Designing city ground: The role of the pavement in creating the image of the city by danae Esparza

Programa de Doctorado Espacio Público y Regeneración Urbana. Arte, Teoría, Conservación del Patrimonio Facultat de Belles Arts Universitat de Barcelona

Designing city ground: the role of the pavement in creating the image of the city Danae Esparza Lozano Supervisor and tutor: Dr. Antoni Remesar Dissertation submitted for the defense of doctoral degree july 2014

Apoyo de la Agència de Gestió d’Ajuts Universitaris i de Recerca (FI-DGR 2011) de la Generalitat de Catalunya

Abstract This work directs a watchful gaze at the ground. Regardless of its functional qualities of strength, durability or comfort for the movement, in this research we try to prove how important pavement is for the city and how it can influence the creation of the image of the city, concept developed by Kevin Lynch and recently revisited by Pedro Brandão. Five million square meters of panot cover the ground of Barcelona. 2,617 linear km. of granite kerbstones, 18.056 pedestrians’ fords and 25.909 standard fords for vehicles complete the urbanization of the city, demonstrating the potential role of the primary elements of urbanization in the creation of identity of the city, since they define a common and identifiable landscape for both citizens and visitors. Moreover, as we note in Barcelona, paving ad hoc interventions that aim to monumentalize specific locations, or to recreate a unique atmosphere or to evoke the memory of the city, demonstrate the potential of the pavement in building strategies for the identity of places. The ground plane is involved, thus, in enhancing the imageability of these places, by creating iconic images spread by the media in order to promote the international competitiveness of the city, and, it is therefore not surprising that the great international events will be key moments in the transformation of the ground of cities. Finally, the analysis of Lisbon shows us another example in which the pavement is part of the image of the city. Black and white stones, the portuguese calçada, have embellished public spaces of Lisbon since mid-nineteenth century. However, degradation of construction system that has spread across the entire city, presents difficulties for pedestrian accessibility demonstrating its potential obsolescence, despite having qualities associated with the latest ideas about urban sustainability. Latest interventions in this city seek to reinvent the pavement without losing the colour and brightness of the soil so characteristic of the city. However the degradation of the construction system throughout the entire city, presents difficulties for pedestrian accessibility demonstrating its potential obsolescence, despite this constructive system presents qualities associated with the latest ideas about urban sustainability. Latest operations undertaken in Lisbon intend to reinvent the pavement without losing the colour and brightness of the ground so characteristic of the city’s image. Keywords: Pavement, public space, city image, urbanization, panot, portuguese calçada

Table of contents Abstract 0. Introduction 1. Context and terminology Context of the thesis Objective of the research Methodology Theoretical framework The image of the city Ground floor design in public space [Visual dimension] [Functional dimension] Structure of the thesis 1 I THE GROUND DESIGN FROM A HISTORIC PERSPECTIVE The road system of the Roman Empire Healthiness in the streets of Rome Renaissance ornamental paving Comfort circulation of the Court during the Ancient Regime Urban embellishment of Paris in the Enlightenment The transformation of Paris of Haussmann 2 I EVOLUTION OF THE GROUND DESIGN IN BARCELONA 2.1 The beginning of pavement systematization The cobblestone plan for the inner city The cobblestone raffle Montjuïc stone Paving in the municipal ordinances The cobblestone model of Daniel Francesc Molina The proposal of Ildefons Cerdà for the paving of the Eixample 2.2 The debate around the most appropriate paving for the city Searching for alternatives to the Montjuïc stone Broken stone road surfaces or macadam Construction of cobblestone for pedestrian crossings Great expectations on the wooden paving First proposals of wooden paving in Barcelona First tests of wooden cobbles in Ronda de Sant Pere Testing the Dehaynin system in Las Ramblas and Pelai The fabulous business of the wooden blocks: the controversy outbreak Two new tests of the wooden cobbles: Elli and Forment The failure of the wooden blocks The first applications of the Portland cement in the streets of the city Artificial granitic sidewalks Iron slag cobbles The introduction of asphalt First asphalt experiences in Barcelona Test in Ronda Sant Pere from the Sociedad General de Asfaltos de Portugal Asfaltos Maestu Company Candemberg system Asphalt irrigation over macadam Three tests of Portuguese mosaic The patent of Portuguese mosaic The expiration of the invention patent Portuguese mosaic around the “Cinc d’Oros” Paving around the Fuente de Diana Tests without conclusions: the need of the underground adaptation

3 I THE GENERAL PROJECT FOR THE URBANIZATION FOR THE EIXAMPLE The underground sanitation project, Pere Garcia i Fària 1891 The general plan of cobblestone and macadam, José Bofill 1891 Legislative framework: the Expansion Law of 1982 The General urbanization project, José Mª Jordan 1893 Can fanga: the unfortunate condition of the sidewalks The Eixample sidewalks transformation project Hydraulic mosaic companies and Portland tiles The polemic construction of sidewalks down to the kerb The uncertain beginning of the flower shaped “panot”: la Casa Ametller 4 I A “DECENT LOOK” FOR THE CITY BECAUSE OF THE 1929 EXHIBITION The pavement improvement to be adjusted to the needs of the vehicles Construction plans for the Exhibition Tests to improve the disadvantages of the macadam The prolongation of the Diagonal The progressive disappearance of cobblestones The mosaic concrete in Avenida República Argentina The beginning of the traffic signals to organize the circulation The pavements for the pedestrian traffic The introduction of concrete and asphalt in the pedestrian walkways The floor in the Mediterranean garden: Forestier and Rubió i Tudurí The Central Avenue of the Exhibition The urbanization of gardens and squares: Rubió i Tudurí and Cabestany The urbanization and embellishment of the Plaza de Catalunya Restoration of Parque de la Ciutadella Jardines Reina Victoria 5 I THE PAVING OPERATIONS IN THE INNER REFURBISHMENT Adolf Florensa and the restoration of the Gothic quarter The role of the pavement in the historic city: the creation of ambient The removal of the sidewalks in the streets of the historic centre Interventions in the historic centre: Florensa, Rubió i Tudurí y Duran i Sanpere Artistic pavement interventions The noble pavement in Plaza Sant Jaume The monumental paving project for Plaza Catalunya 6 I THE SEARCH FOR A SPECIAL PAVING FOR LA “GRAN BARCELONA” Paving constructions in “la Barcelona de Porcioles” The experiences of Avenida Roma and Passeig Marítim Pedestrianize of historic city, Boqueria street The introduction of Vibrazo, Escofet 1960 The colorfull Ramblas and its origin: Lisboa, Copacabana, Alicante, Barcelona Gaudí tiles in Paseo de Gràcia The extensive use of Vibrazo Relieve “Paving” the spaces between buildings Participation of artists in the design of the floor 7 I DESIGN OF THE GROUND IN THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE DEMOCRATIC BARCELONA Unitary image of the city Common elements of urbanization Integration of accessibility criteria Quality and attention in the bonding Utilization of natural stone The evolution of artificial material Ceramic cobbles Precast concrete New challenges / opportunities for the city Parque del Vall d’Hebron 1992 The Fórum 2004 area Service galleries in Vila Olímpica and 22@ district Singularization of ground design Toward a greener city Panot turned into an icon of the city

8 I CALร ADA-MOSAIC IN LISBON Central responsibilities vs local responsibilities Calรงada-mosaic origins Exportation of Portuguese stones Expressive evolution Consequences of the generalization of the system New opportunities CONCLUSIONS

Introduction The objective of this study is to demonstrate the role of the pavement in the configuration of the image of the city. Starting from the analysis of the city ground design in Barcelona, it provides knowledge on the most relevant floors of the city, analysing the evolution of the pavement´s role throughout history and identifying relationships with different paving systems used in other cities, in particular the city of Lisbon. In the year 1859, Francesc Daniel Molina projected the cobblestone plan for the inner city at the same time that the City approved the Plan for Barcelona’s Reform and Extension from Ildefons Cerdá, in which the engineer made a proposal for the street pavings. From that moment, a large number of trials begun in Barcelona, in order to find a suitable material for the paving of the new streets of the Eixample, where the increasing circulation and the vast expanse of the streets exceeded the possibilities of the Montjuïc stone, usual material in the paving of the walled city. In addition to trials of stones of greater hardness, as the "artificial stone" based on concrete and asphalt, the City Council channeled it´s expectations on the wood pavements, with the aim to achieve the good results shown in European capitals such as Paris and London, looking to reduce the dust and the noise of the streets. Wooden pavements were used in the surrounding streets from where the 1888 Universal Exhibition.was hosted. This research highlights the 1895 construction trial of the “paved mosaic”, a paving system used widely in the streets of Lisbon and patented in Spain, for commercial exploitation, by a Portuguese merchant. In Barcelona, this paving was experience on one side of the Paseo Sant Joan, adapting the decorative elements characteristic of the Calçada portuguesa to the symbolism of the city as well as the construction requirements imposed by the municipal architect Pere Falqués. Even after the expiration of its patent, the City of Barcelona used this pavement to complete the Paseo Sant Joan and in two, more places: to embellish the "Cinc d'Oros” and in the Diana fountain opposite to the Ritz Hotel. Municipal engineer, José Maria Jordan, allegeed the impossibility of obtaining conclusions of the numerous tests due to the large number of variables in play for each material, in addition to the lack of a general project of sanitation, as well as simultaneous implementations of electrical lighting services and the installation of the tramway network. Following the adoption of the project of sanitation designed by Pere García i Faria, Jordan designed the general urbanization plan for the Eixample according to the Expansion Law of 1892. However, neither the sewer system nor the street paving of the Eixample were installed as the Expansion Law dictated. Owners were the ones to initiate the paving in front of their buildings in a strip of 2,5 meters, usually with natural stone or cement. Because of these deficiencies in the urbanization, the streets of the Eixample were practicly impossible to circulate on rainy days due to the amount of mud: it offered also an image that was considered unfit for the new and wide streets of the city, and was subject of mochery

receiving the name of “Can Fanga” (mud city). In order to improve the healthiness of the streets of the Eixample, and, at the same time, to decorate its sidewalks, in 1906 the Eixample Commission approves a project to transform sidewalks which stipulates the obligation of neighbours to contribute in the expenditure of the paving of sidewalks up to the curb and the standardization of hydraulic cement tiles for its construction. These tiles, produced by the manufacturers of hydraulic mosaics for interiors, are slowly introduced into the sidewalks of the Eixample area due to the controversy concerning the financing of works, by breaking the Expansion Law, and to critics who reject the measure to guarantee the health of the trees. The desire “to tidy up” the city on the celebration of the Montjuïc Exhibition1, associated with the increase in automobile traffic in the 1920's, promotes the creation of grants for owners to speed up the paving of sidewalks, at the time that continues the search for a floor suitable for final paving of Eixample’s roads. For this reason, the Pavements Departement of the city, directed by José Cabestany, undertakes a large number of trials to improve the properties of the macadam by tar surface coatings or by penetration of concrete. The passage of Forestier in Barcelona, invited to design the Park of Montjuïc, shows great sensitivity in the design of gardens, not only in terms of plant species, but also in the treatment of horizontal surfaces as part of the global project of garden. The combination of ceramic materials, natural stone and artificial stone used in the design of the gardens’ floor meets the needs of drainage of the roads, the tradition of materials and comfort of movement, and together with the vegetation, walls, stairs or furniture is involved in the creation of different environments in the garden. This attention to detail of the pavement had continuity in the parks and gardens designed by Nicolau Marià Rubió i Tudurí, as well as in the new garden squares opened in the monumental area of the historic city with the collaboration between Adolf Florensa and Duran i Sanpere. Florensa work continues from the Service for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments, with interventions in the old town that recovers Montjuïc stone for the creation of a consistent atmosphere in the new Gothic quarter "created" around the Cathedral to promote the attraction of tourism. Florensa takes place, in addition, a series of interventions of paving to monumentalize emblematic areas of the city such as Plaza Catalunya or Plaza Sant Jaume, resorting to classical compositions to enhance the nobility and importance of both places. From the use of the terrazzo in the 1960's, the material properties are used to introduce colour and ornamentation in the grey postwar Barcelona, providing an alternative to the generic pavement, then considered vulgar and monotonous. These pavements are used in the singular spaces designed by Adolf Florensa, in collaboration with the company Escofet, introducing motifs that refer, in some cases, the drawings created by the calçada portuguesa, as it is the case of the paving of Las Ramblas. After the restoration of the democratic City Council in 1979, a process of transformation of the city begins, giving priority to public spaces and facilities. This policy emphasizes the treatment of the horizontal plane that, in general, tends towards the homogenization of the plane of the floor in order to ensure a level of common accessibility throughout the city based on the standardization of urban elements, including the pavement, kerbs, fords and urban furniture. The 1992 Olympics are a good excuse for the transformation of large urban areas, where it is possible to test new materials and build underground service galleries in areas of new development as the Olympic village to ensure better preservation of the pavement. Since 1999, Urban projects, following the decentralization of competences of the city 1

A long process that began in 1905 and end in 1929, with the effective holding of the exhibition

planning to the Districts of the city, result in a return to the singling out of the pavements as each District faces the pedestrianization of their historical centres with own solutions that accentuate the identity of each neighbourhood, and allows external municipal services architects greater flexibility in the use of singular pavements. In addition, it is perceived a paradigm shift that leaves behind the hard places to reverse the trend and restore the "green" space in the streets and squares of the city; initiating, in a timely manner, the trial of pavements that introduce environmental concerns, including draining pavements and photocatalytic materials. After 120 years since the beginning of its use, hydraulic cement tiles that began its journey in the Eixample around 1895, known with the name of "panot", covering nearly five million square meters of sidewalks in the city, have become a true icon of the landscape of Barcelona. Similarly to what happens in Barcelona, the "Calçada mosaic" of Lisbon, used extensively since its standardization in 1895 for the ornamentation of the main streets and places in that city walk, became, in a few years, an element of identity which, in addition, it has been exported to other cities, including Barcelona, as well as the former Portuguese colonies. The calçada portuguesa in Lisbon expands in the urbanization of the new districts using mosaics, only, on the significance of specific spaces thanks to the collaboration of architects and artists. However, as this system spreads, the quality of its construction is also reduced at the time that increase the number of operators involved in the underground of the city, producing negative consequences in the perception of security and comfort in the network of pedestrian mobility. The most recent interventions introduce alternative pavements to the calçada portuguesa that maintain the use of the limestone, in the form of stone slab, prefabricated artificial materials or constructed on-site, in order to maintain the characteristic colour and brightness of the city. However, more and more reviews alert about the disappearance of this indentitary pavement.

Conclusions In order to demonstrate the importance of the pavement in the configuration of the city image we have conducted an investigation of the most significant interventions in the paving of the public space in Barcelona, taking as starting point the year of approval of the Plan for the Reform and Extension of the city, until to the present day. In parallel, we have developed a working case study on the experience of Lisbon in the use of the calçada portuguesa and the consequences of its generalization in the accessibility of the city. This research reveals new information about the paving of Barcelona around specific issues where a lack of information had been detected. Among them the most prominent are the following: • Contrary to what is known so far, we demonstrate that Barcelona is the first city in the world to experience the calçada portuguesa outside the borders of Portugal, specifically in the Salón de Sant Joan in 1895. Curiously, it is a patent what gives the clue to realize it. •It provides new and original information about the origin of the slabs of hydraulic cement (panots). They were used generically in the paving of the city sidewalks and standardized in 1906. •It is systematized the work that Adolf Florensa developed in the artistic pavements in the decade of the 1960s. •The method utilized allows us to write a systematic history of the evolution of the paving in Barcelona. Through primary sources consultation from the municipal archives and the specialised press we have been able to acknowledge interventions and opinions of technicians about the municipal paving. This information has been contrasted with the periodical publications in order to get a broader picture of the public opinion of the city ground of the city. Finally, the research has also been contrasted in the photographic archives of Barcelona and Lisbon, allowing us to locate photographs to confirm the role of the pavement in the image of the city. The paving that currently covers the city's streets is the result of the evolution of various functions that the city ground design carries out in the public space. It is subject to a number of functional requirements to ensure the mobility of the various modes of transportation, the rain conduction to the collecting points, as well as the demands of the underground infrastructure networks. The paving conditions of the city has been a matter of discussion, both in the specialized publications as in the daily press. An issue that daily affects the life of all citizens: in their pedestrian journeys, by car or public transport and specially because it requires high municipal investment. We remind that the numerous critics about the condition of the city ground of the Eixample district in the early 20th century developed the popular nickname of "Can Fanga" (mud city) to the city of Barcelona, still used today.

The public opinion in the media expressed in some cases by well-known and respected writers, architects and historians of the city has affected the evolution of the paving by addressing strong criticism and demanding to the municipal governments in order to improve the city ground towards better hygiene, health, comfort, safety and beauty of the city. In this regard, we recall the articles published by the writer Noel Clarasó claiming again and again to the City Council cheerfulness and colour in the pavement of Las Ramblas, pointing out the example of the Paseo in Alicante, which in no doubt was taken into account by Adolf Florensa in his pavement design for the Barcelona promenade. As expected, the opinions gathered in the press often defend contrary positions. This is the case of the extension of the paving in the entire width of the sidewalks of the Eixample: defended by those who wanted to put an end to the dust and mud of the city and criticized by those who were concerned about the trees’ health and defended a better contact with nature and soil. After a period of homogenization of the city ground and urbanization of a series of “hard squares”, this debate is reopened in Barcelona with the urban and design proposals that review the relationship between the city and the green areas, projecting green spaces for the reuse of railroad tracks (Sants and Sagrera), or demolishing road infrastructures for the creation of urban parks (Les Glòries). After a long period of paving and waterproofing of the city ground, Barcelona starts a series of proposals to "depave" 2 the asphalted city, through projects that point out opportunities to increase the permeability of the city ground and propose a more sustainable rainwater management. These projects should take into account the experiences of the city in order not to repeat the same mistakes and the name of "Can Fanga" be again justified.

Fig. 1> The construction of Plaza de la Glòries begins in 2014 the demolition of road infrastructure inaugurated in 1992

Fig. 2> Agence Ter & Ana Coello de Llobet. 1st prize competition Plaza de les Glòries

This research has allowed us to know the work of the municipal technicians involved in the improvement of the paving of the city, in some cases valued for their contributions in other areas but not for their contributions in the paving of the city. These contributions have been carried out based on the work of former professionals. Among these professionals, we have pointed out the work of the architect Francesc Daniel Molina in the systematization of the paving of the inner city, with the creation in 1859 of a cobblestone plan that standardizes the urbanization of the streets. A long history of trials will be necessary before being able to develop a project of urbanization. In the case of the Eixample, it was supervised between 1882 and 1902 by José María Jordan, author of the general plan for the urbanization of the Eixample in 1893. Circulation growth and the development of new materials require of the experimentation 2

Name of an American organization that has the mission of removing the asphalt unused areas for the creation of green spaces (see Depave) 11

of asphalt and concrete pavements in order to find the final paving of the streets of the Eixample. The Chief of technical services, José Cabestany, developed this experimentation between 1922 and 1930. An important novelty of this thesis is the demonstration of how the teachings of the French landscape architect J.C.N Forestier are present in the city ground design, with an increased interest towards the paving project to improve the comfort of the garden, the worked drainage surface and the creation of multiples atmospheres in the garden through the combination of different materials. These aspects were developed by his disciple, the architect Nicolau Maria Rubió i Tudurí, in collaboration with the architect Adolf Florensa, in the design of urban gardens, as well as in the new opened green spaces next to the monuments of the ancient city. The present thesis highlights the figure of this architect in the intentional use of the pavement in the creation of a specific image of the city. Florensa’s interventions in the historic centre restoration explored the possibilities of pavement´s adaptation to the context in order to create a coherent environment at the "Gothic quarter", through the recovery of paving plans used in the city in the mid-nineteenth century. In addition, he introduces in the city the monumental paving for emblematic places, throughout the adaptation of classic references, and the use of colourful flooring to beautify the grey post-war period. This care in the design of the city ground has its continuity in the interventions started by the architect Oriol Bohigas that extend to the entire territory of the city a uniform quality of the city ground. These interventions generalize the universal accessibility standards, with great attention to every detail and the bonding/assembly of the pavement in coherence with the environment. It tends to reduce the variety of pavements in order to facilitate the maintenance tasks and the use of natural stones and standard prefabricated materials. In addition to the experiences made in the city itself, these professionals have had in mind the experiences of other European cities when introducing new materials, although, as we have seen, trials in other cities are no guarantee of success. An example of this are the wooden pavements, the first trials of asphalt and the construction of the Portuguese mosaic. Even if they succeeded in other cities, its implementation in Barcelona was not possible, due to, among other causes, the type of workmanship, the proximity or remoteness of the materials and the particular climatic conditions in Barcelona, conditions that determine the paving of a city. Besides the functional requirements, we have confirmed how the evolution of pavements also has been marked by the visual qualities offered by the materials and subject, therefore, to the aesthetic trends of each moment and the evolution of the materials industry. In Barcelona, hydraulic cement tiles arise in a context of industrial production at the beginning of the 20th century (cement companies, hydraulic mosaic tiles companies, etc.) and were valued, not only for its functional qualities, but also for the capacity of ornamentation, combining tiles of different drawings for the decoration of the streets of the Eixample, perceived at that moment as monotonous. Subsequently, the technical advancements of the cement industry allowed, in the decades between 1960-1980, the use of other materials (Vibrazo) as it happened in the 1990s with the development of mechanized stone cutting techniques and the reduction of transport costs, which enabled a certain return to natural stone. The possibilities of ornamentation, colour and texture of the materials are determining visual qualities of the pavement that play a fundamental role in the image of the city. These visual qualities are involved in the process of identity of the city, as long as there is a common treatment of public space that allows these self-features to identify and to differentiate the city from other cities. In the case of Barcelona, the extensively use of panot tiles, especially after the

standardization of the common elements of urbanization since the 1990s, formed by the kerb, the ford granite pieces for pedestrian V-120 and vehicles, characterize the landscape of the city and make it identifiable: recognizable among other cities, both by its citizens and visitors.

Fig. 3> The sidewalk paved with panot tiles containing the drawing of a flower enables us to identify that it is a street in Barcelona

Fig. 4> The mosaic that covers the floor of the promenade enables us to identify the city and even the particular location: Avenida da Liberdade in Lisbon.

The thesis has demonstrated the role played by municipal regulations in the homogenization of the urban landscape, through the stipulation of urbanization conditions of public spaces 3 . Determining unitarian criteria that standardize the construction of sidewalks and floors of the city. In Barcelona, the Eixample Committee´s approved stipulation for the construction of sidewalks between 1906-1908, that restricted the use of materials and the obligation of paving until the kerb, produced a characterization of the landscape of the city. More recently, it is determinant, the Town Hall Statement of 1991, concerning the installation of urban elements in public spaces that stipulates the obligation to use only the City Council approved ones, including pavements, and defines their arrangement style in the street. In addition to ensuring accessible urban routes, this Statement has played a fundamental role in the creation of an image of Barcelona as a city of design and which has resulted in several international awards. The case of Barcelona offers, in addition, an example of the importance of the pavement in the image of the city, since the panot cement tile that contains the drawing of a flower has become an icon of the city, recognized and valued by its citizens. Among the panots used in the paving of the city, the flower is the least functional due to the difficulty of cutting and the accumulation of water in the bas-relief. Nevertheless, the uniqueness of this concrete flower brings to the sidewalks of the city a special touch that characterizes the landscape. Although Josep Puig i Cadafalch has usually been pointed as the author of its design, in this research we have not found sufficient information to affirm this relationship, apart from its similarity with the paving used by the architect in the lobby of the Casa Amatller. However, what is absolutely justified is the use of this tile as a symbol of modernism, because it is a sample of the integration of the applied arts to the architectural project that goes beyond the building limits in order to ornament it´s front sidewalks. The various initiatives that use this tile as representative icon of the city's landscape, either 3

As Sabaté 1999 states concerning the building Ordinances from the Eixample 13

by the City Council, designers, artists, or private citizens, it demonstrates the ability that the pavement has to identify the streets of the city and, by extension, to identify the city. Similar cases happen in other cities, such Lisbon, as we have seen, or Bilbao, where the use of a hydraulic mosaic with a pattern very similar to the flower of Barcelona is also considered an icon of the city4.

Fig. 5> Unlike in Barcelona, Bilbao tiles measure 60 cm. and contain 4 flowers, with grooves to reduce the accumulation of water

Fig. 6> This tile is present in numerous souvenirs of the city and has also become the image used for the blue kerchief of the festivities

Possibilities of the pavement, in relation to its role in the identification of places, are utilised by the Administration and architects in the creation of place identity5. In this sense, the experience of Barcelona has shown examples where the paving project takes part in the monumentalization of a place, either by their ability to recreate a historic environment or by the creation of iconic images. The clearest example we have discussed, where paving takes part in the monumentalization of a particular space, is the design of the PlaĂ§a Sant Jaume`s city ground, where Florensa uses the classic models of noble character, reflected in the views of the ideal Renaissance city. These classic references are used internationally to reinforce the noble and monumental character of certain places. Forestier, French landscape architect, who in Barcelona intervenes in the parks, where he combines the sandy ground with the ceramic flooring and natural stone, in his works in La Habana by 1926-1930, he adapts to the vernacular materials6 and uses the classic references for paving some of the most significant spaces, where the floor design has an important role.

Fig. 7> Capitolio, La Habana

Fig. 8> University stairway, La Habana

Fig. 9> Paseo del Prado, La Habana

The city ground design is also used in the significance of a place, through the creation of atmosphere in accordance with the environment, with the aim of providing coherence to the city ground regarding a certain atmosphere. Hence the importance of the work of Adolf Florensa who, from 1929 throughout his position, helped to recreate an invented "Gothic 4

As we saw in Chapter 3, Bilbao hydraulic mosaic factories stand out in the manufacture of tiles for the sidewalks pavements, as it was shown at the Universal Exhibition at Barcelona in 1888, so it seems likely that there is a relationship between both tiles. The tiles used in Bilbao have 60 centimeters side and are made up of four flowers, they include grooves around the flower to prevent the accumulation of rainwater, more appropriate to the climate of the city. The sources describe multiple origins and point out that its use started around 1920. 5 BrandĂŁo (2011, p.53) called them "Strategies of the public space for the identity of places" 6 Terrazos made in situ with cement and aggregates of marble, a technique used in the Cuban capital in the 1920's (In Cuevas Toraya 1992) 14

quarter", removing asphalt and cement tiles to restore the cobbled stone of Montjuïc and recovering the street sections used in the middle of the 19th century. The recovery of this stone, that was dismissed at the end of the 19th century due to its little resistance and to the large amount of dust that it produced, demonstrates the prioritization of the aesthetic aspects above the functional ones. The recovery of traditional materials and models allow the creation of a harmonious, effective and credible image, not only for tourists, but also for locals. Ultimately, Florensa designed a coherent monumental environment, where the pavement is involved in the creation of an iconic image, easy to communicate and able to promote the attraction of tourism, with the intention that tourism intervenes economically in the conservation of the heritage of the city and the recovery of the historic neighborhoods. Passing years have demonstrated that the image of the Gothic quarter works. However, the place has been reduced solely to an image, an image of mass consumption, an obligatory point in the tourist guides, a place to remember through photographs. A scenario where, nearly, there is no room for the citizen...

Fig. 10> The creation of the Gothic quarter includes, besides the restoration of the architectonic patrimony, the recreation of a coherent environment.

Fig. 12> Florensa’s project for the Catalunya Plaza recovers the former projects by Rovira i Trias and Puig i Cadafalch

Fig. 11> Asphalt, tiles and cobblestone disappear from the Gothic quarter in order to recover the Montjuic stone used during the mid-nineteenth century

Fig. 13> Turned into a symbol for the 15M movement identity in Barcelona, after the demonstration that took place in that same square in 2011

In contrast to the Gothic quarter, citizenship has recently created a new icon that demonstrates the possibilities of the pavement in the identity of the place. Movement citizen 15-M, after demonstrations in Plaza Catalunya on May 15th 2011, creates an image that identifies the citizen movement of Barcelona using the form of the Plaza Catalunya’s paving, designed by Adolf Florensa in 1959 to monumentalise the centre of the square. The drawing Florensa did, now of the citizen's movement, remembers former projects of Rovira 15

i Trias and Puig i Cadafalch for the connection of the ancient city with the Eixample. The role of the pavement in the creation of identity, can also be seen in those interventions where the architects used the ground level to link the area with the historical memory through paving which allude to the planimetry of the place or evoke memorable aspects of its history. In Barcelona we have identified in the paving of the Fossar de les Moreres the will of the architect Carme Fiol to give meaning to the place, where the victims of the battle of 1714 were buried, throughout a brick surface that evokes the shedded blood. A few meters from there, the pavement around the new El Born Cultural Centre, reproduces streets and buildings existing before the war of succession, through changes in materials and textures. Interventions by artists in the city ground design show us the possibilities of the pavement towards the creation of meanings, with interventions that characterize a place, although in Barcelona we have only focused on the first two floor public art works, designed by Joan Miró and Joan Josep Therrats. These artistic interventions provide a new view to the city ground surface that besides creating meaning, are able to innovate both in the use of materials and with visual and perceptual experience of space.

Fig. 14> Mario Merz, Crescendo appare. Moll de la Barceloneta, Barcelona 1992 (Web Art Públic)

Fig. 15> Lothar Baumgarten. Plaça Pau Vila, Barcelona 1992 (Web Art Públic)

Fig. 16> Francesc Torres, Línia de la Verneda Rambla Guipúscoa, Barcelona 1999 (Web Art Públic)

The collaboration of artists and architects in the urban design of Lisbon has resulted in experiences that re-evaluate the expressive-artistic boundaries of the urban paving. The creative possibilities offered by this constructive system have favoured the participation of artists in urban design and especially in the city ground design, providing experiences of great value to the identity of the city. Among the artists involved in Lisbon, we highlight the figure of Eduardo Nery, who was able to create optical illusions, labyrinths, shadows, or the architectural projection of its context, and without a doubt, exceed the expectations of any municipal technician and are involved in the creation of meanings. However, despite this interesting collaboration, the survival of this paving system arises limits on maintenance and the accessibility of the city, that must certainly be addressed from an interdisciplinary perspective with the contributions of artists. In the same way that the image of the city is involved in the creation of city brand (Brandão 2011, p. 129), the experience of Barcelona shows us that since the end of the 19th century the city values the importance of the paving in the competitiveness of the city at an international level. In this sense, Barcelona takes the most of the events that placed the city in the international spotlight to promote improvements in paving its streets, such as in the Exhibition of 1888 utilizing wood to pave the streets around the Ciutadella Park; or the improvements plan promoted for the Exhibition of 1929 for the implementation of the new systems of asphalt on the streets of the Eixample. The celebration of the XXXV Eucharistic Congress in 1952 initiated the removal of sidewalks for the creation of a "Gothic" atmosphere in the Cathedral quarter. The celebration of the first National Congress of

Urbanism in 1959, allowed a kind of paradigm shift in the special pavings, throughout the use of new materials which opened the door to experimentation with forms and colours in the city ground surfaces, been one of the examples the Plaza Catalunya project. The big event of the 1992 Olympics offers the city the opportunity to demonstrate the efforts of transformation that have taken place in the public space, where the pavement has a neutral, but fundamental role on the quality of this internationally recognized design of the public space. Finally, the Universal Forum of Cultures held in 2004 focuses on the Star System architects that not only had the freedom of transforming the city's skyline, but also to create unique floorings. This research shows the importance of documenting the experiences of paving. Practical knowledge gained from the experience as well as its mistakes must be documented to be able to progress and, above all, not to repeat the same errors. So that this acquired knowledge stays along with the municipal technicians replacements, it should be based on documented and conclusive data regarding the constructed floors. Like this, it would be subsequently transmitted among professionals involved in the city´s public space design and construction. In addition to the documentation of current interventions, the analysis of past interventions allows us to demonstrate the value of certain floors, by its ability to adapt to the functional or aesthetic needs and, at the same time, get to know the paving tradition of the city. This is useful essentially to preserve the identity of the city and avoid the “urbanalización” (Muñoz 2008) of the floor through the creation of aseptic spaces that could be found in any city in the world. The Barcelona experience has shown the need to differentiate between the floors of a generic nature and those that are of a special character, without denying the role of both in the global city image as well as in the identity of specific places. As we have seen, in periods of economic bonanza or international events, large investments are made in new materials and unique flooring, however, after an event and in periods of economic crisis, the maintenance of singular surfaces can overflow the possibilities of the Administration at the expense of the pavements. Therefore, the revision of the boundaries of these two categories should take into account not only the impact on the image of the city, but also, the long term consequences that are generated in the maintenance of the city. The coexistence of various types of pavement raises a fundamental issue of urban management: How to maintain them in a practical and economic way? The experience of Barcelona has shown us some answers, including: • the systematization of solutions through the standardization of the elements of urbanization, among them the group formed the fords, kerb, etc. through a selection of urban elements of compliance, subject to a regulation from City Council; • reduction of models used in the city. Barcelona City Council decides in 2000 to reduce the use of “panot” to two unique models, retracting three of them to facilitate the tasks of maintenance; • instead of using unique flooring, tend towards standard materials (concrete prefabricated, ceramic pavers) and natural stones, working the singularity through bonding/assembly, joints, combination of materials, etc. Due to the multitude of requirements that the city ground must fulfil, its design requires an interdisciplinary approach. Over the years, Barcelona’s paving projects have been including greater interactions between the municipal departments, not longer being an exclusive decision by the municipal architect or engineer of mobility, as it happened at the end of the 19th century. A greater transversality with the Parks and Gardens Service, Department for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments, the Municipal Institute of History and paving companies or associations for the promotion of accessibility in the public space, among others, has been progressively included.

We have also seen how commercial associations have intervened on the city ground surface in order to improve the image of streets and the citizens’ comfort in order to benefit the stores. It is the case of the funding, by traders, from the paving of the Boqueria street in 1966, the Pelai street and the Paseo de Gràcia in 1973. In the case of Lisbon since the 19th century, it has been usual, the construction of calçadas-mosaic on the sidewalk in front of certain establishments with advertising purposes, as a shop owners initiative. In addition to technicians and traders associations, we point here the need to integrate the participation of residents and citizens in the paving of the public space, as it is not only a technical matter but also one that affects the use of the space and intervenes in the identity of the place. In Barcelona there are very few initiatives in this direction. Nevertheless, we can highlight the paving built on the Rambla de la Mina, the result of a participation process by the residents of the neighbourhood and coordinated by the Centre de Recerca Polis, where the will of the citizens to bring colour to the new axis of the district was resolved (Centre de Recerca Polis 2007).

Fig. 17> The pavement of the Rambla de la Mina is the result of a process of participation with neighbours in 2007, coordinated by the Polis CR

Fig. 18> Neighbors stopped the asphalting works in 2013 in Rambla del Poblenou, dissatisfied with changes

The controversy that arose in 2013 by the residents’ refusal of the asphalting of the Rambla del Poblenou in Barcelona shows the need to create channels for participation with neighbours to make them partakers of these decisions. In October 2012, the works of asphalting the Rambla del Poblenou begun replacing the slabs from the central promenade for black asphalt. Because of this transformation that completely changed the landscape of the Rambla, the neighborhood residents paralyzed in April 2013 the continuation of the asphalting works that consisted in the reform of the roundabouts and the ending of the Rambla. Since then it begun a process of participation organized for the "Fem Rambla" platform composed of organizations from the neighborhood that negotiated with the City Council the way in which the paving works of the Rambla should continue. In addition, a process of debate and participation for future interventions in the district has been established. We must also address the necessary collaboration between the City Administrations and the paving materials manufacturing companies. As we have seen, the innovations undertaken by the companies have had an impact on the design of the city ground, with the introduction of new materials and technologies in the streets paving. Among these companies, this research has highlighted the role of the company Escofet. It developed the urban paving since the end of the 19th century with the manufacture of the hydraulic cement tiles and the introduction in the 1960's of the terrazzo’s pavements, used to pave emblematic sites of the city such as Las Ramblas or Paseo de Gràcia. In the 1980s, it developed tiles that approximate to textures and colours from natural stones with the aim of adapting to the sobriety of that period’s interventions. The city management should be aware that widespread paving of a city could not be restricted to a single company possessing a patent of exclusivity - as various European directives determine -. The existence of several companies is more competitive and ensures the endure of the paving 18

manufacture. A historic case that exemplifies this problem is the trial of the Portuguese mosaic in Barcelona, whose patent might well be one of the conditions restricting its implementation in the city during its period of validity. Only with the integration of all of these factors, it will be possible to meet the challenges posed by the future needs of the public space. There is still much to be done: improving the conditions of universal accessibility, providing access to the underground infrastructure or the use of sustainable materials. The quality public space, today one of the objectives of Barcelona, should not only take into account paving aspects related with its functionality or it aesthetics. The water cycle management is a fundamental challenge for a city that has impermeabilized itself, in part due to the historical paving processes. In this sense, the pros and cons of the debate initiated in Lisbon about the calçada could be illustrative. In this research, by coming across historical documentation, technical documentation and information about the state of public opinion (graphic, photographic and textual) we believe that we have demonstrated the importance that the pavement has in the creation of the image of the city. The extensive and repetitive use of a type of paving (cement, calçada) generates a common image for the whole citizenship that has a huge impact on the overall image of the city. The intensive and punctual use of paving helps the production of specific identities of different order: City (e.g. Plaza de Catalunya, Plaza Sant Jaume, Calçadamosaic...), also district / neighbourhood as shown in many interventions in the districts of Barcelona. The balance between extension (which implies standardization) and intensity (which implies the uniqueness of the pavement) is one of the challenges for the future of urban design, in parallel to the search for the implementation of new pavement systems that connect with this other dimension of the image of the city: sustainability.