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History for the IB Diploma PAPER 3

Impact of the World Wars on South East Asia Mary Dicken Series editor: Allan Todd

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Contents 1 Introduction

2 The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles 2.1 Why was South-East Asia involved in the First World War? 2.2 How did the war affect South-East Asia? 2.3 What were the results of the Treaty of Versailles for South-East Asia? 2.4 Why was there resentment around the Treaty of V ersailles?

28 31 36

3 Initial Japanese victories in South-East Asia, 1940–42 3.1 Why did Japan become involved in the Second World War? 3.2 Why was Japan so successful from 1940 to 1942? 3.3 How did the victories affect Japan and South-East Asia?

4 The nature and impact of Japanese occupation 4.1 How did Japan treat people in Korea, Taiwan, Manchuria and China? 4.2 How did Japan treat people in Malaya, the Philippines, Burma, Indo-China and Indonesia? 4.3 How did Japan try to spread its culture in South-East Asia?

39 44

64 89 97 105 108 113 128

5 The growth of nationalism and the role of independence movements 136 5.1 What are the historical theories about the nature of nationalism? 139 5.2 How did the colonial powers react to the defeat of Japan? 140 5.3 How did nationalist groups contribute to independence in Indonesia? 147 5.4 How did nationalist groups contribute to independence in Malaya? 153 5.5 How did nationalist groups contribute to independence in Vietnam? 162 5.6 What difference did collaboration with or resistance to Japanese occupation make to the coming of independence? 172 3

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

6 The emergence and influence of Sukarno, Ho Chi Minh and Tunku Abdul Rahman 6.1 Why did Sukarno emerge as the leader in Indonesia? 6.2 What was Sukarno’s contribution to the coming of independence in Indonesia? 6.3 Why did Ho Chi Minh emerge as the leader in Vietnam? 6.4 What was Ho Chi Minh’s contribution to the coming of independence in Vietnam? 6.5 Why did Tunku Abdul Rahman emerge as the leader of Malaya? 6.6 What was Tunku Abdul Rahman’s contribution to the coming of independence in Malaya? 7 Reasons for Indonesian independence, 1949 7.1 How was Indonesian independence achieved in 1949? 7.2 Why was Indonesian independence achieved in 1949? 8 Cambodia: political, social and economic effects of the world wars 8.1 What was the impact of the First World War on Cambodia? 8.2 How did the Second World War affect Cambodia? 8.3 Why was Cambodia able to become independent in 1953? 8.4 What role did Prince Sihanouk play in the coming of independence?

177 180 185 190 195 199 204 213 216 225 239 242 254 260 267

9 Exam practice

279

Bibliography

296

Index

299

Acknowledgements

310

Introduction

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

This book is designed to prepare students for the topic Impact of the world wars on South-East Asia. This is Topic 13 in HL Option 3, History of Asia and Oceania for Paper 3 of the IB History examination. It will begin by examining the relationship between Japan and other powers and explaining why Japan and South-East Asia (SEA) became involved in the Second World War. It will go on to explore the way SEA was affected by the war. It will also discuss the terms of the Treaty of Versailles as it affected SEA and analyse the reactions to it. The reasons for the outbreak of the Second World War in SEA will be considered briefly and there will be an explanation of the main reasons why Japan won so many victories in the 1940–42 period. The nature of the Japanese occupation in China will be examined. China is not one of the countries on which this section of the syllabus is focused, but its relationship with Japan makes it relevant to a study of the run-up to and the early years of the Second World War. There will then be analysis of the impact of the Japanese occupation on the peoples of Malaya, the Philippines, Vietnam and Indonesia, with a glance at Burma and Thailand. There will be further examination of the development of nationalist groups as a result of the war and how they contributed to the rise of independence movements in Indonesia,Vietnam and Malaya. The leaders of these movements – Sukarno, Ho Chi Minh and Tunku Abdul Rahman, respectively – will be assessed. The complex reasons for the independence of Indonesia will be a particular focus. Finally, the book will consider the impact of the wars on Cambodia as a separate case study. Activity Research the history of Japan before 1912 and the way in which it responded to Western countries. Make some brief notes which will help you to understand the attitudes of the Japanese to European countries and the US and their cultures.

Introduction N

British colony USA colony French colony Dutch colony

Japan

China

Burma Siam Philippines

French Indo-China

Malaya

Dutch East Indies 0

300

600 km

Figure 1.1: A map of South-East Asia, 1914

Themes To help you prepare for your IB History exams, this book will cover the main themes and aspects relating to the topic Impact of the world wars on South-East Asia as set out in the IB History Guide. In particular, it will examine the way the wars affected SEA and the resulting movements towards independence from the colonial powers, in terms of the major areas shown below: â&#x20AC;˘â&#x20AC;˘ involvement of SEA in the First World War, including the reasons for Japanese participation and the outcome for SEA

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

•• the Treaty of Versailles as it affected SEA and Japan and the reaction of Japan to the treaty •• the feeling in Japan that the Western powers considered Japan inferior and the way this feeling contributed to the invasion of Manchuria in 1931 •• the resulting war between Japan and China and the impact this had •• reasons for the initial Japanese victories in the Second World War, 1940–42 •• effects of these victories for Japan and SEA and for the outcome of the war •• the nature and impact of Japanese occupation in China and SEA •• different reactions to occupation; resistance and collaboration •• the development and nature of nationalist movements in Indonesia, Vietnam and Malaya •• the part played by leaders such as Sukarno, Ho Chi Minh and Tunku Abdul Rahman in bringing about independence in their countries •• reasons why Indonesia finally achieved its independence •• political, social and economic effects of the wars on Cambodia.

Key Concepts Each chapter will help you to focus on the main issues, and to compare and contrast the main developments that took place during this period in SEA. In addition, at various points in the chapters, there will be questions and activities which will help you to focus on the six key concepts – these are: • change • continuity • causation • consequence • significance • perspectives.

Introduction

Theory of Knowledge In addition to the broad key themes, the chapters contain Theory of Knowledge links, to get you thinking about aspects which relate to history, which is a Group 3 subject in the IB Diploma. The Impact of the world wars on South-East Asia topic has several clear links to ideas about knowledge and history. The topic involves a study of aspects of nationalism. Historians have different theories about the role of nationalism in bringing independence to SEA and do not all accept the same definition of the term; hence their different accounts of how nationalism contributed to independence. Some see a bigger role for religion or culture, while others argue that particular circumstances were the decisive factor. In trying to explain aspects of the role of particular individuals and how they contributed to events, historians must decide which evidence to select and use to make their case and which evidence to leave out. But to what extent do the historiansâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; personal political views influence their decisions when they select what they consider to be the most important or relevant sources, and when they make judgements about the value and limitations of specific sources or sets of sources? Is there such a thing as objective â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;historical truthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;? Or is there just a range of subjective historical opinions and interpretations about the past which vary according to the political interests and leanings of the historians? It is also important to be aware that some of the events you will be studying remain controversial in SEA today. The reluctance of Japan to take responsibility for the actions of its occupying forces has clouded relationships with China. There is also debate about the background to the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, with historians from the US and from Japan taking up opposing views. For example, a few US historians present the controversial view that the US government deliberately withheld knowledge of the impending Japanese attack in order to have a justification for getting involved in the Second World War. If possible, therefore, you are advised to try to read a range of books or to find reliable internet sources from different perspectives so you can gain a clear understanding of the relevant historiographies.

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

IB History and Paper 3 Questions In IB History, Paper 3 is taken only by Higher Level students. For this paper, IB History specifies that three sections of an Option should be selected for in-depth study. The examination paper will set two questions on each section – and you have to answer three questions. Unlike Paper 2, where there are regional restrictions, in Paper 3 you will be able to answer both questions from one section, with a third chosen from one of the other sections. These questions are essentially in-depth analytical essays. It is therefore important to ensure you study all the bullet points set out in the IB History Guide, if you wish to give yourself the widest possible choice of questions.

Exam skills Throughout the main chapters of this book, there are activities and questions to help you develop the understanding and the exam skills needed for success in Paper 3.Your exam answers should show: •• factual knowledge and understanding •• awareness and understanding of historical interpretations •• structured, analytical and balanced arguments. Before attempting the specific exam practice questions which come at the end of each main chapter, you might find it useful to refer first to Chapter 9, the final exam practice chapter. This suggestion is based on the idea that if you know where you are supposed to be going (in this instance, gaining a good mark and grade), and how to get there, you stand a better chance of reaching your destination!

Questions and mark schemes To ensure that you develop the necessary skills and understanding, each chapter contains comprehension questions and examination tips. For success in Paper 3, you need to produce essays that combine a number of features – in many ways these require the same skills as the essays in Paper 2.

Introduction For the Higher Level Paper 3, however, examiners will be looking for greater evidence of sustained analysis and argument – linked closely to the demands of the question. They will also be seeking more depth and precision with regard to supporting knowledge. Finally, they will be expecting a clear and well-organised answer, so it is vital to make a rough plan before you start to answer a question. Not only will this show you early on whether you know enough about a topic to answer the question, it will also help to maintain a good structure for your answer. So, it is particularly important to start by focusing closely on the wording of the question, so that you can identify its demands. If you simply take the view that a question is ‘generally about this period or leader’, you will probably produce an answer which is essentially a narrative, with only vague links to the question. Even if your knowledge is detailed and accurate, it will only be broadly relevant – if you do this, you will only get half-marks at the most. The next important aspect of your answer is that you present a wellstructured and analytical argument that is clearly linked to all the demands of the question. Each aspect of your argument, analysis or explanation needs to be supported by carefully selected, precise and relevant own knowledge. In addition, in order to access the highest bands and marks, you need to show, where appropriate, awareness and understanding of relevant historical debates and interpretations. This does not mean simply paraphrasing what different historians have said. Instead, try to evaluate critically particular interpretations. For example, are there any weaknesses in some arguments put forward by some historians? What strengths does a particular interpretation have?

Examiner’s tips To help you develop these skills, most chapters contain sample questions, with examiner’s tips about what – and what not – to do in order to achieve high marks. These chapters will focus on a specific skill, as follows: •• •• •• ••

Skill 1 (Chapter 3) – understanding the wording of a question Skill 2 (Chapter 4) – planning an essay Skill 3 (Chapter 5) – writing an introductory paragraph Skill 4 (Chapter 6 ) – avoiding irrelevance

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

•• Skill 5 (Chapter 7) – using knowledge analytically and combining it with awareness of historical debate •• Skill 6 (Chapter 8) – avoiding a narrative-based answer •• Skill 7 (Chapter 8) – writing a conclusion. Some of these tips will contain parts of a student’s answer to a particular question, with examiner’s comments, to help you understand what the examiners are looking for. This guidance is developed further in Chapter 9, where examiner’s tips and comments will help you to focus on the important aspects of questions and their answers. These will also help you to avoid the kind of simple mistakes and oversights which, every year, result in some otherwise-good students failing to gain the highest marks. For additional help, a simplified Paper 3 mark scheme is provided in the Exam Practice chapter. This should make it easier to understand what examiners are looking for in examination answers. The actual Paper 3 IB History mark scheme can be found on the IB website. The content covered by this book will provide you with the historical knowledge and understanding to help you answer all the specific content bullet points set out in the IB History Guide. Also, by the time you have worked through the various exercises, you should have the skills necessary to construct relevant, clear, well-argued and well-supported essays.

Background to the period This section will give you some general understanding of the governments of the four countries with which you will be mainly concerned and, in the case of the colonised countries, how their colonisers viewed them. This will introduce you to some of the issues that will be the focus of your studies.

Japan In the early 19th century, Japan was a mystery to most Europeans. It had been ruled since 1603 by the Tokugawa dynasty, based in Edo (now Tokyo).The Tokugawa were shoguns, military dictators, and their rule 12

Introduction was based on continuity, not change.There were four classes in Japan: the warriors (samurai), farmers, artisans and merchants, and there was no movement between them.There was no foreign contact and Japanese citizens could not travel outside Japan. Christianity, seen as the way by which European powers had infiltrated Asia, was prohibited.The country was, however, prosperous with the development of the manufacture of cotton, silk, porcelain and paper; and the cities of Edo, Osaka and Kyoto flourished.There was an emperor, but he had little real power. Two events brought about change in Japan. The first was the arrival of Commodore Matthew Perry with his four ‘black ships’ in 1853. Perry had come from the United States to ‘persuade’ (in effect, force) the Japanese to open up to trade with the US. Within a few years, France, Britain, the Netherlands and Russia had all made treaties with Japan, often on very favourable terms for themselves, and the isolation of Japan was at an end. These powers, however, did not perceive Japan as an equal member of the international circuit. It was far from being a modern state. As we shall see, Japan went on to develop a much greater sense of nationalism, partly as a result of the way other powers behaved. Emperor Meiji (1852–1912): Meiji became emperor of Japan in 1868 and ruled until his death in 1912. He introduced a new constitution, made Tokyo the capital city, improved education, allowed political parties to be set up and made the taxation system much fairer. Japan flourished and, with a strong national army, was more like a Western state. In 1877, the new army showed its power by defeating the Satsuma Rebellion of the last of the traditional samurai warriors. The remarkable speed of the transformation of Japan impressed the European powers.

The second event was the Meiji restoration in 1868, when the power of the shoguns was overthrown and the power of the emperor restored. The new emperor took the name Meiji which means enlightened rule and which symbolised what he hoped to achieve during his reign. Eventually a parliament, known as the diet, was set up with a House of Peers, part elected and part appointed, along with an elected House of Representatives. Until 1925, only about 2% of adult males had the vote. Ministers remained responsible to the emperor not the diet and the cabinet was expected to be above party politics, even though two 13

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

political parties were formed. The military owed its allegiance directly to the emperor. The privileges of the samurai class were abolished, although their code of behaviour remained important to the Japanese. Some of these reforms showed the influence of the Western democracies that had been visited by Japanese ministers on fact-finding tours. Other important changes included the introduction of state education for virtually all children and an overhaul of the legal system along Western lines. The new regime was characterised in two ways that were to have a crucial effect on Japanese thinking in the period after the First World War. In the first place, the position of the emperor became central to a new ideology. He had always been a symbol of Japanese culture and historical continuity, but now his role was emphasised and all Japanese people were to honour him and carry out his orders, as transmitted by his ministers. Emperor Meiji established a new shrine in Tokyo which would become the official resting place of the spirits of all the soldiers who died in the name of imperial Japan. This Yasukuni Shrine became an important focus of unity and of the Shinto religion. Shinto replaced Buddhism as the official religion of Japan. Under Shinto, the emperor was held to be descended from the sun-goddess and the gods who created Japan and so was semi-divine and respected as such. Thus it was claimed that the ruling house of Japan was the oldest in the world. As a result, the rising sun became the symbol of Japan. In the second place, the reforms allowed Japan to establish an efficient, centralised military machine. The Japanese thought that the Western powers would not take them seriously unless they could fight as equals. They were now able to negotiate more favourable trade treaties, but what really impressed the Western democracies was the way in which Japan attacked and defeated China in 1894â&#x20AC;&#x201C;95 in the First Sino-Japanese War. It had also forced Russia to halt its expansion in SEA after victory in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904â&#x20AC;&#x201C;05. ACTIVITY Research the Yasukuni Shrine and its importance in Japan today. You could also research the religious practices of Shinto and discover what part these play in Japanese life.

Introduction

The role of the United States Although the United States is not a country in SEA, its attitude and policies were a key factor in what happened there. US foreign policy tended to veer between interventionist and isolationist, and the latter part of the 19th century saw a move to greater intervention to protect and extend US interests in the Pacific and SEA. The US had already made it clear that other powers were not to become involved in the American continent under the Monroe Doctrine, set out by President Monroe in 1823 as ‘a principle under which the rights and interests of the United States are involved, that the American continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonisation by any European powers’. The United States was happy to allow the British navy to be the guarantor of peace for much of the 19th century, but, in the period after 1853, the US became more concerned with securing and extending its interests in the Pacific. One factor that worried the US was the expansion of European powers into China. The so-called ‘Scramble for Africa’ had not bothered the US, but the ‘Scramble for Asia’ was much closer to home and more of a concern as this was an area in which the US itself hoped to expand. Its worries peaked in the 1890s over the way in which European powers acquired several key Chinese ports and over the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895. In this war, fought over the control of Korea, the Japanese army and navy proved unstoppable and, once they had captured the defences of Weihaiwei and advanced into Manchuria, the Chinese sued for peace. Under the terms of the Treaty of Simonoseki in 1895, the Chinese had to recognise the independence of Korea and cede Taiwan, the Liaodong peninsula and the Penghu Islands to Japan. The Japanese occupation of Taiwan was stoutly resisted, as Source 1.1 shows, and events there foreshadow, to an extent, what happened later.

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

SOURCE 1.1 The cession of the island to Japan was received with such disfavour by the Chinese inhabitants that a large military force was required to effect its occupation. For nearly two years afterwards, a bitter guerrilla resistance was offered to the Japanese troops, and large forces – over 100,000 men, it was stated at the time – were required for its suppression. This was not accomplished without much cruelty on the part of the conquerors, who, in their march through the island, perpetrated all the worst excesses of war. They had, undoubtedly, considerable provocation. They were constantly ambushed by hidden enemies, and their losses from battle and disease far exceeded the entire loss of the whole Japanese army throughout the Manchurian campaign. But their revenge was often taken on innocent villagers. Men, women, and children were ruthlessly slaughtered or became the victims of unrestrained lust and rapine. The result was to drive from their homes thousands of industrious and peaceful peasants, who, long after the main resistance had been completely crushed, continued to wage a vendetta war, and to generate feelings of hatred which the succeeding years of conciliation and good government have not wholly eradicated. Mowat, C.L. (ed). 1968. The New Cambridge Modern History, Volume 12: The Shifting Balance of World Forces, 1898–1945. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, p. 269.

QUESTION How does the writer of Source 1.1 build up a case against the Japanese? Are there any ways in which the writer suggests they were trying to act fairly?

The US was now aware of the growing power of Japan. The imperial navy was modelled on the British navy, and British advisors helped to train it, and Japanese naval cadets came to England to study. Its ships were built in British and French shipyards. If US interests or security in the Pacific were at risk, then it would be from a naval action. Moreover, the defeat of China exposed the weakness of the Qing government and feelings in China against foreign influence resulted in the Boxer Rebellion of 1900, which the US actively helped to crush. Eventually, problems in China would lead to the overthrow of Qing in 1911 in the

Introduction Chinese Revolution. China was thus unlikely to be a counter to Japan and so the US felt it needed to be more involved in the area. This, in turn, was alarming to the Japanese. Further problems in the relationship arose from the Spanish-US War of 1898. This war was focused mainly on Cuba, where the US had backed revolts against Spanish rule, and, eventually, President McKinley demanded that Spain give up the island. Fighting broke out in Cuba, and in the Philippines, another Spanish possession. The US was victorious and, under the Treaty of Paris in 1898, were ceded the islands of Puerto Rico in the Caribbean and Guam and the Philippines in SEA for a payment of $20 million. They also took control of Cuba - though, within a few years, it became nominally ‘independent’. Commodore George Dewey defeated the Spanish navy in Manila Bay, but the arrival of 11 000 US troops to take over from the Spanish in the Philippines led to conflict which lasted from 1899 to 1902. After the deaths of up to a quarter of a million Filipinos, peace was made in 1902 and the US passed the Philippines Autonomy Act which committed them to granting independence to the Philippines eventually. These further signs of US expansionism in the Pacific were disturbing for Japan.

Figure 1.2: A cartoon from the Boston Globe, commenting on the territorial growth of the US following its defeat of Spain in 1898

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

The Dutch East Indies / Indonesia These islands were first colonised by the Dutch East India Company in the 17th century. By 1850, the Dutch state had taken over responsibility. The most productive island was Java, where cultivation was organised entirely to benefit the Netherlands. In the later part of the 19th century, a more liberal approach meant that entrepreneurs were encouraged to come to Java and run agriculture in the hope that more of the profits would trickle down to the labourers. This was not especially successful, although it did mark a move away from the idea that colonies were simply there to be exploited by the mother-country. By 1900, the Dutch had control of most of the islands and in 1901, Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands announced a new ethical policy, whereby there would be direct state intervention to improve living standards for all based on ‘irrigation, education and emigration’. The biggest impact of the ethical policy came in education, where an élite emerged, able to express the Indonesian desire for independence and foster a clear consciousness of an ‘Indonesian’ identity among the people. The nationalist groups in Indonesia would emerge from these élites.

Indo-China French troops first landed in Vietnam in 1858. By the mid 1880s, they were in control of the northern part of the country. Previously, French missionaries had been active in the area and there was an influential Roman Catholic community as a result. There was a strong Chinese influence in Indo-China as a result of its geographical proximity to China, and the French found this very difficult to eradicate. The French then fought a war with China over Indo-China and after their victory were able to form the French Indo-Chinese Union in 1893, consisting of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. The emperor and his officials continued to run the day-to-day affairs of Indo-China from his palace at Hue, but the French ran the economy for their own benefit from Hanoi. Rice, rubber, minerals and silk were the main exports, which enriched France while the people of IndoChina received some rewards in improved communications, medicine and education. Their culture was despised by the French, however; their language was superseded by French and their role in government positions of importance was severely restricted. This, in itself, led to the development of nationalist movements that took pride in Indo-China’s

Introduction native culture. Moreover, educational opportunities were limited so that local people could become qualified to work in clerical positions but did not learn enough to be able to challenge French rule. In addition, working conditions were harsh and labourers on rubber plantations died in large numbers from disease and malnutrition. For the upper classes, the contempt with which the French viewed them was hard to bear.

Malaya The British came to Malaya for trading purposes in the 17th century and, at first, had little interest in colonising the area. But, as trade with China developed, they began to look for naval bases and, in 1786, leased Penang from the local sultan. In 1819, the British governor, Sir Stamford Raffles, acquired Singapore from the sultan of Johor to control trade through the Malaccan Straits. The expansion into mainland Malaya came often at the invitation of the local sultans who feared invasion from Thailand (Siam) and appreciated the protection the British could give them. Sir Stamford Raffles (1781â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1826): Raffles joined the East India Company at the age of 14 and was sent to a post in Penang in 1805 where he soon learned to speak Malay. He was later in the administration of Malacca but had to leave in 1811, as a result of the war against Napoleon in which the Netherlands had been conquered by France. He fought in Java against the French and Dutch, and the British forces captured the island in a 45-day campaign. He was made Lieutenant-Governor and succeeded in overcoming two of the most powerful remaining indigenous governments at Yogyacarta and Palembang. He also tried to end slavery in Java. He left in 1814 as the war with Napoleon ended and Java was handed back to the Dutch. In 1817, he was sent to govern Bengkulu in Indonesia and began to see how Britain needed a permanent presence in the area in order to challenge the Dutch. In 1819, he persuaded the sultan of Johor to cede the island of Singapore to the East India Company and became its first governor, setting up schools and churches and making English the language of the new colony. He returned to Bengkulu in 1820, but was back in Singapore in 1822 where he banned gambling and slavery. He retired to London in 1823 as his health deteriorated and he died there in 1826. He is credited with the founding of Singapore and his name figures prominently in schools, public buildings and hotels there.

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

There were three different groups of states in Malaya: •• Penang, Malacca and Singapore were established as a crown colony called the Straits Settlements. •• By 1900, the four southern states in Malaya had all accepted British ‘residents’, who represented British interests and advised the local sultans. They became the Federated Malay States and the rubber and tin industries flourished. In 1900, half the world’s tin came from Malaya. The rubber plant was introduced in 1877 and this soon became a dominant industry. Palm oil was also produced. •• The five northern states, which were closest to Siam, were known as the Unfederated Malay States from 1909 and they had slightly more control over their government, although in the end they usually had to fall in with the requests of the British Resident. The local sultans remained as the theoretical rulers of the states, but their power to rule was limited. The British were seen as being quite clever in calling things by one name, but in reality meaning something different. When they brought in advisors, whose suggestions might have been expected to be just that, what they actually meant was that the advice they gave must be taken. A well-organised administrative system was set up and there was a well-developed infrastructure, but, as in IndoChina and Indonesia, the local people were made to feel inferior and that only Europeans could govern effectively. ACTIVITY Consider how similar and how different the Netherlands, France and Britain were in their approach to governing their colonies in SEA.

Terminology and definitions Historians use less technical language than many other disciplines, but some terms – especially political ones – need to be understood in a historical context. Those relevant to the material you will be studying in this book are defined here for the purposes of this topic and are not necessarily all-purpose definitions. 20

Introduction

Imperialism This is a term used to describe a movement in Britain in the late 19th century and later in other European countries, when pride in a growing empire was developed. The British saw themselves as bringing better government and ways of life to the peoples of their vast empire, which included a quarter of the people of the world at its height. The Japanese described themselves as ‘imperial’, because they were governed by an emperor and so their forces included the imperial army and the imperial navy. But the term is also used to describe Japan’s ambitions in the Pacific where it hoped to extend its power and build an empire. The modern view of imperialism is generally that it is a ‘bad thing’, and to call a government or ruler ‘imperialist’ is usually a term of abuse.

Nationalism Pride in one’s country and its special achievements, aspects and identity leads to nationalism. For countries in SEA that were governed by Europeans or the US, nationalism might involve promoting the vernacular languages and teaching students about the country’s culture and heroes. It would then logically lead on to the desire for a country that had clearly defined separate characteristics, to have a clearly defined, separate government, controlled by the people born and brought up in the country, not outsiders. Nationalism can become exaggerated and give a country the idea that its interests matter far more than those of any other country and so lead to disregard of the rights of other countries or people of a different race or nationality.This extreme form of nationalism is often referred to as chauvinism.

Shoguns The shoguns were military dictators.Their original title translates as ‘Commander in Chief of the Expeditionary Force against the Barbarians’ and they were appointed by the emperor from 794 on occasions. In 1185, the shogun became a more regular part of Japanese government and relegated the emperor to a lesser position, although he was still much respected.The emperor appointed the shogun in an elaborate ceremony, but the shogun controlled the army, foreign policy and major appointments. From 1603, under the Tokugawa shogunate, or bakufa, the daimyo (great lords) were expected to live in the capital at Edo (later Tokyo) for part of the year so they were under the eye of the shogun.These shoguns were hostile to foreign influences and intervention, seeing most other peoples as ‘barbarians’. From 1633, Japanese subjects were forbidden to travel abroad, and, if they did so, were not allowed back into Japan. 21

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

Samurai class/code The samurai were warriors in early Japan, armed with bows and arrows and spears and, later, guns, but primarily with a sword.The sword had a symbolic importance for them and under the Tokugawa shogunate only the samurai could wear swords. Some carried two: a long sword and a shorter one.They were the premier class in Japan’s rigid caste system, followed by farmers, artisans and merchants.They followed the bushido code, the way of the warrior, which centred on loyalty, self-discipline and ethical behaviour. This was based on Confucian principles, but some samurai were devotees of Zen Buddhism.They were dominant until 1871, when feudalism was abolished. Many then entered politics or industry. In 1876, the wearing of swords was forbidden, apart from in the armed forces. Some samurai then joined secret societies, such as the Black Dragon and worked to provoke China so that Japan could have a ‘justification’ for fighting the Chinese. In the 1920s, there was a revival of interest in the samurai in the armed forces and ancient swords were used again.The idea that death was preferable to dishonour or defeat was common.The virtues of honour, discipline and morality remained highly prized in Japanese society.

Capitalism This is the socio-economic system prevalent in Western democracies. It involves the means of production in a country being privately owned and operated for profit in a competitive market. The main investment and decision-making in such enterprises is the responsibility of the company owners. Different countries have variations on capitalism, with varying degrees of free markets and of regulation, with some state intervention and even some state ownership. In theory, in such a system, some of the profits made by those at the top trickle down to the less prosperous so that all benefit. Since the late 1970s, however, under neoliberal capitalism, the tendency has been for wealth to ‘gush up’ rather than trickle down. As a consequence, many capitalist societies have become increasingly unequal.

Communism The term communism comes from the German publication by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1848 of The Communist Manifesto, and is a farleft revolutionary political movement. In a communist system, the means of production are owned by the state, and everyone works according to their ability and are rewarded according to their needs. There is very little private property. Communists believed that revolution was bound to come 22

Introduction

CENTRE R I FT POLITICAL SPECTRUM

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as a result of class conflicts. The bourgeoisie (middle and upper classes) would overthrow the aristocratic classes and then, in turn, be overthrown by the proletariat (workers) and the perfect communist society would be established. Eventually, the state would wither away as it would no longer be required. This model would be exported to other countries, as the revolution became worldwide. Russia was the first country to have a communist revolution and, after the Second World War, communism was imposed on Eastern Europe in the Soviet sphere of influence.

Nationalist/ racist

Neo-Nazi

Figure 1.3: The political spectrum: left; centre; right

Comintern The Communist â&#x20AC;&#x201C; or Third â&#x20AC;&#x201C; International (abbreviated to Comintern) was set up by the Communist Party in Soviet Russia in 1919, with the aim of bringing about or aiding communist revolutions in other states. It was chaired by Zinoviev, then Bukharin and finally by Stalin himself. Delegates from 37 countries attended its meeting in 1920 and the rules that governed who was allowed to join were drawn up. Over the years, its focus tended to change with circumstances. It moved from working for a world revolution, to winning over the working classes and then to the defeat of fascism. It was structured in much the same regulated way as the government of the Soviet Union and became very much a tool of Soviet foreign policy. It was dissolved by Stalin in 1943 in order to appease his Western Allies in the Second World War, by showing he was no longer interested in promoting revolutions. 23

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

The Great Depression The Depression began as a result of the Wall Street Crash in October 1929, when the stock market in New York collapsed. Such was the dominance of the international financial system by the US that most of the rest of the world was affected. As profits from businesses fell, unemployment grew, which cut demand for goods as consumers had less to spend, which, in turn, caused fewer people to be needed to make goods. Unemployment in the US was worst at up to 15 million, but in Germany 30% of workers were soon out of a job, while in Britain it was 25%. Countries such as China and the Soviet Union, with less involvement in world trade, were less affected. Japan, however, was badly hit in 1929–31 with a 50% fall in exports, but the measures taken by Takashi Korekiyo, the finance minister, alleviated the situation. It was the worst and longest-lasting depression in the history of the Western industrialised world. Recovery was slow and not complete by 1939. The Second World War brought full employment again.

Fascism Fascists believe in a strong, one-party state and a single powerful leader. They are right-wing and are very hostile to communism. They expect service to the state from all individuals, but the economy is not based on state ownership, although it might be overseen by the state. Despite pro-worker political rhetoric, fascism endorsed capitalism and was particularly supportive of large corporations. Political opposition is frowned on and eliminated. The first fascist state in Europe was Italy, followed by Hitler’s Germany. Both pursued a self-interested foreign policy aimed at promoting their ‘greatness’. Japan came to have many of the qualities of a fascist state without all the characteristics. It was, for example, much less anti-Semitic.

Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere The Sphere was set up by Japan in June 1940 in theory to promote economic unity and to free Asia from the control of European powers. It was to include Japan, Manchukuo, China and parts of SEA with the aim of prosperity and peace for all with a centrally controlled economy. It was part of Japan’s ‘Asia for the Asians’ programme. The countries involved held a conference in 1943 to decide on common political and economic policies that would enable them to defeat the Western Allies. The countries occupied by Japan saw no benefits in the programme 24

Introduction as their economic needs were subordinated to those of Japan. In one example, the Philippines was told to move from sugar production to cotton, as Japan had plenty of sugar from Taiwan. But the land was not suitable for cotton and the farmers were consequently very resentful. The Sphere collapsed in 1945 with the Allied defeat of Japan. USSR

Kamchatka

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Bismarck Archipelago Solomon Is.

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Figure 1.4: A map of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

Atomic weapons The US had begun collecting the key materials for nuclear fission, namely uranium and plutonium, before the Second World War. Work on the atomic bomb was largely done by physicists who had escaped from Nazi Germany. In 1939, the Manhattan Project was set up and a team led by Robert Oppenheimer went to Los Alamos in the New Mexican desert to make a workable bomb. A successful test was carried out in July 1945. Using the bomb to end the war was controversial. President Truman was advised by his generals that the Japanese would resist very fiercely if Japan were invaded and 1Â million US casualties could be expected. He decided 25

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

to use the bomb, even though Henry Stimson, the secretary of state, and General Eisenhower were against its use, as were many of the scientists who had developed the bomb. In fact, several historians believe that Japan was on the point of surrender, and that the decision to drop the bombs had more to do with ending the war quickly and so preventing the Soviet Union entering the war against Japan. On 6 August 1945, the first bomb, nicknamed ‘Little Boy’ was dropped on Hiroshima, an important military target. 140 000 people died there within the year and 60 000 more within the next five years, from the effects of exposure to radiation. On 9 August, another bomb, ‘Fat Man’, was dropped on the port of Nagasaki, with 70 000 dying within the year and 140 000 more within five years. On 15 August, Emperor Hirohito announced the surrender of Japan. The US had a great advantage in possessing the weapons, but not for long. In 1949, the Soviet Union successfully tested a nuclear weapon and in 1952, Great Britain did so and in 1960, France.

Federalism A federal government is one where the central administration devolves some powers to local areas, so that more decisions are taken locally. The best known example is the United States, with its federal government in Washington and local governments in all the states which comprise the US. The system can lead to disputes between the central and local governments about exactly what their powers are. Several proposals were made after the Second World War for similar arrangements in former colonies in SEA. These would mean that the colonial power would keep some control, while the different states making up the federation would have some independent powers. The policies were not popular as they were seen as keeping the colonial rulers in power, and most of these countries favoured a strong central government to face the problems that independence might bring.

Cold War The Cold War refers to the period after the Second World War, when tensions existed between capitalist states such as the US and the communist Soviet Union. As part of agreements between the US, Britain and the Soviet Union before 1945, Eastern Europe had been accepted by the West as a Soviet sphere of interest. Several emerging disputes after 1945, however – such as the USA’s refusal to share the secrets of their atomic bomb – led to the Soviet Union, as it advanced to defeat Germany, taking increasingly tight control of most of Eastern Europe. 26

Introduction It set up communist governments in many of these states and enforced a communist society. It had a vast army and, by 1949, the atomic bomb. The West, led by the US, saw this as a huge threat to the free world, but the sight of the destruction and death toll in Japan in 1945 made both parties very reluctant to use their nuclear weapons. Instead they fought a Cold War, as opposed to an actual ‘hot’ war, of diplomacy and strategic manoeuvring. Once China became communist in 1949, this added SEA to the areas of conflict and brought increased US involvement into the area.

Zaibatsu These were large industrial companies that became increasingly powerful and influential in the inter-war period. Many had close family and personal ties to those army officers in Japan who saw military conquest as a way of aiding Japanese development and, especially after the start of the Great Depression, of solving Japan’s growing economic problems.

Summary By the time you have worked through this book you should be able to: •• understand and explain what the impact of the First World War was in Japan and SEA •• show how and why the countries of SEA were disappointed by the Treaty of Versailles •• understand and explain why Japan became involved in the Second World War and why Japan was so successful between 1940 and 1942 •• show the effects of occupation by Japan on the countries of SEA and explain why the Japanese often treated these countries so badly •• understand and explain how the Second World War led to the growth of nationalist movements in SEA •• describe how there was both collaboration with and resistance to Japan during the occupation •• understand the significance of leaders such as Sukarno, Ho Chi Minh and Tunku Abdul Rahman •• explain why Indonesia was finally able to achieve its independence •• understand and explain the political, social and economic impact of the world wars on Cambodia.

The First World War and the Treaty of â&#x20AC;&#x2030;Versailles

The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles

Introduction The fallout from the First World War set the scene for events in SouthEast Asia (SEA) in the 20th century, so it is necessary to understand how some of the issues that dominated developments emerged. Some European powers, especially Great Britain, France and the Netherlands, were rivals, all hoping to extend their trading interests and hence their wealth in SEA. China is not a key aspect of this topic, but its size, potential and relative weakness in 1914 meant it was a target for both European powers and those of SEA, most notably Japan. This chapter will examine the reasons why SEA was involved in the First World War and the impact of the conflict for the region. It will then consider the terms of the Treaty of V ersailles as they affected SEA and the reactions the terms provoked, especially in Japan and Korea. It will examine how Japan felt its priorities had not been given fair recognition at Versailles and how its festering resentment found an outlet in Manchuria. TIMELINE 1902 Jan: Alliance between Great Britain and Japan 1904 Aug: Outbreak of war between Japan and Russia 1905 Sept: Treaty of Portsmouth 1910 Aug: Japan annexes Korea 1912 July: Death of the Meiji emperor 1914 Aug: Outbreak of First World War; German Pacific possessions captured

Nov: Fall of Qingdao in China

1915 Jan: Japan sends the 21 Demands to China 1918 Nov: End of First World War 1919 Jan: Wilson’s 14 Points published

March: Korean Declaration of Independence from Japanese rule

May: Unrest in China over Japanese occupation of Shantung

June: Treaty of Versailles signed

1921 Nov: Washington Conference opens 1922 Feb: Washington Conference ends with three treaties agreed 1923 Sept: Earthquake in Japan 1924 May: Immigration Act passed by US Congress

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia 1927 March: Attacks on Japanese in Nanking 1928 June: Failed attempt by Kwantung army to control Manchuria 1931 Sept: Explosion on the South Manchurian Railway Oct: League of Nations calls on Japan to withdraw from China 1932 March: Manchukuo established. 1933 Feb: League of Nations condemns Japanese occupation of Manchukuo and Japan leaves the League

KEy QUESTIONS • • • •

Why was South-East Asia involved in the First World War? How did the war affect South-East Asia? What were the results of the Treaty of Versailles for South-East Asia? Why was there resentment around the Treaty of Versailles?

Overview • SEA was affected by the First World War as a result of the actions of European powers in the region. There was little actual fighting, but German territories were captured and the German East Asia naval squadron swept from the seas. • Japan was the country most involved, sending naval help to the Allies. • The war was beneficial to the Japanese economy and enabled some Japanese industrialists and business men to become very rich. • The Treaty of Versailles met Japanese demands over former German land but not their proposals over racial equality. • The Treaty did nothing to help Korea or China. • Japan felt resentful towards the Great Powers of Europe and the US. • The negotiations at Versailles also concerned disarmament and, in 1920–21, the Washington Conference was held to consider naval arms limitations. • Japan was unhappy at the outcome of that Conference, and the London Conference in 1930, feeling it had been badly treated. • Japanese resentment was increased by the Immigration Act passed in the US in 1924. 30

The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles •• As a result, there was greater national feeling in Japan. The economic problems and the increasing westernisation of society in Japan added to the arguments of the nationalists. This came to a head over Manchuria, the obvious place for Japan to expand and solve some of its economic problems. •• In 1931, the Japanese army in Manchuria fabricated an attack on the South Manchurian Railway and used this as an excuse to attack. Manchuria was rapidly overcome and a puppet regime, subject to Japan, was set up. •• China appealed to the League of Nations for help, but little was done. •• Japan now believed that the League of Nations was too weak to resist a powerful country like Japan and this encouraged further Japanese aggression.

2.1 Why was South-East Asia involved in the First World War? The First World War is often perceived as a largely European war, so it might come as a surprise to find that there was involvement from countries in SEA. They had little direct participation in military action in the area and such fighting as there was resulted mainly from the position of the European powers who controlled much of SEA. All the colonial powers had naval squadrons based in the Pacific, so the action mostly consisted of the capture of German-held territory and the destruction of the German East Asia Squadron. In 1914, a German cruiser, the Emden, raided Penang.Vietnam and Burma sent labourers to help their colonial masters and Thailand (then Siam) entered the war on the side of the Allies in 1917. The country that was more heavily involved was Japan.

Japan’s position Emperor Meiji, who died in 1912, had overseen the moulding of Japan into a single nation-state and then ensured its modernisation so that it could be seen as an equal to the Great Powers of Europe and the US. His achievements were reflected in the alliance made between 31

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

Britain and Japan in 1902, under which Japanese claims to Korea were recognised and the two countries agreed to cooperate against Russian aggression. This was Britain’s first formal alliance with an Asian power and was celebrated in Japan as a sign of its emerging status. Japan’s position was consolidated by an unexpected victory in the war with Russia in 1904, which boosted the reputation of the Japanese army and its expanding navy. The war had begun when Russia rejected a suggestion that Japan would agree to Russia’s dominance in Manchuria in exchange for Japan being allowed a free hand in Korea. Assuming this rejection meant that Russia was now hostile, Japan attacked the Russian base at Port Arthur and eventually besieged and captured it. The Russian Baltic fleet sailed halfway around the world to try to relieve Port Arthur. It arrived too late to save the Russian base and was then totally defeated by the Japanese navy under Admiral Togo at the Battle of Tsushima.

Figure 2.1: A postcard produced in Europe showing Russia as a big brown bear being prodded into action by much smaller Japanese soldiers

The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles The Treaty of Portsmouth, which ended the war with Russia, gave Japan Port Arthur, the southern part of Sakhalin and acceptance of the Japanese claims in Korea. The government of Japan hoped to use the outbreak of the First World War to build on these gains, to expand into China and to show the world how strong its army and navy were. There had been vast expenditure on the armed forces and the people expected there would be substantial benefits from a role in the war.

Japan’s role in the First World War When war broke out in August 1914, Japan was still an ally of Great Britain and made its position clear: Japan would provide help against Germany so long as it was given control of the German islands in the Pacific. Britain wanted help from the powerful Japanese navy in dealing with the raiders from the German fleet who were active in Chinese waters. Hence Japan declared war on Germany and almost at once besieged the German base at Qingdao, while the navy, not even waiting for orders from Tokyo, occupied the Mariana, Caroline and Marshall Islands.The navy further demonstrated its capability by launching air-raids on German-held targets in Shandong, such as Qindgao, using a seaplane carrier. Japan made other gains in China and issued its 21 Demands in 1915, taking advantage of the preoccupation of the Western powers – despite their interests in China – with the war in Europe. The demands required China to stop the leasing of territory to foreign powers and to agree that Japan could have control over Manchuria and Shandong. China was forced to agree as Japan threatened war and China was too weak to resist. But here Japan came up against the greater power of the United States, which saw the emergence of Japan as a threat to US control of the Pacific region, and thus preferred to maintain the independence of China as a counterweight to Japan. Britain and the US therefore annulled the demand that China should accept Japanese ‘advisors’, as contrary to their own interests, thus illustrating their determination to prevent the development of Japanese ambitions as far as they could. When the US entered the War in 1917 on the side of the Allies, however, its hostility towards Japan was reduced and it even cooperated in sending aid to the White Russian forces under Admiral Kolchak, who were resisting the Bolsheviks in Siberia during the civil war that followed the Russian Revolution in 1917. Japan planned to send over 70 000 troops to occupy the western part of Siberia. The US opposed this and the proposals were dropped, but they bore witness to the military strength of Japan. 33

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

ACTIVITY Find the text of the 21 Demands, for example at firstworldwar. com/source/21demands.htm. Use a map to see which areas of China are the subject of the demands. Write a paragraph explaining why Japan made these demands and assess how justified they were.

Figure 2.2: The figures represent the US, Britain and Japan as the flags on their cloaks show. The Great Dry Chief is President Cleveland and Balfour represents Great Britain. Navy Cut was a popular brand of cigarette that would have upset the Japanese

QUESTION What does the cartoon in Figure 2.2 reveal about the attitude of the US and Great Britain towards Japan?

The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles The biggest military action came in the siege of Qingdao on the Shantung peninsula. This fort had been built by the Chinese but then seized by the Germans and nearly 4000 German troops defended it, along with troops from China and Austria-Hungary. Almost the whole Japanese fleet was involved in besieging the fort along with 23 000 soldiers, and the British also sent forces from their base at Tientsin. Qingdao was captured in November with the loss of just over 2000 Allied troops. These events illustrate the divisions within China, with some factions supporting the Allies and some on the side of Germany. The Japanese navy continued to be valued by the Allies, and warships were sent to help France and support British operations off South Africa and in the Mediterranean. Japanese leaders, including the prime minister Okuma Shigenobu and the foreign minister Kato Komei had hopes that Japan’s role could be more extensive. Ambitious plans to make the whole of China a Japanese protectorate and to push back the Russians in northern Manchuria were made. They even considered how to take control of Indonesia (the Dutch East Indies), rich in natural resources such as quinine, pepper, rubber, coconuts, tea, coffee, sugar and oil, and to replace European hegemony over Asia with that of Japan. Some of the military leaders might have hoped the Allies would be defeated or so weakened that they could no longer defend their Asian possessions. The intervention of the United States, on which Japan depended for steel imports and raw materials, allowed the Entente powers to win the war and set the scene for a peace on Anglo-American terms, which included the preservation of European empires in Asia. Okuma Shigenobu (1838–1922): Shigenobu was well educated and became a lecturer. He learned English from reading the New Testament and the American Declaration of Independence, which gave him liberal views. He was active in the Meiji restoration and keen to abolish feudalism and set up a constitutional monarchy. He became minister for finance and created the first national mint. From 1908, he led a political party and was briefly prime minister. He came back to government in 1914 and was responsible for declaring war on Germany, but resigned in 1916 after a scandal about military expenditure.

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

Kato Komei (1860–1926): A graduate of Tokyo university, Komei became a civil servant in the foreign ministry and was ambassador to Britain. In 1914, he became foreign minister, but resigned in 1915 over the 21 Demands, as the military wanted forceful action against China, not diplomacy. He set up and headed a conservative political party and was prime minister in 1924–5, during which he reduced the size of the army and promoted male suffrage.

2.2 How did the war affect South-East Asia? How Japan gained from the war While the manufacturing output of the European powers was harnessed to the needs of the war, the relentless demands of the military left gaps, which Japanese companies were eager to fill. Industry flourished and new opportunities opened up. For the first time, the Japanese economy was in credit as exports rose. The Japanese were well placed to step in to secure markets in lands such as India, which European producers could no longer supply. Capitalist businessmen made striking profits. Their numbers increased and some of the newly rich made a big display of their wealth. This was obviously a good thing for those who benefited, but wages in the factories remained low, while prices rose, and the gap between rich and poor grew wider. This would lead to tensions when the war ended.

The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles

SOURCE 2.1 After the formal annexation of Korea in 1910, Japan turned its attention to the South Sea Islands. Japan’s presence in the South Seas had formerly been limited to an assortment of Japanese traders and adventurers. But during World War One there were an influential few, engaged in business or military concerns – especially the navy – who advocated a southwards advance, rather than the advance northwards favoured by the army. They made it clear that if Japan moved into the South Pacific and south-east Asia, abundant natural resources would become available. Townsend, S. 2011. ‘Japan’s Quest for Empire 1931–1945’. BBC History, bbc.co.uk/history.

SOURCE 2.2 Japan entered the First World War apparently under the control of a small oligarchy, and then, as the war ended and Japan entered the post-war world, it suddenly became evident that there was no longer a small, clear-cut ruling group but instead, thousands of bureaucrats, military leaders, business men, and intellectuals, all contending for control of the government. There was even a growing demand for all classes to be allowed to participate in politics. Reischauer, E.O. Japan Past and Present, quoted in Richard Storry. 1957. The Double Patriots. Boston, USA: Houghton Mifﬂin, p. 23.

QUESTION How far do the two accounts in Sources 2.1 and 2.2 agree about the effect of the First World War on Japan and how far do they differ?

Other effects of the war on South-East Asia The indirect effects of the war were probably more important than the military actions. The vast bloodshed and the long stalemate in the European war showed the powers of SEA that the moral superiority 37

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

often claimed by the western European ‘civilised’ nations was a myth. Hence the countries in SEA would no longer submit to being despised as inferior and incompetent regimes. Britain and France had, eventually, emerged as victorious in November 1918, but at huge cost, and the maintenance of their empires in SEA would prove problematic. Meanwhile, the Russian Revolution in 1917 had brought a new ideology onto the political scene and communist movements were to develop quickly in several countries of SEA with explosive results. The Russians overthrew their ruler, Tsar Nicholas II early in 1917, but in a second revolution in October 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized power in a coup. They believed that a small group of determined revolutionaries could mobilise the proletariat (workers) and peasants to overthrow the ruling classes and usher in the rule of the people and an end to most private property. Finally, the downfall of the empires of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottomans and Russia, showed the subject peoples of SEA that colonial rule need not be permanent and that self-determination could be a realistic aim for them. DISCUSSION POINT Some historians consider that the biggest impact of wars comes in how they change the way people think. Is this true of the effect of the First World War on SEA?

KEY CONCEPTS QUESTION Continuity: To what extent were the domination of European powers in South-East Asia and the influence of Japan unchanged by the First World War?

The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles

2.3 What were the results of the Treaty of Versailles for South-East Asia? South-East Asian hopes for the future There was widespread hope, especially among students and intellectuals, that a new world order was about to be achieved, which would bring them fairer and better government. They were encouraged by President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points, which stated that on colonial questions ‘the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the claims of the government whose title is to be determined’. There was even a rumour in Korea that the US president would come in person to restore that country’s sovereignty. Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924): Wilson was the 28th US president from 1913 to 1921. He followed a policy of neutrality in the war until 1917, when the US joined the Allies and their reserves of manpower helped to ensure victory. Wilson drew up his principles for a lasting peace in his Fourteen Points and wanted to establish a League of Nations. Not all Americans agreed with this and he campaigned all over the country to have the idea endorsed. He had a stroke in 1919 and died in 1924. The US did not join the League after his presidency and retreated into isolationism. This isolationism, however, was mainly in relation to Europe, not to the Pacific and Latin America.

One of those who took these hopes seriously was Ho Chi Minh, the future leader of V ietnam, who was then living in Paris. Believing in Wilson’s promises of self-determination, he drafted an eight-point programme seeking more fairness in the government of V ietnam, then under French rule, and a bigger role for the Vietnamese in ruling their own country. He even hired a formal suit so he could look respectable when presenting his suggestions to the assembled statesmen, but he was refused a hearing.

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

Ho Chi Minh (1890–1969): Ho was born in Vietnam, then a French colony, and was a Vietnamese patriot and independence leader. He left school in order to travel and worked on steamers, visiting France, New York and London. From 1919 to 1923, he lived in France, where his political ideas developed. He led the Viet Minh from 1941 onwards, defeating both the Japanese and then the returning French colonialists in the post-war period, and establishing the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam). Ho had a communist background and had visited the USSR. During the Second World War, his military campaigns were assisted by US intelligence, but Ho became increasingly disillusioned with the US after 1945. He had stepped into the background politically by 1960, but remained very much a figurehead for his country. (For more about his later career, see Chapter 6.)

Negotiations at Versailles The hammering out of the Treaty was the responsibility of the ‘Big Four’, namely Woodrow Wilson of the US, Georges Clemenceau of France, David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom and Vittorio Orlando of Italy. Japan was rewarded for its contribution with representation at the highest level and preferred to refer to the ‘Big Five’ to emphasise its position. Former prime minister Saionji Kinmochi headed the delegation, although his health was poor and the negotiation was mostly carried out by Makino Nobuaki. Makino Nobukai (1861–1949): Nobukai was from a samurai family. He was educated partly in the US and served in the Japanese foreign ministry and in the Japanese embassies in London, Vienna and Rome. He was a liberal reformer who tried to improve relations with both Britain and the US and so was an obvious choice to be a negotiator at Versailles.

Japan The Japanese wanted to make good their claims to former German colonies, namely the Shantung province and the Pacific islands north of the equator. The claim regarding Shantung was opposed by the Chinese. They believed their rights to the sovereignty of the disputed province were clear and they had some support from Woodrow Wilson 40

The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles and his minister to China, Paul Reinsch, who worked closely with the Chinese. But China was outmanoeuvred. Moreover, it had accepted parts of the 21 Demands and had agreed that Japan could take Qingdao and the German concessions there. Japan could rely on the support of Britain as it had agreed to back the British claim to the Pacific islands south of the equator and, in any case, there was a secret agreement between Japan and Britain that Shantung would be given to Japan. China The Chinese were outraged. Shantung contained the birthplace of Confucius, the most revered of Chinese philosophers, and so had special significance for the Chinese. When Article 156 of the Treaty of V ersailles gave sovereignty over Shantung to Japan, the leading Chinese delegate, Lou Tseng-Tsiang, would not sign the treaty unless he was allowed to express his reservations with this Article. When this was denied him, he made good his threat and the only delegation to refuse to sign the treaty was that of China. The trouble over Shantung was a sharp reminder to the Chinese of the deceptive nature of the Europeans. They felt they had joined the Allies on the understanding that Japan would return Qingdao and then had been let down. Korea The Koreans saw themselves as a sovereign nation under Japanese occupation and were encouraged by the assertions at Versailles about the principles of self-determination. They therefore hoped that they would be able to regain control of their country, and many reformers wanted a Western-style democracy. They were especially resentful of the Japanese destruction of the Korean heritage and culture. Koreans were forced to take Japanese names and to speak Japanese, while both farming and businesses were run by Japanese replacements for Koreans. But the Treaty of V ersailles and the League of Nations Covenant did nothing for Korea as the country was judged to be a province of Japan and so had no distinct voice. ACTIVITY Write a paragraph explaining why one of these countries was disappointed with the outcome of Versailles. Then work with a partner who chose a different country. Defend the feelings of your chosen country, while your partner takes an opposite view.

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

The League of Nations Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points had included the establishment of a League of Nations, which, he hoped, would prevent further conflicts from breaking out in the world. The League was to be established by a covenant to which all members would subscribe, and which laid down the principles under which the League would work. Japan was satisfied that its position was recognised with a permanent seat on the Council of the League, but then was dismayed by the rejection of its proposals on racial equality. The Japanese delegation proposed that:

SOURCE 2.3 The equality of nations being a basic principle of the League of Nations, the High Contracting Parties agree to accord as soon as possible to all alien nationals of states, members of the League, equal and just treatment in every respect, making no distinction, either in law or in fact, on account of their race or nationality. Quoted in Goto-Jones, C. 2009. Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 74.

The main opponent to this proposal was Great Britain, which feared it would lead to challenges within the British Empire. Britain received backing from Australia, where a ‘white’ Australia policy was being enforced. Woodrow Wilson, as the chairman of the conference ruled that such an important issue needed the unanimous approval of the delegates. Hence the racial equality clause was rejected and this disappointment partly accounted for the inflexibility of the Japanese over Shantung. Some Japanese were far from surprised at this outcome. One of their negotiators, Prince Konoe Fumimaro, a member of a leading Japanese aristocratic family, published an essay entitled Reject the AngloAmerican Peace and attacked the general acceptance of a world order dominated by the US and Britain. He complained that the League of Nations had ‘the ideology of sustaining the status quo’ and felt the role of Japan was to work for ‘the eradication of economic imperialism and the unbiased, equal treatment of the yellow race’.

The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles Prince Konoe Fumimaro (1891–1945): Prince Konoe was a member of the ancient Fujiwara clan. He became prince at the age of 12. He was related to many of the major families in Japan. He studied economics and became a member of the House of Peers. He asked to be part of the delegation to Versailles. In 1925 he put forward a bill to give the vote to Japanese men over 25 and won respect from all sides for his efforts to bring the different groups in Japan together. In 1937 he became prime minister. He resigned in 1939 and died in 1945.

There were protests in the streets of Japanese cities when news of the rejection of the racial equality clause became known. To Japan, it looked like another example of Western racism. Japan saw itself as a modern constitutional democracy, with a strong economy and a growing empire. In March 1921, Crown Prince Hirohito left Japan for a European tour to complete his education; France and Britain were his main hosts. But even on this level, the treatment he received was seen as lacking respect for Japan. When Hirohito visited the House of Lords, there was no official welcome and no one stood to greet him, according to one Japanese journalist who wondered what would have been said if the Japanese diet had treated the British heir to the throne so casually. Such examples provided fuel for the nationalist movement in Japan which was gaining new supporters and becoming more vocal. Emperor Hirohito (1901–89): Hirohito was the 124th emperor of Japan and his reign is known as the Showa period. Showa means ‘enlightened peace’. His father became emperor in 1912 and he was carefully educated for his role as heir. He was commissioned in the army and navy and made a Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum, the highest chivalric order in Japan. (The chrysanthemum is the symbol of monarchy in Japan.) He toured Europe in 1921 and, on his return, became regent for his father, who was ill. He married a distant cousin in 1924 and they had two sons and five daughters. In 1926 his father died, so he became emperor. There is much debate about how much power he was allowed to exercise, with some historians arguing he was a puppet of his advisors and others that he was the main instigator of aggressive policies. The truth is probably somewhere between the two views. After the war he

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

was retained as emperor to provide continuity, although some felt he should be prosecuted for war crimes. He was no longer seen as divine and much of the mystique of his position was removed. He remained active in public life and was succeeded by his son, Akihito.

SOURCE 2.4 The Times printed a special article which contained few errors, but even today they still think that all Japanese wear the topknot and dress in kimonos. Worst of all was an article in The Herald. It said that the emperor of Japan is ill and the crown prince, too busy with political affairs, was utterly unable to travel abroad. Therefore the visiting crown prince is a proxy for the real one, and the authorities, in order to prevent people finding out, have confiscated all pictures of the crown prince that were displayed in stores in the city. When they go so far as to say things like that, we can no longer laugh. Part of a report by Nagura Bunichi on the crown princeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tour in 1922, quoted in Bix, H.B. 2001. Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. London, UK: Harper Collins, p. 111.

QUESTION What are the main complaints made by the Japanese writer in Source 2.4? Why do you think the British papers printed such stories?

2.4 Why was there resentment around the Treaty of Versailles? The March 1 movement in Korea The funeral ceremonies for the recently deceased emperor of Korea were held on 1 March 1919. Rumours circulated in Korea that he had been assassinated by the Japanese. In addition, the Japanese imposed restrictions on the amount of mourning permitted. Mourners wearing 44

The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles white flocked to Seoul, while students protested against Japanese rule. Nationalists drew up and read out a declaration of independence appealing to the world community. Japan saw these protests as an uprising and referred to them as ‘riots’. It thus felt justified in a severe retaliation. Japanese records show that 500 people were killed and 1500 wounded, but the true figures were far higher, with Korean sources suggesting that 7000 died with 145 000 injured. Anyone who had demonstrated, however peacefully, or was thought to be involved with nationalist movements, was arrested and imprisoned. Torture, beatings and poor prison conditions killed many. Japan was widely criticised and tried to introduce a less brutal regime, but the events cast doubts on its assertion that it was leading the Asian world in bringing about modern government.

SOURCE 2.5 We hereby proclaim the independence of Korea and the liberty of the Korean people. We announce this to the nations of the world in order to manifest the principle of the equality of man and we pass it on to posterity in order to preserve forever our people’s just rights to self-preservation. If we are to make known to the world our past grievances, to deliver ourselves from our past sufferings, to remove future threats and advance our national dignity and nobility, to cultivate the character of individual citizens, to prevent our children having an inheritance of shame, to assure a full and happy life for posterity, then our first urgent task is to secure the independence of the people. Part of the Declaration of Independence issued on 1 March 1919 in Korea, from De Bary, W., and Ch’oe, Y., 2000. Sources of Korean Tradition, Volume 2. New York, USA: Columbia University Press, p. 337.

QUESTION To what extent does the declaration present a threat to the Japanese control of Korea?

The May 4 movement in China The resentment felt by China over the Japanese retention of Shantung did not die down. The Chinese officials who were responsible for accepting the unpalatable terms were pursued by mobs shouting abuse 45

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

in Peking and there were numerous demonstrations. On 4 May 1919, students from several universities met to denounce the treaty, gathering in Tiananmen Square. They called for an end to the 21 Demands, the return of Shantung and a boycott of Japanese goods. Merchants and workers began to join the students and strikes shut down many businesses in centres such as Shanghai. The government reaction was muted with a spate of arrests but little more. It then condemned the Treaty of V ersailles and dismissed the Chinese representatives at the negotiations from their government posts. Those arrested were released. This movement illustrated the strength of feeling in China about the treaty and was later cited by Mao Zedong as a new stage in China’s revolution against imperialism.

Short-term results of the Treaty of Versailles The new world order set up by the Treaty of V ersailles was dominated by Western powers and seemed to offer little to Japan. The alliance with Britain was not much use, since Britain would clearly never help Japan in a war against the US, and Japan could not hope to challenge both the US and Britain successfully. But the establishment of the League of Nations, even without the racial equality principle, had given Japan an equal place among the leading powers and the International Labour Organisation (ILO) had considerable Japanese input. The ILO was one of the agencies set up by the League of Nations and aimed to improve working conditions in member countries. Moreover, the alternative to Western domination seemed to be the communism being established in the USSR and about to sweep into China. In the negotiations at Versailles, hopes about disarmament had been expressed and Germany had been forcibly demilitarised, but other countries did not disarm. There had been massive shipbuilding programmes during the war and naval countries wanted some assurance that if they stopped building warships, they would not be at a disadvantage. A Japanese politician, Ozaki Yukio, who had travelled widely in Europe told the House of Representatives in the Japanese diet that there was a clear need for a general reduction in arms or the security of Japan would be threatened. The representatives were not impressed with his arguments so he went public. He held meetings all over Japan and gave out postcards to those who attended asking if they agreed with 46

The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles disarmament. Of those who replied 92% were in favour, showing that most Japanese people wanted disarmament. This was the context for the Washington Conference.

The Washington Conference, 1921–22 This conference was called to establish a new basis for Japan’s relations with the major European countries and with the United States, now the most powerful state in the world. There were three treaties agreed in all: •• The Four-Power Treaty replaced the alliance with Britain, originally made in 1902 and due for renewal in 1922. It had been the backbone of Japanese foreign policy since. The new treaty was signed by France, Britain, the US and Japan and it guaranteed their Pacific possessions. •• The Five-Power treaty was signed by the four powers and Italy. All five agreed not to build more battleships and heavy cruisers. Japan would limit its navy’s capital ships to 60% of the capital ships in the US navy. Britain had the same allowance as the US. There would be no more foreign naval bases in the Pacific apart from Singapore, Hawaii and none in Japan itself. •• The Nine-Power treaty concerned China. The powers all agreed to respect the territorial integrity, sovereignty and independence of China. The ‘open door’ policy to allow all nations to exploit China’s natural resources and cheap labour would continue. Japanese reaction to the Washington Conference Even before the conference was over, the Japanese prime minister, Hara Kei, was assassinated by a railway worker, supposedly infuriated by the government’s readiness to give up some of its naval power. There was also discontent that Japan was not given 70% of the total of the US navy. But the Japanese had not been so badly treated. They managed to keep their newer ships when the decommissioning was carried out, and even to refit some former battleships as aircraft carriers. They had more faith in the potential use of air power at sea than their rivals. The treaties brought an assurance of peace in the Pacific and an easing of the huge costs of capital ship construction. With regard to the other commitments made in Washington, Japan carried out its promises and returned the former German holdings in Shantung to China and withdrew its troops from Siberia and northern Sakhalin. The Japanese reactions were also filtered through the Kanto earthquake which struck on 1 September 1923 and devastated much of Tokyo 47

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

and Yokohama. 142 000 people died and there was a massive amount of destruction. The earthquake occurred at lunchtime, when many people were cooking on their stoves, so numerous fires broke out. As the water mains had been put out of action by the earthquake, it was difficult to quench the fires, so even more damage was done. Rumours spread that Koreans were looting buildings, and thousands of Koreans were killed by mobs in Tokyo and Yokohama, illustrating that the attitudes of the Japanese towards Koreans were as fierce as ever. Racial issues thrown up at Versailles had not completely subsided either. In 1924, the US Congress passed an immigration act which allowed immigration from each nation to be no more than 2% of the number registered from that country in the 1890 census.This meant that few Japanese could enter the US legally each year. In some years more Japanese people left the US than went to live there.The Supreme Court had declared that Japanese people were ineligible for US citizenship and there was much talk of the ‘yellow peril’. Despite protests from liberal Americans, it did lasting damage to the relationship between Japan and the US. Thus the underlying tensions between Japan and the other powers were far from being resolved. ACTIVITY The negotiations at Versailles led to South-East Asian countries feeling they had not been respected. Debate the issues with a partner, with one taking the side of SEA countries and one representing the Western viewpoint.

Long-term results of the Treaty of Versailles Japanese resentment of the treaty and what it implied was deeply felt and was made worse by a number of factors that developed in the 1920s. The economic prosperity of Japan during the First World War was not maintained as Japan had to compete again with other countries to sell its products. Even the staple rice market was affected with cheaper rice coming in from Taiwan and Korea. Inflation remained high and wages could not keep up with prices. Imports exceeded exports. The situation was aggravated by the 1923 earthquake and a banking crisis in 1927. Japan’s economy relied heavily on the export of textiles largely 48

The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles to Western countries; silk to the US being a prime example. Many Japanese people saw the way out of this problem in overseas expansion, but the Western powers were not likely to allow this. Nationalist movements in Japan wanted a government that fostered Japanese ideals and put Japan first. The military often sympathised with such beliefs and in expressing them came up against ministers who favoured a more democratic and Western-style approach to government. Between 1919 and 1932 there were eleven prime ministers, three of whom were assassinated by nationalist fanatics. The 1920s saw the development of an urban culture in the cities of Japan, which echoed Western patterns. Department stores were established. At first shoppers removed their shoes in the traditional Japanese way and put on slippers provided by the store. But soon this was abandoned and patrons wore their own shoes as in a US mall. Jazz and comic strips were taken up by the young. Cafés were opened and employed attractive waitresses. Women could not vote, but were increasingly working in offices and in entertainment. These trends were seen as Western imports by nationalistic-minded Japanese and accordingly derided. The focus for much of this discontent fell on Manchuria, where the nationalistic military saw an opportunity to redeem the reputation of Japan and challenge the Western powers which had constantly shown contempt and disregard for the biggest power in Asia. It saw the US as its ‘number one’ enemy (followed by Russia and China) and foresaw war with the US should it try to prevent the expansion of Japanese interests in China.

Why was Manchuria so important to Japan? Manchuria was a fertile region and rich in deposits such as coal, iron ore and bauxite, unlike Japan, where there was a lack of raw materials to fuel the expanding industries at home. Taking Manchuria would allow Japan to move closer to becoming self-sufficient, a key aim for the nationalists. Moreover, the increase in the number of people ruled by Japan would provide more consumers to buy goods, which would help reduce the catastrophic effects of the huge decline in exports since 1929. The Manchurians could also provide cheap labour, which would help to make Japanese products more competitively priced. Thus the context of the Great Depression was a powerful reason for the invasion of Manchuria. 49

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

Manchuria was strategically placed between Korea, which Japan already controlled, and Russia. Japan was determined to prevent Russia getting control of Manchuria, as this would be a major challenge to their imperial ambitions. After their defeat in the Russo-Japanese war of 1904–05, the Russians had been forced to give up all their interests in southern Manchuria to Japan. One of the key Japanese assets was the railway system. The South Manchurian Railway ran from the Kwantung peninsula (formerly Qindao) to link up with the Chinese Eastern Railway and carry Japanese goods into China and bring back food and raw materials to Japan. The railway had been built by Japan and was protected by Japanese troops, known as the Kwantung army. It was highly profitable for Japan as it relied on cheap Chinese labour. By 1930, 50 million tons of coal had been extracted from the mines, but over 100 000 Chinese workers had died or been injured in the process. The profits made from the railway could be extended into other enterprises in the view of nationalists. Trans-Siberian Railway Trans-Mongolian Railway Trans-Manchurian Railway

Sea of Okhotsk

USSR Krasnoyarsk Chinese Eastern Railway

Chita

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Khabarovsk

MANCHURIA

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Vladivostok Sea of Japan Shenyang KOREA

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200 150

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Figure 2.3: A map showing the South Manchurian and Chinese Eastern railways

The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles

Why did Japan intervene in Manchuria? The situation in China was becoming chaotic. In 1911, the Qing dynasty was overthrown and a new government set up at Nanking under Sun Yixian (Sun Yat-sen) of the Nationalist Party (the Guomindang, GMD). Its control of China was far from complete, however, and in some provinces warlords emerged and seized power. In 1921, the Communist Party was established. Its members including Mao Zedong and it fought off the warlords in the north. In 1925, Sun Yixian died and was succeeded by Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek). Civil war between the nationalists and the communists broke out. With the Civil War between the forces of Jiang and Mao Zedong, the Japanese saw an opportunity to make gains and add to their empire. Arguably, as the leading power in Asia, Japan could have joined with China to throw off the forces of Western imperialism in a united front and based its policy on cooperation with China. But Japan was more interested in what could be gained for itself. The chaos in China was exemplified by attacks on the Japanese Consulate in Nanking in 1927 by the nationalist army, in which the consul was assaulted. The Japanese press made much of the fact that Japanese rights had been violated and nothing had been done. As a result, Japanese troops were eventually sent to Tsingtao in Shantung to protect Japanese residents. They terrorised Chinese inhabitants and the incident damaged relations with China even further. Manchuria had fallen under the control of a warlord, Zhang Zuolin, who had granted the Japanese concessions in exchange for military aid. Under the 21 Demands, Japan’s lease of Kwantung province had been extended to 99 years, but this control was at the mercy of the volatile situation in China and, in 1928, the nationalist army advanced to try to take Peking. Some officers of the Kwantung army feared that Zhang Zuolin would surrender and so risk the loss of the area. They therefore arranged that as Zhang’s train passed over a crossing on the South Manchurian Railway, it was blown up by an explosive charge, laid by the Kwantung army. In addition, they had bombs thrown at Japanese residences in Mukden, hoping this would give Japan’s leaders an excuse to take over all Manchuria. The blame for these outrages was placed firmly on Chinese soldiers.

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

DISCUSSION POINT Consider how far the situation in China made it easier for Japan to seize control of Manchuria. What do you think the Chinese could have done differently and so prevented the loss of Manchuria?

Reaction in Japan to the events in Manchuria The Japanese prime minister, Tanaka Giichi, eventually uncovered the truth of the events in China and wanted to have those responsible for the assassination punished. To do so, however, would blacken the reputation of the army, a powerful and revered Japanese institution. Tanaka failed to win the support of his cabinet or of Emperor Hirohito and was forced to resign in 1929. This illustrated the immense control of the military in Japanese politics and allowed the army to believe it could do as it pleased in advancing the Japanese empire. In the meantime, Zhang’s heir, Zhang Xueliang, decided, not surprisingly, to join with the Chinese and united his province of Manchuria with that of the nationalist Chinese government in Nanking in 1930. This clarified the situation for the Japanese army which now had a clear enemy to target in China. Tanaka Giichi (1864–1929): Tanaka was from a samurai family and joined the army, fighting in the First Sino-Japanese War. He served in the embassy in Moscow and became fluent in Russian, largely through attending Orthodox Church services. He was made a general in 1920 and then war minister, but retired to lead a political party and was prime minister in 1927 during a financial crisis. He resigned in 1928 after the military wanted to hush up the assassination of Zhang Zuolin.

A further cause of unease in Japan arose from the General Treaty for the Renunciation of War, which Japan signed in August 1928. Known in the West as the Kellogg-Briand Pact and in Japan as the No-War Treaty, it was presented as another expression of international conciliation in the spirit of the Washington Conference. Signatories renounced war as ‘an instrument of national policy’ and promised to settle all disputes by peaceful means. Many in Japan saw this treaty as yet another attempt by 52

The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles the Anglo-American powers to maintain the existing situation to their own advantage. They believed that Japan’s ambitions in Manchuria did not come within the confines of the No-War Treaty. In June 1929, the elaborate enthronement ceremonies for Emperor Hirohito showed the world the heightened nationalism prevalent in Japan. In addition, the London Naval Treaty of 1930 seemed to be another attempt to prevent Japanese expansion. Japan had to accept further restrictions on the growth of its navy, and nationalists believed that this showed that the Western powers did not see Japan as an equal. In November 1930, the prime minister Osachi Hamaguchi was shot in Tokyo railway station by Sagoya Tomeo, a 21-year-old member of a patriots’ association, who disliked the cabinet’s acceptance of the London Naval Treaty. Hamaguchi died of his wounds the following year. Osachi Hamaguchi (1870–1931): Hamaguchi studied law and then joined the government service after being elected to the diet in 1915. He was finance minister in 1924–5 and cut spending and the number of bureaucrats, which made him unpopular. He was prime minister three times in the crisis period of 1929–31. He tried to cut military spending and agreed to reduce the navy at the London Conference in 1930, but this did not please the powerful military leaders. He also failed to halt the rising unemployment. His attempt to extend the franchise to women over 25 was defeated by the House of Peers.

SOURCE 2.6 Today the Great Powers openly emphasise the League of Nations, while behind the scenes they steadily expand their military armaments. We cannot simply dismiss as the foolish talk of idiots, those who predict the outbreak of a second world war. Our nation must be prepared to serve bravely in the event of an emergency. If other peoples [European and American] obstruct world peace and the welfare of mankind, we must be prepared to display our nationalism in a grand way, based on the spirit of the founding of the state. Written by a Japanese bureaucrat in the Justice Ministry in 1931, quoted in Bix, H.B., 2001, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. London, UK: Harper Collins, p. 227.

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

QUESTION Explain how the author of Source 2.6 justifies a hostile view of other powers.

The Manchurian Incident, 1931 The final outcome of the impact of the Treaty of V ersailles on Japan was the Japanese invasion of Manchuria as a culmination of the resentment built up in Japan over the attitude of the Western powers. On the night of 18 September 1931, officers from the Kwantung army set off an explosion near the South Manchurian Railway – using similar methods to those used against Zhang Xueliang’s father in 1928. The Japanese blamed this on Zhang’s forces, although they were mostly in bed asleep at the time, and used it as an excuse to attack the Chinese Manchurian army in its barracks at Mukden. Taken completely by surprise, the Chinese fled or surrendered. When the local commander was informed of events by one of the officers, he ordered an advance into southern Manchuria to protect the railway. This was a well-planned ‘spontaneous’ incident. The army engineers who placed the explosives were told to be careful not to derail a train and to cause the minimum amount of damage. They carried out their task to perfection and the damage was so slight that a train passed over the track shortly afterwards. The Japanese army in Korea was keen to get involved in the action as well and their general sent troops across the border to help. Within a few weeks Japan controlled Manchuria. These acts were carried out on the initiative of the local commanders, without any reference to Tokyo and were in blatant violation of the Nine-Power Treaty. But the cabinet was not prepared to stand up to the military or even to cut off funds to the rebellious units. The emperor was persuaded that nothing could be done to reverse the situation and he was apparently happy to see his army attempt to expand his empire, as long as it was successful. In October, he agreed to the bombing of Chinchou, the last vestige of Chinese authority in Manchuria.

The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles

A puppet regime The army leaders in Manchuria moved quickly to establish a government under their control. They chose Puyi, the heir to the Manchu dynasty, to be the titular head of state and abducted him from Tientsin in a secret operation. In March 1932, the new state of Manchukuo was proclaimed with Puyi as president.

Puyi (1906–67): Puyi was the last Chinese emperor, ruling as a child. When the Manchus were overthrown in 1912 he abdicated at the age of 5. He later lived at Tientsin and took the name Henry as he admired Henry VIII. He ruled Manchukuo as president and emperor until 1945. He was then imprisoned by the Chinese for war crimes, but later released.

SOURCE 2.7 In the afternoon I was summoned by the emperor. He asked me whether I had warned the chief of staff not to broaden the action. I replied, ‘Yes, I did warn him, but even without my warning he understood very clearly both the cabinet’s intention and your majesty’s will and he is already addressing the problem. Regrettably it is touch-and-go with the outlying army, and they often go their own way.’ Later the chief of staff had an audience with the emperor and asked him to approve, after the event, the dispatch of a mixed brigade from the Korean Army. I heard the emperor say that although this time it could not be helped, the army had to be more careful in the future. From the diary of Nara Takeji, one of the emperor’s advisors, for 22 September 1931, quoted in Bix, H.B. 2001. Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. London, UK: Harper Collins, p. 239.

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

SOURCE 2.8 The maintenance of public order in Manchuria and Mongolia will be entrusted to the Empire [Japan]. Manchuria and Mongolia are the Empire’s first line of defence against Russia and China: no external interference will be tolerated. In accord with these obligations, the Imperial Army forces in Manchuria will be increased appropriately and necessary naval facilities will be established. Manchuria will not be permitted its own regular army. In implementing these provisions efforts will be made to avoid conflicts with international law and international treaties. In particular, in view of the Nine Power Treaty, as far as possible actions should be formally the independent proposals of the new state. Policy towards Manchukuo agreed by the cabinet in March 1932, quoted in Ienaga, S. 1968. The Pacific War 1931–1945. New York, USA: Pantheon, p. 64.

QUESTION How are Sources 2.7 and 2.8 (p. 55) similar and how are they different in their attitudes to the Japanese takeover of Manchuria?

Reactions to the takeover of Manchuria None of the other Great Powers recognised Manchukuo, and the League of Nations set up a commission of inquiry under a British nobleman, Lord Lytton. Lytton was assisted by representatives from the US, France, Germany and Italy. They visited Manchuria for six weeks in the spring of 1932. Their report agreed that the Imperial Japanese Army had not acted in self-defence at Mukden and urged the Japanese to withdraw. But the Japanese had just recognised the Republic of Manchukuo and was in no mood to cooperate. Lytton’s report blamed the Japanese for what had happened, but Japanese delegates simply walked out of the League assembly, and Japan resigned from the League in March 1933. But there was no action against Japan. All the powers had their own reasons for doing nothing. • The United States, the one power that could stand up to Japan was not prepared to enforce sanctions and damage its own trade, given the impact of the Depression. In addition, some of its politicians 56

The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles saw Japan as a bulwark against communist power in the Soviet Union. •• Great Britain lacked the firepower to topple Japan and hoped that there might be some pickings if China was weakened. •• France and Germany lined up behind the other European powers. •• The Soviet Union was focused on economic reforms and its first Five-Year Plan and even withdrew from Manchuria and sold the Chinese Eastern Railway to Japan. Not surprisingly, Japan drew the conclusion that the effects of the Treaty of V ersailles had finally been overcome and proceeded to invade further areas of China and build up its empire.

What was the most important result of the Treaty of Versailles in South-East Asia? In this debate, the focus is largely on Japan as the country most closely involved. Most historians agree that the roots of the Second World War grew from the global situation after 1918 and that the way in which the Allies treated Japan contributed to the increasing aggression of Japanese policy and hence to the outbreak of the war in SEA. Political explanations One view is that Europe and the US had little understanding of the pride of the Japanese, exemplified in the samurai code, and humiliated them, often unintentionally but carelessly, by not making allowances for their traditions and observances. The Japanese fell back on their traditions and set up nationalist societies which wanted to promote national pride. One of these was the Sakurakai, ‘The Society of the Cherry’. Cherry blossom was admired for its beauty, and it was also a symbol as it came to full flower and after a brief moment of glory was swept away by the wind. This was a reminder of the samurai code under which society members were ready to die at any moment. The members of the society were drawn from the lowers ranks of the army, below that of colonel, so were mostly young officers. There were not many of them, about 100 in 1931, but they were well placed strategically in important positions such as the Ministry of War, the Imperial General Staff and the Tokyo Garrison HQ. There were many other societies; army officers were often among the members. Historian Richard Storry suggests that they were behind the incident on the railway and so precipitated war with China. 57

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

Ideological explanations Another view is more ideologically based and suggests that the most important outcome was the rise of Pan-Asianism. This theory puts forward the idea that all Asian nations needed to gain their freedom and that then they should become united, preferably under the leadership of Japan. This can be seen simply as an excuse for Japan’s expansionist policy but Eri Hotta argues that it was an intoxicating ideal for many in SEA as a sense of Asian identity developed. Economic explanations A third view is that the failures of the Treaty of the Versailles and the League of Nations to bring countries closer together allowed the economic impact of the Wall Street Crash and the Depression of the 1930s to become much worse. Japan was very badly hit, with unemployment reaching 20%. The cities, where life had been so vibrant in the 1920s, became much darker places and US banks would no longer bail out Japanese industries in need. The US also bought far less silk, one of Japan’s major exports. Japan therefore came to see expansion as the only way out of economic misery. Explanations based on the role of the emperor This view argues that Hirohito had the opportunity to rein in the armed forces in their strong resistance to the impact of the Treaty of Versailles, but that he was incapable of doing so. Herbert B. Bix argues that he had been ‘dilatory, inconsistent and self-contradictory’:

SOURCE 2.9 He had asserted his authority at petty moments: at more serious ones, he had caved in to insubordinate army officers. More aware of Japan’s economic dependence on the West than the staff officers who had engineered the Manchurian Incident, he had worried about diplomatic isolation and economic sanctions, but never once said, publicly or privately, that the Manchurian action of the army had been wrong. Bix, H.B. 2001. Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. London, UK: Harper Collins, p. 245.

The First World War and the Treaty of Versailles

KEY CONCEPTS Activity Perspectives: One of the themes running through this chapter is Japan’s resentful feelings after the Treaty of Versailles. Find evidence from the chapter to support Japan’s point of view that it was justified in its continued resentment.

Theory of Knowledge History and ‘inevitability’ Some historians, for example, Philip Zeigler and Kenneth Henshall, argue that dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Versailles led Japan to become determined to force other nations to accord them the respect they deserved and, therefore, embark on an expansionist policy. They suggest that this was an inevitable outcome. Others take the view that individuals who favoured nationalist goals, the economic pressures and the importance of tradition in Japanese politics helped to fuel Japanese aggression and indicate various turning points where things could have developed differently. To what extent do you think that the very concept of ‘inevitability’ is invalid, whatever aspect of history is being studied?

2 Paper 3 exam practice

Impact of the World Wars on South-East Asia

Summary activity Copy the spider diagram below to show the main results of the Treaty of Versailles in SEA. Use the information from this chapter, and any other sources available to you, to complete the diagram. Make sure you include, where relevant, brief comments about different historical debates and interpretations. Resentment in Korea

Manchuria

Results of the Treaty of Versailles in SEA

Growth of national feeling in Japan

Disappointment in Japan

Disarmament

Paper 3 practice questions 1 Examine the reasons why Korea was unable to benefit from selfdetermination. 2 To what extent was Japan satisfied with the outcome of the negotiations at Versailles? 3 ‘The Naval Treaties were of no benefit to Japan.’ To what extent do you agree with this statement? 4 Evaluate the reasons for the growth of national feeling in Japan after the Treaty of Versailles. 5 Discuss the reasons for Japan’s invasion of Manchuria in 1931. 60