IGCSE & O Level Geography_Whats New Sample

Geography for Cambridge IGCSETM and O Level

COURSEBOOK

Tana Scott, Paul Thompson, Helen Young, James Hickman & Stuart Colesky

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SAMPLE

8.1

8.2

8.3

8.4

9.1

How to use this series

This suite of resources supports learners and teachers following the Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Geography syllabuses (0460/0976/2217). The components in the series are designed to work together and help learners develop the necessary knowledge and skills for studying Geography.

The Coursebook is designed for learners to use in class with guidance from the teacher. It offers full coverage of the Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Geography syllabuses. Each topic contains explanations, definitions, a variety of tasks and detailed specific examples with questions to engage learners and develop their geographical skills.

The Teacher’s Resource is the foundation of this series. It offers inspiring ideas about how to teach this course including teaching notes, how to avoid common misconceptions, suggestions for differentiation, formative assessment and language support, answers and extra materials such as worksheets and end-ofunit tests.

How to use this book

LEARNING INTENTIONS

Learning intentions open each unit. These help you to navigate through the coursebook and highlight the most important learning points in each topic.

GETTING STARTED

At the beginning of each unit there is a getting started activity. These are pair, group or class activities that introduce you to the unit and provide you with the opportunity to show how much you already know about the topic you will be learning.

KEY TERMS

Key vocabulary is highlighted in the text when it is first introduced. An accompanying definition tells you the meanings of these words and phrases. You will also find definitions of these words in the Glossary at the back of the book.

TASK 1

You will find a variety of tasks throughout the coursebook. These give you opportunities to think about what you have learned, discuss topics, answer questions or produce your own work either individually, in pairs or in groups.

TASK 1: Study Source A B C

Tasks are accompanied by source material such as maps, images, and charts which you will use to answer questions, complete tasks and develop your geographical skills.

Detailed specific examples

Detailed specific examples are case studies that allow you to actively explore the topics in each unit and apply them to a recent, real-life context. Each example has accompanying sources and tasks for you to further practice and develop your skills. In the digital version of the coursebook, you will also have access to a video for the detailed specific example in each unit, alongside additional questions available in the Teacher’s Resource.

TIP

These are helpful reminders or notes that give advice on skills or methodology. You will find them most often near activities, where they will be directly relevant to the task.

REFLECTION

These activities enable you to look back on your work and encourage you to think about your learning. You will reflect on and assess the process that you used to arrive at your answers.

THINK LIKE A GEOGRAPHER

This is an opportunity for you to use the skills you are developing within the unit and apply them to your lives today. You will begin to make connections between employment and studying geography.

How to use this book

Skills

Learning and developing geographical skills is an important part of this course. As well as a dedicated skills section, individual tasks highlight using bold text when a skill is being used.

The Digital Coursebook contains videos to accompany the detailed specific examples. The videos encourage students to talk about the themes of the topic, introduce topic vocabulary and describe and explain concepts, processes and job roles related to the detailed specific example. Additional questions to accompany the videos are included in the Teachers Resource.

IMPROVE THIS ANSWER

Each topic includes an example of an answer to an extended writing question, with detailed analysis of how the answer is successful and areas for improvement. You can use these examples to write your own answer to the question, and to help you think about how to answer practice questions later on.

SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST

The summary checklists provide you with a series of statements at the end of each unit outlining the content you should now understand. When you are revising, you might find it helpful to rate how confident you are for each of these statements. You should also provide an example to support your chosen statement.

Practice questions

At the end of each theme, you will find a set of practice questions for each unit that use the command words from the syllabus. To answer these, you will need to apply what you have learned throughout the units you have just studied.

PROJECT

Each unit contains a project that uses the skills you develop throughout the coursebook. The project encourages you to apply these skills to a real-world task in pairs or groups.

Topic 10 Resource provision

LEARNING INTENTIONS

By the end of this unit you will be able to:

• describe how our food and energy is produced

• outline global patterns of food and energy supply and demand

• explain the challenges of food supply

• describe the role of food aid and the sustainable management of food supply in failing soils

• give the impacts of energy production from different energy sources

• evaluate the sustainable management of energy supplies.

GETTING STARTED

Working in pairs or small groups, take a few minutes to discuss the following:

1 Where does your food come from? Discuss the different foods you eat and if you know where the raw products are grown.

2 Give reasons why you think your food comes from so many different regions and countries.

3 Name a renewable and a non-renewable energy resource. Do you know what type of energy supplies the electricity to your school or home?

4 Which renewable energy source is most commonly used in your region? If one is not yet used, which one do you think would work the best?

10.1 How our food is produced

The production of food is an important part of ensuring a healthy population in countries around the world. This is achieved through agriculture, where people farm crops or livestock to produce food. There are different types and methods of farming. These fit into two main categories, described below.

What is being farmed

• Arable farming: farming crops like wheat, soya, or rice. The crops are grown in fields that farmers have usually ploughed for planting. Farmers generally have to replant and harvest the crops each year.

• Pastoral farming: farming livestock like cattle, sheep, or chickens

• Mixed farming: farming both crops and livestock.

How it is being farmed

• Subsistence farming: growing crops and raising livestock to meet the needs of the farmer and their family on small plots of land. The far mer may sell small amounts of surplus (left over food) at local markets, but their main goal is to produce enough food to survive. Most subsistence farming takes place in LICs. This type of farming typically requires little financial investment, relies on unskilled labour, and has low yields

• Commercial farming: producing crops and livestock on a large scale to sell for profit. It involves the use of mechanisation, chemical fertilisers, and pesticides to maximise crop yields. Commercial farmers will often specialise in one type of crop or animal and use advanced irrigation and storage systems. It is an important contributor to global food supplies.

KEY TERMS

Arable farming: farming with crops.

Pastoral farming: farming with livestock.

Mixed farming: farming with both crops and livestock.

Subsistence farming: growing food to feed the family, rather than for profit.

Commercial farming: growing food on a large scale for profit.

Crop yield: the amount of agricultural product harvested in a given time.

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Source A : Different types of farming

Figure 10.1: A 76 year old man works in his organic vegetable garden

Figure 10.3: Farming with sheep in a large open area where the animals graze in the field each day.

Figure 10.5: A woman works in the field growing food for her family.

Figure 10.2: Large-scale maize farming.

Figure 10.4: Farming in greenhouse tunnels where the climate and water is carefully controlled.

TASK 1: Study Source A

a Which of the images represents subsistence farming? Explain your selection.

b Which of the images do you think represents the most expensive type of farming to set up? Explain your selection.

c What type of farming is represented in Image 3? How does it differ from the farming in Images 1, 2 and 4?

Aeroponics, hydroponics, and aquaponics

Population growth has resulted in an increase in the demand for food. At the same time, available farming land has decreased due to urbanisation, soil exhaustion from poor farming practices and climate change. In order to combat these challenges, farmers, and scientists have developed different farming technologies. These techniques include aeroponics, hydroponics, and aquaponics. These are all farming practices that are designed to produce as much food as possible, in as small a space as possible, while carefully managing the use of water.

Aeroponics

Aeroponics is the process of growing plants with the plants’ root systems suspended in air. This takes place in a closed, climate-controlled environment. The plants are held in large grow racks, under artificial light. The farmers add liquid nutrients, such as nitrogen and potassium, to a large water store. This water is then delivered as a mist to the plant’s roots (see Source B). As the nutrient-rich mist is delivered directly to the roots, the plants do not need to use up energy seeking the nutrients.

Although aeroponics was first used in the 1920s, it is only since the 1990s that it has developed as an option for growing food without soil. This is particularly important in environments where the availability of good soils is limited.

KEY TERMS

Aeroponics:

A technique of growing plants with the roots suspended in air, while nutrient solution is delivered to them in the form of a fine mist

Aquaponics:

The hydroponics technique of growing plants with the addition of fish in the system, and fish waste used as the nutrient for the plants

Hydroponics:

A technique of growing plants in sand, gravel or liquid (not soil) with added nutrients

Source B : An aeroponics system

Hydroponics and aquaponics

Like aeroponics, hydroponics and aquaponics are both soil-free farming practices. Plants are similarly fed using nutrient-rich water that is pumped around the system. Unlike aeroponics, the plant roots in both hydroponics and aquaponics are submerged in water. Aquaponics goes one step further, with the system including fish. This has a number of benefits:

1 It allows the farmer to farm fish as a source of protein, in addition to the crops being grown.

2 The fish help to feed the plants. The fish process the nitrogen in the fish food, excreting it into the water. Bacteria then convert the excrement to nitrates. These nitrates are circulated in the water to the roots of the plants, which can absorb the nitrates and use them for growth.

3 The plants help to clean the water, which is circulated back to the fish, helping to maintain a healthy fish population.

In comparison to traditional arable farming, the benefits of aeroponics, hydroponics, and aquaponics are:

1 it uses up to 98% less land

2 it uses up to 95% less water

3 it allows for year-round production; as the environment is controlled, food can be produced in all seasons

4 it is more efficient

5 it is safer for the consumer as no harmful chemicals are used.

While in comparison to traditional arable farming, the limitations of aeroponics, hydroponics, and aquaponics include:

1 the high cost of setting up the systems

2 the high maintenance of the systems

3 the high level of technical knowledge required

4 the rapid spread of pathogens that harm the crops if they do get into the system.

Source C : A hydroponics system

Fish tank with sh population

Water cycled between sh and plant tanks

Fish waste cycled in water to feed plants

Floating platform

Source D : An aquaponics system

TASK 2: Study Sources B C D

a What is the main benefit of aquaponics to a farmer, in comparison to aeroponics and hydroponics?

b Name two similarities and one difference between hydroponics and aeroponics.

c Discuss the limitations of these types of farming with a partner. Then, write 100-150 words explaining why a subsistence farmer may find it challenging to use a hydroponics, aquaponics or aeroponics system to grow crops.

Farming systems

All farming follows a system of inputs, processes, and outputs. Source E gives some examples of the types of inputs, processes, and outputs one can find in different types of farming.

KEY TERMS

Inputs: the factors put into a farming system. For example, capital inputs, physical inputs, and human inputs

Capital inputs:

Money

Seeds

Animals

Chemicals

Machinery

Fertiliser

Physical inputs:

Climate

Relief

Seasons

Soils

Land

Pastoral farming: Grazing

Feeding

Harvesting hay Milking

Shearing Lambing/calving

Arable farming: Ploughing

Planting

Fertilising

Pest control

Weeding Harvesting

Outputs can become inputs

The offspring of livestock, e.g. calves/lambs

Animal and plant waste can become fertiliser

Harvested seeds can be planted

Pastoral farming: Milk Wool, Animals

Manure

Pastoral farming: Cereals

Vegetables

Flowers

Seeds

Crop waste

Source E : A flow diagram showing the inputs, processes, and outputs of farming systems

Processes: the activities that take place during the farming. For example, ploughing, milking, planting

Outputs: the products that come out of the farming system. For example, crops, milk, meat.

TASK 3: Study Source E

a Name two outputs a farmer could potentially get from farming chickens.

b Describe how the inputs and outputs for subsistence farming may differ from the inputs and outputs from commercial farming.

c Explain how an output from a farm can become an input to the same farm.

d Do you think that meat should be represented as a standard output from a pastoral farm? Consider the process required to produce meat when giving your answer.

e If you were to start a farm in your region, what do you think the main limitations would be? Consider the inputs, such as the space available, the climate, and the equipment you would need. What type of farming would you need to employ?

PROJECT

In small groups, design an indoor vegetable garden. You can research online for different ideas. Consider the following factors when you are designing the garden:

a the amount of space you have

b where you would put the garden (in a window, on a shelf with good light, on a rooftop, etc.)

c the materials available to you—you could challenge yourself to use only recycled materials

d the vegetables that you would grow

e the length of time it takes for those vegetables to grow from seed to harvesting

f the size of the plant when it is ready for harvesting.

Draw a diagram of your planned vegetable garden, explaining the step-bystep process that would be used for growing the plants. Include the inputs, processes, and outputs for your vegetable garden. You should write the process clearly, so that another person could follow it and grow the plants themselves.

As an extension activity, select the best vegetable garden idea. Build the garden and grow vegetables as a class.

REFLECTION

Did designing your own farming system help you to understand the relationship between inputs, processes, and outputs?

Go back to Task 3e. Having done this project, can you now answer this question more easily?

10.2 Global patterns of food supply and demand

Globally, calorie intake varies significantly both between countries and within countries (Source A). The main cause for an increase in calorie intake is economic development. The daily supply of calories as protein and fat all tend to increase with increased wealth. People in low-income countries, such as Ethiopia, may eat less than 2,100 calories a day, with their diet being predominantly plant-based, and consisting mainly of grains and roots. In comparison, people in high income countries, such as the USA, may eat as many as 3,600 calories per day, predominantly as meats, saturated fats, and processed grains with added sugars.

There are a number of reasons for the increase in demand for food globally; foremost is the ongoing increase of the human population. In addition, economic development results in people having more money to spend, so they are able to purchase more food, increasing the amount and diversity of food they are able to access. Furthermore, as a country’s economy strengthens, more money is available for investment into food production and storage, or the import of food. This increases the availability of a more diverse diet to the population and a higher calorie intake per person over time.

KEY TERM

Calorie intake: the amount of energy obtained from food.

Source A : Daily supply of calories per person (2018)

TASK 1: Study Source A

a Compare the distribution of countries with a high calorie intake to those with a low-calorie intake.

b Explain the pattern of calorie intake that you identified in part a.

c In pairs, discuss the calorie intake for your country and then your town. Are there areas that have a lower or higher calorie intake per person?

d Draw a sketch map of your country and look for patterns of low or high calorie intake per person.

The globalisation of food supplies

The world has experienced a shift in food systems and diets, with both food trade and agricultural trade expanding rapidly in the 2000s. The access, availability, and quality of food is changing, with the need for proper nutrition and food security becoming a global discussion.

The causes of the globalisation of food supplies are complex. However, there are a few underlying factors:

Economic causes

Economic development is central to the globalisation of food supplies. As economies develop, so too do transport routes. This supports the ongoing export and import of food products between countries. The mechanisation of transport and the ability to freeze or preserve food products has also resulted in moving foods from where they were produced to a distant market quickly and efficiently. In addition, urbanisation and foreign direct investment in food production has led to greater availability, affordability, and consumption of processed foods, which have a longer shelf life and are easier to transport.

Social causes

Social factors, such as an increased number of women in the workforce and higher rates of rural to urban migration, have increased the need for commercial farming. Commercial farming results in an increase in food production, which leads to surplus food. This surplus food allows food companies to sell to areas where farming is not occurring (e.g. cities), outside of the production region or country. In addition, increased migration globally results in a demand for food products from ‘back home’. This increases the movement of food globally.

Large food companies use social media and other marketing methods to increase awareness around the world to the different types of food products available. This results in an increase in demand for food types that are produced far from where they are consumed.

REFLECTION

Did drawing a sketch map help you to identify patterns more easily?

Are there other topics where you can draw sketch maps to improve your understanding of the content?

SAMPLE

KEY TERMS

Globalisation of food supplies: where food is moved from the country it is produced in and sold in another country.

Food insecurity: when a person does not have access to sufficient, affordable, or healthy food to meet their basic needs for an active lifestyle.

Monocropping: the process of growing the same crop year after year on the same land.

Environmental causes

Underlying the movement of food products around the world is the environment. Different plants and animals thrive in different environments. This means that a food product that a population enjoys might not be grown locally. This drives the movement of food between locations around the planet.

SAMPLE

The globalisation of food supplies has social, economic, and environmental impacts. Some positive impacts are the availability of a wider variety of food products around the globe and the expansion of international trade. However, there are a number of negative impacts.

Economic impacts

Transnational food corporations put the small local farmer at a disadvantage. Local farmers are unable to compete with the marketing capabilities and the lower price that large companies can sell food at. As a result, food security, local food production, and the presence of healthier, home-grown food can reduce as the small local farmer is put out of business.

Local economies are affected by international changes in food supply or food prices, impacting people who are already unable to afford their families. This leads to increased food insecurity, which is also a social impact.

Social impacts

The number of malnourished people is increasing. This is due to nutritional deficiencies and dietary imbalances, and necessarily just food shortages. The globalisation of food has increased access to cheap fast-foods with low nutritional value. Eating ultra-processed foods increases the risk of health challenges like high blood pressure, strokes, and heart attacks by as much as 24%.

Environmental impacts

Farmers often use modern industrial agricultural techniques, sacrificing long-term sustainability of the farmland for higher productivity. Soils become exhausted, no longer able to support plant growth and erosion. In the long term, this becomes both an economic and social impact as crops fail, and both hunger and poverty increase.

To meet global demand and speed up production, commercial farmers often use fossil fuels, chemical fertilisers, and pesticides, which pollute the environment. For ease of planting and harvesting, commercial farmers plant the same crop over large areas year after year in a process known as monocropping This results in decreased biodiversity as a single species replaces the diverse ecosystem that existed in the area before.

In addition, food is transported longer distances to the market, increasing its ‘food miles’. Food miles are the distance food is transported during the journey from producer to consumer, as a measurement of the amount of fossil fuel used to transport it. The greater the food miles, the greater the amount of carbon emitted to produce and transport the food. This carbon adds to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, increasing the risk of climate change.

Calorie count and size of portions at 10 U.S. fast food chains*

* Chains: Arby’s, Burger King, Carl’s Jr, Dairy Queen, Hardee’s, Jack in the Box, KFC, Long John Silver’s, McDonald’s and Wendy’s

Source B : The change in portion sizes and calorie value of fast-foods between 1980 and 2016. The average adult human requires 2000 calories (female) and 2500 calories (male) per day.

TASK 2: Study Source B

a Calculate the increase in calories for desserts between 1986 and 2016.

b Explain why an increase in the size of fast-food portions would be considered unhealthy.

c In pairs, discuss the marketing of fast-food and how it impacts fast-food sales and the economy of a country, region or town.

Strategies for increasing food supplies

An increase in human populations, in combination with a decrease in healthy agricultural land area, has resulted in the development of techniques to increase food output from farms. The Green Revolution was a period of agricultural development that started in the early 20th century and continued through until the late 1980s. During this period, improvements in irrigation, chemical controls, fertilisers, high-yield variety (HYV) and genetically modified (GM) crops, and mechanisation all increased farming outputs (Source C).

KEY TERMS

High-yield variety (HYV): crops that have a high yield potential and resistance to factors such as insects, diseases, floods and drought.

Genetically modified (GM) crops: generated from plants that have been genetically modified by scientists through the addition of new DNA to give the plant different characteristics, such as resistance to a specific disease.

High-yielding variety (HYV) and genetically modi ed (GM) crops: Crops that have been bred or produced to increase the speed of growth and yield. This increases the output from a farm, increasing food production.

Irrigation: The supply of water to land or crops using mechanised systems. This allows for larger areas and areas further from water sources to be farmed, increasing the potential output from farms.

Strategies to increase food supplies

Fertilisers: natural or synthetic products added to soils to supply plants with nutrients, such as nitrogen. This allows for better and faster crop growth and produces more food per plant.

SAMPLE

Herbicides and pesticides: Chemical controls for insects and plants that reduce the productivity of plants. By adding these chemicals, the number of pests or competing plants iscontrolled, increasing crop harvests.

Mechanisation: The use of machines to plough, plant, harvest and process crops. This increases the area that can be farmed as it is faster than human labour. It also helps to farm in soils that are harder to work and increases the outputs from farm land.

Source C : Strategies to increased crop yields

Despite the benefits of increased food production, these strategies have introduced a number of negative impacts:

• Mechanisation resulted in the loss of jobs for many farm workers, forcing them to move to new areas to look for work.

• Herbicides, pesticides, and fertilisers all have negative impacts on the environment if they are not carefully managed. They can cause decreased biodiversity, and contaminate soils and waterways.

• High-yield crops (HYVs and GM crops) grow faster and require more fertiliser and water. Far mers who do not have the money to invest in the machines and resources required to farm this type of crop are outcompeted by those who are able to.

• The increased use of water and natural areas for farming puts pressure on ecosystems.

TASK 3: Study Sources C

a Write a 200 to 250-word essay on how the strategies outlined in Source C have increased food output from farms.

b In pairs, research the main problems that the techniques used to increase food output have caused. Create a spider diagram to show your findings. Consider the following factors in your research:

• the impact of the increased use of herbicides and pesticides

• the impact of the increased use of fertilisers

• the clearing of natural areas for new farmland

• the overuse or misuse of water resources

• the mismanagement of soils (soil exhaustion/erosion).

10.3 The challenges of food supply

Supplying food to an ever-growing global population presents a number of challenges that we have to overcome to ensure food security. Both human and natural factors impact food supply and include water security, land degradation, natural disasters, pests, and diseases which can all reduce the amount of food being produced in a region.

FactorHuman and/or natural factors

Water shortages

Land degradation and desertification

Agricultural pests and diseases

Climate change

SAMPLE

Population growth

Demand for biofuel

Poverty

Human and natural factors

Description of factors affecting food supply

A lack of water due to the local climate or drought can result in crop failure and the inability to raise livestock. This can be a natural factor where lack of rainfall reduces water availability. The overuse of water by humans can also cause water shortages.

Poor farming practices leads to desertification, land degradation, soil exhaustion, and soil erosion. This reduces the ability of the land to support crops and food for raising livestock, limiting food production. However, climate change and reduced rainfall can also naturally cause areas to become more arid which also results in land degradation.

Pests such as locusts or rodents can consume large amounts of food from the fields each day. Fungal diseases can destroy crops and food being stored. These natural factors are made worse due to monocropping which supports the spread of pests.

As the climate shifts, the change in temperature and the amount of rain (including extreme weather events such as storms, floods and droughts) impacts the crops that grow in certain climate conditions. This results in the decline in food production in previously successful agricultural regions. Climate change is both a natural phenomenon and one that is enhanced due to human activities like burning fossil fuels.

Ongoing population growth means a higher food demand. Where rapid population growth and subsistence farming occur, typically in LICs, the challenge of feeding people is even greater.

Biofuel is an energy source made from plant and animal materials. As human demand for this renewable energy source increases, fewer crops for food and farmland are available.

Transport and storage

War and political unrest

Human factors

When people have too little money, they are not able to purchase food. Without food, they are unable to work, and therefore struggle to make money. This poverty cycle is hard to break and may result in the population being dependent on food aid.

A lack of storage for food products during periods of excess production means that food cannot be stored for use during times of shortage. In addition, the lack of ability to transport food to areas where it is needed prevents food from being supplied. This could be due to the damage of infrastructure after a natural disaster or period of conflict, or due to low levels of infrastructure development in a country with limited economic resources.

Where war and political unrest occur, farmers are often driven off their lands. This results in a reduction in food production in a region, and a difficulty in supplying food.

Table 10.1: Human and natural factors affecting food supply

Source A : Cartoon showing a farmer putting his rain gauge up for sale

TASK 1: Study Source A

a In pairs, discuss the message in the cartoon. Then, create a flow chart to show how the lack of need for a rain gauge on the farm impacts the farmer and food production in a region.

b Research food production in your region. Have recent weather events, or changes to local weather patterns affected local food production? In pairs, write a brief summary of what you find and share the information with the class.

The problems caused by food insecurity

Food insecurity has significant impacts on the population, economy, and environment. There are four main impacts of food insecurity:

• An increase in the number of people living in poverty: adults living in food-insecure households are more likely to suffer from poor health. This means that they are unable to work and earn an income. This results in them living in poverty.

• Slowing down or shrinking of the economy resulting in increased food prices: with the workforce suffering from food shortages and unable to work, the economy slows as the workforce fails. This results in the prices of items increasing as they become scarcer.

• Political destabilisation with food-related unrest: hunger can drive a population to lead protests against food scarcity and costs. This causes political unrest within a region or country.

KEY TERM

Desertification: the process by which vegetation in areas with low rainfall decreases and disappears.

SAMPLE

• Population decline due to out-migration or death: as food becomes scarer, people will move away in search of a more secure food source. If they are unable to move, then they are likely to starve due to the lack of food.

Food insecurity can cause malnutrition and this can lead to starvation. When suffering from malnutrition, a person is less resistant to disease and is more likely to fall ill. They are then unable to work which further decreases their ability to earn money to buy food or grow the food themselves.

The impacts of food insecurity are most intensely felt in LICs, where lower levels of economic development result in less money available to purchase food. However, food insecurity does occur in MICs and HICs too. This can be triggered by economic slowdown, a natural disaster destroying crops and infrastructure, or a global outbreak of disease which can impact the transport and delivery of food between regions or countries. In addition, in MICs and HICs, there are areas of poverty within the country. These areas can struggle with food security due to the shortage of money to purchase food.

Share of population experiencing moderate/severe food insecurity, by region (in percent)

KEY TERM

Malnutrition: Lack of adequate nutrition, caused by not having a balanced diet, or enough food to eat.

SAMPLE

The COVID-19 pandemic started in 2019, and by 2021, at least 828 million people were affected by hunger. This was 150 million more than 2019 and 46 million more than 2020.

a Which region experienced the largest change in food insecurity between 2019 and 2021?

b Describe the change in the number of people suffering from hunger from 2019 to 2021.

c In pairs, discuss the change that you observe in food insecurity by region, including the following areas:

i Did any of the data surprise you?

ii Which regions had lower increases in food security than the world average, and which areas had higher increases?

iii Give three suggestions for why these trends occurred.

Source B : The impacts of COVID-19 on world hunger

TASK 2: Study Source B

Managing food insecurity

There are different strategies and techniques for managing food insecurity. There are short-term strategies such as food aid and long-term strategies such as training farmers how to protect soils and farmlands.

Food aid

Food aid is when a country receives food from another country during periods of food shortages. This can be as a donation or under fair terms to help the country in need. In order to help people in need, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) like the World Food Programme (WFP) have also been established to provide food to food-insecure regions; for example, the WFP is helping move food into South Sudan which is struggling with both long-term drought and civil conflict.

Food aid should not be seen as a long-term solution; it should be implemented in response to an event that has threatened food in the short term. Food aid is successful when it is able to reach the people in need and when it is not used for too long. However, some regions that require food aid may be at war which means that food does not reach the intended population. Furthermore, if the area is suffering from a drought which lasts for a long time, then food aid has to continue and this can develop a population that becomes dependent on the food aid and are no longer able to provide for themselves.

Improving soil protection

Long-term solutions look at how to establish farming practices to ensure that people are able to feed themselves in the future. This is done through learning how to protect the soils and to prevent the soils from becoming depleted, and therefore unable to support crop growth. Table 10.2 outlines some key techniques.

Techniques used to improve soil protection during farming

Protecting soils from desertification

KEY TERM

Food aid: help in the form of basic food items given to a country or region suffering from food shortages.

SAMPLE

• Water management, including minimising overuse of water to protect water resources.

• Selecting crops that have low water requirements.

• Preventing total loss of vegetation, which protects soils from soil erosion, through preventing overgrazing or harvesting of vegetation.

Training farmers Training farmers in the following areas:

• How to correctly irrigate to protect water resources and soil quality.

• How to rotate crops to allow soil to rest between harvests and to vary the crops being grown in a field. This helps to protect soil nutrients and soil fertility.

• How to prevent overgrazing by not overstocking an area.

• How to protect groundwater resources from over-abstraction (where the amount of water taken from the ground is greater than the amount of water falling as rain), which further dries out surface areas.

• How to select the correct crops for the climate and use organic fertilisers to help plants grow.

• How to protect the natural vegetation which protects soils from wind and water erosion. This can be done by planting up areas that have had their vegetation removed or protecting areas that still have their natural vegetation in place.

• The best techniques to protect soils from soil erosion such as planting wind breaks, terracing slopes, contour ploughing, and managing rainwater runoff (Figure 10.1).

Table 10.2: Protecting farmlands from degradation and soil erosion

We

SAMPLE

The success of strategies and techniques in protecting soils from degradation and erosion depends on a wide range of factors, including the environment, climate, level of poverty, and willingness of the population to learn and change their practices and even their culture. For example, where large livestock herds represent family wealth, it is difficult to change the behaviour of the people. To protect the soils from overgrazing, smaller herds are required, however, the people do not wish to give up their wealth.

Source C : Sheep-grazing plants in a dry region with limited vegetation growth

TIP

When considering protecting soils from degradation, remember that not all soils are the same. Some soils are naturally less fertile and less likely to support plant growth than others. In addition, soils require nutrients, water, and sufficient sunlight to support good plant growth. This means that there are regions of the world that are natural deserts which are not caused by poor farming practices.

Steep-like terraces built on slopes prevents water runoff carrying away soil

Crops are planted to follow the contour of the land, which slows runoff and reduces erosion

Rows of trees planted between fields slows the wind and reduces wind erosion

Figure 10.1: Different soil erosion management techniques

TASK 3: Study Source C

a Define the term desertification.

b Does Source C show potential desertification? Support your answer with observations from the image and information in table 10.2.

c Explain what a farmer could do to protect the soils in a dry region like this.

THINK LIKE A GEOGRAPHER

Geographers need to think of climate when considering food supply. Thinking about the soils, the seasons, rainfall, and the length of day to consider the production of food. In addition, climate change is adding to the challenge of understanding food security.

How would an increase or decrease in rainfall impact crop growth?

As a geographer, how would you identify where in the world there might be an increase or decrease in rainfall over time? How long would it take for the impact to be felt?

10.4 Detailed specific example: Haiti

The Republic of Haiti is the third largest country in the Caribbean, located between North and South America. It has an estimated population of 11.4 million people and occupies the western side of the island of Hispaniola.

According to the World Food Programme (WFP), Haiti has the highest level of food insecurity in the world, with a total of 4.35 million Haitians facing acute hunger, and 1.8 million facing emergency levels of food insecurity. In addition to insufficient food, there is the challenge of the poor nutritional value of the food that is available. 22% of children in the country are chronically malnourished, 10% are underweight, and 66% of those under five years old suffer from anaemia due to the lack of iron in their diet. It must be noted that as over half of those living in the food crisis in Haiti are children, the situation is considered a ‘children’s crisis’.

Source A : The Global Hunger Index (GHI) for Haiti. In 2023, Haiti had a score of 31.1 which is considered serious. This has decreased from a GHI of 40.2 in 2008 but has increased from 30.1 in 2015.

Source

TASK 1: Study Sources A B

a Calculate the decrease in GHI for Haiti between 2008 and 2023.

b Calculate the percentage change in GHI for Haiti between 2015 and 2023.

c Describe the change in the percentage of people in Haiti that were undernourished between the year 2000 and 2023. Remember to use data to support your answer (the year and the percentage observed).

Causes of food insecurity in Haiti

d Use the following data to plot a line graph to show the change in GHI in Haiti between 2008 and 2023.

Historically, Haiti has been politically unstable and has the lowest Human Development Index (HDI) in the Americas. In the 21st century, the country has endured a number of factors that have put pressure on food supplies:

• A political coup and ongoing economic deterioration with increasing crime rates, which all impact the ability of a country to produce and supply food to the population.

• A catastrophic earthquake in 2010 that killed approximately 250,000 people, damaging infrastructure, transport routes, and food supply chains.

• A cholera outbreak in the aftermath of the earthquake, which caused death and weakened the workforce, reducing food production.

• Frequent hurricanes which bring strong winds and flooding, destroying crops and infrastructure. Haiti is the third most affected country by extreme weather events this century.

SAMPLE

• Long periods of recurring drought and the drying out of water sources causing crops to fail.

• Poor soils that limit crop growth.

• Poor performance in the agricultural sector and heavy dependence on food imports (more than 83% of the rice is imported). This makes the country vulnerable to increases in the international food prices, with major food products on the island being 30–70% higher than other countries in the region.

These have all caused deepening levels of poverty within the population, which have resulted in high levels of food insecurity.

Problems caused by food insecurity

The lack of access to a balanced diet results in many health and social issues within the population. These range from increased incidents of malnutrition and starvation to crime or social unrest. Statistics show that 22% of all children are malnourished, 10% are underweight, and 66% of all children under the age of five suffer from anaemia. High rates of hunger also result in children missing school and falling behind in their education. The population in general is also at higher risk of contracting illnesses such as cholera and being too ill to work. This results in overall economic decline.

All of these factors reduce the ability of the population to work and add to the problem of Haiti’s continued economic decline. This results in those at risk remaining in the poverty cycle where hunger leads to illness, which leads to the inability to work or produce food, which in turn leads back to hunger.

TASK 2: Study Source B

a In pairs, discuss the problems that food insecurity causes for the Haitian population. Then explain in 100 to 150 words how social unrest and increased crime rates are caused by food insecurity, which in turn will also increase food insecurity.

b Explain how missed schooling can impact the ability of a person to either grow food or buy food in the future.

c One in five children in Haiti does not live with a parent. Explain how this will affect the food security of the parentless child.

Managing food insecurity

There are various strategies and techniques that can be employed to combat food insecurity. These are dependent on the political stability, level of economic development, and the climate of a country. In Haiti, the strategies and techniques outlined in Table 10.3 have been used to help battle food shortages.

Programmes

World Food Programme, supplying feeding solutions to Haiti since 1969:

• food aid

• financial aid

• training and developing farming and food management skills.

Strategies and techniques

Strategies:

• works with the government to build sustainable food systems and address the roots of food insecurity

• developed a School Feeding Policy and Strategy with the government to deliver nutritious meals to almost 300,000 disadvantaged school students in over 1000 schools daily.

Techniques:

• produces meals to assist with feeding more than 150,000 people affected by the prolonged drought

• works with over 70 agricultural organisations to source food from smallholding farmers to sell locally

• provides training to farmers and food processing organisations to optimise farm output and reduce post-harvest losses during transport and storage of food products

• works with the government to develop food stores for use during emergency situations, like hurricanes or earthquakes.

The Eat Better Programme (Manje pi Byen)Strategies:

• supported by the US Agency for International development, aims to improve food security for extremely vulnerable people in Cité Soleil

• assists with economic recovery and market system development, which will help with long-term stability in food supplies.

Techniques:

• offers food e-vouchers that allow 4000 families access to high-quality foods from local market vendors

• offers nutrition and food security assistance.

USAID’s Office of Food for Peace and the UN WFP’s 2020 drought relief

Techniques:

• provides cash transfers for food to approximately 190,000 food-insecure people

• provision of food and seed vouchers to more than 55,000 food-insecure people.

The ongoing political instability along with frequent natural disasters in Haiti make implementing these strategies and techniques challenging, and therefore limits their success. The ongoing rise in food insecurity and malnutrition suggest that these strategies, although well meaning, are yet to have a large impact on the level of food security in Haiti.

Table 10.3: Programmes to battle food shortages in Haiti

TASK 3: Study Source C

a Give three reasons why it is difficult for families to provide their own food in this urban setting.

b Different strategies are employed to assist with food supply to areas in need. With reference to the table below, describe and explain the changes in both financial aid and food aid between the years of 2018 and 2023.

SAMPLE

Financial and food aid supplied to Haiti from international sources between 2018 and 2023

c With a partner, select one strategy to argue as the best option for improving food supply. Different pairs in the class must investigate different strategies to argue as the best option for improving food supply. Write down the key points of your argument to hold a class debate. After the debate, discuss which strategy or combination of strategies is the best for improving food supply.

TIP

When considering solutions to helping people with food insecurity, you must always remember to consider the best long-term solution. Food aid and financial support are both short-term options. If they are used for too long, the population becomes dependent on that support and potentially loses the ability to support themselves.

Source C : Housing in the slums of Port Au Prince, the capital city of Haiti

10.5 How our energy is produced

Energy is central to modern-day living. It powers our machinery, heating and cooling, food production, and many more processes that form part of our daily life. The energy that we use comes from two types of energy sources: non-renewable and renewable Understanding the difference in these sources and their impacts on humans, the economy, and the planet is important when considering the long-term sustainability of energy production.

Non-renewable energy sources

Non-renewable energy is produced from resources that are finite. This means they will not be replenished for hundreds of thousands, if not millions of years. These resources include the fossil fuels oil, coal, and natural gas, and uranium that is used for the production of nuclear energy.

Oil and gas

The process that creates oil and gas occurs under the ocean, over millions of years (Source A). Dead plankton, algae, and bacteria sink to the ocean floor where they mix with clay-like materials. When this mix of clay and organic matter occurs in still-water environments with little or no oxygen, it settles on the ocean floor rather than decaying. Over time, this buried material becomes sedimentary rock. When buried between 2 km and 4 km deep, the pressure and temperature transform the rock into oil and natural gas.

Oil is formed when temperatures reach between 90°C and 160°C. Natural gas forms at higher temperatures. Oil and gas are lighter than water, so they rise through the pores in the rocks. If they reach an impermeable layer of rock or clay-like material, the oil and gas can no longer move and collect here.

Water Dead organisms, plant and animals

rocks Impermeable rocks

KEY TERMS

SAMPLE

Non-renewable energy: energy that is produced from resources that will run out and not be replenished for millions of years. For example, oil, gas, and coal.

Renewable energy: energy that is produced from resources that are not depleted and can be naturally and quickly replenished. For example, wind and solar power.

Fossil fuels: a natural energy source such as coal or gas, formed millions of years ago from the remains of living organisms.

Trapped fossils

OilNatural gas

Source A : The formation of oil and natural gas at the bottom of the ocean.

Coal

Millions of years ago, the earth was covered with trees and plants. These plants died in swamps and along riverbanks where soils and mud covered them. As they sunk into the swamps and riverbed, they decomposed into peat. Over time, the pressure of the ground above and the high temperatures (50°C to 150°C) converted the plant material into coal. Coal is an energy-rich, carbon-dense, black sedimentary rock. Coal travels closer to the surface as plants bend and fold the earth’s crust, or the surface material erodes.

SAMPLE

Source B : The formation of coal from plant material over millions of years

Nuclear power

Nuclear power is a non-renewable energy resource because it uses uranium, a radioactive-heavy metal, which has to be mined from the earth. At the current rate of consumption, the accessible uranium supply will last approximately 230 years before we run out. However, the amount of energy that a small amount of uranium produces is significant. This makes it a more sustainable energy supply than coal and gas.

TASK 1: Study Sources A B

a Use a table to compare the formation of oil and gas with coal. Look for both similarities and differences in their formation.

Original organic material

Where it forms

How it forms

b With reference to Sources A and B, explain why nuclear energy is considered a more sustainable energy source.

Time and pressure

300 Million years ago - swamp

Today

Peat

Peat

Sediment

Heat and pressure

Renewable energy sources

Renewable energy uses sustainable energy resources such as wind power, solar power, and moving water to generate energy that is converted into electricity. Unlike nonrenewable energy sources, renewable energy sources will not run out. They can be replenished quickly. Currently only a small percentage of global energy production comes from renewable resources.

Most electricity-generating systems rely on turbines to generate power. Wind and water flow can easily turn turbines directly. Heating water to create steam can also turn turbines. This heating is done by burning fossil fuels or by using other heat sources. Only one energy source, solar power, does not rely on turbines for generating electricity. Instead, an electrical charge in the solar cell generates electricity.

Tidal and wave energy: uses the power from the movement of waves and the tides in rive mouthsto turn turbines and generateelectricity

Biomass: energy obtained from organic materials such as plant and animals waste

Hydro-electric power (HEP): electricity is produced using moving water. A dam is built across a river, blocking the ow of water. This water is then channeled under pressure through pipes to turn turbines which generate power.

Renewable energy sources

Wind energy: captures the movement of air to turn the blades on wind turbines. This turning motion is used to generate electricity.

Solar energy: produced by harnessing the power of the sun. The energy from the sun is converted into electrical energy through solar panels. The solar panels use minerals that react to sunlight, generating a charge which is captured as energy.

Geothermal energy: uses heat from within the Earth’s crust to heat water or generate electricity. Water is pumped down into the earth and returns to the surface as steam. This steam is used to turn turbines which generate electricity. Water can be heated by being pumped underground. It then returns to the surface heated. This can be used to heat homes or as a source of hot water.

Renewable energy sources

We can further divide the energy generated from biomass into fuelwood and biogas

a Fuelwood is wood that we grow and use to generate heat and light. In many parts of the world, people use fuelwood for cooking. It relies on trees as a source for the wood. If humans harvest trees at a faster rate than they can regrow, then this renewable resource can become a non-renewable energy source.

b Biogas is generated when plant or animal waste ferments to create methane. We can then use this gas as an energy source for activities like cooking, or to fuel vehicles or heat homes.

KEY TERMS

Tidal and wave energy: electricity that is generated using the energy of waves and tides.

Wind energy: electricity that is generated using the power of the wind.

Hydro-electric power (HEP): electricity generated by using the power of moving water.

Solar energy: electricity generated by using the energy of the sun.

Geothermal energy: energy generated from the heat under the surface of the Earth.

Fuelwood: wood that is burned as an energy source.

Biogass: a gas such as methane that is produced by fermenting organic matter. We can use it as an energy source.

TASK 2: Study Sources C - F

a Describe the similarities between generating tidal and wind energy.

b Solar power does not require turbines to generate electricity. In pairs, discuss how you think this makes solar energy more suitable for remote locations.

c With reference to Source F, describe how tidal energy can generate electricity.

d Explain why we can consider fuelwood both a renewable and nonrenewable energy source.

REFLECTION

How did you find making a comparison between two seemingly different systems in Task 2a (wind and tidal energy)? Did you take time to consider how the electricity is generated to look for those similarities? If not, read through how electricity is generated again to help you.

Source C : Wind turbines and solar panels on an energy farm in the Netherlands

Source D : Flowing water over the hydro-electric dam of Kurobe in Japan

Source E : Krafla geothermal power station in Iceland

Tidal Power Station

Ocean

Barrage Sluice gates

Turbine

Tidal basin

Source F : Tidal energy produced by underwater turbines which are powered by the moving currents

10.6 Energy supply and demand

Globally, energy production and consumption continue to increase. The reasons for this vary, from the continued increase in population, to economic growth, and technological developments.

As population continues to increase, there is a natural increase in the demand for electricity. In addition, the standard of living of the population is improving globally. This results in people having more electrical appliances in their homes, running and heated water, and access to private vehicles. All of these factors increase the energy consumption per capita (per person) globally, further increasing energy demand.

Economic growth also drives an increase in energy demand. As an economy expands, so does industry, which uses energy-using machinery to complete tasks. As outlined above, an improving economy results in an increase in the individual wealth of the population. This means more people own items like cars, further increasing energy demand.

Technological developments have also resulted in the development of a wide range of devices and systems that require energy. This includes personal technology from mobile phones and laptops to smart homes and advanced industry. The increased use of technology by individuals and countries has resulted in an increased demand for energy.

The challenge of supplying energy

The issue of providing sufficient energy is a global challenge. Meeting the everincreasing demand in a sustainable manner requires a shift in the approach to supplying energy. According to the Energy Information Administration, the world primary energy demand is expected to increase by 50% between 2020 and 2050. To meet this demand, the world’s electricity-generating capacity has to increase significantly.

Meeting this demand is more challenging for some countries than others. The location of both renewable and non-renewable energy resources has resulted in some regions having a surplus of energy, while other regions suffer from a deficit (shortages).

Some countries have a natural supply of oil and gas, which gives them access to inexpensive energy and a surplus that they can sell to other countries. Other countries have very limited access to fossil fuels and rely on importing energy from other countries. This makes them less energy secure. Renewable energy sources are also regionally dependent. For example, solar power is most effective in regions with high rates of sunlight, wind power requires consistent wind, and geothermal power requires tectonic activity bringing heat close to the surface of the Earth. This means that not all renewable energy sources are suitable for all locations, limiting their use for some countries. Pressure on countries to change to their energy supply from non-renewable to renewable resources further complicates this energy supply challenge for many countries. Governments need to consider how to develop their energy supply to ensure it is secure and meets their needs both now and in the future.

SAMPLE

KEY TERM

Primary energy demand: the total energy requirements of a country.

Source A : The variation in daily and yearly solar radiation patterns around the world

TASK 1: Study Source A

a In pairs, discuss which regions are most likely to support the use of solar power as a reliable energy source. Briefly give your reasoning, using information from the source to support your answer.

b Would the UK be able to depend on solar power to meet any energy deficits? Consider the information in the source and how climate and seasonal changes would influence their ability to rely on solar power.

Energy security

Energy security is the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at affordable prices. Energy security has both short-term and long-term needs. For the short-term, the energy supply needs to meet the current demand for energy and react if there is a sudden change in supply or demand. For example, if a power generator fails, or if there are increases in demand for cooling or heating due to a change in temperature. Long-term security refers to long-term planning to develop energy resources to meet future demand. As populations and economies expand, so does the demand for energy. This means that countries need to consider their rate of growth and the potential demands for energy in the future, ensuring an ongoing development of energy-supply strategies. If a long-term plan is not well designed, countries will find that they are not able to continue to develop their economy in the future.

KEY TERM

Energy security: the uninterrupted availability of energy sources to the population at affordable prices.

SAMPLE

Without energy security, the economy will struggle to expand, as industry is unable to function fully. This will result in businesses, industry, and commercial farming having to either reduce their output or close, and people losing their jobs and access to a

secure supply of food. This increases poverty and decreases the standard of living and quality of life of the population. In some instances, the lack of power supply could pose a direct threat to life if people can’t heat their homes in cold climates or cool homes in heatwaves. In addition, the lack of electricity results in hospitals not being able to function properly, water supplies failing, and population health declining.

TASK 2: Study Source B

In pairs, discuss what this cartoon is depicting. Then, in 100 to 200 words, write down the message of the cartoon and explain the possible reasons for such a situation developing.

The energy mix

The energy mix for countries at different economic levels varies. This is due to a number of factors:

• HICs can invest in a more diverse mix of energy sources than LICs. Developing renewable sources of energy, for example, requires a large investment.

• Energy sources require infrastructure such as transport routes and power for effective installation. Many LICs do not have this infrastructure in place.

• The installation and running of energy sources require specific skills. Often, LICs do not have these highly trained professionals available.

• Political instability and political willingness can also play a role in limiting the development of renewable energy sources. Unless the government is stable and wishing to make the change, it is unlikely to happen.

The energy mix can also vary within countries; for example, along a coastline, a region may be able to develop energy supplies that use wind and tidal energy, while inland areas may be able to develop wind and hydroelectric energy supplies.

Parts of the country with higher population densities may have their energy supplied by nuclear power, while more remote areas may still rely on fossil fuels as an energy source.

KEY TERMS

Energy mix: a group of different energy sources from which secondary energy such as electricity is produced.

Secondary energy source: when primary energy (energy harvested directly from the natural source) is turned into a transportable form of energy. For example, when we burn coal in a power plant to generate electricity, the electricity is a form of secondary energy.

Source B : Cartoon depicting a problem arising out of energy insecurity

Source C : The energy mix for the UK in 2022 (HIC)

TASK 3: Study Sources C D E

Source D : The energy mix for Malaysia in 2022 (MIC)

a Which country has the highest reliance on coal?

b Which country has the most diverse energy mix?

c Compare the energy mixes between the UK, Malaysia, and Zimbabwe.

Source E : The energy mix for Zimbabwe in 2022 (LIC)

d Suggest why these energy mixes are so different between the three countries.

e In pairs or small groups, carry out research into the mix of energy of your own country, giving reasons for the mix that is used.

10.7 A sustainable energy future

The production of energy from different resources has both positive and negative impacts for the environment, for people, and for the economy. Governments and policy makers need to take these impacts into consideration when they are determining the energy mix for a country or region.

Positive impacts

A secure energy supply offers economic and social benefits. Economically, a secure supply of energy allows for the development of commercial farming, industry, and businesses within a country. This encourages economic stability and allows for ongoing industrial and economic expansion.

From this economic stability comes social development, with access to education, medical care, and jobs improving the quality of life and standard of living of the population. The production of energy, for example the mining, processing, and production of energy, also creates jobs. This increases a population’s chance for a better standard of living.

Renewable energy resources have additional positive social and environmental impacts to non-renewable resources. For example, they do not emit greenhouse gases, not only reducing the impact on the climate, but also reducing the risk of illness and lung disease.

TIP

When comparing graphs, take note of the data that is given, and use the data in your answers. Think about how you are using data to support your answers, it should help to clarify what you are trying to say.

Negative impacts

Although we can categorise the negative impacts of different sources of energy into economic, social, and environmental categories, it is important to recognise that many of these impacts are interconnected.

Environmental impacts

Non-renewable

During mining for coal, oil, natural gas, and uranium, environmental damage occurs, with loss of habitat, reduced biodiversity, and the potential for pollution due to events like oil spills.

Burning of fossil fuels, especially coal, releases sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere which causes acid rain. Acid rain is harmful to ecosystems, causing plants and aquatic animals to die.

The burning of fossil fuels creates poor air conditions and can result in the formation of smog over cities. This reduces visibility and causes harm to living organisms.

Burning fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, which cause pollution of the atmosphere, increasing the rate of climate change and causing global warming.

Nuclear power uses radioactive material which is harmful to life if it is not correctly managed. The longterm impact to an ecosystem can be devastating.

Renewable

Any materials that are used in the construction of renewable energy infrastructure (for example, wind turbines, dam walls) all have an environmental footprint.

Wind turbines can injure or kill birds which fly into the blades.

Areas of natural habitat may have to be cleared for installing power plants, such as large solar farms.

Table 10.4: Environmental impacts of using different energy sources

Economic impacts

Non-renewable

Cleaning up an oil spill or rehabilitating an old mine site is expensive.

Acid rain damages buildings, eroding the stonework and causing it to crumble. This requires money to continuously repair or slow the damage.

Climate change is causing increasing costs around the world. Rising temperatures and sea levels, and changes to precipitation rates all create costs as countries adapt to these changes.

A nuclear accident shuts down regions around a nuclear plant and destroys the economy in the area reliant on that energy source.

Table 10.5: Economic impacts of using different energy sources

Renewable

The loss of jobs in the non-renewable energy sector is a concern to many countries who have developed their economy around fossil fuels.

Switching to renewable energy has a significant financial cost. This is challenging for both LICs and HICs.

Social impacts

Non-renewable

Air pollution from the burning of fossil fuels contributes to health conditions, such as asthma, bronchitis, lung cancers, high blood pressure, and heart conditions.

Acid rain is an irritant, causing skin conditions. It also causes crops to fail, resulting in food insecurity.

Smog is toxic and causes harm to the skin, eyes, and lungs.

Climate change causes social anxiety, where people worry about how climate change will affect their future. Changes to the climate puts pressure on economies, resulting in the loss of jobs and a reduced quality of life. Changes to climate also impact food supply, putting pressure on food security and impacting the health of the population.

In the event of a nuclear accident, the exposure of people to radioactive material may result in burns, cancers, and death.

Table 10.6: Social impacts of using different energy sources

TASK 1

Renewable

Wind turbines and solar panels may be viewed as unattractive.

Wind turbines can be noisy, disturbing local populations.

The loss of jobs in regions where the extraction or use of non-renewable energy resources is the main employer decreases quality of life and increases poverty.

SAMPLE

a Create a spider diagram that shows how the environmental, social, and economic impacts of different energy sources are interconnected. Look for what impacts occur and how they relate to each category.

b In pairs, carry out research to identify three cities around the world that suffer from high levels of smog. Give reasons for why these particular cities suffer from smog and then compare your findings with others in your class.

Health hazards caused by coal power stations

A country that currently produces most of its electricity from coal power is looking at expanding the number of coal-fired power stations. The long-term pollution caused by these power stations are a burden on the healthcare system. The air pollution that the power stations cause results in the death of approximately 5000 people a year and leads to almost 3000 early births of babies each year. Almost 27,000 cases of bronchitis in children are caused by the pollution from the power plants every year, and as many as 1.48 million working days are lost each year due to the population being ill.

Air pollution from these power stations leads to heart and lung disease and increases the risk of many other types of diseases. The government has found that almost half of the €10.9 billion spent on health care each year is spent on people living near the coal power stations

Source A

REFLECTION

How did you find creating a spider diagram that links different concepts that have shared impacts? Did you remember seeing a similar diagram in Unit 4 and use it as a guide in your thought process? Do you find the creation of this type of image helps you to remember new information?

TASK 2: Study Source A

SAMPLE

a In pairs, read through the article on the health hazards caused by coal power stations. Then discuss if you think moving towards cleaner energy sources would be better for:

i The health of the population

ii The health of the environment

iii The stability of the economy.

b Write a 200 to 300-word letter to the government motivating for a change in the source of energy in the country.

Managing energy supplies

There are a number of strategies and techniques that we can use to manage energy to improve sustainability. Some important strategies include energy conservation, increasing energy efficiency, changing the energy mix, and developing political policies. Being more conscious of our energy use reduces the pressure on having to provide a limitless supply of energy.

When evaluating the sustainability of an energy source, we need to consider how countries, companies or people are working towards cleaner energy solutions while reducing their energy consumption. When energy projects have sustainable goals, they plan to meet very specific targets, all of which work towards a cleaner and more efficient energy solution designed to supply energy while protecting the environment. These sustainable goals should include long term strategies such as plans and policies to meet energy needs, as well as techniques that can be used to make those strategies successful. Techniques include factors such as the education of the population and the development of technology that can help to conserve energy and increase energy efficiency.

Energy conservation

Energy conservation involves using less energy through the practice of simply using less energy! At an individual level, this involves ideas like turning off lights when not in a room, unplugging appliances when not in use, and walking or cycling instead of driving. However, it also includes ideas such as the insulation of houses to control inside temperatures and reduce the need for heating or cooling of buildings.

Increased energy efficiency

Improving energy efficiency is the process of using less energy to get the same task done. This is done through energy conservation and the development of technology that uses less energy. For example, washing machines, fridges, lights or vehicles that use less energy but do the same job. In addition, new computerised smart homes or systems are able to lower energy consumption by identifying areas where equipment can be switched off.

The energy mix

Increasing the variety of energy sources a country relies upon improves the potential to supply energy to the population. When a country or region is reliant on only one

energy source, there is the risk of that energy supply being cut off. For example, if a country only uses coal to produce electricity, then if there is a problem with the coal supply, electricity production will stop. However, if the mix included solar, wind, and HEP, then when the coal supply was limited, other energy sources could be used.

Political policies

Governments need to consider a wide range of areas when looking at how to change to more sustainable energy and green energy policies. They need to consider the current energy requirements of the country, including seasonal variations in energy consumption, and determine which energy sources are likely to supply energy that meets their demand. For example, is there sufficient space and wind for the installation of wind turbines, or is there an opportunity to rely more on solar energy?

The success of implementing strategies and techniques in a country depends on a wide variety of factors. Firstly, the economic and political stability of a country, which helps to ensure that finances are available to change from one energy source to another or use a mix of energy sources. In addition, there needs to be the political willingness to develop energy strategies and then put them in place. Secondly the country may not have access to a wide variety of energy sources, making the change from one to another challenging.

a Which non-renewable resource showed the largest increase between 1965 and 2022?

b Which renewable energy resource was already being used in 1965?

c In 1965, the total estimated energy consumption per capita (per person) was 12975 kWh, while in 2022 it was 20889 kWh.

i Calculate the difference in energy consumption per capita between 1965 and 2022.

ii Suggest why energy consumption per capita has increased so significantly between 1965 and 2022.

d Describe and explain the change in energy mix between 1965 and 2022.

Source B : Global energy consumption per capita by resource in 1965 and 2022

TASK 3: Study Source B

10.8 Detailed specific example: Qatar

The State of Qatar is a country in the Middle East. It occupies the north-eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula and borders Saudi Arabia in the south. The capital is Doha, home to over 80% of the country’s population. The country is a high-income economy, with the fourth-highest GDP per capita in the world. Qatar has the world’s third largest reserves of natural gas and oil and is the world’s largest exporter of liquefied natural gas. With such a large non-renewable energy source, the country has good energy security with 100% of the population having access to electricity. However, with long-term global climate stability becoming so important, there has been an increased interest in focusing on reducing reliance on fossil fuels.

a Which region/country receives the second largest supply of natural gas (LNG) from Qatar?

b Calculate the difference between the region that receives the largest percentage of LNG from Qatar and the region that receives the lowest.

c Suggest how the export of large volumes of LNG to other parts of the world helps to support the Qatari economy.

Qatar supplies 33% of the worlds LNG

Qatar’s LNG deliveries

Source A : Supply of liquefied natural gas to global markets from Qatar in 2023

TASK 1: Study Source A

The impacts of different energy sources

All energy sources have both positive and negative impacts, as discussed in Topic 10.6 and 10.7:

Environmental damage during mining; lowers air quality during burning

Environmental harm during drilling and transport; high level of carbon emissions; contributes to climate change, air, water and soil pollution

Mining of materials and emissions during production of solar panels and turbines have environmental impacts

Greenhouse gas emissions during combustion

Source B : The impacts of different energy sources

Lower levels of carbon emissions during combusion than oil

Employment opportunities, improved standard of living

Zero carbon emissions during energy production

•Reduced waste in waste dumps

•Reduces ground and surface water contamination

•Reduces risk of spread of disease

•Creates jobs, develops the economy

Qatar’s energy mix and strategies for managing energy supply

Qatar has historically relied on fossil fuels as an energy source due to its large reserves of natural gas and oil. However, in more recent years, Qatar has been developing a policy that will move them away from a reliance on fossil fuels to a wider range of energy sources. The long-term strategy aims to have 20% of their electricity supplied by solar energy by 2030.

Source C : The change in energy mix in Qatar between 2010 and 2022 in terawatt-hours (TWh)

TASK 2: Study Source C

a Which year had the highest energy production by natural gas?

b Calculate the:

i difference in energy produced by natural gas between 2010 and 2022

ii percentage change in energy produced by natural gas between 2010 and 2022

c Describe the change in energy produced by solar power between 2010 and 2022.

d Using the information from the detailed specific example, explain why the change observed in energy produced by solar energy occurred.

Qatar currently has a high economic dependency on oil and natural gas. The Qatari government has recently developed a number of strategies to reduce its dependence on oil. This has stemmed from an increased awareness of the links between fossil fuels and climate change, the instability of oil prices, and the increased development of global renewable energy technologies, which put the Qatari economy at risk due to other countries’ potential decreased reliance on oil.

Reducing greenhouse gases

In August 2021, Qatar Energy (Qatar’s national oil company) announced its intent to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 25% by 2030. They have allocated $170 million towards this effort. Qatar is also working towards developing electric transport options. To help support this goal, a plan is in place to install 1000 electric car charging stations by 2025. This will reduce harmful emissions that current fossil fuel reliant transport causes.

Energy efficiency

In 2021, Qatar’s National Program for Conservation and Energy Efficiency saved the country approximately $1.1 billion. This initiative aims to minimise the amount of wasted energy and increase the amount of renewable energy used. For example, through regulations, the programme has focused on techniques that ensure equipment that uses energy is doing so with minimal or no wasted energy. Smart meters also play an important role in the efforts to reduce energy consumption. Customers are able to monitor their usage and reduce it as they see consumption increasing.

Solar energy

Qatar has set the strategic goal of attaining 20% of its energy from solar power by 2030. Its desert climate with high rates of sunshine all year round, coupled with flat land and the financial means to install solar fields, means that it is possible for Qatar to benefit from concentrated solar power.

Manufacturing company Qatar Solar Technologies built a solar plant in 2017, with a total capacity of 1.1 megawatt hours (MWh). This energy source can power approximately 20,000 homes. In 2022, companies Total and Marubeni built a solar plant that produces 800 MWhs of electricity from 1.8 million solar panels. Two further solar power plants, which will generate 880 MWhs of electricity, are expected to be operational by the end of 2024.

Energy from waste

Waste-to-energy is where waste is turned into energy, such as electricity, heat, or transport fuels. The most common way of achieving this is through burning waste. The waste is burned at high temperatures and the heat is used to boil water. This creates steam that turns turbines, generating electricity. This energy source has two sustainability benefits: it reduces the waste going to landfill and it generates energy.

In Qatar, it is estimated that each individual generates 2kg of waste every day, so this can all be used to generate power. Qatar was the first Gulf country to implement a waste-to-energy programme, generating over 50 MWh of electricity every day from its Domestic Solid Waste Management Centre. They have set their target at producing 100 MWh–150MWh of electricity from waste every day by 2040.

Wind energy

Qatar has the potential for wind energy along the planned Qatar-Bahrain Causeway, where wind speeds are moderate and suited to small wind turbine generators for remote locations. Qatar is also exploring the potential of large-scale wind farm projects in the country. It has investigated the setup of a wind farm project with significant capacity in the north of the country.

To date, the strategies and techniques that Qatar has implemented have shown success in that they have developed and continue to develop a better energy mix. They have successfully used ways to reduce energy waste, and to develop functioning solar and energy-from-waste plants to supply clean energy to homes. With their goals set as far out as 2040, the success of long-term strategies are yet to be determined. However, the changes made to date indicate that they will continue to work towards fulfilling their long-term plans.

REFLECTION

D : Energy used per capita in Qatar between 1965 and 2022

TASK 3: Study Source D

a State which years had the highest energy use per person in Qatar.

b Describe the change in energy usage per person in Qatar between 1965 and 2022.

c In pairs, suggest three reasons for the changes you observed in energy usage per person over time in Qatar between 1965 and 2022.

Did you manage to connect the information found in Source D with what you’ve learned about Qatar’s longterm energy security and energy mix plans? What do you think you can do to improve your ability to connect information learned in one place with information learned in another? Think about using flow diagrams, summaries or discussing the information with a classmate to look for connections.

IMPROVE THIS ANSWER

A country in Europe plans to increase their energy supply to meet future demand. They have three different plans:

a Build a new coal power station

b Import large amounts of gas from the Middle East.

c Increase the amount of wind generators offshore and in the mountains.

Choose plan a, b or c that you think will be the most sustainable in the future. Explain your choice referring to the plan you have selected and the plans you have decided against.

Plan chosen: c Increase the amount of wind generators offshore and in the mountains.

The use of renewable energy has a number of advantages in the long term 1 These include the fact that renewable energy does not release carbon emissions into the atmosphere, helping in the fight against climate change due to increasing greenhouse gases. 2 Running costs will be low once the wind turbines are installed. 3 However, 4 the costs of producing and installing all the turbines will be high and will require investment. 5 In addition, some people may object to the wind turbines because they can be ugly and make a noise.

6 Building more coal power stations is a bad idea because of the air pollution that causes illness and death in the population, reducing the ability of people to work and slowing the economy. 7

8 Therefore, looking at the other two options, wind energy is a better option for long-term energy supply.

1 The student refers to the long-term production of energy that the question is asking them to discuss.

2 and 3 The student has talked about a positive impact of the wind turbines.

4 The use of a word like ‘however’, ‘in contrast’, or ‘ in comparison to’ indicate to the reader that the student is thinking about a counter argument which is important when developing an evaluation.

5 The student has also discussed the negative points of wind turbines, showing that they have thought about both sides of the argument.

Now, write an improved response to this answer using the guidance above.

6 The student has discussed plan one but has only discussed the negatives. They need to look for the counter argument to balance their argument —for example, the cost of energy due to possibly already having coal power stations.

7 The student has not discussed the second plan, which is importing natural gas from the Middle East. The question asks for reference to both of the other plans. The student needs to develop this, considering both the positive and negative impacts.

8 The conclusion needs to be developed more fully once the student has written about both the positive and negative impacts of both of the other plans.

SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST

SAMPLE

After studying this unit, think about how confident you are with the different topics. This will help you to find any gaps in your knowledge and learn more effectively.

I can: Needs more work Getting there Ready to move on

describe how our food and energy is produced outline global patterns of food and energy supply and demand explain the reasons for and the impacts of the globalisation of food and energy supplies

describe the role of food aid and the sustainable management of food supply in failing soils give the impacts of energy production from different energy sources

evaluate the sustainable management of energy supplies