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LEARNING INTENTIONS In this unit you will learn how to: • understand the key terms culture, norms, values, roles, beliefs and identity; appreciate that these are social constructions and understand how they influence human behaviour • describe and account for diversity and variations in human behaviour and culture, including the relativity of culture • explain the different agencies of socialisation and their impact on individuals, including the consequences of inadequate socialisation • assess the different views in the nature/nurture debate • understand the terms ‘conformity’ and ‘non-conformity’ and how agencies of social control work • recognise examples of rewards and sanctions applied in different societies and organisations • explain the nature of sub-cultures and how they impact on consensus and conflict • assess the role of age, gender, ethnic group and class as influences on social identity • explain the ways in which childhood is socially constructed • assess the view that globalisation is creating a global culture. Unit 2 Identity: self and society SAMPLE We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this resource. Original material © Cambridge University Press & Assessment 2022. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
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2 Identity: self and society 3
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Society as a product of social construction
This unit considers the relationship between the individual and society, what constitutes our identity and how identity and behaviour are shaped by social processes. You will consider ideas about how individuals are socialised into their culture and how they may be socially controlled. This unit will introduce three main sociological perspectives on these processes, which have differing views on whether social control, for example, is a good or a bad thing.
Introduction
Figure 2.1: A family.
What makes us human? For sociologists, what makes us distinctively human is our relationships with other people, how we live in groups and societies, and how we reflect and act upon our lives. This unit explores the relationships between individuals and societies, and how much our identities are shaped by the social influences and people around us.
2.1 How do we learn our identity?
This section examines the social constructions of culture, norms, values, customs and roles. It also investigates how they are created by, and then influence, human behaviour. There is no single definition of the term culture but it is used in two main ways. In everyday speech, it usually refers to things such as art, music and literature –sometimes called ‘high culture’. It can also refer to things such as the media, fashion
KEY TERMS social construction: the idea that social situations and events are made by societies; they do not exist in nature as independent things culture: the way of life of a society
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• the kinds of work that people do • religious and spiritual beliefs and practices • festivals and celebrations.
KEY TERMS norms: the behaviour that societies expect of their members in particular situations values: standards shared by members of a culture and used to judge behaviourwhetherisright or wrong customs: norms in a particular society that are widely accepted and over timecontinue laws: rules, usually formalised government,bythat are used to order the way in which a society behaves
• Norms. Norms are the kinds of behaviour that a society expects of its members in particular situations. There is a wide range of norms; some are more widely observed than others, and some carry more of a sense of what is right or wrong. For example, there are different norms about how to greet someone you are meeting for the first time. In some societies, the norm is to shake hands but in others, it is to bow. People visiting a place with a different culture need to be aware of the norms so they do not cause offence. Norms that are widely accepted and continue over time are sometimes called customs. In addition, some norms are given extra importance by being used as the basis for rules, regulations and laws. Norms are usually enforced by informal means. Laws are usually enforced by formal means.
Society and the institutions within it are made up of individual people, and every individual within a society has their own sense of identity. Identity refers to our sense of who we are, how we see ourselves and the ways in which we think we are similar to and different from other people. An important part of this relates to how other people see us and judge us. In other words, our sense of self or identity is heavily influenced by others. Other people may give us feedback about ourselves and our behaviour, but even without feedback, we can put ourselves in the position of others and imagine how they would see us.
Society and culture are very closely related and the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. However, they are different – although they cannot exist without each other. Society is made up of institutions, both formal ones (such as the legal and educational systems) and informal ones (such as families). Culture is about how these institutions work; how they set norms and expectations about the roles people should play.
Culture includes:
• the language, spoken and unspoken, that you use to communicate with others
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All societies have ideas about the right and wrong ways of doing these things.
CAMBRIDGE IGCSE AND O LEVEL SOCIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK 4 and advertising – sometimes called ‘popular culture’. In this unit, we will use the term ‘culture’ in a broader way, to mean a society’s whole way of life. Every aspect of human life is influenced by culture in this sense, because we constantly refer – whether consciously or unconsciously – to our society or social group for guidelines about how to think and behave.
• the way you spend your leisure time • the kind of home and family you live within
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• Values. Values are standards of what is considered good and right. They act as guides for what people should think and believe, and how they should act. Many people claim to have their own values but these values will be shared with other people.
Elements of culture: norms and values
Two important elements of any human culture are norms and values
• what you eat and drink, with whom and when • how you dress and the care you take over your appearance
Someone who is able to buy an expensive car, live in a large house and travel widely for pleasure is usually seen as successful and has a high status. Indigenous Americans (people living in America before Europeans arrived) also placed a high value on possessions but this was not for personal enjoyment. At festivals known as potlatch celebrations, wealthy Indigenous Americans gave away lavish gifts to their guests. In return, the gift giver received the approval of the recipients and was looked up to and highly respected. Possessions were considered to have little value other than to be given away; by which the owner could acquire status and respect. An individual in a modern industrial society who gave away most of their possessions in this way would be considered eccentric or even insane. This shows how values can vary enormously between cultures.
KEY TERM status: a position that someone has in a society; status can be ascribed (fixed by others) or achieved
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Figure 2.2: Shopping for material goods.
2 Identity: self and society 5
Both values and norms provide guidelines for how people should behave. Values relate to ideas which we see as important and they might relate to things such as personal space, respect and privacy. Norms are expected ways of behaving which are based on these values. Knowledge of key values allows us to work out what the norms will be, even in a new situation. For example, norms based on the value of personal space might include how far away you stand when talking to someone and where you sit, for example, on a bus or in a train. Values and norms vary across society. This shows that they are socially constructed. They are not part of a universal culture and people are not born knowing them. They have to be learned and passed on to the next generation. Think again about the example of the value of personal space. In some societies, people stand closer to each other when talking than in other societies. There are also societies where it is normal to sit next to a stranger on a bus, even if there are empty seats available, whereas in other societies, this would be seen as strange behaviour. These are norms based on values about personal space. One distinctive value in some modern industrial societies is the desirability of being wealthy and owning material goods.
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Language can be seen as a system of symbols, in which sounds and words carry meaning. Language allows people to communicate with one another and there are norms surrounding the use of language – for example, not swearing or using rude words in a formal situation.
Status and role Most norms are associated with status, which is the position a person has in a society. For example, you have the status of a sociology student. Your teacher’s status is that of a teacher. But you both have other statuses as well. For example, in your family, your status is son or daughter, brother or sister. Being a teenager gives you a lower status than your parents and other adults but this will change when you become accepted as an adult. In many societies, especially in the past, most statuses were ascribed. That means that they were decided at birth and individuals could not choose or decide their status for themselves. This still applies today, with statuses based on gender, age and ethnicity, for example. In modern societies, however, some important statuses are now achieved. Individuals can make decisions or take actions – for example, relating to the work they do – that lead to a particular status.
KEY TERMS gender: the roles and maleassociatedexpectationswithbeingorfemale age: age is often looked at in stages rather than specific numbers – childhood, youth, adulthood and old age. There are particular roles and each ageassociatedexpectationswith ethnicity: the state of belonging to a particular group with a shared traditionsbeliefs,includingculture,language,historyand SAMPLE
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Norms and values also change over time in a society. In his book The Civilising Process, Norbert Elias described how in Europe during the Middle Ages, there were fewer constraints on individual behaviour than there are today. The state was weak and unable to control individual behaviour to any great extent, so people with power could more easily use violence and force to get their own way. As the state grew in power, however, this led to a ‘civilising process’. During the Middle Ages, for example, it was common for strangers to share a bed in an inn, for people to eat with their fingers from common bowls and for people to go to the toilet in public. By around 500 years ago, books on etiquette were advising the nobility that burping, breaking wind, spitting and picking your nose in public were rude acts, signifying bad manners. By the 19th century, such behaviour was unacceptable in all but the lowest classes and children were taught these norms. In modern societies, there are more norms that cover more areas of life. Elias also suggests that it has become the norm to control emotion. People still have violent and intense emotions but, in most societies and situations, they do not show them in public.
Other aspects of culture which relate to norms and values include symbols and language. A symbol is something that carries particular a meaning, that is recognised by people who share the same culture. For example, a cross worn on a chain is a symbol of Christian religious beliefs, and a shirt with a particular colour and badge may show that the person wearing it supports a particular football team. Countries have national symbols, such as flags. The understanding of such symbols and their meaning is part of a culture’s norms and values.
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Because norms and values are different in different societies around the world and also vary depending on the period of history, we can say that they are socially constructed and relative. Norms and values are made by societies, not by individuals, and they are not natural in the way that, for example, scratching an itch is natural.
People in a society share values and norms so, most of the time, social life is orderly and predictable. We know what other people are likely to do and how they will respond to what we do. Not everyone shares all the values or conforms to all the norms but societies have ways of expressing disapproval of those who break the norms. Societies also have ways of encouraging, or forcing, people to conform.
KEY TERMS
Stereotypes
We can choose how to respond to the identities we see ourselves as having. For example, a person with a disability may see their disability as an important aspect of their identity because they are often treated differently from others. They can choose
KEY TERM role: the patterns of behaviour expected of someone because of their status in society
Within cultures, individuals learn the norms, values and statuses of different people, as well as their associated roles. This creates stereotypes – oversimplified sets of ideas about a particular type of person or social group. The media often use these one-sided, exaggerated images because they are widely understood and a convenient way of conveying ideas. Stereotypes are usually misleading but often contain some truth; they can be positive as well as negative. Media portrayals of particular groups often rely on stereotypes. For example, in the UK media, young people are often portrayed as disrespectful and reckless. Such stereotypes are repeated so often that they seem to be accurate; as a result, they are often believed, especially by people who have no personal experience with which to challenge the stereotype. For example, someone who has no recent experience of being around young people is more likely to believe that they are all disrespectful and reckless. In contrast, a teacher who works with young people is more likely to reject the stereotype, since they will have personal experience of the differences between individuals and may know many respectful young people.
How these concepts influence individual behaviour and social identity
2 Identity: self and society 7
With each status comes a set of norms, called a role. The role of a student includes norms such as attending classes, asking questions and learning. Students are expected to sit at a desk and listen to what the teacher says. Having a role is like having a part in a play, but you have some choice over how you act that role. For example, you may be a good student or a lazy one.
The social construction of our identity
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TIP Remember that roles and identities are not fixed. They continually change as a person grows from a child to an adult, changes careers, has a family, etc.
Social identities are how we perceive ourselves and how we are perceived by others. Everyone has different statuses and roles and most people have multiple roles. Roles are based on our relationships with others. For example, the author of this book is a husband, a father, a lecturer and an author. They are also a customer for the businesses they use and a patient to their doctor. Each of these roles is part of their identity, although some roles are more important than others in particular social circumstances and the relative importance of each role will vary depending on the situation. People experience role conflict when the norms attached to two or more different roles are incompatible with each other. For example, a parent may experience conflict between their work role (the need to be at the office, working hard) and their role as a mother or father (the need to nurture their children).
Our social identity, or image of ourselves, is therefore formed through interaction with others. Identifying ourselves as male or female is our gender identity. We also develop identities in particular groups and situations, such as the family, at work, at school. We see ourselves as having certain characteristics, such as being a good friend or being a tough boss. Identities connect individuals to society in the sense that, through our identity, we can see ourselves in the context of our culture. This allows us to link our inner selves (who we think we really are) with the roles we occupy.
social identity: an individual’s perception of themselves, based partly on ideas about how others see them stereotype: personparticularofoversimplifiedansetideasaboutatypeoforsocialgroup
Interview several older people (for example, members of your family or neighbours) and ask them how your society’s culture has changed during their lifetimes. Before you start, look again at the section on interviews in Research Methods and decide how to conduct the interviews and what kinds of questions you will ask. From what your respondents say, try to identify changes in values and norms.
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CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Work with a partner and make sure you can both explain the following terms: a globalisation b the homogenisation of identities c hybrid identities d multiculturalism 2 Write down three ways in which each of these aspects of identity has changed in the last 50 years: a social class b age c gender d ethnicity
how they engage with this, for example, by passively accepting inferior treatment or by rejecting the label and fighting back to emphasise their abilities. Stuart Hall argued that in the 21st century, people are often more uncertain about their identities than they might have been in the past. For example, ethnic identities are no longer as clear as they once were; more people have mixed backgrounds and are familiar with different cultures. Many people also have more roles than they would have in the past and there may be more uncertainty about what these roles involve. Having more roles can be both positive and negative – it gives us more choices but can also make us feel confused or overwhelmed.
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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE AND O LEVEL SOCIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK 8
Consider the changes in values and norms you identified in your research. Were you aware of these changes in your society’s culture before the interviews? If you were, how? If you were not, why not?
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What other topics in sociology could older people be a useful source of information about?
ACTIVITY: RESEARCH 2.1
REFLECTION
• These influences are increasingly online.
Without using this book or your notes, see if you can list the four key aspects of social identity. Check your answer. Now, for each aspect, give three examples of how it might affect people.
• Some people join groups to resist and protest against social control.
• There is a range of influences on social identity.
1 Knowledge and understanding
Write up to 500 words to answer the question: ‘To what extent has social media changed the way people construct their identities?’ In your essay, try to use these terms (and any others you think are relevant): digital self, virtual communities, globalisation, social networks, postmodernism, pick-and-mix society.
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• Cultural diversity, multiculturalism and global culture have positive and negative impacts on individual and social/cultural identities.
SUMMARY
• In postmodern societies, people can have digital identities linked to consumption patterns and lifestyle in a pick-and-mix society.
2 Interpretation and application
3 Analysis and evaluation
• These aspects impact on individuals and social groups in different societies.
How much are digital technologies used today? Design a social survey asking about the digital devices people own or use, and what they use them for. Ask a range of people in your school or college (teachers, other staff, your peers, younger learners) to take your survey. Present your data in a chart
• Individuals learn their identity through primary and secondary socialisation.
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KEY SKILLS EXERCISE
• Key aspects of social identity are: age, gender, ethnicity and social class.
• Postmodernists view identity as chosen rather than given.
Whator table.have you learned about how much the people in your sample use digital technologies?
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• Social networks, social media and virtual communities have positive and negative impacts on identity.
KEY POINTS
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• People today can create a digital self and have online identities.
• People are controlled by formal and informal agencies of social control, which use a variety of methods.
2 Identity: self and society
• There is a debate between sociological perspectives about socialisation.
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PRACTICE QUESTIONS a Define the following terms: i stereotype [2] ii peer pressure [2] b Give two examples of types of subculture. [2] c Explain three methods by which formal agencies of social control achieve social conformity. [6]
d Explain three aspects of the feminist view of socialisation. [6]
CAMBRIDGE IGCSE AND O LEVEL SOCIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK 10IMPROVE THIS ANSWER Research Methods, Identity and Inequality
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• at least three arguments for and three arguments against the view • a conclusion. [12] [Total 40]
Discuss the view that identity is now chosen rather than given. Your answer should include at least three developed points with evidence. [10]
The importance of peer groups is one example of how age is a strong influence on identity. These groups of friends are often based on age, and shape the way we see ourselves (in relation to the group). This is especially important for young people; the peer group provides an identity (based on age).
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Evaluate the view that age is the main influence on identity. Your answer should include:
Commentary and task: This is an evaluation question, so it requires several arguments for the view in the question, several arguments against the view in the question and a conclusion. The answer so far gives several arguments in favour of the view that age is the main influence on identity. Improve this answer by adding a new paragraph with at least three arguments against the view. Try to include some sociological concepts and refer to sociological theories such as Marxism and feminism. Finally, add an evaluative conclusion.
Another example is the fact that age is seen as important by society. There are different social expectations for different age groups; for example, there are restrictions on what young people can do. In most countries, young people cannot work, get married or vote until they reach an age at which they get the same rights as adults. This means that age is bound to be an important part of a young person’s identity. A third example is that there is now a greater generation gap than in the past, so the experiences of different age groups are very different, and it is more likely people will identify with a particular age group. Social and technological changes such as the internet and social media mean that different age groups have different experiences, which influence their identities.
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• at least three arguments for and three arguments against the view • a conclusion. [12]
Evaluate the view that age is the main influence on identity. Your answer should include:
2 Identity: self and society 11
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2.2 How does society control us?
Understand the debate between consensus and conflict views of social Understandcontrolthe methods used by the formal and informal agencies of social control
After studying this unit, copy and complete this table. You should be able to:
Understand globalisation and its influence on individual and social/cultural identities
Understand the reasons for and forms of resistance to social control
Evaluate the effectiveness of agencies of formal social control
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Evaluate the effectiveness of agencies of informal social control
SELF-EVALUATION
CHECKLIST
Evaluate the effectiveness of each agency in the
moreNeedswork thereAlmost Ready to move on
Understand types of social control
Explain the key aspects of social identity: age, gender, ethnicity and social Explainclassthe digital self and online identities
Understand the social construction of identity
Understandsocialisation processthedebate between sociological perspectives and theories on socialisation
Evaluate the positive and negative impacts on identity of cultural diversity, multiculturalism and global culture Explain postmodernist views of identity
2.1 How do we learn our identity?
Understand primary and secondary socialisation and the processes used by the key agencies involved
2.3 What influences our social identity?
Understand how society is a product of social construction