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SA Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
PL E M
SA Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
CAMBRIDGE NATIONAL LEVEL 1 / LEVEL 2
Sport Science
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Sue Hartigan
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Revision Guide and Workbook
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
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First published 2022
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Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Contents Preparing for the exam Your Revision Guide and Workbook
4
Planning your revision
5
Revision techniques
7
Getting ready for the exam
9
What to expect in the exam
10
Revision checklist
16
Revision Guide
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Unit R180: Reducing the risk of sports injuries and dealing with common medical conditions TA1:
Different factors which influence the risk and severity of injury
18
TA2:
Warm-up and cool-down routines
32
TA3:
Different types and causes of sports injuries
41
TA4:
educing risk, treatment and rehabilitation of sports injuries R and medical conditions
48
Causes, symptoms and treatment of medical conditions
59
TA5:
TA1: TA2: TA3:
Different factors which influence the risk and severity of injury
75
Warm-up and cool-down routines
88
Different types and causes of sports injuries
93
educing risk, treatment and rehabilitation of sports injuries R and medical conditions
97
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TA4:
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Workbook
TA5:
Causes, symptoms and treatment of medical conditions
108
Glossary
Key terms
116
Command words
118
Answers
Answers to Practise it! activities
120
Answers to Workbook questions
123
Acknowledgements
Preparing for the exam
133
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Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Preparing for the exam Your Revision Guide and Workbook This Revision Guide will support you in preparing for the exam for Unit R180 Reducing the risk of sports injuries and dealing with common medical conditions. This is the externally assessed unit of your Sport Science J828 course. The Revision Guide contains two types of pages as shown below: •
Content pages help you revise the content you need to know.
•
Workbook pages with practice exam-style questions help you prepare for your exam.
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Use these page references to move easily between the linked Revision Guide and Workbook pages.
What you need to know summarises key things you need to know for the topic.
Revision summary
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provides the key points you need to remember.
Activities
help you revise topics, test your knowledge and practise questions.
Workbook pages match the Revision Guide pages.
Practice short- and longanswer questions to help you prepare for the exam.
4
Write your answers in the spaces provided. Some of these answers have been started for you.
Preparing for the exam
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Planning your revision Countdown to the exam Revision checklists are a good way for you to plan and structure your revision. They also allow you to make sure you have covered everything you need to cover:
Revision planner checklist Time before Things to do the exam Draw up a revision timetable so that you know how much time you have to get through everything.
•
Use the Revision checklist on pages 16 and 17 to work out which topics you need to cover.
•
Use the topic area headings and bullets to organise your notes and to make sure you’ve covered everything in the specification.
•
Don’t do too much in one day. A couple of hours of good-quality work in a day is better than trying to cram.
•
Work out which of the areas you still find difficult and plan when you’ll cover them.
•
You might be able to discuss tricky topics with your teacher or class colleagues.
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4−6 weeks
•
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6−8 weeks
As you feel you’ve got to grips with some of the knowledge, you can ‘tick off’ the parts that have been worrying you.
•
Make the most of the revision sessions you’re offered in class. Don’t skip them!
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•
1 week
•
Make a daily plan to revise those few topics you’re not happy with and look back at your revision cards (see below) if you’ve made some.
Day before
•
Try not to cram today. Get some exercise and relax in the afternoon.
•
Make sure you know what time and where the exam is, and put all your things out (pencils, pens, calculator, bus pass, water) ready for the next day.
•
Get a good night’s sleep!
Revise it! Using the example above, create your own revision checklist. Identify areas that you are not so confident about and think of ways to tackle these.
Preparing for the exam
5
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Revision tips
Plan your revision
Choose the methods Make a list of all the key that work for you dates from when you For example: • use highlighters for key words and phrases
start your revision up to the exam date.
Don’t cram! Plan to space your revision out so that you don’t do everything at once!
Take breaks
• make note cards
Plan regular breaks in your revision. Go for a short walk or get some fresh air. It will make you more focused when you do revise!
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• use mnemonics (the first letter of words): for example, ‘SALTAPS’ stands for See, Ask, Look, Touch, Active, Passive, Strength.
Identify your strengths and weaknesses
Questions can be asked about any area of the specification.
It is easier to answer a question if you have revised everything.
Vari ety is the spic e of life!
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Complete the ‘Revision checklist’ at the end of each chapter and identify areas that you feel less confident about. Allow additional time to revise these areas.
Lear n ever ythi ng!
Stay healthy!
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Exercise, fresh air, good food and staying hydrated all help your revision.
Att end revi sion clas ses !
Mix up your revision methods. Watch videos and listen to podcasts as well as making notes and mind maps.
Practis e! Practising exam-style questions will help you get to grips with the question types, time pressure and format of the exam.
Don’t skip revision classes – it can really help to revise with your friends Use mind maps! as well as Mind maps are great for by yourself. connecting ideas and memorising information more easily and quickly.
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Find a quie t spa ce It can be difficult to revise in loud or busy spaces, so try to find somewhere calm to work. You could use headphones and music to block out distractions. Preparing for the exam
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Revision techniques Flash cards/revision cards These are useful for summarising content, key word definitions and important facts. Use colours to make certain things stand out – for example, you could use different colours for advantages and disadvantages or for key words. You can test yourself using the revision cards.
Mind maps
Pulse raising Gradually raise heart rate, e.g. start at one end of the netball court and jog to each line and back for about 5 mins.
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These are a really useful visual summary of information and you can put them on the wall. They allow you to show links between ideas and concepts. You can start by adding the topic to the centre of the diagram and then add the sub-topics around that and a summary of the information.
Benefits ... inc. muscle temp Inc. speed of contraction Inc. flexibility Inc. pliability of ligaments/ tendons
Mobility
Means moving joints to get more synovial fluid so joint moves more easily/better range of movement. Mobilise joints starting from shoulder downwards. Increases flexibility at joints/reduces friction.
Warm up
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Gradually make the heart work harder to increase oxygen delivery to the muscles for energy. Dynamic stretching
Practise skills needed in netball, e.g. passing, catching, marking, shooting. Practise drills, e.g. pass and move. Good for psychological benefits
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Stretch the muscles to be used in the activity, e.g. lunges, squats, jumping and landing – for about 10 mins increases muscle temp/inc. range of movement – less injury.
Psychological/mind benefits... Motivation Arousal Better concentration More confidence Opportunity for mental rehearsal
Skill rehearsal phase
Revise it!
Create a mind map for a topic of your choice.
Preparing for the exam
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Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Highlighting Making notes and highlighting key areas to go back to is a good way of working out what you know and don’t know. You can then use these notes as you come to your final revision. You can use different colours to highlight different factors or different types of information. For example, green highlight could show extrinsic factors that influence the risk of injury, and yellow highlight could indicate the intrinsic factors.
Summaries
Mnemonics
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On the revision pages of this book, you’ll find summaries of key ideas and themes. Use these to help you summarise the key points you’ll need to remember to answer questions on those topics. For example, you need to know about the different types of acute injuries in sport. For each one, you need to know how they are caused, what the symptoms are and how they should be treated. You can make a summary of these yourself – and if you think through these points in the exam, you are more likely to remember them.
A mnemonic is another useful way of remembering key facts by using the first letter of each of the parts to make up a memorable phrase. For example, PRICE helps us remember how to respond to acute minor injuries: Protection, Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation.
Quizzes
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Many people enjoy quizzes, and creating and sharing quizzes with your friends and class is a great way to remember facts and concepts. You could suggest to your teacher that, in pairs, you create a quiz of ten questions each week and go through with another pair – swapping answers. It’s also a good way for you to check your knowledge. Make a note of the areas where you really didn’t know the answer and add these to your revision list.
Practice questions
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Doing past papers and practice exam questions is an essential part of your revision. It prepares you for answering different types of exam questions and allows you to become familiar with the wording of the questions used by OCR. You should also use the mark scheme. This will help you understand how to get full marks for each question. It is helpful to highlight key words in exam questions so you’re clear what the question is asking before you answer it.
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Preparing for the exam
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Getting ready for the exam Use the revision checklist and all your revision material to make sure you are as prepared as possible; practise plenty of exam questions and quick quizzes.
In the exam
Get plenty of sleep Make sure you get a good night’s sleep the night before the exam. Don’t stay up late cramming as you need time to switch off and relax before going to bed.
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Give yourself time to complete the whole paper and check through it for mistakes. Most importantly, try to stay calm and relaxed. Remember, this is your time to show off what you know!
Keep hydrated but don’t drink too much
Eat a good, healthy meal
It’s important that you stay hydrated, but don’t overdo it or you’ll be running to the toilet. Exams can make you a bit nervous too, which means you might need to go to the toilet a bit more frequently. Water is best.
Have a nutritious, healthy meal that you enjoy the night before the exam and a filling breakfast on the day of the exam to give you a boost ready for your exam.
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Getting ready for the exam
Make sure you have all the things you need
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Get everything ready the night before, including all writing equipment, a calculator if you need one (and are allowed one), a water bottle, tissues if you have a sniff, and any identification you might need (candidate number if you have been given one).
Arrive in plenty of time
Know when and where the exam is. Get there at least 15 minutes before it starts. If your exam is in an unfamiliar part of the school and away from where you normally study, you might have to leave home a bit earlier. Don’t be distracted on the way!
Preparing for the exam
Set your alarm If your exam is in the morning, set an alarm or two so you have plenty of time to get to the exam. If you’re still worried about oversleeping, ask a friend or someone in your family to make sure you’re up.
Don’t be tempted to do too much cramming Too much last-minute cramming can scramble your brain! You might find that being relaxed will help you recall the facts you need rather than attempting last-minute cramming, but you might also want to revise the key facts before setting off for the exam.
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Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
What to expect in the exam As part of your qualification in Sport Science you will be taking an exam that is worth 40% of your marks. It is important that from the beginning you start to think about the exam and the skills you’ll need to get the best possible grade. Answering exam questions is a skill. Like any other skill, it can be learnt, practised and improved. Below is an outline of what to expect in the exam, the types of questions and what the paper looks like. You need to answer all the questions.
Types of questions to expect in the exam Exam questions can be asked about any area of the specification, which means that you have to learn everything!
Question type
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The exam paper will contain different types of question: Description
Multiple-choice question (MCQ) Short-answer question
• A question with four answer options • Worth 1 mark
• The format of these questions will vary; for example, you may be asked to circle the correct answer from a list, complete a table or write a one-word answer or a simple sentence • Worth 1 mark for each part of the question
• Where you are expected to write a more detailed answer about a topic. This could require a description or explanation • Worth 2 marks for each part of the question
Open question
• An open-response question where you are expected to do a piece of extended writing • Worth up to 8 marks • These questions allow you to be assessed on the quality of your written communication
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Long-answer question
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Understanding the language of the exam The command word is the key term that tells you how to answer the question. It is essential to know what the different command words mean and what they are asking you to do. It is easy to confuse the words and provide too much information, not enough information or the wrong information. The tables below will help you understand what each command word is asking you to do.
Command words that ask you to get creative Command word
OCR definition
How you should approach it
Create
• Produce a visual solution to a problem (for example, a mind map, flow chart or visualisation).
Show your answer in a visual way. You might want to use a mind map, flow chart or a diagram. Think about what is the best way to show the required information.
Draw
• Produce a picture or diagram.
Create a picture/diagram to show the relevant information.
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Preparing for the exam
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Command words that ask you to do your maths Command word
OCR definition
How you should approach it
Calculate
• Get a numerical answer showing how it has been worked out.
Do your maths. Give the final answer but make sure you show how you got there.
Command words that ask you to choose the correct answer OCR definition
How you should approach it
Choose
• Select an answer from options given.
Pick the option that you think is correct.
Circle
• Select an answer from options given.
Draw a circle around the right answer.
Identify
• Select an answer from options given. • Recognise, name or provide factors or features.
Either choose the correct answer from those given, or write the name, factors or features that are asked for.
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Command word
Command words that ask you to add to something OCR definition
How you should approach it
Annotate
• Add information, for example to a table, diagram or graph, until it is final. • Add all the needed or appropriate parts.
Add short notes to the table/diagram/graph to say what each part is.
Complete
• Add all the needed or appropriate parts. • Add information, for example to a table, diagram or graph, until it is final.
Add the information that is missing. Often you will need to give just one word as an answer but sometimes you may need to write more. You may need to finish drawing a diagram or graph.
Fill in
• Add all the needed or appropriate parts. • Add information, for example to a table, diagram or graph, until it is final.
Add the information that is missing. Often you will need to give just one word as an answer but sometimes you may need to write more.
Label
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Command word
• Add information, for example to a table, diagram or graph, until it is final. • Add all the needed or appropriate parts.
This often refers to a diagram or a picture. Add words or short phrases to say what each part is. You could add arrows next to your label that point to the right part of the diagram/graph.
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Command words that ask you to give the main points Command word
OCR definition
How you should approach it
Outline
• Give a short account, summary or description.
Write about the main points. Don’t write lots of detailed information.
State
• Give factors or features. • Give short, factual answers.
Give a short answer that names factors or features of something. Sometimes you will be asked to give a certain number of factors/ features.
Command words that ask you to be factual Command word
OCR definition
How you should approach it
Describe
• Give an account including all the relevant characteristics, qualities or events. • Give a detailed account of.
This is the ‘what’. Write about what something is.
Explain
• Give reasons for and/or causes of. • Use the words ‘because’ or ‘therefore’ in answers.
This is the ‘how’ and/or the ‘why’. Write about how something happens or works and why it does.
Preparing for the exam
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Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Command words that ask you to give an opinion OCR definition
How you should approach it
Analyse
• Separate or break down information into parts and identify its characteristics or elements. • Explain the pros and cons of a topic or argument and make reasoned comments. • Explain the impacts of actions using a logical chain of reasoning.
This term wants you to write about the details. Write about each part in turn, giving key information and saying what is positive or negative about it.
Compare and contrast
• Give an account of the similarities and differences between two or more items or situations.
‘Compare’ means to say what is the same about two (or more) things. ‘Contrast’ means to say what is different about two (or more) things.
Discuss
• Present, analyse and evaluate relevant points (for example, for/against an argument).
Write about something in detail, including its strengths and weaknesses. Say what you think about each side of the argument. You don’t need to take a side.
Evaluate
• Make a reasoned qualitative judgement considering different factors and using available knowledge/experience.
Write down the argument for and against something. Then give your opinion about which is the stronger argument.
Justify
• Give good reasons for offering an opinion Write what you think would be the or reaching a conclusion. best option and say why you think this. Give evidence to support your answer.
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Command word
Practise it!
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Now go to www.cambridge.org/go/ and complete the practice questions on understanding the exam command words.
Common exam mistakes
Why it matters!
Solutions
Not attempting a question
You won’t get any marks for a blank answer.
• Answer every question. • Write something – you may pick up a few marks, which can add up to make the difference between grades. • Use your general knowledge. • State the obvious. • Think ‘What would my teacher say to that?’
Not answering the question that is asked
You won’t get any marks for writing about another topic or for answering the wrong command word.
• Know what the command words are looking for. • RTQ – read the question. • ATQ – answer the question.
Not providing enough points to achieve the marks
You won’t gain full marks if • Look at the number of marks next to the question – 1 mark you haven’t expanded on = 1 point; 2 marks = 2 points, 3 marks = 3 points, etc. your answer. • Consider if the question requires further explanation or discussion.
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Common mistakes
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Preparing for the exam
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Answering long-answer questions Planning your answer To help you organise your thoughts, it is helpful to plan your answer for 8-mark questions. You don’t need to take too long. A spider diagram, for example, will help you get your answer in the right order and it makes sure you don’t forget anything. For example:
Health/medical conditions
Experience
Age
Suitability for activity
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Individual fitness levels
Warm-up
Time available
Environmental factors
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Group size
Revise it!
Create a spider diagram plan like the one above for the following question:
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‘Idara has recently taken a hockey coaching course. The team she coaches has their first match of the season tomorrow.’ Explain what extrinsic factors she needs to be aware of both before and after the hockey match to reduce the risk of injury to her players.’
(8 marks)
Tip: You could refer to pages 20–23 of the Revision Guide to help you.
Preparing for the exam
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Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
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Make sure you know how long you have got.
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The exam paper
Write your first name and surname clearly in the boxes.
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Ensure that you write clear, structured answers so that you can get maximum marks.
Preparing for the exam
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Highlight or underline key words in the question. Here you need to give intrinsic factors.
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The question is asking for four points. Be sure to give four points in your answer to get full marks.
The number of marks indicates the number of points you need to give. In this case, four points are needed.
Preparing for the exam
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Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Revision checklist Topic Area
What you should know
Topic Area 1:
1.1 Extrinsic factors can influence the risk of injury
Different factors which influence the risk and severity of injury
•
Type of activity (e.g. team vs individual sports)
•
Coaching/instructing/leading (e.g. experience)
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Environmental (e.g. weather, playing surface)
•
Equipment (e.g. clothing, footwear)
1.2 Intrinsic factors can influence the risk of injury Individual variables (e.g. fitness levels, age)
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Psychological factors (e.g. motivation, arousal)
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Reasons for aggression (e.g. retaliation, performance)
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Mental strategies (e.g. imagery, selective attention)
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Topic Area 2:
2.1, 2.2 A warm-up can influence the risk of injury
Warm-up and cool-down routines
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Key components of a warm-up (e.g. pulse raising, mobility)
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Physiological benefits (e.g. increase in heart rate)
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Psychological benefits (e.g. improved concentration)
2.3, 2.4 A cool-down can influence the risk of injury •
Pulse lowering
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Stretching (e.g. maintenance stretches, static, PNF)
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Physiological benefits (e.g. gradual reduction in heart rate)
3.1 Acute injuries
Different types and causes of sports injuries
•
Overview of acute injuries (e.g. sudden trauma)
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Soft tissue and hard tissue injuries (e.g. connective tissue)
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Strains (e.g. torn muscle, torn tendon)
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Sprains (e.g. torn ligaments, ACL)
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Skin damage (e.g. abrasions, lacerations)
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Fractures (e.g. open, closed)
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Topic Area 3:
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Dislocations
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Head injuries (e.g. concussion)
3.2 Chronic injuries •
Overview of chronic injuries (e.g. overuse)
•
Tendonitis (e.g. rotator cuff)
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Epicondylitis (e.g. lateral – tennis elbow)
•
Shin splints
Topic Area 4:
4.1 Measures to reduce risk
Reducing risk, treatment and rehabilitation of sports injuries and medical conditions
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Safety checks (e.g. risk assessment)
•
Strategies (e.g. medicals)
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Emergency action plans (EAP) (e.g. emergency personnel)
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4.2 Responses and treatment •
SALTAPS
•
DRABC
Revision checklist
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
•
PRICE
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Recovery position
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Use of x-rays
•
Overview of treatments (e.g. massage, ultrasound)
•
Psychological effects
5.1 Asthma
Causes, symptoms and treatment of medical conditions
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Overview of asthma and asthma attacks
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Causes/triggers of asthma (e.g. environment)
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Common symptoms of asthma (e.g. coughing)
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Treatment (e.g. reassurance)
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Topic Area 5:
5.2 Diabetes •
Overview of Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes
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Causes of Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes
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Common symptoms of Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes
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Treatment of Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes (e.g. insulin)
•
Monitoring and treatment of blood sugar levels
5.3 Epilepsy
Overview of epilepsy
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Causes/triggers of epilepsy (e.g. anxiety)
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Common symptoms of epilepsy affecting parts of the body
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Treatment (e.g. anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs))
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5.4 Sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) Overview of SCA
•
Causes of SCA (e.g. underlying genetic heart condition)
•
Symptoms of SCA (e.g. breathing difficulties)
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•
•
Treatment for SCA (e.g. defibrillators)
5.5 Other medical conditions
Revision checklist
•
Overview of hypothermia
•
Causes of hypothermia (e.g. exposure to cold conditions)
•
Symptoms of hypothermia (e.g. blue lips/skin)
•
Treatment for hypothermia (e.g. wrap in blankets)
•
Overview of heat exhaustion
•
Causes of heat exhaustion (e.g. insufficient water intake)
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Symptoms of heat exhaustion (e.g. headache)
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Treatment for heat exhaustion (e.g. move to a cool place)
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Overview of dehydration
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Causes of dehydration (e.g. loss of fluid)
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Symptoms of dehydration (e.g. feeling thirsty
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Treatment for dehydration (e.g. drink a lot of water)
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Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Factors influencing injury
see p. 75
What you need to know •
The extrinsic factors that can influence the risk and severity of injury within sporting activity.
There are many external factors that will influence the level of risk and how severe any injuries may be.
Types of factors
Influence
There is a chance we may get injured when we participate in any sport. How many people do you know in your class who have been injured playing sport?
Each factor can affect one or more of the other factors. For example: Each type of sport is played in a specific environment. For example, basketball may be played indoors in a gym or sports hall, or outside on a hard court. These different environments will affect the risk and type of injury.
•
The environment will affect the equipment required. For example, a sprinter may choose to wear studded shoes rather than spiked shoes, depending on the running surface.
•
The type of sport affects the method of coaching/instructing/leading. For example, a group being coached to throw the javelin may require greater supervision than a group who are practising for the 800 m run.
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•
There are many different reasons why we may get injured. These reasons are due to extrinsic and intrinsic factors. Extrinsic factors are things that are external to us – they are related to the sporting activity. Examples of extrinsic factors are found in the diagram below.
•
Intrinsic factors are internal – they are the things we should be able to control. (See page 25 to find out more about the intrinsic factors that could influence injury.)
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•
SA
Extrinsic factors
Types of sports activity
Coaching/Instructing/Leading
Extrinsic factors
Equipment
Environment
Practise it!
Remember it!
Identify the type of factor being described below: is it extrinsic or intrinsic?
•
Intrinsic and extrinsic factors influence the risk and severity of injury
‘These factors are external to us – they are related to the sporting activity.’ (1 mark)
•
Extrinsic factors can influence other extrinsic factors.
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Revision Guide
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Types of sports activity and injury
see p. 76
What you need to know •
How different sporting activities can influence the risk of injury.
It is possible to become injured participating in just about any sporting activity. However, the type of injury and how badly you can be injured will vary depending on the sport being played.
Team sports
PL E
Individual sports
Team games like football can result in injury due to collisions between players or hard impact with the playing area if they slip.
M
Snooker has a low risk of injury as the players take it in turns to take shots and play in a controlled and safe environment.
Extreme sports
In some contact sports, such as boxing, the intention is to physically hurt your opponent – so the risk of injury is high.
Extreme sports like mountain biking have a very high risk of injury due to the environment they take place in.
SA
Contact sports
Practise it!
Remember it!
1
Write down as many different sporting activities as you can. Place each sport in your list with similar sports. Order each group of sports as low, medium or high risk of injury.
Which one of the following sports is most likely to have the highest risk of injury? Choose the correct answer. a
Badminton singles
b
Golf
c
Mixed martial arts fighting
d
Swimming
Create a table of reasons for your sport risk groupings.
(1 mark) 2
State one reason why gymnastics has a greater risk of injury than table tennis. (1 mark)
Revision Guide
High risk of injury
Medium risk of injury
Low risk of injury
Opponent can touch you
Can collide with other players
Play on your own
19
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Coaching/instructing/leading 1
see p. 77
What you need to know •
How the extrinsic factors relating to coaching, instructing and leading can influence the type and severity of injury.
The diagram below summarises the influence of coaching, instructing and leading on the risk and severity of sporting injury.
Ethical standards/ behaviour
Experience
Coaching/ instructing/ leading
PL E
Knowledge of techniques/ rules/regulations
Communication
Supervision
Communication and supervision – two of the extrinsic factors relating to coaching, instructing and leading – are considered in more detail here.
Communication
Appropriate leadership skills will help to keep the session injury-free, so the players remain safe.
M
Effective communication is essential to reduce the risk of injury. Communication skills include being a good listener and the ability to build rapport with players.
Supervision
SA
Being clear visually and verbally when explaining a technique also means a performer will understand what the coach is trying to tell them or show them. This enables them to learn: •
the correct technique
•
the correct rules/regulations
•
when to use different techniques
•
positive ethical standards and behaviour.
Some sports require less supervision, such as table tennis, although the coach should still be present to monitor and feedback on technique. Higher risk activities such as gymnastics need a greater, closer level of supervision. A properly supervised session means that the coach can see how capable the performers are, allowing the coach to set age- and skillappropriate practices.
Practise it!
Remember it!
An instructor is teaching a group to swim.
•
Using an example, explain how good communication reduces the risk of injury for the swimming group. (2 marks)
Each of the extrinsic factors stated in the diagram above can influence each other.
•
For example, communication can influence how well rules are understood, and experience can influence the quality of communication.
20
Revision Guide
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Coaching/instructing/leading 2
see p. 77
What you need to know •
How the extrinsic factors relating to coaching, instructing and leading can influence the type and severity of injury.
Technique, rules, regulations Think of an Olympic weightlifter attempting to lift 200 kg overhead or a trampolinist attempting a double somersault: an error in technique would result in severe injury for either performer.
•
Rules and regulations are in place to make the game entertaining, but they also make it safe for the players. For example, in football, rules are designed to protect – therefore players are penalised for using excessive force (kicking, tripping, holding or biting).
•
In the UK, 6000 people were asked about their sports injuries. Those surveyed felt that a lack of appropriate application of safety rules accounted for 14% of the injuries.
PL E
•
Experience
As sports performers, we are all expected to display: honesty, integrity, responsibility, self-discipline.
Our experience and the experience of those teaching us will also increase or decrease the risk of injury during sporting activity.
When we play sport, whoever is teaching or leading us should reinforce these values. If we play fairly, we are less likely to injure ourselves and others.
If we are new to a sport, the coach must make sure we learn techniques correctly. They should ensure that we play with others of similar experience. Imagine the New Zealand rugby squad playing against a local inexperienced team: the risk of injury would increase dramatically!
M
Ethical standards/behaviour
Rules of a sporting activity help to direct our behaviour, such as the requirement to follow the rules to be allowed to play.
SA
As dangerous behaviour is against the rules of many sports, this reduces the risk of injury, although some performers still behave outside of the rules and cause injury to others. An example of rule-breaking and dangerous behaviour is Mike Tyson biting off part of Evander Holyfield’s ear in a 1997 boxing match.
With greater experience, coaches may learn the best ways of maintaining safety in terms of the techniques they teach. It is also important that experienced coaches attend coaching updates to make sure they remain knowledgeable about the best ways to keep their players safe.
Revise it!
Remember it!
Give an example of how each of the five extrinsic factors of coaching/instructing/ leading could increase or decrease the risk of injury in a sport of your choice.
There are five extrinsic factors associated with coaching/instructing/leading: 1 2 3 4 5
Revision Guide
Communication Supervision Knowledge of technique, rules and regulations Ethical standards/behaviour Experience
21
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Environment
see p. 78
What you need to know •
How the extrinsic factor of the environment can influence the type and severity of sporting injury.
Environment The influence of the environment on risk and severity of injury is summarised below. Weather/temperature conditions
Some weather conditions just make the activity harder to play, while others affect the potential for injury, such as icy tennis courts and strong winds if sailing.
Playing surface and surrounding area
•
• Human interaction
•
• • •
PL E
•
Different types of playing surfaces affect risk. For example, in football, grass (a natural surface) has less risk than some types of artificial surfaces. It is important to have the correct footwear for the playing surface. Without this, the risk of injury increases. The surrounding area can also be hazardous. For example, the metal frame of a trampoline needs padding.
Other performers/participants – even in individual events. For example, in the 5000 m run, other participants can cause injury with their spikes if the runners are close together. There is a greater risk of injury in team and contact sports, for example boxing and rugby, because of the contact between players. Officials should lower the risk of injury by enforcing safety rules. Spectators may cause participants to try too hard, making them more reckless. Spectators may even be hurt, for example if they are struck with a golf ball.
Severity of injury
M
Risk of injury
Long-distance athletes often prefer to complete their events in the cooler parts of the day to avoid becoming too hot and getting exhausted.
SA
Think about the following sports and how the playing surface alters the risk of injury: •
grass court tennis vs tennis on a hard court
•
swimming in a pool vs open water swimming
•
field hockey vs ice hockey.
Human interaction in sport, team games and contact sports will introduce a greater risk of injury because of interaction with the other participants.
Just because there is an increased risk of injury, doesn’t mean the injury will be more severe. Normally, as the risk of injury increases the severity of injury – or how bad the injury is – reduces; otherwise, people would stop playing. For example, playing hockey on ice increases the risk of injury from falling, but the padded clothing worn by the players helps to reduce the severity of the fall. More extreme activities like skydiving should have a low risk of injury, due to the safety checks carried out before the jump.
Practise it!
Remember it!
Explain how a cold, icy day could increase the risk of injury in a game of rugby or netball. (2 marks)
The environment is another extrinsic factor influencing the risk and severity of injury.
22
The environment means: the weather and temperature, the playing surface, and the level of human interaction during the activity.
Revision Guide
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Equipment
see p. 79
What you need to know •
How the extrinsic factor equipment can influence the type and severity of injury.
Protective equipment
Performance equipment
Protective equipment makes it safer for performers to participate in sport. For example:
Performance equipment helps sports players to train harder and play better. For example:
•
•
In tennis, the use of a machine ball feeder allows the player to practise shots to improve their technique.
PL E
•
Padding placed around posts that are on or near the field of play, such as around rugby posts or the metal structures supporting chair lifts on ski-runs, reduce the impact if performers run into them.
•
Weights designed to be worn on the soles of the shoes allow players to strengthen their legs and jump higher when they are not wearing them.
Buoyancy aids such as life jackets are used to keep people afloat if they fall in the water during water sports, to prevent drowning.
Footwear
Lightweight trainers increase the players speed and performance, whatever the sport. Specialist footwear also has safety benefits, for example:
Ski boots prevent movement at the ankle, so the skier is less likely to break a bone when they fall.
•
Football boots and rugby boots have special mouldings or studs designed to give the player better grip with the ground, so they don’t slip.
M
•
Clothing
SA
Clothing and aid performance, such as a streamlined swimsuit that cuts down on drag (water resistance).
Specialist clothing is also designed for safety, for example: •
Specialised gloves in sports like cricket and baseball protect the hands of the players from being struck by the ball when it is travelling at high speed.
•
Safety glasses worn by squash players stop the ball entering the eye.
Practise it!
Remember it!
Using a named contact sport, state two pieces of protective equipment or clothing. (2 marks)
•
Equipment is an extrinsic factor that can influence the risk of severity of injury.
•
Equipment is designed to help performance as well as providing protection while playing.
Revision Guide
23
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Extrinsic risk factors
see p. 80
What you need to know •
How the different extrinsic factors influence each other
•
How the extrinsic factors compare and contrast to each other in influencing risk and severity of injury.
Although some sports, such as rugby, seem to present a greater risk of injury, appropriate management of the other extrinsic factors make the sport far less dangerous than activities such as road cycling where it is harder to control all the extrinsic factors (for example, other traffic).
Influence of extrinsic factors
Extrinsic factor Influence
PL E
Rugby is a type of contact sport which increases the risk of injury. The other extrinsic factors influence the risk due to the type of sport and make it safer. For example: Example
Coaches teach correct techniques
The scrum technique reduces risk of neck injury.
Coaches teach players appropriate behaviours on the pitch
Coaches teach discipline, reducing aggression on the pitch.
Environment
The match official checks the playing surface before the game
To check the pitch is not frozen. To check there are no hazards on the pitch.
The match officials enforce the laws of the game
Enforced laws include no tackling above the shoulder, reducing the risk of neck injury.
The match official checks equipment
Checks there is padding around the goalposts and that the players kit is compliant with the laws of the game.
Equipment
M
Coaching/ instructing/ leading
Compare and contrast
Different extrinsic factors have a greater influence on risk and severity of injury depending on the type of sport. For example: Extrinsic factor with greatest Reason influence on risk and severity of injury
SA
Type of sport activity
Skydiving
Equipment, protective equipment
If the parachute malfunctions the skydiver could die from the impact injuries when they land.
Mixed Martial Arts fighting
Environment, other performers
The opponents will be trying to hurt each other in order to win.
Gymnastics floor routine
Coaching/instructing/leading, knowledge of techniques
If the coach does not teach the correct techniques the gymnast will become injured when attempting tumbling.
Practise it!
Remember it!
State three things you can do as a player in a team sport to reduce the risk of injury to you and others during a game. (3 marks)
•
The different extrinsic factors all influence each other.
•
By changing an extrinsic factor, you can alter the amount of risk of injury.
24
Revision Guide
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Individual variables 1
see p. 81
What you need to know •
The intrinsic factors that can influence the risk and severity of injury within sporting activity.
Intrinsic factors relate to us, rather than the sporting activity we are participating in. There are four types of intrinsic factors: individual variables, psychological factors, reasons for aggression and mental strategies.
Influence
PL E
Each type of intrinsic factor can affect the risk and severity of injury. For example: •
The technique or ability of a person (individual variable) will alter the risk. For example, an experienced trampolinist completing a somersault should have a lower risk of injury than a beginner trying the same movement.
•
Weight (individual variable) can also affect the risk of injury. For example, there is thought to be a higher risk of injury among underweight and overweight runners due to the forces acting on the skeleton when running.
Individual variables
M
Some individual variables, such as gender and age, have most influence if competing against others who are a different gender or age. This is normally due to the differences in physique of the players: the smaller player being at greater risk of injury in contact sports such as boxing or rugby. Therefore, for these sports, teams are not mixed and are for specific age groups. The individual variables that influence the risk of injury are: age
•
nutrition/hydration
•
experience
•
medical conditions
•
weight
•
sleep
•
fitness levels
•
previous/recurring injuries
•
technique/ability
•
gender.
SA
•
Revise it!
Remember it!
1
Create a diagram to show which individual variables could influence other individual variables – for example, age could influence the amount of experience someone has. (Remember: not all variables will influence other individual variables.)
•
Intrinsic factors are internal to the performer.
•
There are four groups of intrinsic factors: individual variables, psychological factors, reasons for aggression and mental strategies.
Explain each of the links in your diagram – for example, a younger person might not have played a sport for as long as an older player.
•
Intrinsic factors influence the risk of injury.
•
Some individual variables influence other individual variables.
2
Revision Guide
25
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Individual variables 2
see p. 82
What you need to know •
The individual variables that can influence the risk and severity of injury within sporting activity.
Nutrition
Hydration
Nutrition is about all the things we eat. We should all have a balanced diet that gives us the correct mix of nutrients. The food we eat:
Hydration is about making sure we drink enough liquid each day. It is recommended we drink a minimum of 6–8 glasses of liquid a day, and more if we are exercising.
provides energy for exercise
•
helps our muscles to recover from exercise
•
helps us to remain healthy and focused.
Without the correct nutrition, we increase the risk of injury. For example: •
lack of nutrition for muscle recovery/repair
•
poor decision-making because of low energy can lead to accidental injury
•
lack of bone density, resulting in more brittle bones and increased risk of stress fractures.
Medical conditions
Medical condition Risk
Performers’ blood sugar levels may become too low, risking hypoglycaemia.
SA Epilepsy
Sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) Hypothermia
Sleep
A lack of sleep has been linked to increased risk of injury in sport. This may be due to: •
reduced reaction times, making it harder to avoid another player
•
a lowered immune system, meaning participants are more likely to pick up colds
•
lack of time for muscle recovery after exercise, so increasing risk of muscle injury.
M
Medical conditions can increase the risk of injury, although participants usually put measures in place to minimise these risks.
Diabetes
Without enough fluid we risk becoming dehydrated, which increases the risk of muscle strain, heat exhaustion, dizziness and nausea.
PL E
•
Previous/recurring injuries The risk of future injury increases if we have been injured in the past. This could be due to not correcting the error that caused the injury to begin with. For example:
Performers may experience seizures, increasing the risk of drowning if swimming alone.
•
overloading our bodies in training
•
insufficient time for recovery
Although uncommon, sudden loss of heart function can result in death, during or after exercise.
•
not being fit enough at the start of the playing season
•
poor technique.
If a performer’s body temperature falls below 35 °C due to prolonged exposure to the cold, they may become confused or even lose consciousness.
Practise it!
Remember it!
Using a practical example, explain how dehydration could increase the risk of injury.
•
26
(2 marks)
•
It is essential to have a balanced diet and drink enough fluids to remain hydrated. Rest is critical to enable recovery.
Revision Guide
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Psychological factors 1
see p. 83
What you need to know •
The psychological factors that can influence the risk and severity of injury in sport.
Psychological factors
Motivation
Psychological factors can affect the risk and severity of injury.
Motivation is what drives us to do something. It is easier to act if we are highly motivated, and harder to act if we are not motivated.
Aggression
Motivation
Psychological factors Confidence
Arousal
If motivation levels are too high when we play sport, we can become reckless. This means we may go into a tackle too aggressively or without the correct technique. This could cause an injury to an opponent or to ourselves.
PL E
Anxiety/stress
Arousal
Performing with a low level of motivation can also increase the risk of injury, for example, not going into a tackle with enough effort or having a lack of concentration that leads to an error in technique.
Anxiety/stress
Some people are naturally more anxious than others, but in some sporting situations anyone’s anxiety can increase, for example: before taking a match-winning penalty.
Different types of sports require different levels of arousal. For example, putting in golf will require relatively low levels of arousal compared to tackling in American football.
Uncontrolled levels of anxiety could affect the performer’s concentration and increase risk of injury through poor technique or poor judgement. A drop in technique can also lead to a drop in confidence, increasing anxiety further.
SA
M
Arousal is our alertness. It shows how motivated we are. Controlling our arousal level is a good way to improve our performance and reduce the risk of injury.
Revise it!
Remember it!
1
•
Motivation is the thing that energises us to do something.
•
If our level of motivation or arousal is too low or too high our performance will suffer, and the risk of injury will increase.
•
Different sporting situations can increase our level of anxiety/stress.
2
Create a personal profile for a particular sport based on the following psychological factors: •
How motivated are you when you play?
•
Do you get stressed/anxious?
•
How confident are you when you play?
•
Do any individual variables affect the psychological factors?
Compare your profile with that of another class member who plays a totally different sport. Are there differences in your profiles? Who has the greatest risk of injury?
Revision Guide
27
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Psychological factors 2
see p. 84
What you need to know •
How aggression and confidence can influence the risk and severity of injury within sporting activity
•
The two types of aggression: channelled aggression and direct aggression.
Channelled aggression
The rugby player who is trying to hit the other player in the photo below is demonstrating direct aggression. This type of aggression involves physical contact and is against the rules of the game.
In some sports, aggression is acceptable and within the rules of the activity. For example, in boxing and martial arts, where the aim is to hurt the opponent to win. Aggression is any behaviour where there is intention to injure or harm another player.
Confidence
PL E
Direct aggression
SA
M
When someone is feeling confident, they feel good about their ability to play well. Our self-confidence can vary depending on the sporting situation we are in. Are there times when you feel more confident within your activity? Maybe you feel more confident when playing a weaker opposition? Our self-confidence links to our motivation, arousal and anxiety levels. The greater our self-confidence, normally the more motivated we are to perform. However, in the same way that we can become over-motivated or over-aroused, we can become over-confident. This can have a negative effect on our performance and cause us to become anxious, meaning we lose focus, our performance becomes worse and the risk of injury increases.
Practise it! Explain the difference between direct and channelled aggression.
28
Poor performance
Increased risk of injury
Drop in confidence
Increase in anxiety
Remember it! (2 marks)
•
Aggression is the intent to harm.
•
Direct aggression is outside of the rules.
•
Channelled aggression is within the rules of some sports.
Revision Guide
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Reasons for aggression
see p. 85
What you need to know •
The reasons why people become aggressive when playing sport.
It is important to know the difference between aggression and assertion. Players need to be assertive in games – they need to be forceful – but this needs to be within the rules of the game.
Level of performance
Retaliation
Many factors affect how well we play, for example:
Some performers deliberately set out to upset their opponents. This could be through shirt holding or pushing when the official isn’t looking, or through hurtful comments. Whatever the method, the purpose is the same: to make the opponent lose focus and play badly.
the quality of the opposition
•
our level of fitness
•
our preparation for the game (nutrition, hydration, sleep).
PL E
•
Depending on their personality, the player may react badly to this type of behaviour and retaliate by becoming more aggressive. There have been very clear examples of retaliation in professional sport, for example: Zinedine Zidane’s head-butt in the 2006 World Cup final, after which he was sent off.
M
If we begin to play badly, we might start to become frustrated with our game. If our opponent is the reason for the bad play – for example, if they mark so well in football that we cannot get into a scoring position or we keep losing possession – then our frustration may become directed towards our opponent. If this happens, we are at risk of acting aggressively towards them.
Pressure to win and PEDs
SA
The importance of the outcome of a sporting situation will increase the pressure on players to perform well. For example, there will be much more pressure on players before a cup game than a friendly game. The pressure to perform well can come from the performer, the coach, or from spectators (such as parents and fans). The increase in pressure can make players more aggressive.
Performance enhancing drugs, or PEDs, can also increase aggression. Anabolic steroids in particular are associated with aggression.
Officials The quality of the officiating of a game will affect aggression levels. Well-managed games will reduce aggression, but if a player feels there have been several poor decisions in favour of the opposition, they might become aggressive.
Practise it!
Remember it!
State how the quality of the opposition can influence an opponent’s level of aggression. (1 mark)
Factors that increase aggression in sport:
Revision Guide
•
level of performance
•
retaliation
•
pressure to win
•
poor officiating
•
performance enhancing drugs (PEDs).
29
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Mental strategies
see p. 86
What you need to know •
The methods we can use to help reduce the risk of becoming aggressive due to over-arousal or loss of focus, and being injured or causing injury as a result.
Control
Mental rehearsal
There are many things that could cause us to become aggressive in sport. These factors, or triggers, can occur before or during play. We need ways to combat them so we do not become aggressive. This will allow us to play at our best and reduces the risk of injury.
Mental rehearsal is where the performer imagines themselves performing in the activity they are about to play. This could be:
Imagery
Mental strategies
•
the routine they are about to perform in gymnastics
•
a tactic they have been working on for a goal line pass or corner kick
•
any isolated technique they are worried about performing.
Mental rehearsal allows the player to mentally practise performing a task. This can increase confidence, allowing them to cope with anxiety.
Selective attention
M
Selective attention
Imagery
navigating the turns on a slalom ski course
PL E
Mental rehearsal
•
SA
Imagery is a type of relaxation technique. The performer creates pictures in their mind to help reduce anxiety levels and therefore control their arousal. This helps to increase confidence and reduces the risk of the player becoming aggressive when they start to play. The images could be, for example: •
pictures of places where they feel calm, such as the beach, away from the pressure of competition
•
recreations of past successful moments in games, such as perfect execution of a skill.
Selective attention is a process that allows the performer to filter out anything irrelevant to the performance. This might be: •
the crowd
•
negative comments from the opposition
•
information on the side of the playing area
•
other players on a neighbouring pitch or court.
Selective attention enables the performer to increase their focus on the things most likely to bring them success – that is, what they need to do. For example, in a game of tennis, the performer may focus their attention on the position of the opponent’s racket as they hit the ball, so they can respond more effectively to the shot.
Practise it!
Remember it!
Explain one advantage to a sprinter of using selective attention on the blocks at the start of the race. (2 marks)
The mental strategies to help us focus and reduce the risk of us becoming aggressive in sport are mental rehearsal, imagery and selective attention.
30
Revision Guide
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
Low-risk or high-risk sport?
see p. 87
What you need to know •
How extrinsic and intrinsic factors create different levels of risk in different types of sport.
Low-risk factors
Poor coaching may lead to poor performance rather than injury.
Due to hazardous nature of activity, it requires specialist safety equipment, such as a harness and ice pick.
SA
Poor coaching may lead to serious injury, for example if the rope is incorrectly secured.
Low level of ability just means a loss in this sport and not injury.
If over-aroused, players may lack focus on cues from their opponent and play wild shots, but this has limited injury risk.
M
High-risk factors
Minimal equipment required. Players are wearing appropriate clothing and footwear.
PL E
Played indoors in a temperaturecontrolled environment on specialised flooring.
If over-aroused, hiker may lack focus, resulting in poor route selection that may lead to a fall.
Low level of ability makes errors more likely, which could result in a fall.
High risk due to extreme cold and risk of falling great heights.
Revise it!
Remember it!
Think of two other contrasting sports and compare how different examples of the extrinsic and intrinsic factors affect the risk involved in each activity.
The same risk factor, e.g., the environment, can create a different level of risk depending on the sport and the other extrinsic and intrinsic factors.
Revision Guide
31
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
