as a guide to what to look for in a novice: Posture: Should be up straight, with his chest open-in ne-waza too! Movement: Easy and fast, moving from the toes-in ne-waza too! The toes should be tucked forward, not out flat. Arms: Close to the body. They should not 'flap' in the air-in ne-waza too! Head: Kept up high during general movement. It will only lower (on to the chest) for a specific purpose. This applies in ne-waza too! CONCLUSION In this chapter I have tried to give a little background as well as the contents of the Group Method, to give some indication of how it was developed. For in my opinion it helps when a method is applied, if the background reasons for its existence are understood. For if the Group Method is applied by a man

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Objects of the Group Method I. To produce a wide range of movement with speed. 2. To achieve practical success as quickly as possiblesimplification. 3. To produce a sound movement basis upon which to build future skill. 4. To give enjoyment through activity and purposeful participation. The success of the Group Method has shown to what extent the objects have been achieved. How long the Group Method will retain the position of a good way of introducing people to judo, remains to be seen. Certainly it has served a very useful purpose and clearly shown its value. New thoughts and new approaches can always be found so that original ideas are improved upon. So with the Group Method. I hope it has not only helped the spreading of judo at a low level, but has also stimulated new thoughts on different ways of achieving success in skill training. It certainly has had this effect on me! From the Group Method, further thought and experiments led me to a method of which the project setting principle is the core. Who knows what will happen in the future! It is not the method used which is the object, but a higher and higher standard of judo skill and, better, more streamlined ways of achieving that skill.

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INTERMEDIATE JUDO

HERE,at the intermediate stage of skill learning the fascinating branches of coaching really start. Can the coach turn this fast-moving, crude technician into a polished performer? All the coach's wiles and guiles will be needed to do this. He has to push without pushing, he will have to cajole, coax and bully his pupils into improvement. In order to do this he will have to draw upon his whole store of experience and technical knowledge to find suitable 'pieces' for the individual. He will be faced continually with problems and disappointments (his best pupil will suddenly leave and take up ten-pin bowling). He must. overcome all these 'trials', keep his own stability and patience as well as improve his pupils. Progression is the key to any teaching programme, as I have tried to show in the preceding chapters. Each 'floor' must be well and soundly laid, so that the next 'floor' can be confidently laid on top of it. Full knowledge of the general basic points (e.g. speed, simplicity) made at the elementary stage will be taken for granted and the qualities and experience intrinsically incorporated in any further technical developments. In the elementary stage very little attention was paid to specific techniques or to the development of individual style. Within certain broad limits all were taught the same, no special effort was made to allow the individual to produce a style of his own (although the coach would naturally do this surreptitiously as he corrected any movement). But now the individual comes into his own; the coach starts to 'tailor-make' the throw to suit a particular individual and no one else. The coach has got to try and find 'short cuts' for the individual to achieve a higher standard of skill. Yet at the same time the coach must not fool himself, the student judo player will reach as high a standard as his 'ration' of enthusiasm will take him-without help from

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the coach ifneed be. If, however, the coach can supply him with 'short cuts' the 'ration of enthusiasm' may take the man higher than if he had been left on his own. As the moulding of technique takes place, with all the intricacies it entails, the two basic principles of the approach must not be forgotten-simplicity and progression. Simplicity now means that one point at a time must be taught to the trainee; he must not be bombarded with a series of technical factors only to confuse and muddle him. The coach must be able to decide what are the important points in a technique and mentally list them in order of priority so that the first point is the most important from the aspect of technique essence. The order and the ways these points are presented to the budding champion is of course the manifestation of progression. To illustrate how the loose jumping attacks of the Group Method can be modified to an intermediate standard, I have taken a movement from each group and started turning it into a technique. I have selected just two points for each transformation, not necessarily the first points chosen in every circumstance, but ones which will illustrate the type of change I mean at this level of instruction. EXAMPLE FROM GROUP I-TAI-OTOSm Points Selected for Instruction I. Modification:ModifYthe jump attack' to the 'step attack'. 2. Technicalpoint: The necessity of moving the weight from the left foot to the right foot during the throwing action. DEMONSTRATION

The instructor informs his group of the two points he is going to stress throughout the instruction on this throw-tai-otoshi. They are then told to watch for them as he performs the whole throw. He will repeat as often as he thinks necessary. CLASS WORK

1St Point

The class are allowed to try the throw themselves, incorporating as best they can the two points. After assessing the results the coach will take the points in sequence. First, whilst standing in

1 I

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pairs, the man designated as the attacker moves his right foot twelve to eighteen inches in front of his left foot. Then pivoting on the ball of his foot (right) he swings his left foot back outside his partner's left foot and rougWy in line with it. The right foot then moves outside the partner's right foot (care should be taken that the right foot does not go back PASTthe partner's right foot). The final position should look something like that in Plate 4. (Group Method). The class is told to repeat this 'three step' action several times till it is fairly consistent. Then, if the judo education has been sound, the class should start naturally to put some feeling of 'jumping' into the 'three step', but if not, the coach will tell them to do so. Here is where the jump of the introductory method is turned into the 'step attack' of the intermediate. This means that the step instead of being the rather ponderous 'plonk, plonk' of a physical illiterate (as was the usual product of the past system) it becomes a fast skip-in with the benefits of both methods. The class can then be told to try the 'step jump' in free movement. The general opportunity will still be when the opponent is going backwards. As he does so the attacker skips in, with his right foot initiating the movement. When all have tried, taking it in turns, restrictions can be taken off and they all try in their own time. 2nd Point Mter such a 'tree-for-all' the second point can be broached. The coach will see that all the class are in a position to see what he is about to do. The coach will demonstrate it clearly: he steps in as before and as the left foot slides back into position, the body weight swings across on to the right foot. This action means that the whole of the body weight of the attacker is thrown against the left side of the opponent, so driving him to his right front corner. The action is then done at normal speed, the point being made again that it is the attacking action (the dynamic moving of the weight forward and out on to the right foot) which breaks the controlled posture of the opponent. The final position of the attacker is emphasized, because he will end up with the weight forward on the right knee (Fig. 14).

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Fig I4

The dass are spread out and then allowed to try the movement. The coach moves among them, helping each man to achieve the movement in his own particular way. Initially of course the action can be tried without the finishing throwing action, but quite soon the throw must be completed. A habit of non-completion of a throw must not be allowed to gain a hold.

Fig Ij A. oommcm faalt In taI-ot081d, when the weight disposition is allow~ to go too far to the left.

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NOTE:

Sometimes more than two pointl can be considered at one time (if the additional point is very simple and comparatively uncomplieated). However, in general it it inadvisable, as the student is incapable of remembering more than two, and if he tries to will often end by forgetting all.

DEMONSTRATION

The instructor informs the class of the two points he intends to stress during the instruction; he then proceeds to illustrate them in a demonstration, asking the class to watch for the points he has mentioned. CLASS WORK

The class are allowed to try themselves with these two points in mind. After assessing the results the coach isolates the first point. Fig z6

A bad stade form of tai-otosld.

Non~: Many readers will note that this second 'technical point' is in direct contradiction to that advocated in most textbooks (which specify that the body weight is kept on the left foot during the whole of the attack, including completion (Figs. 15 and 16). The weakness of such a method in practice is usually that it either allows the opponent easily to step over the outstretched right leg or drags the attacker backwards, whereas the method advocated in the above complies with the basic factors as laid out in Chapter 2. Doing tai-otoshi this way will tend to take it out of the 'official' te-waza classification, into a koshi-waza one. However, what does it matter as long as it is effective? Most top-class Japanese do it this way (see Plates 54 and 56), so experience also seems to confirm this.

To complete the lesson, the instructor would get the class to practise the throw in randori, keeping their minds particularly on the two points covered. Only when a certain degree of ability to incorporate these two points had been acquired would the instructor move on. The next points will in turn build on to the two already covered.

EXAMPLE FROM GROUP 2-0-S0TO-GARI Points Selected Cor Instruction I. Modification:Accurate positioning of left leg. 2. TechnicalPoint: Sweeping action of the right leg.

1StPoint He selects a partner and stands facing him (feet opposite each other). The instructor shows how the left foot is raised and then placed somewhere in front of partner's left foot, but it is not just a question of putting the foot down, but rather stamping it down. This stamp throws the whole body forward with the right leg leading the whole movement. The action is stopped there. The class is told to spread out and practise the stamp plus the surge forward of the body. After the initial tentative trials the coach would point out that the jump action learnt in the elementary stage can now be put into this stamp. So the student jumps the left foot in place, which facilitates the stamp and also helps to throw the body forward. A small 'timing exercise' can be interpolated here for a change. The pairs are holding in the normal basic manner. Then in unison the attacker takes his right foot back, the opponent his left foot forward, the attacker moves his right foot forward, the opponent his left foot backwards. This is repeated quickly and easily-something like a 'half walk' (that is one foot is kept fixed to the ground, whilst the other moves backwards and forwards). The attacker, in his own time, waits till his opponent's left foot is about to move forward, then he jumps his left foot and throws his weight forward as he has practised before.

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2nd Point The second point is that the sweep of the right leg is big, back and up. The coach demonstrates how and when the body is thrown forward, by the stamp of the left foot, the right leg is thrown forward and upward. The body is arched forward in a 'power curve'. The sweeping action of the right leg is now emphasized. It is not simply back, but back and UP. A good tip is that the attacker should try to tickle the opponent under the chin with his right toes. With this strong swing back and up of the right leg, the attacker's body is thrown violently forward (see Plate 60). A useful tip at this stage oflearning is to use an 'anchor-man' (see Plate 53). In this way the attacker can try the throw 'fullblooded' with no worry as to the fate of his partner. Such a feeling of the real thing is essential in skill training (seeuchikomi, page 96) and this way it can be done with feeling. If the partner is left on his own, he can so easily be thrown very hard-not an incentive for good class work! The class is spread out and allowed to try on their own in their own time. The instructor moves around helping each man to achieve the required effect in his own way. When the class has acquired some facility in this sweeping action, the instructor will 'join' the two points together. The left foot will be jumped into place, the body thrown forward and the right leg swung well forward then swept back and up. To conclude, they can practise it in free movement, with the instructor seeing that the two points are included in the attacking movement. He should also watch for the too violent a throw and if necessary tone it down. (The 'anchor man' can be used during movement too.) Again it will be noticed that the two points selected are at odds with orthodox teaching. If the left foot is stepped forward alongside the opponent's right foot (as advocated in the past) the relative positions of the two men are the same and each has equal throwing opportunity (i.e. a kaeshi-waza on the part of the opponent) whereas by keeping the foot back as advocated here the relative position of the bodies are not the same; the straight left leg drive, with the resultant body weight movement into the direction of throws, conforms with the general factors laid out in Chapter 2, making a positive contribution to the throwing action.

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, I

Similarly with the second point-in the past it was advocated that the sweep should be simply backward, parallel with the ground. This is reasonable if the opponent's right leg is assumed to be stiff and unyielding, whereas if it is the leg of an experienced judo player it will be soft and mobile. For a positive effect to be made on the leg, irrespective of whether it be rigid or mobile, it is better if the sweep trys to lift the leg off the ground. EXAMPLE

FROM

GROUP

3-HARAI-GOSHI

Points Selected for Instruction I. Modification: Positioning of the left foot after the jump-attack. 2. Technical Point: Variations of the left leg sweep. Both these points appear very minor and only necessitate a slight variation on the normal Group Method instruction. However, I have selected these to show the wide range of choice available when modifying the crude jump-attack of the complete novice to a special performance by a more experienced player. DEMONSTRATION

The first point is that the left foot must land outside the opponent's left foot after the jump-attack has been made. This is to ensure that the weight is indeed thrown into the direction of the throw. The second point is the variation of leg sweep to cope with size, speed and reaction of opponent. The coach shows what is wanted, giving several examples of different kinds ofleg sweeps. The class are told to watch closely. CLASS WORK

1St Point The class, in pairs, jump forward simply trying to ensure that the left foot is outside the opponent's left foot, but with the hips still in deep-no throw. This can be far more difficult than it looks on paper, for it is essentially a dynamic movement. By definition the attacker is off-balance as he lands (that after all is the whole purpose of the off-centre landing!) so he will have difficulty in achieving anything of a posed position. However, if his partner braces up and stands very firm, he may be able to hold him up long enough to experience this

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off-balance position. As previously, immediately there is some facility performing it this way, then it must be done during movement. Again a throw is not necessary on this occasion, although it will probably happen in spite of their efforts if the movement happens to be achieved very well.

the left foot once in position, will tell the opponent that it has happened. Usually it is restricted to the harai-goshi/uchimata type of throw.

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2nd Point The coach tells the class how this will depend upon the size and flexibility of the individual, sometimes it will make contact high (on the opponent's leg), sometimes low, sometimes the man will wrap the leg round the opponent (as he sweeps), sometimes the leg is kept very straight, almost stiff, and so used to really knock the legs out from under the man. The coach then asks the class to experiment with all these types of sweep and see if they exhibit any particular preference. The coach then circulates trying to help the individual with his particular problem. Even though this is so individual, once there is any form of decision on the type of sweep preferred, then into movement it must go. Finally, of course, the two points are taken together, each man incorporating them into his attack, which he tries in randori. The coach will be standing by trying to help. HAIRI-KATA References have been made, mainly during this chapter, to the different possibilities of making an attack. The coach's job, of helping the individual to find his own way of doing this, requires a sound knowledge of all forms of hairi-kata. There are, of course, many ways of performing an attacking move, almost as many as there are people doing judo, but in general there can be considered four main types. No one is any better than any other; as always, the effectivenessof the movement is dependent on the man doing it. I. The Jwnp This is similar to that used in the elementary Group Method, only of course the whole thing is much more 'polished'. The left foot skims across the floor, with little variation in shoulder level during the movement (thus giving no 'warning' to the opponent through the hands). Only the thrust forward from

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2. The Three-Step The right foot moves across in front of the left foot, the left foot then moves back behind the right foot. The right foot then moves again into some kind of action-depending on the throw involved. This is probably the most 'popular' type of attacking movement, because it can be adapted to suit any throwing technique, irrespective of the direction required for the throw. It is so 'simple' that care must be taken that it does not get slow or slapdash. The necessity of speed in the other forms of hairi-kata is quite apparent, but in this form it can be overlooked. 3. The Direct Step The left foot shoots directly forward (in front of the right foot) slightly lowering the body automatically as it does so. The right leg is swung forwards in the (ever decreasing) gap between attacker's left leg and opponent's body. The right leg then does its 'specificjob'. This is a very fast attack (it has to be for it to work at all) and is usually restricted to the 'big' throws-harai-goshi/uchimata etc. It should be appreciated that it has certain limitations (in relation to change of direction), for the movement of the left leg forcibly throws the body weight away from the opponent, making any change of (throwing) direction impossible (on a large scale). For this reason the chances of backward throws are completely ruled out. However, for a few forward throws it is an extremely powerful movement. 4. Spin Turn or CrossStep The left foot moves first, crossing in front of the right foot. The right foot (and leg) is swung outwards and the body pivots on the ball of the left foot. The right leg is used initially to rotate the body round before it registers its effect on the opponent, and finally then it goes on to do its 'work' on the opponent. This is an extemely fast and spectacular movement and is usually preferred by the man with the naturally 'quicksilver-

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like' movement ('twinkle toes' is an apt name often used for him). It has quite a range of attacking direction capable of throwing forward or backward. When done by a very good man, almost any throwing technique can be 'welded' on to such a spin turn. All it requires is a man with lots of body control, and plenty of 'dash'. NOTE:

The preference shown by the individual for a particular type of attack is usually madeoutto be the result of size (e.g. the big man choosing the 'three step' and the small man the 'spin turn' as well as the type of throw involved). Although this is somewhat true, I feel what is far more relevant is the man's movement type (see Chapter 2) and his degree of flexibility. Ifa man is a very quick mover and flexible he will usually choose the spin turn (also if he has a touch of the flamboyant in his character!). If he tends to be slow and methodical, he will prefer the 'safer' 'three step' because it is so strong and dependable (like himself?). Often the movement type does go with size (the fast man is usually the small one) but not always; therefore I feel it is much more important that the coach thinks in terms of movement and flexibility rather than simple size when encouraging individuals to specialize in particular hairi-kata and throws.

COACHING POINTS FOR VARIOUS TECHNIQ.UES It would take far too long to analyse the many techniques in the form described earlier, so instead of this, I have chosen the most used techniques and have listed their best points as well as their weak ones, so that the coach can refer to them easily and choose the relevant ones for consideration. Remember, the intermediate class is still being considered, so advanced details are omitted. The following points are ones that the average green or blue belt should have 'built in' to his technique by the time he is ready for his 1StKyu. However, because a coach should always be looking ahead, there are three general points he should also be keeping in mind. The coach will not be teaching them as such, but rather surreptitiously encouraging them to happen by telling the students the three following 'tips'. They are quite general, apply to any technique and will lay the foundation for the advanced instruction later on. I. Head: Look where you are throwing (direction). 2. Hips: Keep them where you can see them (forward). 3. Hands: Keep hands and arms close to and in front of the body.

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Note I: All techniques described are performed on the normal right side. If the left side is required then the instruction need only be reversed. Note 2: The following is no attempt to describe or instruct as to what the various throws are. It is assumed that the reader (the coach) already knows what they are. It is for reference only.

TAI-OTOSHI Points to Encourage (See Plates 54-56) Attacking movement: The best opportunity in general is still when the opponent is moving backwards. However, others can now be tried. The one in which the opponent moves forward should be the least important. Whatever form of hairi-kata is chosen the left foot must always move forward to the opponent. Weight on toes all the time. Throwing movement:Weight to swing forward and out on to right foot. Right forearm to be kept alongside the opponent's left side. Tendency to finish on the right knee. Points to Discourage Attacking movement: Left foot not moving, the attacker simply pivoting on the left foot when the right foot is thrust forward. Elbows 'floating' away from the body or going in front of the opponent's chest. This generally means the hands are out of control. Weight on the heels, toes turned up in the air. Throwing movement: The right foot thrust back, past the opponent's right foot. The left leg collapsing so that the weight ends on the left knee. Attacker looking at his opponent. (and referback toFigs. 15 and 16)

TSURIKOMI-GOSHI Points to Encourage (See Plates 57 and 58) Attackingmovement:Opportunity same as in tai-otoshi. Throwingmovement:Right forearm kept against the left side of the opponent's body. Weight thrown forward over the right toes by driving off a straight left leg, which must be well past right foot. Hips well round (past the opponent if possible), whole back area of buttocks and part of the back to be in contact with the opponent. A 'last minute' tuck of the body will be needed to get the opponent on to his back. 6

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Points to Discourage Attacking Movement: Right arm kept straight, body too low (attacker keeping the knees bent). Left leg not far enough back (which would also mean that the hip turn would be restricted). ThrowingMovement:The left leg bending. Having the right foot in front of the left foot. No, or little, body turn. Right arm kept straight.

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the opponent's legs. Weight kept forward on the toes-during the whole throw. Throwing movement:Much the same as with tsurikomi-goshi. The weight is thrown forward over the right foot by the drive from the straight left leg. The right arm is kept close to the body and the left hand keeps pulling down hard. Once the opponent is off the ground the attacker tucks strongly.

COMMENT

Generally the 'tsurikomi' is taken to absurd lengths. Not only is it done at the start of the attack (as it should be) but it is maintained-or rather tried to be retained-throughout the whole movement. Once 'tsurikomi' has been performed, which is in the first moment of the attack in order to stiffen the opponent and allow the attacker to get into position, the hands get back to a position close to the body. One of the sources of such misleading instruction was undoubtedly the teaching of tsurikomi-goshi in nage-no-kata many years ago. Before the present form of nage-no-kata it was considered that the essential principle of the technique could best be shown ifuke resisted an initial attack, tori would then lower his body and wheel him (uke) over the hips. The relative position and the dropping action of tori silhouetting as it were, the hand action, clearly showed 'tsurikomi'. Because of the poor understanding of kata, this illustrative circumstance was mistaken for the technique itself and tsurikomi came to mean 'resisting hip' -a completely wrong interpretation. 'Tsurikomi' is to lift-pull, the action of the angler when he plays his catch-a 'fishing' action. It has no reference to the opponent in terms of body relationships. SEOI-NAGE (IPPON) Points to Encourage (See Plate 59) Attacking movement: Opportunity is as usual when the opponent is moving backwards, but it can be extended to either side (the least effective is when the opponent is coming forward). The left hand pulls forward and downwards. The body is thrown forward (towards the opponent) then downwards. The whole body is turned completely round and is 'balled' up in front of

Points to Discourage Attacking Movement:The pull of the left hand going upwards. The left foot failing to move back into the attack. The body not far enough round so that only the right shoulder is in contact with the opponent with the right arm loosely hanging down. Body bent forward at the hips, leaving the opponent behind and so losing contact. ThrowingMovement:Legs straightening, trying to lift the man off the ground (this also has the side effect of losing contact with the opponent). Weight back on the heels. COMMENT

I'I I I I

There are several versions or modifications of this technique, morote-seoi-nage, where the attacker holds with both hands (in the normal way). It is very seldom used because of the difficulty of getting the right elbow in position (in the opponent's right armpit), and also the frequent injury caused once having got it there. Hence the reason ippon-seoi is usually preferred. For the other variations see the glossary. Many misconceptions have grown up around this throw in spite of the many action pictures available. The main one, of course, is the business of the attacker trying to pick the opponent up, which (in actual fact) always helped the opponent to step round it. Pulling down is easier and more efficient-both physically and technically (see page 83). Another 'chestnut' is that such a throw is restricted to small men only. This of coursejust does not follow. Many big men in Japan use it (Daigo being a good example). The choice is dependent upon two things, the man's flexibility: whether he can get into position quickly and easily, and the tactical

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surprise of the big man doing what he is not supposed to be capable of. The latter consideration can have a great effect upon the choice of technique. O-SOTO-GARI Points to Encourage (See Plates 60-63) Attacking movement:As the opponent comes forward or as he changes direction (first going back then as he starts to come forward). Left foot keeps well away from the opponent, stamps the ground and drives the body forward. The left hand pulls low across the chest. The attacker's body can be anywhere within the range of facing the opponent (square on) to almost a right angle turn to the opponent's right side. Throwingmovement:The right leg is thrown forward, with toes pointed. The leg sweeps backwards, and as contact is made with the opponent's right leg the direction is changed to UP. Toes pointed well throughout. With the sweep the trunk of the body is thrown forward and downward from the straight left leg so that the weight finishes well forward on the toes. Points to Discourage Attacking movement:Left foot moving too close to opponent (facilitating kaeshi-waza). Shoulders leading the attack (i.e. bottom poking backwards). Body held too stiff. Left arm raised high away from the body. Throwingmovement:The right leg held too stiff with toes hooked up forward, making the sweep very stiff and restricted. Body weight back on the left heel, shown by the left toes off the ground. COMMENT

Although this technique is possibly one of the strongest in the judo repertoire, it is very seldom attempted (in Britain). This is almost certainly due to the general lack of appreciation of the qualities of the throw, and because of the application of misunderstood principles. O-soto-gari has always been considered to be a near-impossible throw to execute, because of the past poor methods of teaching it. Correct understanding would bring a great increase in effectiveness.

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O-UCID-GARI

Points to Encourage (See Plates 64 and 65) Attacking movement: The left foot must move (with stamp) preferably somewhere in front of the opponent's left foot. Hips and right foot thrown forward into the attack. Arms kept close to the body. Sweep to be big, back and up, with toes pointed. Throwingmovement:The arch of the back, the power curve, to be maintained throughout the whole throwing action. Arms to be pressing down close to the body. Direction of thrust, preferably, but not necessarily, to opponent's left back corner. Points to Discourage (See Fig 17) Attackingmovement:The left foot moving in close to the body and with no 'power stamp'. Body bent forward. Elbows high in the air. Throwingmovement:Body bent forward, so directing the attack in the wrong direction. No movement in the right foot. COMMENT

The sweeping action of the right leg is the crux of this technique, its direction is complicated, for it is wide (tending to 'split the opponent in two') back (to the opponent's front) and finally up, lifting the opponent's left foot off the ground. Yet the back of the attacker must be kept hollow throughout this sweeping movement. A point of interest is if, when the exact same movement is used and the opponent is thrown over his right foot-instead of his left-it can be called o-uchi. harai. The name well illustrates how close the sweeping action of the right leg in o-uchi-gari is to the sweep in harai-goshi. So although I have said it is generally a bad point to throw to the opponent's right back corner, provided such an action can be made a strong one (by maintaining the power curve) it can be turned to advantage, but it does mean full participation (see Plate 65).

NOTE:

KO-UCHI-GARI

Points to Encourage Attackingmovement:The left foot must move and move with a stamp, somewhere in front of the opponent's right foot.

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The head is kept high at this stage. Throwingmovement:As the body weight 'hits' the opponent with the hips well forward the right foot sweepshis right foot forward and up.

and falling away from the opponent, out of control. Throwingmovement:Contact point of sweep too high (approximately knee level). This will have the effect of simply bending the opponent's leg, making the man crumple to the floor.

Points to Discourage Attacking movement: The left foot not moving, the attacker simply lurching forward and hooking at the opponent's right foot. The shoulders leading the attack (body arched forward). Arms 'flapping' away from the body. Body allowed to turn (roll) too far to the left during the initial stages of the attack (which should be controlled by the head) which would mean that when the reap is made with the right foot the body weight is out of control and the attacker falls 'away' from the opponent (to the attacker's back) so losing all the power needed for the completion of the throw. NOTE:The actual action of the sweep has several variations, the main two being tbat it is done eitber with the sole oftbe (right) foot, or tbe heel (Achilles tendon). There is no intrinsic advantage in either metbod, as it always happens as a product of tbe type of movement used by the individual. As a general guide, the sole-of-tbefoot method is preferred by the big man, because the sole of the foot does not entail such a deep insertion, a point to be considered by the man witb long or big legs; whereas if the sole method is used by tbe small man it can mean he has a greater chance of missing the foot (due to his short legs). Hence he will usually prefer to play safe and use virtually the whole of his leg. However, this is only a guide; there are many exceptions.

KO.SOTO.GARI Points to Encourage Attacking movement:The left foot must move with a stamp, somewhere in front of the opponent's left foot. The body weight and right foot (leg) is thrown forward. Arms kept in close to the body. Body kept facing the opponent. Throwingmovement:The sweep of the right foot should be as close to the ground as possible and the whole body weight bearing down on the opponent's left foot. Again the sweep is forward and up. Points to Discourage Attackingmovement:The left foot not moving. Shoulders leading the attack. Arms 'flapping'. Body turning (rolling) too much

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COMMENT

The detailed action of the sweep is the same as ko-uchi, that is, it can be done with either the sole of the foot, or the heel. The choice is entirely the performer's. Again, the preference will generally depend upon size-the big man usually using the sole and the small man the heel. GENERAL NOTES

The following is related to the last four techniques-the backward throws: 1. Again let me stress that the coach should show the class how similar these techniques are, especially the initial attacking movements (indeed the opponent should have little opportunity of guessing, by the movement, which throw will finally develop). The left foot should alwaysmove in such a way that it stamps or drives the body forward into the attack. This raises the next point. 2. The body should always be arched forward (power curve) into the sweeping action of the right leg or foot. The body weight is made to 'hang' directly on the front of the opponent, so that the body arch is 'dragging' him down into the ground, the sweep of the right leg then simply knocks one of the supporting legs out from under him. It should be stressed too that the attacker's body does not 'pull back' by bending at the hips (Fig. 17) but always has the back arched showing full commitment. 3. The 'garis' and the 'gakes' should be distinguished, as often there is much confusion around them, e.g. o-soto-gari and o-soto-gake, ko-uchi-gari and ko-uchi-gake. The differentiation is quite simple. In the garis the opponent's body is held still whilst the legs are swept from under him, whereas in the gakes the legs are held still and the opponent's body driven past them. For example, in ko-uchi-gari-the opponent's right foot is swept forward out from under him, whereas in ko-uchi-gake the same right foot is trapped by the attacker's right foot, and

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then the attacker's weight is thrown against the opponent driving him backwards over the 'fixed' foot. As a general guide-and it is only general-the gake's are used against a 'heavy' (not necessarily bulky) defensive person, and the garis against a 'light' quick-moving opponent. For further definitions see glossary.

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weight falling forward and sideways over the straight left leg. The left leg is kept straight throughout, especially at completion of the throw-so that the attacker is supported on his toes.

The thrower shouldfinishleaning overhis opponent, but not on hi m.,

Points to Discourage Attacking movement: The left foot not moving forward into attack. The turn consisting simply of a pivot on the left foot. The body 'broken' at the hips, bottom jutting to the rear. Throwing movement: The left leg bent too much (generally meaning it collapses at the end of the throwing attempt). The body weight too far back, so that the weight is on the heels (usually a result ofa combination of the hips poking backwards and the left leg bent). Watch for the left toes being off the ground, as a general indication of the fault. Hands allowed to fall behind the attacker's body, so losing contact with him (another result of backward jutting hips). Curling forward of the right toes during the sweep, indicating that the leg is in the wrong kind of tension. COMMENT

Fig I7 Ouchi-gari. A very bad onel Weight pulling back out of the throw, arms away from the body

HARAI-Gosm Points to Encourage (See Plates 66 and 67) Attackingmovement:Opportunity is still best when the opponent is moving somewhat backwards, although if a spin turn is used it is usually done on the change of direction-moving backwards initially and then as the opponent starts to move forward, the turn begins. The left foot (whichever hairi-kata is used) must move in close to the opponent. Throwing movement:The sweep of the right leg must be big, going forward first before going back to take the opponent's legs. The toes must be pointed. The hands and arms must be kept close to the body, so that the opponent is not allowed to 'drift' away. When the attacker bends forward (in order to throw) the opponent too must go forward, the whole body

Many who try harai-goshi (particularly in Britain) do in fact simply raise the right leg to the side in which case-if it is similar to anything-it would be more like o-guruma than harai-goshi. It is weak, because it is unintentional. The leg is supposed to be sweeping! Yet the same thing sometimes happens with skilled exponents of harai-goshi, but for a different reason -now, because it is intentional, it is strong. If the attacker has chosen (for one reason or another) to use the jacking-up method of attack (see page 75) instinctively he wants to put all his effort into the lifting left leg and therefore there is little effort left for the right leg to sweep, it moves up from the ground giving minimal sweep. It then serves the very useful purpose of acting like a 'bar' over which the opponent is rolled.

UCIU.MATA Points to Encourage (See Plates 68 and 69) Attacking movement:In general the points are the same as for harai-goshi, the two main points of difference being the body

.,..

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contact and the position of the right leg (which must still swing forward before going back). Throwingmovement:The actual contact point can be left to the advanced stage; the sweep of the right goes in between the opponent's legs and can contact either on the top of the opponent's right or left thigh. This in turn will depend on whether the contact of the attacker is deep (hips right across), or shallow (hips only contacting opponent's left hip).

attempting to make the opponent roll off the leg, as he would from a log (see Plate 69). Men who attack the inside of the right leg usually also like harai-goshi as with a very slight modification of the sweeping right leg, it can be made to go outside-so having two opportunities for the price of one. Remember the above are only generalizations and should not be taken as dogmatic. To reiterate, it is essentially a question of personal preference. The coach must help the student to select the best way for him.

Points to Discourage The same as with harai-goshi. In addition, it must be appreciated that there is a potential injury factor with the sweeping action of the right leg. In unfortunate circumstances a blow can be given to the testicles, and much complaining is done! It is usually the result of a poor sweep by the right leg-in the sense that the sweep is isolated to the leg with no body movement. The sweep must be done with the whole body. As the leg goes up, the body must swing forward and down. In this way the hip of the attacker makes contact first and begins to move the opponent before the leg actually gets high enough to do any damage. The right leg really only helps the hip to do its job of pushing the opponent forward and then tips him over on to his back. With such a full-blooded and fully participating swing the risk of injury is minimal (see Plate 68).

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HANE-GOSHI Points to Encourage (See Plate 70) Attacking movement: The same as with the previous two techniques. The right leg makes contact down the whole inside length of the opponent's right leg. Throwing movement: There is no lift, the opponent's legs are simply knocked from under him (with the right leg) and he falls down. Points to Discourage Attacking movement: The same as with the previous two techniques. Throwing movement: The right leg bent too much and so striking the opponent too high-above the knees.

COMMENT

The contact point of the sweeping right leg varies much with the individual. It can be anywhere from the left ankle (of the opponent) round to his right knee. Each is a personal preference based, as usual, on individual movement characteristics. Here are some general reasons for the various positions. Low on the opponent's left leg at, or below, the left knee: This generally results from a spin-turn by smaller men, or against a man in crouching posture. The action of the sweep is (to try) to split the opponent apart. By sweeping out and up, it will pull the opponent's right foot under his body, so making him fall. High on the opponent's left or right leg (above either knee): Generally preferred by the big man or the non-flexible type, from a 'direct' or 'three step' attack. The sweep is straight up,

COMMENT

Usually preferred by big men. Often used from a direct step-in attack. In practice it is often difficult to distinguish it from uchi-mata (on the right thigh). (Not important anyway, as long as the opponent is thrown!) A general guide is that if the sweeping right leg 'misses' the opponent's right shin and just catches the thigh as it goes past, then it is uchi-mata. If it takes the opponent's right leg with it as it sweeps back, then it is hane-goshi. GENERAL NOTES

Related only to the last three techniques. In practice these techniques usually merge in together, with a very hazy demarcation between them. The big man who does

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one will often, quite unconsciously, do the others. He merely sets a type of attacking movement in motion and then leaves it to the opponent's reactions to decide which one materializes. The adjustment or modification to the movement would be completely automatic. Often in this type of attack the coach will be asked what the attacker can do when the opponent keeps his arms stiff, straight out in front of him. There is very little that can be done at such a late stage in the student's progress. It is a symptom of a poor basic education on both men's parts (the attacker's and the opponent's-see page 69). However, to give some help, the hips must move first so that they move forward and below the stiff arms. The chest must be open (see Chapter 2). Other Techniques Not Listed If the coach's education has been sound (see Chapter 2) he should be capable of working out the essential ingredients of all the throws listed in a comprehensive textbook (e.g. the gokyo, a list of the forty standard throwing techniques (seepage 201). With understanding of the general basic factors of movement the coach should be able to apply them to any technique, create a true picture of it 'in his head' and pass the information on to his students in an understandable form-be it tawara-gaeshi, or deashi-harai, or kani-hasami. To help with the task I have put down, more as hints than particular definitions, notes on the various groups not covered in the above lists. The reader may find them of some use. Asm-wAZA The reader will note that no mention has been made of this group of throws, particularly of the ashikubi variety. It has been purposeful of course, not accidental. In the past, ankle throws (to give them their generally accepted title) have been the first taught among the throwing techniques. It was probably thought easier to learn because of the simplicity of the movement. In addition to this being untrue, it bred a very 'lazy' kind of movement. The novice had only to stand still and lash out with one foot (trying literally to kick the opponent's feet from under him!) hardly conducive to good constructive

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movement. In addition, as a subsidiary effect (but not so subsidiary for the receiver) it raised enormous bruises on the opponent's shins, which generally had the effect of taking his mind off skill learning ! Because of these two main defects, it is better if these ashi-waza are left till much later in a judo player's training (around 1st Kyu standard). It is much more important that the student concentrates on and fully appreciates the larger types of movement involved in the 'bigger' techniques. Mter all, it should be appreciated that these ankle techniques are among the most difficult in the judo repertoire. Consider the importance of timing; the throws can only take place in a particular instant of time (e.g. deashi-harai, just as the opponent's advancing foot is about to touch the floor, a moment too soon his weight is on the other foot and he lifts the attacked one, a moment too late and the foot is on the floor and immovable). If there is even a slight miscalculation with the timing the throw cannot work. It is far too much to ask of the novice (of under 1st Kyu). Only really skilled men can ever seriously attempt these throws (and even then they invariably 'cheat' by making it a form of sasai tsurikomi-ashi, when the attacked foot is resting on the floor.) No, it is much better, from all points of view, if this range of throws are left till later in the student's development. Now having completely withdrawn ankle-throws from the early teaching programme, let me list some points which can be considered, if the coach for one reason or another has got to correct these techniques. Points to Encourage The feet must still move close to the opponent, which means the right foot steps in close, generally on the outside of the opponent's left foot, but sometimes on the inside depending on the flexibility of the attacker. The right leg is immediately driven straight and the weight falls off it in the direction of the throw. The hips go well forward (in actual fact taking the foot into position, as with any other technique). The hands pull forward and downward, strongly (the actual direction depending on

the technique being used). The sole of the left foot should be used for whatever purpose it is intended for (blocking, sweeping,

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pulling) (see Plate 7I). The general body movement is, In other words, the same as for all other techniques. Points to Discourage The right foot staying a long way from the opponent. The body-weight kept over the right foot. The body broken forward at the hips. The arms working away from the body. There are many techniques grouped under the heading of ashi-waza which have nothing to do with 'ankle kicking' techniques. The 'postponement rule' naturally does not apply to these. Throws like ashi-guruma, for example, usually done from a spin turn, when the opponent is spun over a leg which is thrust across in front of him (with no body contact) is an excellent throw for the intermediate student to learn.

SUTEMI-WAZA Here is a large group of throws in which the attacker throws himself down in order to throw his opponent. A group more for the advanced student, but certain of them can be attempted by the less experienced player. Such techniques have two major disadvantages; one is that if the attack fails the attacker is invariably in a very poor position (on his back) and so of great benefit to the opponent. Second, the risk of injury to the attacker (as well as the opponent) is great. Ifthe attacker is rather unskilled at controlling the falling direction of the opponent, he usually manages to pull him straight on top of himself, with disastrous results-knees and feet smite him in ribs and face! The general rules are exactly the same when considering the correction of these techniques. The hips initiate the attack, taking the feet in close to the opponent. The hips being forward ensures that the whole weight is 'hanging' on the opponent, pulling him forward, coming off a straight driving leg. The throwing action does not attempt to lift the opponent up, but simply attempts to drive him forward over the attacker's body. Hands pull him closer and in close to the body. On completion of the throw the hips should be off the ground.

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KAESID-WAZA

The throwing techniques known as kaeshi have not been covered in detail either, but again it is the appreciation of the general principle rather than the rote learning of specific details. Counter-attacks are as much a way of thinking as a way of doing. It is the job of the coach to teach his students this attitude of mind rather than the particular technique. If a man is trained in such a way that he is able to keep his mind active, aggressive and positive during the whole time of competition (be it randori or shiai) as is the object of the Elementary Stage, it will be comparatively easy for him to use the same methods (as in general attacks) in order to 'turn the tables' on his opponent. The various 'avoidance movements' already learnt will need only a minimal modification to convert them into dynamic counter-attacks. Take, for example, utsuri-goshi, which can be looked on as just a special kind of harai-goshi. The opponent attacks and with that same effort the defender whips him into the air and then steps in front of him for a (left-sided) harai-goshi. Or again o-soto-gaeshi, one man attacks with o-soto, the defender, 'knowing' he has to get his left foot round in front of the attacker, 'rides' the throw (as he did in

Group

avoidance movement) and swingshis left foot away

round and back so that he ends in a position relative to the opponent, siInilar to that of a straight attack. Or take a more involved counter, to an uchimata. The man attacks, the defender, having a 'nimble' mind, jumps forward over the sweeping leg, 'feels' the opportunity and quickly sticks his left leg out into a (left handed) tai-otoshi. Such movements can only be a product of the right kind of education and it is the coach's job to supply it. NE-WAZA

Let us now consider the application of the same ideas to ne-waza technique. The same general approach is used as when converting elementary nage-waza into the more specific intermediate type. That is, the loose, big movements are now 'smoothed-down' into specific techniques, and the range of technique is extended.

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In the elementary stage of learning the onus of movement was usually carried by one man, the other doing only sufficient to stimulate him into the required action. In the intermediate stage, both have equal shares to do as well as learning and executing improvements upon the general form of technique. The larger numbers of techniques are still taught in general movement patterns, because this, I consider, is an essential ingredient to any part of ne-waza technique. Not that the students would be expected to be able to apply these specific sequences in competition, but the method of applying the techniques would, it is hoped, titivate his individual imagination. What follows is a typical example of such a sequence. The initial object is still to get technique as a product of movement rather than movement as a product of technique. The principle of the whole-part-whole is still followed and therefore the movement pattern is shown first and the technical points added after. Finally the movement plus the technique is practised.

A then changes his position till he is facing B, at right-angles to him (still kneeling). A then reaches forward (with both hands) under B's body and pulls B's left arm under him. A turns B over. As B rolls over, A moves quickly over him (head-end) arriving at a position on B's right side, laying on his back at right-angles to B's head, with his head furthest away. By that time B is on his back. A's legs will be across B's body with B's right arm in between his legs. B then turns or twists to his left, so that he comes up on to his knees between the legs of A. The positions are now, as they were at the start, but reversed and the whole movement pattern can be repeated, so that each man can experience both 'sides' of the movement. When the movement is easy and smooth the coach can take it apart and separate it into its various individual techniques. Here are the techniques in the order listed but, initially, they should be treated separately and only when all are done on their own should they be put back into the 'whole' of the movement pattern.

176

A Ne-waza Sequence for an Intermediate Student The two participants, for ease of reference, shall be called A and B. The first stage is to simply establish the movement pattern-devoid of any technique. THE START

A is kneeling between B's legs. A holds B's belt with both hands -any way. A steps over B's right leg (with his left leg first) maintaining kneeling position. A stops when he is at right-angles to B. A then rolls forward over B. A follows this by rolling to his left side and gets himself in a position kneeling above B's head (the two bodies should be roughly in line). B raises his legs and swings them over his right shoulder. B finishes kneeling at A's right side, both now kneeling alongside each other (facing the same way). B reaches across A's back with his left arm. A holds the arm and rolls to his left, rolling B as well. A stops when he gets on his back (only a half roll). The hold is released and BOTHroll back (to their right) so resuming the next-to-each-other kneeling position, again facing the same way.

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Breaking out from between the opponent's legs. (Plate 42) The opponent A is between B's legs, B holding tightly with arms with legs wrapped around A (pulling A down towards his chest). The first objective of A is to get himself back on balance, on his heels (as B'sjob is to try to keep him forward offbalance). A reaches under his own body and holds B's belt with both hands, palms downwards, next to each other. By driving downwards and upwards A pushes himself up straight (on to his heels). As this happens, he raises his right knee by standing on the right foot. Both elbows are placed inside B's thigh and pushed downwards, so opening B's legs. When the legs are as far apart as A can get them, B's right thigh is pushed on to the ground. A then, using his left knee, pushes his own left elbows off B's right thigh, so that he is now kneelingacross B's thigh (pinning it underneath his instep (Plate 43). The right hand of A is now freed from the belt and placed on the ground (as a fist) at the spot where B's thigh joins his trunk (its purpose is to stop B swinging round). A's right leg is then swung over B's right leg, which is still held by A's left leg. Immediately it is free, A's

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left leg is also swung away. The other hand of A (his left) is released and by pivoting on B, A should be free ofB's legs and in some kind of kami-shiho position. NOTEI: The opening ofB's thigh can be very painful and therefore care should be taken in the early stages of learning. NOTE2: When swinging out from between the legs, A's right leg must be freed or moved before the left, otherwise B will be able to catch A's right leg as he tries to take it over B's right leg. SECOND TECHNIQUE

A TypicalNe-waza Trap B, who is on his back with A in between his legs, by maintaining a hard pull on A's jacket, keeps A's head down on his chest. Whilst in this position, B puts the fingers of his right hand (palm upwards) in the back of A's collar (at the back of A's neck). B then puts the thumb of his left hand inside A's collar right next to his own right hand (Plate 43). Both ofB's elbows are kept well up and away from A's neck, so that he gives no indication that a neck-lock is being planned for. B allows the struggle to continue; he must not let the next step appear too easy or too obvious, because it is the trap! During the struggle he lets A force his (B's) right leg out straight so that A can 'climb over' it, and escape from between B's legs. It is up to B to see that the escape looks (and feels) hard-earned. A, because of his hard effort to escape, moves very quickly up towards B's head (possibly for some kind of kami-shiho). As A moves up, B quickly throws his right forearm across A's throat (the hands remain exactly as they are). By pushing up with the right elbow and pulling down with the left hand, B applies a very strong neck-lock (Plate 44). NOTE:It is a form of Kataju-ji-jime, and is very strong because A applies it in fact. The faster he comes out from between B's legs the harder it is applied. So again, in the early stages of learning, a little care is a good thing! The whole trick depends upon how well B can make the escape look like A's work. The more it seems to be A's effort the better chance there is of it coming off.

INTERMEDIATEJUDO

have any chance at all he must move before B's right elbow drives up across his throat. Therefore, as soon as he realizes what is about to happen (and he must have his wits about him, or he will not recognize the danger) he must quickly duck his head between the forearms of B and dive forward into a somersault. The duck and dive should have the effect of 'unwinding' the scissor-likeaction of B's forearms, and stopping the application of the lock. Speed and anticipation are the key. Always think in terms of attack. Therefore as soon as A finds himself out of danger he immediately counter-attacks; he rolls to his left and then dives back on top of B, trying to get some form of kami-shiho. FOURTH TECHNIQUE Escape from

THIRD TECHNIQUE

As with any lock, the escape has got to be done before it is actually applied. Once applied, anything is too late apart from tapping. So, taking the above as a typical example, if A is to

Osae-waza

This method is somewhat different from the basic 'bridge' pattern as shown in the elementary stage. The principle of this method is to try and establish an 'anchor point' on the opponent's body as far from the centre of holding as possible, and then by pulling on this 'anchor point' to pull oneself out from under. There are many ways of doing this (a good example of 'project'-ask the class to find the different ways of doing it) and here is a typical example. We will assume that A is holding in some kind of kami-shiho, with his knees tucked forward under him. (In practice, of course, B may have to force him, by various methods, to adapt this kind of position). B will struggle, attempting not just this one way, but several (hoping that one will actually work). But in this instance, during the various struggles, he throws his legs up and over his right shoulder, hooking his left foot into A's right leg (Plate 45). Using this 'anchor point' B pulls his head and shoulder out from under A. NOTE:

Escape from Shime-waza

179

B will have to have quite a degree of flexibility! FIFTH TECHNIQUE

Shime-wazaftom a KneelingPosition A is kneeling on his elbows and knees in a defensive crouch. B attacks from the (A's) right-hand side. B works his right hand in under A's head at the neck region and holds deep on

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INTERMEDIATEJUDo

B's left collar, with the thumb inside. The left hand of B then

goes across A's back, round underA's left arm and holds A's right collar. Immediately the hand-hold is completed, B throws his left leg forward (going underneath the right leg) so that the whole of B's weight is thrown forward on to A's shoulders and pulls him forward on to his face. As this happens, B arches his back and pulls apart with his hands for a very strong neck-lock (Plate 46). NOTE:

It is of course okuri-eri-jime. The right hand of B must get into position

before the left. The footwork the opponent.

too is important,

SIXTH

for it hdps

to break

the posture

TECHNIQ.UE

Escapefrom Shime-waza

As before, the escape must be made before it is applied. Therefore, as B reaches across A's back in order to get a hold with his left hand A, anticipating quickly, pins B's left arm to his chest by pressing with his left arm (it should be above B's left elbow) (Plate 47). Holding tight with his left arm, A rolls fast and hard towards his left. If done with speed and confidence it becomes almost a makikomi and B can have a rather heavy landing. If so A can often take advantage of the situation and apply an ude-gatame to B's left arm. NOTE:

A can experiment with ways of doing the roll so that a throw is virtually

achieved. (For this reason the right hand of B should go into position first when applying the okuri-eri.) SEVENTH

TECHNIQ.UE

Breaking a Defensive Position and Applying an Arm Lock

A and B are kneeling on their elbows and knees right next to each other, facing the same way. A is on B's right. A moves away so that he is at right-angles to B at the shoulder level. A reaches forward with both hands, the right hand being above B's left arm, the left below B's left arm (Plate 48). He then clasps hands round B's left elbow, and starts pulling it along the ground towards himselÂŁ As he does so he drives forward off his feet, pushing B over with his chest. The pulling action of the hands and the pushing action of the chest should be enough to turn B over on to his back. As A rolls B over, he changes the hand position, so that he is now holding B's right wrist. As B rolls out on to his back, A

181

swings right over the top of him (at the head-end) and finishes with a straight arm-lock on B's right arm (Plate 49). NOTE:

It is of courseju-ji-gatame. The trickiestpart of this waza is the change of

hand-grip from the dbow of the left arm to the wrist of the right. But as always, practice will quickly sort the matter out.

The position of the finalju-ji-gatame is the man's own choice, depending on whether he wants one or two legs across the other man's body, but for the purpose of the exercise, one leg over the left is better. EIGHTH TECHNIQ.UE

Escape from anArmLock The general principle is the same as with shime. It must be avoided before it is actually applied. Once the lock is completed it is always advisable to simply tap! So taking the above as an example: As A drops back on to the lock (not afterhe has dropped back), B quickly turns to his left, taking his head back and under his right arm. He should then find himself lying on his face. In this case he pulls himself up on to his knees between A's legs (Plate 50). NOTE:The turn has got to be a very 'tight' one, that is, he must turn in on himself as it were. The tighter the turn the better the chance of success.

When the eight techniques have been learnt well separately, they can be put into the movement pattern taught at the outset. At first, it may be quite a slow ponderous movement from one to another, but with familiarity it should speed up until, eventually, both aspects of the sequence fit in nicely together. The time the sequence takes in teaching is up to the coach. He can either use the whole-part-whole approach, by covering the whole pattern first, and only then bringing in essential technical parts; or he can treat each technique separately and only at the completion of the set would they all be added together. Not the best way this, but a way. In the end the means may not be so important providing the principle of 'technique out of movement' is firmly understood. The coach can make up his own sequences, once he has the general idea, using whatever material he has. Or, possibly

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better still, he asks the class to make up their own. In this case he must make sure they have some 'bricks' with which to build. Perhaps this would be one of the more apparent reasons for teaching katame-no-kata. Such sequences can be longer or shorter than the example I have given above, depending on the standard of the class and the time available and the object set by the coach. Again let me emphasize it is not any particular sequence that the student is expected to learn, it is only the 'feeling' of being able to move easily from one technique to another. Watch any good ne-waza man, and in a very short time you can notice the pattern he prefers; he may like to start from on top, underneath, from the opponent's head, or from his side. Once the pattern is started it generally movesinextricably to the concluding holding or lock. The only time it does not, is when the other man gets his pattern to work quicker and more efficiently! It can be seen that ne-waza is the same as nage-waza, the better man is the one who is able to impose his particular movement pattern on the other. The technique as such may not be as good, but once one man starts following the pattern of the other, then it is only a question of time before he loses. Here too is why the two types of movement pattern (standing and lying) should not be completely separated. Training methods should always make sure that the two run into each other (by the coach teachinghow it must be done) so the men can learn to appreciate the variation in pace of the patterns, and how one can change from one into the other. For an exercise the coach can sometimesjoin up a tachi-waza sequence of say five movements with a ne-waza sequence of another five, and see how fast the class can complete the whole ten. Such an exercise will have several advantages; plenty of movement, quick thinking and anticipation (the latter extremely important) and continuation of attack. All are ingredients that should be seen in the standard of skill shown by a 3rd or 2nd Kyu. CONCLUSION

To summarize, the object of this stage of development of progression in the 'life' of a judo player, is to convert his rather haphazard, 'all-over-the-place' attack into specific techniques

~RMED~TEJUDO

183

and to incorporate into these specific techniques the various characteristics (mental as well as physical) of the individual. To do this the coach must be able to analyse techniques and select the most important points of each technique, not simply for the improvement of the technique itself, but also for the application of a technique to an individual. For example there are two men, one of whom is short and the other tall; both are trying ippon-seoi with some degree of success. They go to the coach for advice. What can he say? He cannot say to one 'stop doing it'. That could be too demoralizing and after all the man is getting some successwith it. No! The coach has got to look at each man, decide what the essential ingredients are for each man and then teach the throw to them, with those ingredients in mind. Here is where I feel the value of 'coaching hooks' can come in. They can help the coach to decide what are the most important factors for each man. He can either have just one set of hooks to suit all purposes (at this stage) or he can have several sets, which he applies for different people or different throws. A. A general set could be: I. Feet: Are the feet moving into the correct position for the attack? 2. Weight: Is the weight moving into the direction of the throw? 3. Hands: Are they being kept close to the body? B. Or, if using special sets for special people, 'a tall man's' hooks could be: I. Flexibiliry:Is he the strong, stiff, big man, or is he the loose, gangling man? 2. Movement:Does he work on the 'inside' or the 'outside' of a throw (e.g. does he spin, or step in?). 3. Hands: Does he need to pull up or down with them? (It will depend mainly on No. B2 above.) C. Or, lastly, 'hooks' for a special type of throw, say a forward throw with both feet on the ground. (This is not referring, in this instance, to the Group Method.)

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I. Action:

Is it a 'roller' or a 'kick-down'? (orthodox seoi could be a 'roller' and uchi-mata a 'kick-down') . 2. Body contact: Are the hips in deep or shallow? (Do they 'flick' the opponent over or 'knock' him over?) 3. Oppositionshape:How does one adapt a man's attacking movement to a general postural shape of an opponent? Of course, the coach must be careful that he does not get too ambitious and start introducing points which are really for the more advanced. He must keep in mind the student's potential, realize how much he is capable of doing, and then keep within those limits. The danger of over-teaching is always there, to swamp the student and give him indigestion, rather than fixing his diet within the limits of his digestive system. Finally, at this stage, there is the teaching of tactics. To some extent this will be helped by the various sets of sequences taught, for they will give the student an idea of pace variation and the need for anticipation, both essential to the business of tactics. But in addition to this, the coach has to show ways of tackling stiff men, loose men, aggressive ones, cowardly ones (yes, there are those too!) what to do against men who are much better or against those who are much worse! All need special methods, and it is the coach's job to see that the students not only experience these various oppositional styles, but also have some methods to combat them. Again it is the coach's ingenuity which is so important. In short, the student is changing from an ugly duckling into a swan. Not that he is a swan, but the transition is now apparent. The technique is smooth and fairly strong with a brain at the back of it that has some idea of what it is doing, or trying to do!

CHAPTER 5

BRITISH JUDO ASSOCIATION'S COACHING EXAMINATIONS

IN this book I have tried to describe various basic teaching and technical principles which can be used when coaching judo. I have tried to give some idea how these principles can be put into practice, and some indication of the methods I have evolved while applying them. Much of the work has been done during the time I have been National Coach, although certain seeds were sown during my stay in Japan, and some even before that! Nevertheless undoubtedly the responsibility of being National Coach has greatly stimulated my cogitations on the matter of judo teaching, particularly when I was made responsible for formulating a coaching scheme. I started on this job slowly and hesitantly, feeling my way until, gradually, I became confident (with the accumulation of experience and knowledge) and able to build a scheme which, I hope, has worthwhile qualities. The coaching scheme which now covers the country, under the aegis of the B.J.A., is a synthesis of the principles as laid out in the previous chapters. For those who may be interested in this scheme, I have outlined below the various standards of awards and what approximately they comprise. If more precise information is wanted regarding specific facets of the award I would suggest the reader attends the various courses, both National and Area, or failing that, to read B.J.A. booklet No.3. The latter would be a poor substitute, but it would give some idea of what was wanted. The content of such courses is fairly standard and whoever is in charge, be it the National or Area Coach, is fully conversant with the material to present. The Association has taken great pains to ensure there is some standardization of approach to judo instruction without necessarily making it uniform. The National Coach, Area Coach and

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BRITISH JUDO ASSOCIATION'S COACHING EXAMINATIONS

other coaches responsible for the running of such courses have at least four meetings or conferences a year, at which coaching policy is amended and organized. Each individual coach then spreads this information in his respective Area or 'spheres of influence'. In the past, such conferences as these have done much to help the development ofjudo coaching in this country. New ideas, methods of training and experiments in teaching are raised and discussed and then, if considered beneficial, they are incorporated into the general scheme. It is by these conferences that standard coaching policy is formulated and disseminated without imposing a restrictive method of teaching. Naturally every man wants to teach in his own way and the Association is only too willing that he should do so. It is due to the Association's wisdom in seeing the importance of a coaching scheme, and encouraging it as often as possible, that so much has been done in the production of a new attitude to coaching over the past recent years. Naturally the Association cannot force individuals to participate in the scheme (many do still prefer their own ways of doing things) but the Association does try as much as possible to get its members-particularly those who do instruct-to attend coaching courses to increase their knowledge and then to sit for the various coaching examinations. We can only hope that those who do not sit the examinations have better methods to offer.

mainly as to whether he has appreciated the more fundamental teaching techniques (shown him on the pre-exam courses) and ifhe can put them into practice effectively. The technical (judo) aspects of the teaching are judged according to suitability for the examination class and whether his presentation of the points he has selected are logical and clearly understandable. The 'bridge' project method of teaching (see Chapter 3) is used here. The second part of the examination is a comparatively easy one; the candidate is merely asked a few questions on the promotion examination syllabus (see page 194) of the B.J.A. The questions take the form of asking the candidate to demonstrate various tachi- and ne-waza, listed in the syllabus, and then to explain certain facets of them and the theory. In the first part-teaching-the candidate has four types of teaching which he can be asked to show, the examiners selecting the actual one. These 'types' of teaching are intended to cover particularly elementary facets of judo training. For example, he may be asked to teach three linked attacking movements, each movement (an attack or an avoidance) to be taken from any of the groups of the Group Method. Here the object is to ensure that not only can the candidate teach linked techniques, but that he appreciates the position of this principle of linked movement in general training. To further emphasize this point, the examiners can question the candidate on his class programme and his justification for any part of his instruction. Similarly the candidate can be asked to teach a link sequence which starts in tachi-waza and concludes in ne-waza. Again the object is to ensure the candidate not only fully appreciates the theory of 'transference techniques' (from standing into lying down) but is able to put it into practice. This is an attempt to make transference techniques a definite part of an early training scheme and so eliminate this weakness so common in the past. By incorporating these general principles into the coaching scheme it is hoped that benefit will percolate through to the general judo player and so raise the personal performance standard. By giving the low-grade instructor sound 'teaching tools' and technical advice on how to make the best use of these tools he will be able to make an even greater contribution to the progress of judo.

186

CLUB INSTRUCTOR'S AWARD This award was devised after the other two (as late as 1963 to be precise). Its object is roughly twofold: one to help the lower grade (about 3rd kyu) instructor, who has what in many ways is a very influential job-that of starting beginners off on their judo careers-to instruct better: secondly to act as a kind of 'bridge' to the coach award. The examination is in two parts. One, which is the most important, is the teaching of a class. The period lasts for fifteen minutes, and the candidate gets ten-fifteen minutes to prepare (this of course is to test his ability to make out a simple lesson plan). The class will consist of approximately twelve adults and the standard of judo skill has to be an elementary one (approximately 5th or 4th Kyu and under). He is examined I I r I

187

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BRITISH JUDO ASSOCIATION'S COACHING EXAMINATIONS

COACH AWARD This award is limited to candidates of 1st Kyu and above, and covers a far greater range of knowledge than does the club instructors'. There are six parts to the examination, two deal with teaching, one with rules, one with the promotion syllabus, one is an essay and lastly there is a personal interview. Part one deals with teaching a class of (approximately) twelve male adults. There are five alternatives for the examiners to select one from for the candidate. The first four deal with the intermediate stage of teaching (a higher standard than the Club Instructor Award) and the fifth with the teaching of a specific technique in fifteen minutes at an intermediate level (about 2nd Kyu). The approach required for this intermediate lesson is quite different from that in the elementary one. The 'open' project method (see Chapter 3) is now required. Naturally as it is still a class, class technique is still important, but it is no longer the major criterion. Can the candidate now build a constructive lesson upon (what he considers) the most important points of the selected technique? The candidate can assume that the class is familiar with the general factors involved in the Group Method (i.e. they are able to use the 'jump around' attack roughly at the right time, when the partner is going back) and have a general picture of what most throws consist of. The candidate's job is to decide which technical points can be most easily superimposed upon the knowledge already existing in the class, and then to transform the general movement of the class into the specific technique required by the examiners. The ability to select two, or possibly three, points (which are all that is required in the examination) can be quite difficult. It may be simple enough for the man nurtured in the atmosphere of 'one point at a time teaching, but if by any chance he has been brought up in a 'multi-point' system (put one foot here, left hand there, etc. etc.) he will have difficulty. However, once the candidate has selected the points, he must then align them in order of importance and logicality. For example, in a general case, to put the 'hands' point before the 'feet' point could mean re-correcting use of the hands, as foot action directly dOlninates hand action. In the circumstances of the examination, the general progression required may sometimes

look rather artificial and forced, but it is by insisting upon this general principle that a sound base for real progress will follow. Part two of the examination concerns the syllabus of the promotion examination. The candidate is asked to demonstrate the techniques in the syllabus. The examiners will also ask him questions for elaboration on the various aspects of the techniques. Such questions can take the form of how does one technique (named) differ from another (named) the candidate being judged upon his clarity and conciseness of answer. It is quite surprising how difficult some find it to give a clear verbal description covering the essentials of a technique. Many require a lot of practice to enable them to do it easily and to order. Mter all, a coach should certainly be expected to have the ability to select the essential points of any technique and, what is more, to be able to describe them coherently whenever necessary. Part three of the examination concerns the rules of competition. The candidate is asked questions upon the contents of various rules (contained in the Association's official booklet No.2). There are no trick questions, the examiners simply require evidence of an accurate knowledge (of the contents of the rule book). The severity of the questions cannot be compared to those for the Referee's Certificate and for that reason, if the candidate already possessesa Referee's Certificate, he is exempt from this section of the examination. The teaching of kata is the subject of part four. The candidate is asked to teach for a quarter of an hour, anyone of the sets from the randori-no-kata (in the Women's Coach Award, ju-no-kata is an extra choice) to a group of not less than six people. The examiners select the set, and all major aspects of the set must be covered by the candidate's instruction. If for example the set is from the nage-no-kata, then both sides must be done. Again, there must be an obvious class plan, with a definite progression (visible) from start to finish. Technical points have to be selected by the candidate, in order of importance, and introduced into the lesson in a natural manner. There must be good introduction, giving a brief picture of the set, complete with demonstration. The sequence is established first, then the overall picture with tsugi-ashi, and finally with some degree of 'polish', the candidate choosing his own points of emphasis

I II

189

, 190

JUDO FOR THE WEST

(the ones he considers best or easiest to establish in the circumstances). Finally the set is performed as a complete whole. If the roll-down fall has been used till now, the final repetition of the set must be with the real throw and fall. Once more, the object of this part of the examination is to see if the candidate has understood the need of applying the general teaching principles to kata. Can he make a plan and progress gradually and logically through the period allotted to him? Is he capable of selecting the relevant technical points and introducing them at the best possible spot in his programme? These various points should all be apparent in the conducting of his class. The essay, which is part five of the examination, is feared by many. Possibly because few have had the opportunity, need, or inclination to write seriously since leaving school. But the object of this part of the examination is not to test the candidate's knowledge of grammar, or his literary style, but to assess his, or a part of his, attitude towards judo. The candidate has four general headings available to him, under which he can write: Judo history, objectives, training or theory. It is intentional that the range of the titles is as wide as possible to offer maximum scope. The important thing is that the essay should be original whenever possible, the man has approximately 1,500 words to layout his views on one of the topics mentioned above, which should be within anyone's capabilities. To assess the degree of originality, questions can be asked on his essay during the interview at the completion of the examination. Whenever possible the candidate should give sources of information (e.g. books, conferences, articles etc.) but from those sources to deduce an interpretation of his own. Mter all, one of the main objectives of the various coaching awards is to cultivate the ability to think, and an essay is an excellent way of discovering whether the candidate can! Finally part six of the examination is the personal interview. The candidate is asked questions on his essay, and then on certain teaching problems. How would he react if he found himself in a certain teaching circumstance with various inherent difficulties. Lastly he would be asked to discuss matters concerned with ~udo-background', subjects like weight-training, stamina development etc.

BRITISH JUDO ASSOCIATION'SCOACHINGEXAMINATIONS J91

It can be seen that the examination is quite comprehensive, and is designed to assessthe candidate's knowledge over a wide range in the judo field. His class technique and handling is judged in the first part, specialized teaching is contained in part four, standard knowledge (rules and syllabus) is covered in parts two and three, the ability to express himself coherently and naturally is contained in part five and his general knowledge in part six. SENIOR COACH AWARD The object of this award is, in general, to assess the ability to coach individually. Both the Club Instructor and the Coach Award deals mainly with class work, but now the emphasis swings on to high-level individual coaching. The examination is in four parts, teaching, kata, essay and interview. However, the first part is again subdivided in two. First the candidate observes two people in randori, to give him the opportunity of analysing each man's movement and deciding how each could be helped. A ten-minute period is then allowed in which the candidate can work out a coaching progression and plan for improving the performance of either one of the pair. He is allowed a fifteen-minute coaching period to implement this plan. Later in the examination the candidate is given a further ten-minute preparation period to devise a lesson for improving the other man's performance and fifteen minutes for this lesson. The coaching in each case must be realistically linked to the actual performance seen-not a showpiece in a vacuum for the examiner's benefit. The object of the various sections is, I think, fairly obvious. It tests the man on most facets of his coaching ability, in relation to one man. He must understand much about technique to coach the 1st Kyu satisfactorily; his knowledge of competitive standards can be judged when he tackles the job of improving an attack. The section on kata is just as comprehensive, although at first it may look much easier. The candidate has to teach a pair of advanced students a set of the randori-no-kata (superficially similar to the Coach Award syllabus) but now the student has to clarify and relate available power and where it is to be used.

192

JUDO FOR THE WEST

Jt ~ ~M

The variation of pace regarding uke and tori must be taught. Is the pace of the first technique as fast or slower than the last one in the set? Technically where and how should emphasis be stressed on any particular technique? All these various factors will test his knowledge of kata to the full. The essay again will comply superficially with requirements in the Coach Award, but the standard expected is much higher. The subjects open to the candidate are: the application of mechanical theory to judo technique; future developments in judo; ways and means of nurturing class interest-at an advanced level; and lastly, any original contribution to the field of judo. A lecture may be substituted for the essay if the candidate wishes it. Lastly in the examination, another personal interview, again to assess by discussion the breadth and depth of the candidate's knowledge of his subject. As can be seen, the standard set, particularly for the last two awards-the senior coach and coach-are high. But the B.J.A. consider this essential if the general standards of judo are to improve in this country. Initially the awards were generally looked upon with sceptism (and in some quarters, this attitude persists). Judo has been looked upon as being so different from other sports that experience gained in other sports could not possibly apply. Gradually, however, the resistance has been overcome (and is being overcome) for it is realized more and more that the coaching scheme is to help, not frustrate. Many who have passed the examination realize how much better off they are now when it comes to instructing or coaching large groups. Nevertheless, even those who have the Coach Award should go back for refresher courses whenever possible, as modifications and improvements continually occur of which a good coach should always be aware. The coaching scheme has given judo players an opportunity to clarify many obscurities, dispel many false ideas and replace ignorance with certain knowledge. Take, for example, the promotion examination syllabus; when I started instructing on coaching courses I assumed that to devote any time to the syllabus was rather superfluous, but to my surprise this was not so. Indeed I found that there were lots of serious gaps in the knowledge of certain parts of the syllabus.

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BRITISH JUDO ASSOCIATION'S COACHING EXAMINATIONS

Since when I have been rather careful to deal with this item on courses. For ease of reference I have made out a 'family-tree' of techniques (Fig. 18).

De-ashi-harai. De means to come out, advance; ashi is foot; harai to sweep. So this technique is simply (by definition) to sweep the foot as it comes forward. O-soto-gari. A small digression here may be of help, to try and ascertain the actual meaning of 0 (and ko, see later), particularly in reference to throws. Literally '0' means big or large, but it also refers, by extension, to the action involved and the part of the body used. The word refers to the big sweeping action of the leg (both in o-soto and o-uchi-gari) which is unrestricted by the position of the body, that is, the sweep is away from the body. The '0' can also imply use of the hips, the 'big' part of the body, which again is fairly obvious in throws like ogoshi and oguruma. Therefore the name means the large outside (soto) reap or sweep (gari). The name only covers the actual attacking action, not the relative position of bodies! O-goshi. Here the '0' refers to the 'big' action of the hips, (goshi) which means they lift the opponent up off the ground (the only technique in which the lifting action is an intrinsic and essential part of the technique). To further facilitate this movement of the hips the attacker's hand or arm is placed round the opponent's waist to hold him firmly to the attacker's hips so there is no slipping between bodies (this is an essential ingredient of the technique). The legs are bent during the move into position and with the straightening the required lift is achieved. This could be considered as meaning 'lifting hip'. Kesa-gatame. Kesa is a Buddhist monk's 'hold all' slung across his body. Katame (see glossary) is to hold. Therefore the name refers to the holding achieved by the position of the attacker diagonally across the opponent's body. Kata-gatame. Kata is shoulder (see glossary) and katame as above, to hold. So the name means to hold by the shoulder-shoulderhold.

PROMOTION

SYLLABUS

The name of each technique usually gives the actual technical essence of it, so some understanding of its true meaning is essential. The only exceptions to this are the hangovers, trom ju-jitsu which tend to have 'poetical' rather than explanatory names-e.g. yama-arashi-mountain storm, and tani-otoshivalley drop. As alljudo terminology is inJapanese, some rational interpretation is needed. Let us take a new look at the syllabus. Beginner

Tsukuri is, literally, to make or manufacture, the action made by the attacker to move the opponent in the direction of the throw (not necessarily limited to a part of the attacker's body, i.e. hands). Kake has a very wide range of meaning; in this instance it can mean start or attack, the real 'bite' of a technique. It is the point of application of the technique, the moment when the opponent comes 'unstuck' off the floor, the point of maximum power during the attacking movement. T surikomi-ashi. The first part; tsurikomi refers to the action of the hands. These move in an upwards direction until the attack actually starts, when the pull becomes downwards. The second part ashi refers to the limb which is instrumental in the attackthe leg. The type of attack is further differentiated by the occasional use of a prefix, sasai or harai. Sasai means that the leg attacked is merely blocked ('propped' as the literal translation has it) and the man pulled forward over it; harai means the leg is swept or knocked (backwards) out from under the opponent.

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6th Kyu Uki-goshi. Koshi is the hip (see glossary). Uki literally means 'to float', but it has little if any of this meaning in this context. It has the implication of keeping at the same level (as floating things do) so it means there is no lifting action of the hips at all (which would mean the opponent would rise and fall). The

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hips are merely pivoted or twisted so that, in turn, the opponent is twisted offhis feet to fall down. So it could be translated simply as 'turning hip' (with no lifting action from the legs). As with o-goshi, the attacker's right hand or arm is put around the opponent's waist to ensure that contact between the two bodies is firm and positive (no 'slip'). It does not matter where the attacker's feet are, providing the throwing movement complies with the above. Harai-goshi. Harai is to sweep, and refers to the attacker's hip (goshi). It is the sweep of the hip which causes the throw-to distinguish from o-guruma (see later). Of course the leg must move with the hip. This means that the foot arc must be as big as possible in order to get maximum movement at the hip (which is nearer the centre of the arc). Hi::;a-guruma.This inti ally appears to be an exception to the rule of the name describing the throw. To some extent this is true, but when the historical development of the technique is looked into it does in fact work out as it should. First, hi::;ais the knee, kuruma is a wheel, or to wheel over. In the past the attacker would (for example) stamp his left foot right next to the opponent's right foot so that the inside of his left knee would be against the outside of the opponent's right knee (the attacker now being in a kind of strong jigotai position). He would then spin or wheel the opponent over the knee which now acts as a block. A very powerful throw, but it had the disadvantage of smashing lots of knees! So gradually it was modified to something less dangerous, the foot of the attacker replacing the knee, but the name stuck with it. Kami-shiho-gatame. Kami means top or upper (see glossary), shiho is four directions, referring to the four quarters or corners of the trunk-which is, of course, another way of saying body and gatame as above to hold. So it means the holding of the upper or top part of the body. Toko-shiho-gatame, Toko is side, shiho-gatame as immediately above; therefore it is the holding of the side part of the body. Ju-ji-gatame. Juji means figure 10, which in Japanese is written as a cross, and gatame, as always, to hold. So the name means 'a figure 10 holding'. As can be seen, that could be ambiguous to say the least. Does it mean a holding (osaekomi) or a lock? For this reason, when one wants to be punctilious a prefix can

be added, ude-hishigewhich tells the reader it is an arm (ude) lock (hishige). Gyaku-ju-ji-jime. Juji is the cross, as was shown above; jime (to tighten) (see glossary) is the neck lock. Gyaku is upside down and refers to the position of the attacker's hands-palms upwards (upside down, for 'natural' palms are face downwards). Nami-ju-ji-jime. Nami (see glossary) refers to the 'line up' of the fingers, when the thumbs are inside the collar of the jacket, and the fingers are outside, andju-ji-jime as immediately above. Ude-garami. Ude means arm, garami (see glossary) to twist or twine around. Can be treated simply as a bent arm-lock of any description. The forearm being turned around (radially) the elbow joint-either way.

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5th Kyu Seoi-nage. Nage is ot course to throw (see glossary), seoi is to 'carry on the back'. The meaning is therefore to throw by carrying on the back. Sometimes it is required to further differentiate how this is achieved, so again prefixes are added to clarify the position. Moro te (not moroUe) refers to the attacker using both hands to hold the opponent's jacket with. Ippon refers to only one hand being used to hold the other man's jacket (see glossary). Kata (see glossary) refers to where the attacker holds-both hands on one side of the opponent's jacket. Eri meaning collar or lapel, again refers to holding position. As can be seen, these names can somewhat overlap in application, but if used carefully can specify fairly accurately what actually happens in a particular type of throw. So some of the prefixes refer to where the hold is, others to how the hold is done, both aspects useful to differentiate in certain circumstances. Tsurikomi-goshi. Again tsurikomi refers to the action of the hands (see tsurikomi-ashi) which is an upward-forward-downward movement. Koshi refers to that part of the attacker's body which is instrumental in achieving the technique. For short it could be called a 'blocking hip'. Okuri-eri-jime. Okuri means transmit, escort, go along with, in conjunction with. So in this case it refers to the two collars (eri) of the opponents being used-in conjunction with each other to complete the shime.

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Kata-ha-jime.Kata is 'one side' (see glossary) ha is wing or in this particular instance the opponent's one arm (wing) necessary for the execution of the technique and shime as above. The arm (used against the raised arm) acting as a wedge to drive the head forward on to the other 'working' hand. Ude-gatame.Can be taken to mean any straight arm-lock. Hiza-gatame.A lock applied on a straight arm by the attacker's knee (hiza). Again if felt necessary it can carry the prefix ude-hishige to positively indicate it is a lock and not a hold; such a prefix is seldom used however. Kuzure-kesa-gatameand Kuzure-kami-shiho-gatame. Kuzure means loosened or broken (see glossary) and simpJy indicates that the holdings have been 'loosened' or a deviation has been mad,e from the 'hon' or standard form. (See 'Beginner' and '6th Kyu'.)

Ashi-gatame. A lock (straight arm) which is applied by the attacker's leg (ashi). Again if further clarification is wanted ude-hishigecan be added at the front.

:p"dKyu Tomoe-nage.A tomoeis one of those large 'commas' seen in a Paisley pattern, or depicted in the ying and yang symbol (referred to in the I Ching). It obviously attempts to describe the 'shape' of the throw (nage). Tai-otoshi.Tai is body, otoshiis to drop. As the throw is made the attacker's body drops into position. Kata-ju-ji-jime.Kata is one side, so the meaning is the crossed (arms) (ju-ji) neck-lock (jime) with one hand (side) one way and the other, the other way.

4th Kyu Ko-uchi-gari.Under the heading of o-soto-gari, I discussed the extension of meaning involved with the prefix 0; ko can be treated in the same way. Although literally it means small or little (see glossary) it also refers to the type of movement involved. If the leg is moved across the body, then the body restricts that movement. So with this technique, the ko refers to the sweeping action of the attacking foot, which goes across or in front of the attacker's body, so making it a small or limited movement. U chi is of course 'inside', garireap or sweep, therefore the meaning is the small inner sweep or reap. O-uchi-gari.Here of course the meaning is the big (range) inner sweep. Ashi-guruma.Ashi means foot or, as in this case, leg. Kurumais a wheel or to wheel over. Provided the opponent wheels over the attacker's leg and not his hip (see o-guruma) then it is ashi-guruma. It does not matter where the point of contact is. The attacker's leg can be under the opponent's chin (a rather extreme case!) but as long as he wheels over the leg-the definition of the technique being fulfilled-then ashi-guruma it is! Hadaka-jime.Hadaka is naked, or bereft of clothes. Therefore any shime which does not use the jacket as a means of obtaining that end!

2nd Kyu Uchimata. Uchi is the inside, mata is the thigh. Originally it referred to the attacker's inner thigh being the point of contact in order to achieve the throw. However, because the throw has developed away from the original concept, the inner thigh has been 'projected' and has come to mean the opponent'sinner thigh. Hane-goshi.The hanemeans to spring and it refers to the right leg of the attacker, in the sense of it springing away from the left leg so driving the opponent's right leg backwards. Okuri-ashi-harai.As was discussed earlier okurimeans to go along with, in conjunction with; so in this case it means the attacker sends the opponent's legs 'along together, with each other', the result is achieved by the harai (sweep) of the attacker's ashi (foot). Tate-shiho-gatame.Tateis vertical to, or in line with (seeglossary) shiho-gatame,body-hold as eXplained above. The attacker lies along the same axis as the man he is holding, thus fixing or holding him along the 'vertical' quarters of the man. Looking at this technique in isolation, it could refer to a kami position as well. However as that position is already covered, this technique must refer to the astraddle position.

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1St Kyu

O-soto-gake.All that need concern us here, is the definition of gake. Kake (see glossary) means to hang on to, lean against, to suspend from. In practical terms it simply means that the leg attacked is simply blocked, leant against, held still, whilst the opponent is driven (or pushed) past it, so making him fall. Quite different from the garis in which the leg is swept out from under the opponent to make him fall. These two words, gari and gake can be added to any of the backward throws to indicate the different type of throwing action used. I will not go any further with the syllabus, for not only does it become rather nebulous, but the reader ought to be able to work out any of the other difficulties on his own by now, or at least know where to direct his enquiries. It should be noted that, with the exception of some shime-waza and a few others, the technical points implied by the names always refer to the attacker himself. This is how it should be, he is the man concerned, the one who determines what action is used, so naturally it is his action which is titled. With this in mind, it should help the coach to deal with other techniques which are possibly out of his normal range. For example, I thought it would be of interest as well as being beneficial if I included the Gokyo. These forty techniques are those 'officially' acceptable. Any and all other throws can be related to these forty in some way or other, so if a coach has trouble in naIning some strange technique he can use one of the Gokyo for convenience, and for this reason it is useful to know what comprises the forty.

Makikomi. This means to roll or wrap up (as when rolling up a piece of paper). It can therefore refer to any (or almost any) technique in which the attacker, to achieve success, 'rolls' himself on to his opponent. The wrapping up starts to happen just before kake is reached and carries on from there. It is a very spectacular 'extra' because it invariably means that all four feet come off the ground. What it certainly does not mean, is that the attacker simply locks himself on to his opponent and then falls on his face! An interpretation often seen, due to poor teaching. Makikomi is a dynamic 'explosion' of movement and power, not the desperate forlorn effort to revive an already 'dead' attack. To particularize the movement, two alternative prefixes can be added to the word makikomi-soto and uchi. Soto-makikomi is when the attacker's right arm is thrown above the opponent's right arm, in order to facilitate the forward roll of the throw and uchi-makikomi refers to the attacker's right arm going below the opponent's right arm, to facilitate the forward roll of the throw. Toko-guruma. A rather vague title for a throw. The yoko refers to the side of the attacker, and guruma (wheel) the general action of the throw. It is, of course, a throw in the yoko-sutemiwaza group (although there is no indication of sutemi by the technique's name). The attacker makes the throw by throwing himself on to his side and wheeling the opponent over the top. (For greater detail of execution, the version in nage-no-kata should be studied.) In normal competitive conditions it is usually used as a Kaeshi-waza, although it may occasionally be seen as a straight attack. 1St Dan O-guruma. As mentioned earlier '0' not only means 'big' but also refers partially to an action of the part of the body involved. In this case it is referring to the top of the leg or one of the hips: That is the opponent is 'wheeled' over the top or hip of the leg which is in the air, quite different from ashi-guruma, when it is specifically only the leg which is in contact with the opponent; the criterion is-does the opponent 'roll' over the top or hip of the leg? If he does, it is o-guruma.

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THE GOKYO Dai Ikkyo de-ashi-harai; hiza-guruma; sasai-tsurikomi-ashi; uki-goshi; o-soto-gari; o-goshi; o-uchi-gari; seoi-nage. Dai Nikyo ko-soto-gari; ko-uchi-gari; koshi-guruma; tsurikomi-goshi; okuri-ashi-harai; tai-otoshi; harai-goshi; uchi-mata. Dai Sankyo ko-soto-gake; tsuri-goshi; yoko-otoshi; ashi-guruma; goshi; harai-tsurikomi-ashi; tomoe-nage; kata-guruma.

hane-

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Dai Yonkyo sumi-gaeshi; tani-otoshi; hane-makikomi; sukui-nage; utsurigoshi; o-guruma; soto-makikomi; uki-otoshi.

middle. For example k becomes g (it is koshi-waza, but o-goshi). 'sh' becomes j (shime-waza, but ju-ji-jime), h becomes band occasionally the b becomes hardened again to become 'p' (it is hon for point, but ippon for one point). A further complication is that because ideographs are used by the Japanese it can be confusing when they are transferred into phonetical script. There are two main origins of this confusion. One is that different ideographs can have the same sound (e.g 'kami' meaning god or paper as well as top) and the second is that the same ideograph can have different sounds; one type is called the 'on' reading and the other 'kun' reading (e.g. one ideograph can be read tai, or karada, both meaning body). When these points apply I have tried to indicate it in the glossary. That is, when there are several meanings under the one heading, it means that each meaning has a different ideograph. If it is the same ideograph with different readings, I have cross-referenced them. Most of the technique names are derived from verbs, so I have indicated what these verbs are, so that if the reader is so interested he can check them in a dictionary.

Dai Gokyo o-soto-guruma; uki-waza; yoko-wakare; yoko-guruma; ushirogoshi; ura-nage; sumi-otoshi; yoko-gake. PRONUNCIATION

Pronunciation of Japanese, for the beginner at any rate, is quite a simple affair. For general purposes there is no voice undulation or stress variation. Once the word (or sentence) is started the same pitch can be kept constant throughout. To further elaborate, each word can be looked on as comprising several couplets ofletters, with additions of vowels (which can stand on their own), or occasional 'triplets' (e.g., tsu, shi, chi), and rarely the sole consonant en' (no other consonant can stand on its own). Therefore in words like tsu-ri-ko-mi-go-shi, it can be broken down into its couplets and triplets and just read off, each syllable given equal stress. Again it is not yamaada, butya mada; the syllables are kept short and not elongated, as English pronunciation tends to do. No letters must be omitted. Remember that the Latin script is essentially phonetic (ideographs are used by the Japanese) so everything that is written down must be pronounced. For instance in ippon, it is not said as 'i pon', but 'ippon' (two 'p's' as in top pot). Nage, as in nage-no-kata, is not said nayj (with the 'e' silent), but na-ge. All the consonants are hard, as all vowels are pure. k as in king; g as in got; t as in tader; a as in bat; e as in set; i as in bit; o as in got; u as in put. By the way there are no plurals in Japanese! Another peculiar thing about the Japanese language is that some consonants can be hardened (nigori as it is called) when they change their position from the front of the word to the

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GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY Aiki: a form of self-defence, based on special principles (literally 'harmony of spirit') Aikido: the 'way' of Aiki Aite: opponent, partner Ashi: leg/foot Ashi-waz;a: leg/foot technique Atama: head Ate: strike, hit Atemi-waz;a: hitting body technique. Budo: military way, form, concepts Bujitsu: martial arts/crafts Bushi: a warrior in Japanese feudal society Bushido: the moral, ethical code of the Bushi, formulated originally circa 14th century Butsukari: see Uchikomi. Chiisai: small Chikara: strength. Dan: 'leader' grade, generally black belt De (v. Deru): to come out, to advance (e.g., de-ashi-harai) Do: (a) way, path, etc. This word was used frequendy in Chinese and Japanese philosophy in the sense of the way of doing an act in the moral and ethical sphere as well as the simple physical; (b) trunk of the body Dojo: hall or room in which judo is practised. Eri: collar, of a jacket. Fusegi-kata: method, form of defending Fusegu: to defend. Gake (v. Kakeru): to hang, hook, block Garami (v. Garamu): to bend, entangle, wrap Genlci:energetic, lively, active Goshinjitsu: self-protection (in all its forms) technique Gyaku: reverse, upside down. Ha: wing Hadaka: naked Hairi-kata: the way of entering or attacking (for a technique) Hane: spring (e.g., hane-goshi) Hara: stomach Harai (Barai) (v. Harau): sweep, reap Hidari: left Hiji: elbow Hiki (v. Hiku): pull Hishige (v. Hishigu): to crush, break, smash Hiz;a: knee Hon: (a) point, ippon given in a contest; (b) basic, relating to techniques; (c) number suffix for counting long cylindrical objects; therefore ippon seoi-nage-one arm shoulder throw. Itsutsu-no-kata: forms of five, attempting to show the elemental forces concerned with throwing technique in an abstract form.

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Ji: (a) Japanese ideograph; (b) Self, oneself. Jigotai: the posture which attempts to lower the centre of gravity by bending the legs and widening the (foot) base. It is very strong, but at the cost of mobility. Jitsu (Jutsu): usually translated as 'art', but can often mean just an extension of technique Judngi: the clothes worn when practising judo Judogu: general equipment for judo Judoka: a very senior player (at least 4-Sth Dan) Ju-jitsu: a name covering all forms of fighting without weapons. Its methods are very drastic; includes aiki, karate. Ju-rw-kata: the forms of giving way, illustrated by symbolic self-defence movements Jushin: centre of gravity. Kaeshi (Gaeshi) (v. Kaesu): to turn about or to counter (e.g., o-soto-gaeshi); to overturn or rotate Kaeshi-waz;a: counter techniques Kake: the success moment of the throw, the point of maximum power Kai (Kwai) : society, club Kami: (a) upper, top; (b) paper; (c) god/s Kansetsu: a joint, articulation Kantsetsu-waz;a:technique of locking limb joints Kao: face Karada: body Karate-do: the 'way' of karate, fighting with 'empty-hands' (lit.) Karui: light Kata: (a) a stylized set of techniques, performed in order to extend the participant's movement experience; (b) one side; (c) shoulder Katai: hard Katame (v. Katameru): to harden, tighten, hold, control Katame-no-kata: the forms of controlling (including Osaekomi, Shime and Kansetsu) Katame-waz;a: controlling techniques Keiko: training, practice Ken: sword Kendo: the 'way' of the sword (Japanese two-handed fencing) Kendogu: general equipment for practising kendo Keru: to kick Kiai: a shout used to strengthen the body when maximum effort is required Kime (v. Kimeru): to decide Kime-rw-kata: forms of decision, the kata of self protection Kiri (v. Kiru): cut, as with a knife Ko: (a) small; (b) old, ancient; (c) lecture, study, think Kodokan: the headquarters of judo in Japan (Tokyo) Koshi (Goshi): hips Koshiki-rw-kata: the forms of the 'old style'. All techniques are done as if in armour Kubi: neck Kumi-kata: method of holding the judogi Kuruma (Guruma): (a) wheel, or by extension a vehicle Kuz;ure(v. Kuz;ureru): to crumble, collapse, break-down, loosened Kuz:.ushi:the effect on the opponent of tsukuri. It is from the verb 'kuzureru', to break or crumble Kyu: ajudo 'student' grade Ma: exact, just, absolutely Mae: front

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GLOSSARY

Makikomi: to wrap or roll up, to throw by rolling oneself so that the opponent is whipped off his feet Manaka: centre Ma-sutemi-waza: technique whereby the attacker falls straight on to his back Mata: the inside top of the thigh Mawari (v. Mawaru): to turn round Meijin: expert, master Mi: body (human) Migi: right Mama: thigh Morole: both hands, two hands Mune: chest Nage (v. Nageru): to throw Nage-no-kata: the forms of throwing. Thirty selected throws executed half on the left and half on the right, to train the participants in body control and appreciation of judo technique Nami (v. Naruberu): to place in a line, range in a row (e.g., nami-ju-ji-jime). Ne (v. Neru) : to lie down Ne-waza: techniques done in the lying down position. 0: big Obi: belt Okii: big Osaekami: to pin, hold Osaekomi-waza: holding technique Oshi (v. Osu): to push Otoshi (v. Otosu): to drop Owari: the end. Randori: free practice &i: bow &nraku: connection, contact &nraku-waza: combination technique &nshu: to practise, train Renzoku-waza: comprehensive name for throws linked up in any way. It includes

Shita: below, underneath Shizen: nature Shizen-tai: natural, (upright) posture Sode: sleeve Solo: outside, outer Sukui (v. Sukuu): to scoop up Sumi: comer Sutemi (v. Suteru): to throwaway Sutemi-waza:technique whereby the attacker throws away his own body; sacrifices his own posture. Tachi (v. Tatsu): to stand T achi-waza: technique done in the standing position Tani: a valley Tatame: rice straw mats used in dojos and Japanese houses. Measure 3 feet X 6 feet X 2 inches Tate: vertical, standing Te: hand Tekubi: wrist Te-waza: hand technique Tokui: favourite Tori (v. Toru): (a) the name used often in technical explanations for the person who throws; (b) to grasp, to hold in the hands T suri: to 'fish' up, to hoist Tsurikomi: to 'fish', lift up and pull forward

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Ryole: two hands Ryu: school. Attached to most of the names of the old ju-jitsu Ryu). Saika-tanden: the lower abdomen Samurai: see BUSH! Sasai: to block, prop (e.g., sasai-tsurikomi-ashi) Senaka: the back (of a body) Sensei: teacher, senior Senshu: a competitor, champion Seoi (v. Seou): to carry on the back (e.g., seoi-nage) Seppuku: the bushi method of committing suicide.

'harakiri'

Shiai: contest Shiai-jo: contest area Shihan: master, past master, founder Shiki: style, ceremony Shiho: four quarters (of the body) Shime (Jime) (v. Shimeru): to tighten, strangle Shime-waza: technique of neck-locking Shisei: posture

Normally

systems

(e.g., Kito

erroneously

called

2째7

T S19'oi: strong.

Uchi: inside Uchikomi (v. Utsu): to beat against. A static repetitive exercise where the throwing technique is taken only to the point of kake Ude: arm Ue: above, on top of Uke (v. Ukeru): to take. The name used often in technical explanations for the person who is thrown Ukemi: ways offalling Ukemi-waza: the technique of falling Uki (v. Uku): to float, buoyant Ura: back, rear, reverse Ushiro: behind, back of (e.g., ushiro-goshi) Utsuri (v. Utsuru): to change, move (e.g., utsuri-goshi). Wakare (v. Wakaru): to divide, separate (e.g., yoko-wakare). Waza: technique. Tama: mountain Toka: side Toko-sutemi-waza: technique in which the attacker falls on to the side of his body in order to execute the attack Towai: weak Tubi: finger or toe.