Senior Project by danicaliongson

Climate Change in the Philippines:

BUILDING RESILIENCE TO TYPHOONS BY DANICA LIONGSON Senior Project 2015

Climate Change in the Philippines:

BUILDING RESILIENCE TO TYPHOONS BY DANICA LIONGSON Senior Project 2015

Climate Change in the Philippines: Building Resilience to Typhoons By Danica Liongson Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE University of California, Davis

Approved by N. CLAIRE NAPAWAN Senior Project Chair

Approved by DAVID DE LA PEĂ&#x2018;A Senior Project Advisor

ABSTRACT The Philippines is a tropical archipelago in Southeast Asia that is vulnerable to natural disasters, especially typhoons. The imminent effects of climate change are predicted to intensify these powerful storms and negatively impact vulnerable populations. International support is crucial in strengthening this developing nation’s ability to respond to future disturbances. This research project responds to these circumstances through the design and development of a network of disaster response base camps in Los Baños, Philippines. Literature review and case studies identified social and spatial considerations for increased resilience to the effects of typhoons—mainly heavy downpours and high-speed winds—in the Philippines. This knowledge informed a framework for building resilience that can be used for replication. This project explores a site analysis and design of one of the disaster response base camps. Implementing a combination of appropriate resilient strategies when designing landscapes can better equip society as it adapts to a future filled with uncertainty.

CONTENTS vii_ x_

A B S T R ACT F IGU R E S

01_ CH A PT E R O N E : I N TRODUCTI ON The Risk of Natural Disaster Vulnerability and Resilience About This Research Project 05_ CH A PT E R T WO : B AC KG ROUND Disaster Risk in the Philippines Typhoons Effect of Climate Change on Typhoons Disaster Response Response to Climate Change Resilience and Natural Disasters Taking Action Case Studies > Sidwell Friends Middle School, Washington, D.C. > Helge책 River Catchment, Sweden > Green School, Bali, Indonesia 19_ CH A PT E R T H R E E : Spatial Context Physical Setting Social Context

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CONTE XT

CONTENTS 33_ CH A PT E R FO U R : S ITE ANALY S I S Site of Interest Risk Assessment Site Inventory Existing Conditions and Opportunities Spatial Analysis > Water > Wind Typhoon Effects Materiality Analysis 47_ CH A PT E R F IV E : D E S I G N Design Framework Design Process Design Concepts

P ROCE SS

53_ CH A PT E R S I X : D E S I G N S OLUTI ONS Disaster Response Network Magnetic Hill Base Camp Design Features 67_ CH A PT E R 71_ WO R K S

S E V E N : CONCLUS I ON

CIT E D

FIGURES

Inside Front and Back Covers

Chapter Three: Context

Compilation of typhoon paths through Southeast Asia from 1980-2005,

Divider:

Wikimedia

Figure 3-1: Compilation of 2014 typhoon paths through Southeast Asia,

Photograph of rice paddies Wikimedia

Chapter One: Introduction

Figure 3-2: Regional map of Laguna watershed, author and Google Earth

Divider:

Figure 3-3: Table of vulnerability assessment in Laguna Province, author

Photograph of mountain ranges

Figure 1-1: Aerial of Typhoon Haiyan Figure 1-2: Photograph of people rallying

adopted from Manila Observatory Figure 3-4: Local map of flood risk in Los Baños, author and Google Earth, adopted from PAGASA

Chapter Two: Background

Figure 3-5: Aerial imagery of Mount Makiling, author and Google Earth

Divider:

Figure 3-6: Diagram of Mount Makiling, author and Google Earth

Photograph of destruction after Typhoon Haiyan

Figure 2-1: Diagram of disasters in the Philippines, author Figure 2-2: Diagram of Philippine Area of Responsibility, author adopted from PAGASA Figure 2-3: Table of typhoon categories, author adopted from PAGASA Figure 2-4: Diagram of climate change effects on typhoons, The Noun Project Figure 2-5: Diagram of disaster risk management, UNISDR & UNDP Figure 2-6: Diagram of climate change response, UNISDR & UNDP Figure 2-7: Photograph of destruction after Typhoon Haiyan Figure 2-8: Photograph of Sidwell Middle School, Sidwell Middle School Figure 2-9: Photograph of Helgeå wetland Figure 2-10: Photograph of the Green School in Bali Figure 2-11: Photograph of aid distribution after Typhoon Haiyan

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and Deviantart Figure 3-7: Table of politics of risk, author adopted from Bankoff, Republic of the Philippines, and Rappler Figure 3-8: Disaster management efforts in Los Baños by location, author

FIGURES

Chapter Four: Site Analysis

Chapter Six: Design Solutions

Divider:

Photograph of a lake

Photograph of bamboo tunnel

Figure 4-1: Risk assessment matrix of Los Ba単os and Magnetic Hill, author

Figure 6-1: Diagram of network of disaster response base camps, author

Figure 4-2: Site context map, author and Google Earth, adopted from PAGASA

Figure 6-2: Photograph of wayfinding obelisk

Figure 4-3: Aerial of Magnetic Hill, author and Google Earth

Figure 6-3: Photograph of indicator tablet, The New York Times

Figure 4-4: Site analysis of Magnetic Hill, author

Figure 6-4: Map of disaster response network, author and Google Earth

Figure 4-5: Diagram of water flow in Magnetic Hill, author

Figure 6-5: Diagrammatic site design plan for Magnetic Hill, author

Figure 4-6: Diagram of wind direction in Magnetic Hill, author

Figure 6-6: Diagram of individual base camp in network, author

Figure 4-7: Photographs of typhoon effects on Magnetic Hill,

Figure 6-7: Photo collage of site in normal conditions, author

author and Magnetic Hill Foundation Figure 4-8: Materiality analysis, author and Magnetic Hill Foundation

Figure 6-8: Diagram of site programming, author Figure 6-9: Section of design features for water, author Figure 6-10: Diagram of water flow parti, author

Chapter Five: Design Process

Figure 6-11: Section of design feature for wind, author

Divider:

Figure 6-12: Diagram of structural considerations for wind,

Photograph of rock formations

Figure 5-1: Diagram of resilient design concepts, author

author adopted from Dutta

Figure 5-2: Resilience Design Framework, author

Figure 6-13: Photo collage of site in storm conditions, author

Figure 5-3: Resilience Design Process, author

Figure 6-14: Photo collage of site in post-storm conditions, author Chapter Seven: Conclusion

Divider:

Photograph of flower growing from concrete

Figure 7-1: Photo collage of site, author

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am especially grateful for the valuable and constructive suggestions given by N. Claire Napawan, David de la Peña, and Cory Parker during the senior project process. Their willingness to give their time so generously is very much appreciated. I would like to express gratitude to Emma Agudo of the Magnetic Hill Foundation and Antonia Yulo Loyzaga of the Manila Observatory for providing invaluable knowledge as a resource. Their vision for the future of the Philippines is inspiring. Funding given by the UC Davis Landscape Architecture program was a great help in the development of this research work. Special thanks to my parents and Stephen McKone for their support and motivation as I pursued my studies at UC Davis. Finally, I would like to thank my classmates—especially Taylor Baer, Carmen Godinez, Vanvisa Musigapala, and Mayton Xu—for their helpful feedback and encouragement during our time together in the program.

Chapter One

INTRODUCTION

“WE SHAPE THE WORLD BY THE QUESTIONS WE ASK.”

JOHN WHEELER Physicist

THE RISK OF NATURAL DISASTERS Over 70% of the world’s natural disasters occur in East Asia and climate change is predicted to exacerbate the frequency, duration, and magnitude of extreme weather events (World Bank, 2014). Developing nations, such as the Philippines, are already susceptible to ordinary climatic instability, let alone more extreme instances (UNISDR & UNDP, 2012). An unforeseen event—such as a heavy rainstorm or an extended drought—can trigger a collapse into a weakened state with limited ability to recover (Folke, 2003). Even a minor incident can be debilitating (Rockström, 2003). These countries are the most vulnerable to the imminent effects of climate change, yet they remain the least equipped to absorb the impacts. As significant contributors to the causes of this global phenomenon, developed nations in the international community share a responsibility to support developing countries in Southeast Asia in order to strengthen the latter’s ability to respond to climate change (Bates, Kundzewicz, Wu, & Palutikof, 2008; Yusuf, 2009).

Figure 1-1 Typhoon Haiyan approaching the Philippines

VULNERABILITY AND RESILIENCE It is generally accepted that vulnerability resides on the opposite end of the spectrum from resilience (C. Folke, 2003; Rockström, 2003). “Vulnerability” is considered the susceptibility of a group, or groups, of people to external negative impacts. In particular, these stresses are due to changing environmental and/ or social conditions combined with a lack of capacity to adapt to these new changes. “Resilience” is described as a system’s ability to initially absorb these external disturbances. Then, through “adaptive capacity,” the system can learn how to adapt to the new circumstances in order to persevere despite the changes. The general concept of “resilience” also encompasses “ecological resilience” and “social resilience,” depending on whether the system in question refers to human populations or natural ecosystems. In short, reducing vulnerability to climate change necessitates building resilience through adaptive solutions (Adger, 2000, 2006; Carpenter, Walker, Anderies, & Abel, 2001; Carl Folke, 2006, Carl Folke, Colding, & Berkes, 2003; Holling, 1973; Walker, 2004). 3

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Figure 1-2 People rallying to inspire resilience in Typhoon Haiyan survivors

ABOUT THIS RESEARCH PROJECT The existing literature has investigated the relationship between vulnerability and resilience, the interworking components of resilience and adaptive capacity, as well as the roles of all three intertwined topics in a larger socio-ecological system (Adger, 2000, 2006; Carpenter et al., 2001; Carl Folke, 2006; Carl Folk et al., 2003; Holling, 1973; Walker, 2004). There is also an extensive and continually growing body of knowledge on vulnerability to natural disasters, disaster risk reduction, climate change effects, and adaptations to climate change (Beck et

“What are the spatial and social considerations for building resilience to typhoons?”

al., 2012; “Disaster Risk Reduction & Climate Change Adaptation in the Pacific: An Institutional and Policy Analysis,” ; UNDP, 2012; Vergano, 2013; Whiteman, 2014). What remains to be explored is the intersection of disaster risk management and climate change adaptations in relation to resilience (UNDP, 2012). To address this knowledge gap, this project will focus on the question: What are the spatial and social considerations for building resilience to typhoons? The general goal of the project will be to design and develop a combination of appropriate social and ecological strategies for increased resilience to the effects of typhoons—heavy downpours and high-speed winds—in the Philippines. It is expected that this information will be beneficial for local landowners, policymakers in the region, as well as international benefactors and supporters in order to better target climate change efforts (Yusuf, 2009). The project objectives are (1) analyze characteristics of resilient systems and identify strategies through literature review and case studies, (2) produce a framework for replication and/or upscaling in similar settings in the Philippines, and (3) explore a site design that demonstrates the approaches best-suited for the chosen setting on Magnetic Hill in Los Baños, Philippines.

INTRODUCTION

Chapter Two

BACKGROUND

“CHANGE TO THE SEA AROUND US, CHANGE TO THE ATMOSPHERE ABOVE, LEADING IN TURN TO CHANGE IN THE WORLD’S CLIMATE… COULD ALTER THE WAY WE LIVE IN THE MOST FUNDAMENTAL WAY OF ALL.”

MARGARET THATCHER Former Primer Minister of the United Kingdom

DISASTER RISK IN THE PHILIPPINES Disasters occur when natural hazards, exposure, and vulnerability intersect (Abano, 2014). Of the world’s most disaster-stricken nations, the Philippines ranks third (Beck et al., 2012). The country’s susceptibility is due to a variety of factors. Its location on the western edge of the Pacific Ocean places it in a hotspot for natural disasters such as typhoons, flooding, and sea level rise (Beck et al., 2012). The deep, warm seawater provides energy for cyclones and the Philippines’ island state with over 7,100 islands increases its exposure to flooding and sea level rise (Beck et al., 2012; Whiteman, 2014). The archipelago is also within the Pacific Ring of Fire, increasing its contact with earthquakes and tsunamis from tectonic activity (Vergano, 2013). In addition, the Philippines’ geologic formation features steep terrain that is at risk for landslides, especially in areas that have undergone deforestation (Vergano, 2013). Land use and development are also often located in exposed areas (Abano, 2014). In fact, 60% of the nation’s population lives in a coastal zone, further increasing the potential for experiencing impacts of natural disasters (Vergano, 2013). Lastly, political and socioeconomic factors contribute to the Philippines’ risk to natural disasters (Beck et al., 2012). Poor or marginalized populations often inhabit coastal zones in unsound structures and lack the access to resources or knowledge to prepare for and recover from disasters (Abano, 2014; Vergano, 2013). In short, the combination of external climatic events and human actions is what transforms a natural hazard into a deadly natural disaster (Abano, 2014; Beck et al., 2012).

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MEAN SEA TEMPERATURE 28째 C 82째 F

typhoons

f lo o d i n g

vo lca n i c e r u p t i o n s

landslides

earthquakes

tsunamis

Typhoon Yolanda/Haiyan 2013

Tropical Storm Washi 2011

Mount Pinatubo 1991

Southern Leyte Landslide 2006

Luzon Earthquake 1990

Mindoro Tsunami 1994

Figure 2-1 The Philippines has a unique set of conditions that makes it disaster prone

BACKGROUND

TYPHOONS Typhoons are a natural disaster to which the Philippines is especially vulnerable. These powerful storms—also known as “hurricanes” or “cyclones” in other affected areas around the world—can inflict widespread damage in a short period of time (PAGASA; Than, 2013). The storms bring heavy downpours and sustained winds during the monsoon season. The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) is the national entity responsible for monitoring climatic events, providing weather forecasts, and issuing warnings if necessary (PAGASA). PAGASA tracks storm movement in the Pacific Ocean, but only releases a national bulletin if the activity enters the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR). PAGASA will continually publish reports for the entire duration of the storm’s location in the PAR. The bulletins are released every six hours if the storm is expected to make landfall. The frequency decreases to every 12 hours if the storm will not move over land. Once a storm is predicted to make landfall, a Public Storm Warning Signal is raised in the

Figure 2-2 Philippine Area of Responsibility

area that is soon to be affected. The signal typically conveys when the storm is expected to hit, usually in the next 12-36 hours, as well as the intensity of the storm. There are five different levels of storm intensity, as determined by wind speeds. The range goes from a tropical depression to a tropical storm, then a severe tropical storm to a typhoon. The most severe level is a super typhoon. In general, 20 storms enter the Philippine Area of Responsibility every year, but only approximately 6 to 9 make landfall (PAGASA).

PAGASA’s Tropical cyclone intensity scale CATE G O RY

Super Typhoon

S U S TA I N ED W I N D S

> — 119 Knots > — 220 km/h

Typhoon

64–119 Knots 18–220 km/h

Severe Tropical Storm

48–63 Knots 89-117 km/h

Tropical Storm

34-47 Knots 62-88 km/h

Tropical Depression

< — 33 Knots < — 61 km/h

Figure 2-3 Typhoon Categories

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EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON TYPHOONS The climate of any given area is described as the weather conditions over a long period time. The process of climate change describes a large-scale, longg lo b a l wa r m i n g

As global temperatures increase, the extra heat is stored in the ocean.

term trend of altered weather conditions in many places over a sustained time frame. As such, it was previously assumed that no single weather event could be attributed to climate change. The general consensus was that evidence of climate change had to be viewed in hindsight, where the single weather event was taken into account with the context of many others over different areas and times. This assumption is currently being challenged as research is conducted and new information is released. The scientific community is growing to accept the notion that it is indeed possible to cite human-induced climate change as a direct cause of an individual extreme weather event. However, even with this newfound discovery, it is important to remember that climate change will not always be

warmer sea levels

Storms gather their energy from the warmth of the ocean.

the cause of every extreme natural disaster (Levin, 2012; Vidal & Carrington, 2013). With all this in mind, climate change is fostering conditions for a future with increased risk. There are many predicted outcomes, all with varying degrees of certainty, but all scenarios are possible. These include increased potential for weather-related natural disasters, a wetter monsoon season in Asia, and more intense storms (Riebeek, 2005). Climate change is expected to affect the formation of the typhoons that afflict the Philippines. As global temperatures warm as a result of greenhouse gas emissions, the extra heat is stored in the ocean. As a result, mean ocean

effect on disasters

The intensity and severity of storms increases.

temperature will increase. Typhoons acquire their energy from the sea’s warmth, forming above waters with surface temperatures of at least 28°C (82°F). The already warm ocean water surrounding the Philippines—on average already at around 28°C (82°F)—would increase in warmth, further feeding the typhoon’s intensity (Vergano, 2013). In fact, a recent study reported that for every 1°C (1.8°F) increase in global temperatures, the number of Hurricane Katrina magnitude storm events will increase two- to seven-fold (Grinsted, Moore, &

Figure 2-4 Effect of Climate Change on Typhoons

Jevrejeva, 2013). BACKGROUND

DISASTER RESPONSE Disaster risk management strives to reduce risks before an event happens and manage the aftermath after an event occurs (UNISDR & UNDP, 2012). Disaster Risk Reduction focuses on reducing disaster risks by evaluating that caused the risk in the first place. It comprises preventative measures, as well as methods for mitigation and adaptation. Disaster Management concentrates on the disaster preparedness, relief, and recovery (UNISDR & UNDP, 2012). In the Philippines, the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC) is a government agency responsible for creating a framework management plan for the country. This plan is intended to serve as a guide for preparing and recovering from disasters. The council has over 40 member agencies, each with their own area of expertise (Bueza, 2014; NDRRMC). Critiques of NDRRMC are that the large number of council members makes it difficult to identify the hierarchy of authority in a disaster and that the councilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s role is not pro-active enough (Rufo, 2013). There is a growing movement of support for a greater concentration on disaster risk reductionâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;specifically in identifying and addressing vulnerabilitiesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;rather than just disaster response (Abano, 2014; Rufo, 2013).

Figure 2-5 Disaster Risk Management

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1. Reduce vulnerability 2. Enhance resilience of communities common goals. Even though response to

climate change and disaster risk management can be considered two different processes, they both have similar objectives.

RESPONSE TO CLIMATE CHANGE In the past, typhoons were considered climatic weather events and disaster management was sufficient to cope with their effects. Climate change, however, is invalidating this approach. There is now a need to address not only just the disaster event itself, but also the cause. This falls into the category of climate change response. Actions that address climate change may overlap with disaster response measures, but the two processes have a few distinct differences. Disaster management focuses on all types of natural disasters, not just weather and

C L I M AT E C HA N GE

climatic ones that are affected by climate change. Incidentally, climate change

▼ CONSEQUENCES

▼

G REEN H O U S E GA S EM I SS I O N S

response looks at not only weather and climate-centric disasters, but also long-

▼ GR E E N HO U S E GA S E M I SS I O N S

term risks and system dynamics of climate change. Climate change response actions are typically through mitigation or adaptation measures (UNISDR &

▼ ▼

M I T I GAT I O N

RESPONSES

▼

Figure 2-6 Responding to Climate Change

A DA P TAT IO N

UNDP). While these steps are similar to disaster risk reduction, in the context of climate change response, mitigation aims to lower or eliminate greenhouse gas emissions that lead to climate change impacts. In contrast, climate change adaptations hone in on modifications in the natural and anthropogenic realms in order to better cope with the results of climate change. In summary, while there are some similarities between disaster management and climate change response, each approach accomplishes its goals through different timelines, frameworks, and methods (UNISDR & UNDP). When examining the effect of climate change on natural disasters in the Philippines, the “disaster risk reduction” and “climate change adaptation” aspects are most relevant. There are many facets to the root cause of natural hazards becoming natural disasters and neither method can fully address these issues at hand on its own. The answer is to not to split attention, but to simultaneously concentrate on both processes. However, these two approaches will need to work together to achieve their common goals of reducing vulnerability and building resilience for society as a whole (UNISDR & UNDP). BACKGROUND

RESILIENCE AND NATURAL DISASTERS The word “resilience” in daily vernacular refers to the ability to bend and spring back without breaking. This simple word takes on a whole new meaning when framed in context with extreme weather events and the destruction left in the aftermath of particularly severe disasters. Building resilience to typhoons in the Philippines means reaching a state that prevents damage before it happens and recovers quickly when it does (RISE:NYC). It is important to note that resiliency does not necessarily mean returning back to a system’s original state, especially if that former state is what caused the collapse in the first place (Abano, 2014; Bankoff & Hilhorst, 2009). When possible, there is a need to “build back better” than before (Abano, 2014).

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RESILIENCE the ability to persevere in the face of adversity

BACKGROUND

CASE STUDIES The following case studies show multiple strategies in use around the world. There are several generalizable features that can be distilled from these examples. In terms of social measures, all projects flourished under the guidance of a steward. Other key components were providing access to education and increasing knowledge about freshwater dynamics and the environment in general. There was a wide range of strategies for spatial measures, from building wetlands and ponds to using recycled materials and incorporating cutting edge green technologies. Overall, these case studies bridge the gap between theory and practice by showing what is not only feasible, but also successful in the landscape. Sidwell Friends Middle School Washington, D.C.

Sidwell Friends School is a Quaker day school in Washington, D.C. that shapes the minds of students from pre-kindergarten to 12th grade. Influenced by Quaker values, Sidwell Friends celebrates environmental stewardship. This commitment was demonstrated in the 10-week renovation of their middle school building in 2006. The process transformed the original 55-year-old building into a LEED Platinum site that displays an integrated water-management system in action. The keystone of the project is a constructed wetland in the courtyard that processes wastewater. Kitchen and bathroom wastewater settle in tanks. Solids are collected there and the rest flows into the wetland. Careful selection of plantings decreases the need for irrigation, maintains local biodiversity, and connects species between neighboring habitats. Green roofs filter rainwater and create habitat for beneficial bird and insect species. In addition, recycled resources were used for building materials. Passive solar design, such as solar panels and shade from trees, increases energy efficiency. The redesign also improves the well-being of the students through providing a place where they can learn and play. Overall, the school hopes visitors will see the investment in green technologies not as frivolous spending, but as an investment in the future (LAF; Malin, 2007; School; â&#x20AC;&#x153;Sidwell Friends Middle School,â&#x20AC;? 2007; USGBC, 2007).

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Helgeå River Catchment Sweden

Green School, Bali Indonesia

Kristianstad is a town in southern Sweden surrounded by wetlands within

The Green School is a sustainably minded community that opened in 2007 in

the Helgeå River catchment area. The wetlands have historically provided

Sibang Kaja Village, Bali, Indonesia. The educational center teaches international

ecosystem services for the townspeople, from flood control and biodiversity to

students and local members of the community how to become stewards of

a natural defense barrier and recreation opportunities. There was a perceived

social sustainability through hands-on approaches. The school is situated on

threat of deteriorating natural and cultural values of this wetland as a result

eight hectares in a jungle along the Ayung River. Multi-use community spaces,

of urbanization and growing population numbers. Management efforts were

classrooms, recreation fields, rice fields, fish ponds, gardens, a guest villa, and an

uncoordinated and established institutions were slow to respond to growing

auditorium are all found on the campus. Buildings feature open walls and ceilings

concerns. As a result, an individual volunteered to create a stewardship for

and nearly all structures are built solely of Indonesian bamboo, grass, and mud.

the lower part of the river catchment. The steward took on a critical role by

Innovative technologies are also employed at the Green School. A hydro-powered

articulating goals and vision for management, collecting and discovering

vortex generator produces energy from water flows. A bamboo sawdust burner

information about freshwater dynamics and ecosystems, rallying support, and

heats water for cooking and personal uses. Solar power, natural air conditioning,

connecting stakeholders at a diverse range of levels. The efforts of the steward

and bio-intensive farming also contribute to the school’s goal of environmentally

resulted in more active management of the wetlands that avoided a decline

friendly practices. This case study is of interest for its pedagogy, innovative

in the landscape’s ability to provide ecosystem services. Although the Helgeå

technologies, as well as its involvement of the community. Local craftsmen were

River catchment is still vulnerable to development and other threats, its overall

employed to design and build the school. Event programming, such as Earth

social-ecological resilience was significantly increased. Through adaptive co-

Day and assemblies, invites local vendors to share their livelihoods and sell their

management, the landscape and the people of Kristianstad are now better

wares. Building materials are locally sourced. The layering of these elements

equipped to handle future disturbances (C. Folke, 2003; Olsson, Folke, & Hahn,

creates a place that achieves the center’s goal of uplifting the human spirit while

2004).

creating global citizens to support the environment (AKDN, 2010; James, 2010; USGBC, 2012; Yung). BACKGROUND

RESILIENCE IN ACTION A shift in mindset from controlling to coping is necessary in order to lessen people’s vulnerability to climate-induced hydrological extremes. Previously there was a perception that nature could be subdued and disciplined through “command-and-control” strategies. Eliminating or controlling change, however, should not be the objective. With resilience in mind, the better approach is to accept that unpredictability and surprise are conventional rather than atypical. The more resilient a system is, the better its ability to adapt to change and tap into new opportunities for progress and innovation (C. Folke, 2003; Rockström, 2003).

water demand. Alleviating this human pressure on the ecosystem will aid its rebounding in the wake of climatic disturbances (Che, Zhao, Yang, Li, & Shi, 2014; Falk, 2013; C. Folke, 2003; Kundzewicz et al., 2002; Rockström, 2003; Vojinovic & Van Teeffelen, 2007). Resilience, however, is a multi-prong approach. There are also methods for increasing social resilience. Collecting data, documenting current conditions, monitoring for changes, and forecasting future disturbances will expand the knowledge base on which society can rely. “Learn by doing” approaches can

Resilient people and places can be identified by a few key characteristics. They possess the ability to adapt and learn from past mistakes. Strength is derived from resources that are readily available and feasible to obtain. Flexibility is crucial. This means being multi-functional and having one person or one feature able to accomplish a range of goals. Linked closely to this is redundancy. The means having “back-up” plans and features to provide support if another one breaks down. Diversity is also important. If all the strategies had the same weakness, then the likelihood of collapse would increase. Diversity minimizes widespread failures. All these qualities work together to create systems that foster improved well-being, strong economies, and a thriving environment (100ResilientCities; C. Folke, 2003; Kundzewicz et al., 2002; Rockström, 2003). Regarding landscape features, there are structural measures that can be built, such as dams, dykes, and reservoirs. On a smaller scale, there is low-impact infrastructure like terraces, swales, constructed wetlands, storage tanks, and detention ponds. Physical structures like these enable rainwater and runoff harvesting: capturing water when it is plentiful during heavy rainfalls and saving it for dry spells. Enhancement of water storage is beneficial, but will only remain that way if it is used in conjunction with non-structural approaches. Practicing conservation, recycling water for irrigation, re-thinking allocation of water, 17

and introducing rationing schemes or tariffs are all possible ways to regulate

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test current assumptions and build up new information about freshwater dynamics and ecosystems. Enabling people’s access to this can empower them to take action in well-informed ways. Institutions should also develop legal and policy frameworks. This includes considering hydrologic extremes in zoning, establishing warning and evacuation protocols, and planning in advance the steps for relief and post-event recovery. Additionally, expanding the decision-making process to include a wider range of stakeholders from local to international, increasing the community’s participation in the process, promoting local selforganization, supporting collaboration, and sharing experiences between groups will also build social resilience. Lastly, it is important to identify leaders who can be stewards in this constantly evolving process (C. Folke, 2003; Kundzewicz et al., 2002). There is no single “fail-safe” design that can solve all the challenges a community and place faces. Rather than implementing an all-or-nothing form of protection against typhoons, it is better to create a “safe-fail” system that minimizes fallout when it does succumb to its shortcomings. Both spatial and social resiliency can provide the framework to create these “safety nets”—or “resilience parachutes” as one publication quipped—to support coping mechanisms when mitigation and adaptation actions fall short (C. Folke, 2003; Kundzewicz et al., 2002; Rockström, 2003).

Figure 2-11 Relief goods are distributed after Typhoon Haiyan BACKGROUND

Chapter Three

CONTEXT

“OUR HUMAN COMPASSION BINDS US THE ONE TO THE OTHER— NOT IN PITY OR PATRONIZINGLY, BUT AS HUMAN BEINGS WHO HAVE LEARNT HOW TO TURN OUR COMMON SUFFERING INTO HOPE FOR THE FUTURE.” NELSON MANDELA Revolutionary, Philanthropist, and former President of South Africa

SPATIAL CONTEXT Located in the tropics, the climate of the Philippines fluctuates between wet and dry seasons. On average, the country is inundated with 1000 to 4000 mm (approximately 40 to 150 inches) of rainfall each year. The water from rainfall events is collected in the natural topography of lakes, rivers, and streams. Typhoons contribute to majority of the annual rainfall over short periods of time. This trend is predicted to intensify with climate change. In the future, the number of rainfall events may decrease, but the total amount of rainfall will likely remain the same. This means that large amounts of precipitation will be occurring in short periods of time, inundating areas more intensely. In addition to more intense precipitation, climate change may contribute to the severity of wind speeds that typhoons bring. These two changing phenomena will have variable outcomes in different areas of the Philippines depending on local factors and context (Bates et al., 2008).

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Figure 3-1 Compilation of 2014 typhoon paths through Southeast Asia CONTEXT

Figure 3-2 On a regional level, the watershed in Laguna Province drains into Laguna de Bay

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PHYSICAL SETTING Laguna is one out of many provinces that has been identified as a region with very high levels of risk to the effects of climate change. Laguna Province is at a very high risk for rainfall change and a high risk for typhoons, in addition to a myriad of other climate change effects, that results in an overall very high risk for climate disasters. On the ground, this would have significant impacts on the watershed of Laguna. The province is located on the southern shore of the largest lake in the country, Laguna de Bay. With a surface area of approximately 950 square kilometers (366 square miles), Laguna de Bay acts as a collection basin for 21 tributaries from the adjacent five provinces and then directs water outflows to Manila Bay via the Pasig River. Laguna de Bay and its surrounding watershed is a critical water resource in the region, providing freshwater to millions of people in the province and Metro Manila. The increasing intensity of typhoons is exacerbating the destruction inflicted through destructive gales and floods from heavy downpours (â&#x20AC;&#x153;Laguna de Bay,â&#x20AC;? 2015; Laguna, 2014; Manila Observatory).

Figure 3-3 Vulnerability Assessment of Laguna Province

CONTEXT

LOS BAÑOS Since the water levels rise in Laguna de Bay during typhoons, flooding affects many of the towns directly on the lake, including Los Baños. This municipality has a population of 101,884 inhabitants within approximately 54 square kilometers (21 square miles) who are becoming increasingly vulnerable over the years as the high levels of water take longer to dissipate (2010 Census of Population and Housing, 2010). People are displaced from their homes, disconnected from their livelihoods, and susceptible to water-borne illnesses (Britanico et al., 2010). Improper waste disposal aggravates the flooding problem in certain areas of Los Baños as refuse and debris block the drainage of water (Britanico et al., 2010). In addition to the effects of heavy downpours and flooding, Los Baños experiences widespread destruction from severe typhoon winds. This may be worsened by the municipality’s location at the base of Mount Makiling (UPLB). The mountain blocks wind flow and can cause winds traveling south off the lake to reverse direction over Los Baños. There are currently many different disaster management efforts being implemented to address the effects of typhoons, the overall rate of change is very gradual and implementation may be perceived as slow. The research setting of interest is called Magnetic Hill, a small piece of land just outside the city proper of Los Baños. Los Baños is a municipality approximately 65 kilometers (40 miles) south of Metro Manila in the province of Laguna (UPLB, 2014). Los Baños has a population of 101,884 inhabitants within approximately 54 square kilometers (21 square miles) (2010 Census of Population and Housing, 2010). It earned its name, which means “The Baths,” from its thermal hot springs that run down from Mount Makiling (“Los Baños,” 2015). Los Baños is also a “Sister City” to Davis, California (Sister Cities). It is home to the University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB), an agricultural institution with similar goals to the University of California, Davis.

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Figure 3-4 Map of flood risk in Los Ba単os CONTEXT

Figure 3-5 Mount Makiling in relation to Los Ba単os and Laguna de Bay

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MOUNT MAKILING Mount Makiling is a defining feature of Los Baños. The mountain rises 1,130 meters (3,707 feet) above sea level and is a dormant volcano with many sites that hint at its ancient past (UPLB, 2014). There are waterfalls with craggy rock formations, sulfuric hot springs, and a bubbling mud spring in a crater. Mount Makiling is one of the nation’s 18 crucial centers of plant biodiversity with over 2,038 species of flowering plants and ferns recorded. 200 species of birds are found here in addition to a number of different species of lizards, snakes, wild boar, deer, and monkeys (UPLB, 2014). Most of the land area of the mountain is within the Mount Makiling Forest Reserve. Originally the nation’s first national park, the reserve was entrusted to UPLB in 1960 to be managed and monitored through the university’s College of Forestry. The reserve is used as an outdoor learning laboratory and source of recreation. There are a few developed sites such as the Makiling Botanic Gardens—the only one of its kind in the country—in addition to the Philippine High School for the Arts and Boy Scouts of the Philippines Jamboree Site. The mountain, however, is mostly undeveloped; in fact, 72.7% of the reserve is natural forest and brush (UPLB, 2014). Local folklore claims that the mountain mirrors the shape of a woman in repose, Maria ng Makiling. She is a deity who guards the forest and mountain from danger. Her favorite thing to do is to go for a walk after storms and bring calm wherever she goes. She quiets swollen rivers, corrects bent trees, and checks on the local villagers to confirm that all is well. It is said that she has not been seen as often in recent years, having retreated further up the mountain away from the growing towns. Tales describe her anger at how people have taken her for granted and disrespected her home through their actions that harm the environment. There is hope that one day she will return with her healing touch if people

Figure 3-6 Mount Makiling is said to be the profile of a reclining woman, Maria ng Makiling

actively demonstrate that they care for nature as much as she does (CSULB PAC; Rizal & Derbyshire, 1916; Rizal & Warren, 1890/1968; UNESCO-APCEIU).

CONTEXT

SOCIAL CONTEXT While natural disasters affect many countries, vulnerable populations in developing nations experience the repercussions the most. Developed nations have the resources and capital to establish and maintain infrastructure and advanced preparedness systems. While costs from losses increase as a nation becomes more developed, its fatalities decrease. In contrast, the poorer a country is, the more devastating the effects. Material losses are minimal, but the number of fatalities is high. Developing nations are faced with inadequate financial reserves, finite scientific knowledge and technology, and/or limited capacity to adapt. This impedes their ability to reduce or cope with the impacts of hydrologic extremes. External support is crucial in order to reduce vulnerability and build resilience (Bates et al., 2008; Kundzewicz et al., 2002). In the Philippines, disasters are politicized matters. Involved actors interpret the circumstances from different perspectives. The government tends to view disasters as events that deviate from normalcy and recovery needs to be controlled in such a way that returns society back to its former state (Bankoff & Hilhorst, 2009). Disaster management decisions and frameworks may be incongruous with Filipino society if they rely too heavily on precedents in Western countries that do not have the same socioeconomic circumstances (Bankoff & Hilhorst, 2009). In contrast, other organizations and groups—such as NGOs—regard disasters as symptoms of misaligned development decisions and poor governance. Therefore, a return to normalcy will not fix the recurring problems that accompany natural disasters. Strategic moves that deal with the underlying causes of vulnerability need to be established. This may necessitate an evolution to a state that is not the exact same as before an external shock (Bankoff & Hilhorst, 2009). Impaired coordination can also complicate matters. For instance, government entities and NGOs compete for international funds and popular support that can undermine collaborations between the private and public spheres (Bankoff 29

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& Hilhorst, 2009). In addition, irregular communication between levels of an organization can contribute to confusion. Sometimes individual agencies will report to their regional and national counterparts during a natural disaster before alerting a local government unit (LGU) of their findings. Simultaneously LGUs may bypass regional entities to contact national government levels (World Bank & NDCC). There was also controversial debate during Typhoon Haiyan over who had the responsibility of declaring a state of calamity and whether the primary responsibility falls to the President of the Philippines, the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC), or local government units (Rufo, 2013). Lastly, post-disaster funding is allocated based on the size of the loss incurred because of the disaster and the size of the local economy affected. There is a lack of incentive for LGUs and other organizations to undertake more proactive measures that reduce vulnerabilities in the first place (World Bank & NDCC). In short, society cannot have power over the occurrence of natural disasters. What people can control are human actions in preparation for and recovery from natural disasters. A highly developed society has the capacity to address this effectively (Beck et al., 2012). The “politics of risk” in the Philippines, however, reduces the efficacy of disaster management and the reduction of people’s vulnerability to natural disasters (Bankoff & Hilhorst, 2009).

P OL I T I C S O F RI S K A SS UM P T I ON S

ACTOR S

D I SA ST E R MA N AG E ME N T R O LE

ND R R M C

Local government units are

Na t ion a l a g e n c y

SELF - RELIANT .

• Create framework plan • Declare state of emergency • Release funds for rescue and relief • Supervise LGU prep and response Conflicts: • Slow to act

LO CA L G OV E R N ME N T U N IT S ( LG U S )

P R OVINCE L a rg e s t g eo - p oli t i ca l u n i t 8 1 p rov i n ce s n a t ion w i d e

• Disaster council with chairperson at each level • Create and implement a disaster plan • First responders • Provide relief and assistance • Dedicate 5% of budget to disaster risk reduction • 30% of this will be for quick relief

Disasters are abnormal events.

WE MUST RETURN TO NORMALCY .

CITY O R M UNICIPAL ITY 144 cities and 1 , 4 9 0 m u n i c i p a li t i e s n a t ion w i d e

BAR ANGAY

Conflicts: • Compete with NGOs for national funds and popular support • Sometimes lower LGUs will report to national level counterparts before notifying regional and national

S m a l le s t g eo - p oli t i ca l u n i t R e p re s e n t s 1 , 0 0 0 i n ha b i ta n t s 4 2 , 0 2 9 b a ra n g a y s n a t ion w i d e

Disasters are processes and symptoms of poor governance. WE CANNOT RETURN TO THE WAY THINGS WERE .

• Increase community capacity • Provide services in which LGUs are deficient • Community-based management • Vulnerability mapping

NGO s Non - g ove r n m e n ta l o rg a n i z a t ion s

Conflicts: • Competes with LGUs for national funds and popular support • Grass-roots response and counter-disaster plans may be made independently from LGU’s

Sources: Bankoff, World Bank, Republic of the Philippines, NDRRMC Figure 3-7 Political factors contribute to vulnerability and risk CONTEXT

D I S AS T ER MANAGE ME NT I N LOS BAÑ OS

los baños

los baños central

municipal

tent city

municipal hall

elementary school

health office

catholic church

Temporary shelter and educational center to replace housing and schools displaced by floodwater

One Los Baños volunteers collect donations here and coordinate efforts to provide relief for those in need

Students and teachers participate in earthquake and fire drills to prepare for what to do in an emergency

Pharmacy provides access to medicine, especially for the poor during disease outbreaks in the wake of disasters

Identified by community members as a source of support during both daily life and times of calamity

rotary club of

university of the

international rice

world food

center ( stprc )

los baños

philippines , los baños

research institute

programme ( wfp )

Local outpost for Citizens’ Disaster Response Network (CDRN) that implements community-based disaster management and distributes relief goods in the wake of disastersresidents in need.

This local organization works to empower the community through grants and programs. The Livelihood Project hosts workshops for residents to learn skills and supports economic growth that would lead to jobs for residents in need.

The university participates in many partnerships to implement measures and technologies such as early warning systems, weather monitoring stations, and more

Strives to increase food security, protect the environment, engage women, tackle climate change, and reduce poverty through research and capacity building

Teamed up with local stakeholders, such as UPLB, to bring disaster preparedness and response/ climate change adaptation training and technologies to the community

southern tagalog people ’ s response

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municipal health office

tent city

los baños

catholic church

municipal hall

los baños central elementary school

rotary club of los baños southern tagalog

people’s response

international rice

center university of the philippines,

research institute

los baños world food

programme (wpf) magnetic hill mount makiling forest reserve

Figure 3-8 Disaster management efforts by location CONTEXT

Chapter Four

SITE ANALYSIS

“KUNG WALANG TIYAGA, WALANG NILAGA: WITHOUT PERSEVERANCE, THERE IS NO REWARD.” FI L I PI N O PROVERB

SITE OF INTEREST: MAGNETIC HILL Magnetic Hill is adjacent to the forest reserve, near the base of Mount Makiling. It is situated on the mountain about 1.5 kilometers from the municipality proper. The site is accessible via Jamboree Road. This winding mountain road is slated to become a more critical thoroughfare in the near future, as it offers an alternate route to the University of the Philippines, Los Baños instead of the congested National Highway. Magnetic Hill is 60 to 200 meters above sea level, safely above the floodplains on which most of Los Baños is built. The site is currently used for light recreation as a pit stop for hikers on their way up to the peaks of Mount Makiling. Local events are also hosted in a pavilion on the site, ranging Risk Assessment of Typhoons

from educational events for children to reunions and celebrations. The Magnetic

Los Baños

Hill Foundation, an environmental stewardship group, manages the site and is looking to transform Magnetic Hill into a valuable resource for the community of

HE AV Y DOW NPOUR

Los Baños (E. Agudo, personal communication, 2015). FLOODING

RISK ASSESSMENT While both Magnetic Hill and Los Baños are vulnerable to the impacts of

HIGH-S PE E D WINDS

typhoons, the two places are affected in slightly different ways due to variations in microclimates. For the most part, flooding is the highest risk for Los Baños, as it is cradles the lake. In contrast, Magnetic Hill is located on higher ground, beyond the reach of inundation. Steep terrain on Magnetic Hill puts the site at risk to the effects of heavy downpours. The outpouring of water results in high volumes of runoff down the hillside, contributing to erosion and increasing the risk of landslides. Wind also inflicts more damage on Magnetic Hill than it does downhill in Los Baños (E. Agudo, personal communication, 2015).

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LEGEND

Very High Risk Moderate Risk Low Risk Figure 4-1 Risk Assessment Matrix

Magnetic Hill

Figure 4-2 Magnetic Hill in relation to the floodplains and Los Ba単os proper

S I T E A N A LY S I S

SITE INVENTORY When approaching Magnetic Hill from Los Baños, visitors will pass many local school schoolchildren walking up and down Jamboree Road as they head to and from classes. This is because the town’s local schools, in addition to the municipal hall, are located down Jamboree Road from Magnetic Hill. After following the road up the mountain, an entrance gate welcomes guests to Magnetic Hill. The site is seven acres with a small portion currently cleared for use. Jamboree Road splits the site into two areas. Five acres are north of the road while two acres are on the southern side. When the road was built, an underground spring was brought to the surface. This spot has become a gathering area for nearby informal settlers and passers-by for obtaining freshwater, doing laundry, and bathing. The topography is steep, going from 200 meters above sea level at its highest point on a ridge to 60 meters at its lowest level in a valley. The majority of the tree canopy is banana and coconut trees, supplemented with two small orchards with cherry and rambutan trees. In addition, there are also many historical fruit trees that yield avocados, mangos, and jack fruit. There are currently five structures on the site: a caretaker’s cottage, an outhouse with a septic tank, an azotea (events pavilion) with an adjoining outdoor kitchen, and a toolshed. A barbed wire fence stretches along the southern side of the clearing. Across the street, water is gathered via a water pump. Adjacent to the site is an informal settlement with an estimated population of 4,000 people. Laguna de Bay and the Los Baños proper are visible from higher points on the site (E. Agudo, personal communication, 2015).

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Figure 4-3 Aerial image of Magnetic Hill with the property line marking the area managed by the Magnetic Hill Foundation S I T E A N A LY S I S

Figure 4-4 Site Analysis of Magnetic Hill

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EXISTING CONDITIONS opportunities

1. Ajacency to the Mount Makiling Forest Reserve provides potential for eco-tourism endeavors 2. Natural topography and geologic features could foster programming 3. Confluence of factors (sunlight, drainage, views, etc.) makes this area best suited for building and program elements 4. Gentle topography and hot spring could foster programming 5. Opportunity for water collection at high-point in topography 6. Flat topography with road access makes this area appropriate for programming

To examine the site in more depth, an investigation of constraints and opportunities can provide more insight. Constraints are parameters that are difficult to change, whereas opportunities are areas for improvement that can inform design decisions. Constraints on the site are Jamboree Road and an informal settlement. The road is currently two lanes and will eventually be four. There are plans to make this road the main way to enter UPLB. As for the settlement, local policy is in the works to relocate the settlers to more secure housing in the future. Meanwhile, impacts to the site include theft, trespassing, and property damage. Conflicts arise with the informal settlers when they dismantle fences to cross property to harvest fruit from the fruit trees. There are a number of vulnerable features on the site. The first are large volumes of water flowing off-site quickly that could instead be retained for the dry season. This is due to the steep terrain that is at risk for becoming unstable due to water runoff and existing erosion conditions. In addition, strong winds during typhoons uproot large trees and power lines. During these strong wind events, iron roofing material of structures could inflict harm if separated from the structures. Wind also indirectly contributes to erosion of the hillside. Erosion, position on slope, and proximity to cliff edge puts the caretakerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cottage at risk for a landslide. There was once a deck that connected the cottage to the overlook, but it was swept away when the slope collapsed due to erosion. There are a few existing resilient features on the site. A stacked roof allows for ventilation on a daily basis and directs airflow during a strong wind event. Locally sourced materials and labor for construction of structures supports local industry. Felled trees provide timber that can be used for building or fuel. These provide a foundation on which to continue to build resilience (E. Agudo, personal communication, 2015). S I T E A N A LY S I S

SPATIAL ANALYSIS: WATER During typhoons and monsoon season, water runoff through the site travels at high velocities and in a downhill, straight motion across the site. The largest volumes of water travel down Jamboree Road and into the valley. Auxiliary flows follow the hilly terrain. There are natural drainage points in a few areas on the site. The valley on the northern side of the site collects much of the water and directs it to eventually connect with a small river further downhill that leads to Laguna de Bay. During wetter monsoon seasons, a small river will form in the valley. Water also accumulates in a shallow pond on the southern region of the site. Plants have grown over the surface so that the pond is not visible, but there is standing water in this area. Major earthworks may not be as feasible for the site due to limited resources and funds, so subsequent design solutions should try to work around the terrain and draw on the natural drainage network already in place. If possible, water flow should be directed in such a way that can draw the water in a reticular path through the site, as opposed to moving straight through it (E. Agudo, personal communication, 2015).

Figure 4-5 Water Flow in Magnetic Hill

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SPATIAL ANALYSIS: WIND The base of Mount Makiling undulates between ridges and valleys. When the mountain blocks winds coming off the lake, the gales often reverse direction in the valleys and accelerate back over the ridges. Magnetic Hill is located on the precipice between a ridge and valley, placing it in an exposed location to the highly turbulent winds making â&#x20AC;&#x153;U-turns.â&#x20AC;? Winds inflict damage through felled trees and power lines, as well as the destruction of structures. Materiality and location of structures will be important to consider. Currently buildings are covered with a rigid iron material that becomes hazardous when uplifted during a typhoon (E. Agudo, personal communication, 2015). A material that either bends with the wind or does not inflict harm when uplifted should be considered. While modern buildings are built with concrete and steel, traditional Filipino building materials include bamboo, wood, nipa, rattan, stone, tiles, and capiz shells in lieu of glass (Rodriguez). As for determining locations for buildings, it will be

Figure 4-6 Wind Direction in Magnetic Hill

important to consider buffer zones with proximity to trees and accessibility for services and aid in the wake of a typhoon.

S I T E A N A LY S I S

A comparison of Magnetic Hill before and after Typhoon Hagupit/ Ruby in 2014 in order to identify vulnerabilities on the site

WIND

1. Caretaker cottage 2. The direction and angle of winds entering the site peeled back the roof of the residence. The typhoon reported winds of up to 285 kph (180 mph). UPROOTED TREES

3. Entrance gate 4. A historical mango tree behind the entrance gate was uprooted. STRUCTURAL DAMAGE

5. Azotea 6. The winds separated the roof of the azotea from the structure. ACCESSIBILITY

7. Looking down Jamboree Road 8. Felled trees and water runoff on the road may impede emergency vehicle access.

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Figure 4-7 Before and After Typhoon Hagupit/Ruby

S I T E A N A LY S I S

MATERIALITY

structural

stone

brick and concrete

wood

iron

Wood, bamboo spines (kawayang tinik), nipa leaves, and rattan are resilient materials because they take advantage of local materials and skills, making it easier to rebuild in the wake of a disturbance.

Stone is currently used for walls and stairs on the site. It is a highly resilient material due to its stability, longevity, and availability on-site.

Bricks are re-used from other building projects on-site or in town and their modularity allows for versatility. Concrete in large quantities will increase water runoff and create vulnerabilities in the case of earthquakes or landslides, especially if installed incorrectly.

Timber is acquired from trees on-site, either through deliberate selection or use of felled trees in the aftermath of typhoons. Wood is used for site furniture and support beams, but termites threaten stability.

This material is not as resilient as other choices for building materials due to its rigidness and inflexibility. Used for roofing materials, this makes structures vulnerable to typhoon winds. The use of iron, however, for focal elements does not pose any issues for signage, gates, and arbors.

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S T R U CT UR A L

Resilient

STONE

WOOD

Moderate

BRIC K & C O N C R ETE

IR O N

Vulnerable

Figure 4-8 Materiality Analysis of Magnetic Hill

S I T E A N A LY S I S

Chapter Five

DESIGN PROCESS

“DESIGN IS DIRECTED TOWARD HUMAN BEINGS. TO DESIGN IS TO SOLVE HUMAN PROBLEMS BY IDENTIFYING THEM AND EXECUTING THE BEST SOLUTION.” IVAN CHERMAYEFF Designer

DESIGN FRAMEWORK The United Nations and the Government of the Philippines have identified a need for adaptation actions that build resilience through pilot demonstration projects with potential for replication and/or upscaling (UNDP & Goverment of the Philippines, 2008). In this vein, this project aims to produce a framework for others to emulate when trying to build resilience elsewhere in the Philippines. The framework guides users through four stages of envisioning, analyzing, designing, and building resilient places. It is intended to provide concrete tasks that can guide design choices. These action items are represented in the form of design principles. A common theme in many publications about resilience is redundancy and diversity. As such, this framework is built on the assumption that a place is only truly resilient when it incorporates multiple principles from three different spheres: social, economic, and ecological. A resilient landscape is one that is better equipped to weather disturbances, such as typhoons, and can bounce back to a functioning state quickly after a shock occurs. DESIGN PROCESS Selecting and working to include specific resilient design principles in the landscape will inform the entire design process. Next, broad design principles become more specific goals when considering a particular site and its unique context. A placeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vulnerabilities and already existing resilient features will need to be identified. This will establish a baseline rating of the siteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to cope with extreme change. Following this, deciding which land forms best achieve the project goals should be incorporated into a series of potential designs. A conceptual master plan should be produced to guide future decisions and reflect lessons learned thus far. Implementation of the design will test the design principles, so monitoring should document what ends up working, failing, and the reasons why. Eventually, after a pre-determined time period, an evaluation should be conducted to discover if the siteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to respond to change has improved. Building resilience is a continuous process, so starting the cycle once more is the next logical step, but when it does start anew varies from site to site. 49

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1. Change is inevitable. 2. A framework is crucial for reproducing successes. 3. Building resilience is a continuous process.

DESIGN CONCEPTS After selecting potential landscape features in the design stage of the design process, it may be helpful to consider a few conceptual arrangements and uses of these elements. These resilient design concepts are: spine, network, ephemeral, fortified, and burrowing. To further elaborate, a spine is a flexible axis. This could mean having a central feature that supports multiple functions. Networks draw on the resilient concept of redundancy at different scales. By arranging various nodes of activity or areas of different sizes with varying functions, if one fails, there are readily available connections to other viable centers. Ephemeral SPINE

designs play with the idea of time. This could mean incorporating a feature that

NETWORK

is small enough and efficient enough to be installed following a storm for only as long as the site needs it. It could also mean having temporary, non-critical features or structures that allow nature to take its course instead of resisting it. Fortification takes a reverse approach with defensive measures that turn a site into a citadel that withstands disturbances. Lastly, burrowing is about evasion if EPHEMERAL

FORTIFIED

BURROWING

it is possible to avoid the disturbance altogether. For instance, placing features below the surface if there is an external change could increase resilience. Resilient

Figure 5-1 Resilience Design Concepts

landscapes tend to convey aspects of each design concept, but one may be more dominant than another depending on the context and needs of the site. It is important to note that the design framework and design process is iterative and not necessarily linear; later stages may necessitate a return to an earlier one. Please note, for Figures 5-2 and 5-3, footnotes indicate citations that are found at the end of Works Cited.

DESIGN PROCESS

DE S IG N P RINCIPL ES IN TH E L AND SCAP E When choosing which design principles to employ, consider the following:

FEWER THAN

MOD ER ATE

PRINCIPLES

A landscape is least equipped to retain its basic functions after a disturbance if it does not incorporate at least one principle from each sphere.

AT LEAST

Improve well-being 16,* Increase knowledge base B,8*,11,12,17 Disseminate information B,17 Provide access to education A,C Offer “learn by doing” approaches Include opportunities for play Organize event programming

Designate a steward B Connect stakeholders B Promote adaptive co-management B Implement collaboration B,17 Enable good governance 9a,9b,18,‡ Incorporate public opinion B Bolster social connections B,9a,9b,‡

Preserve local culture Respect local values 2,* Protection from the elements Prevent spreading of diseases 10,* Build social capital 9a,9b,‡ Strengthen health 16,‡ Support poverty reduction 17

Support local livelihoods C,17 Build on skills base Support local industry Embrace innovation 9a,9b,‡ Encourage experimentation 9a,9b,‡ Advocate inclusive growth 17 Support sustainable development 17

Facilitate access to credit 19 Encourage insurance programs 19 Subsidize insurance for the poor 19 Share reconstruction resources 19 Diversify economic interests 9a,9b,20,‡ Foster export industries 20 Reduce income gaps 20

Enable long-term economic security 18,‡ Invest in better infrastructure 17 Improve housing conditions 19 Quantify ecosystem services 16,* Assign value to cultural services 9a,9b,‡ Reduce vulnerability of assets 19 Provide incentives for risk management19

Build with recycled materials A,C Use innovative green technology A,C Preserve local biodiversity 7,9a,9b,10,*,‡ Establish corridors 13 Reduce energy and water use A,C Treat wastewater A,C Increase water infiltration 14,*

Reduce negative edge effects 4,10,13,* Restore damaged landscapes Increase connectivity 6,13,* Promote movement of species 15 Diversify landscape features 9a,9b,15,‡ Protect ecosystem services 9a,9b,16,‡ Incorporate modularity 9a,9b,‡

Minimize pollution ‡ Consider ecological history 7,* Minimize human disruption 10,* Protect against invasive species 10,* Improve water quality * Prevent loss of habitat * Practice conservation 2,*

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PRINCIPLES

A landscape that is neither entirely vulnerable nor entirely resilient will only feature at least one principle from each sphere.

Figure 5-2 Resilience Design Framework

RESILIENT OR MORE PRINCIPLES

A multi-functional landscape that is able to persevere in the face of change will weave together multiple principles from each sphere.

PE O PL E A N D C U LTU R E

social resilience

< DESIGN PRINCIPLES

E C ON OMY

economic resilience

E NV I R ON ME N T

ecological resilience

SP HE RE S

V ULN E RA BLE

R E S ILIENCE D ESIGN PRO CESS < DESIGN PRINCIPLES

FEEDBACK LOOP STEP NO.

VISI ON

1 Choose design principles whose effects will increase a landscape’s resilience

STEP N O .

ANALYSI S

3 Assess site for its vulnerabilities and resilient features

If going through this step during a subsequent cycle: add, modify, or remove goals and/or design principles to reflect the lessons learned 4,9a,9b,*,‡

STEP NO.

2 Define design goals, drawing on the specific characteristics of the landscape and chosen principles 2,*

STEP NO. 4 Determine the site’s current overall ability to respond to change 4,5,*

L ow

Med ium

High

Vuln e ra ble

Mo d e ra te

R e s ilie n t

DESIGN PRINCIPL E S

DESI GN

ACTI ON

STEP NO. 5 Determine potential landscape features and, if applicable, design concepts

.6 Consider and compare a variety of conceptual designs 5,*

STEP NO. 8 Implement the design and monitor its successes and failures in the site 4,7,*

STEP NO. 9 Evaluate if there is a need to start the cycle again 4,*

STEP NO

STEP NO. 7 Create an overall conceptual masterplan that will guide future decisions

L ow

Med ium

High

Vuln e ra ble

Mo d e ra te

R e s ilie n t

Figure 5-3 Resilience Design Process DESIGN PROCESS

Chapter Six

DESIGN SOLUTIONS

“MAN NEVER MADE ANY MATERIAL AS RESILIENT AS THE HUMAN SPIRIT.” BERNARD WILLIAMS Philosopher

DISASTER RESPONSE NETWORK Since Los Baños is highly vulnerable to the effects of flooding as a result of heavy downpours from typhoons, people will become displaced as the water levels interfere with their ability to access their homes, schools, and livelihoods. Until more large-scale, intensive moves are made to prevent displacement in the first place, there will be a need to evacuate to higher ground until the flooding dissipates. It is difficult to identify exact procedures to follow or to pinpoint a specific place to report to in an emergency. Political motivations can also complicate the situation, from displays of favoritism when distributing aid supplies to uncoordinated efforts between the entities (Britanico et al., 2010). A network of disaster response base camps on Mount Makiling will address these conditions. The camps will be located within walking distance from the flood plains, but the higher ground would make the camps safe from flooding. Establishing a network of camps will cut through the noise of competing factions and make it clear where people should go to receive help and where

Wayfinding devices will need to be implemented in order to guide typhoon refugees to the base camps. In Japan, stone tablets line the coast to delineate areas that are safe from tsunami levels. If water levels were to rise, then the tablets in unsafe areas would be knocked down and the ones left standing would show the new safe area (Fackler, 2011). Additionally, in the Philippines, stone obelisks are already used for marking trails and significant historical corridors. As such, routes can be marked with stone wayfinding devices. If floodwaters or a landslide were to ever disturb the markers, the ones remaining would point to safer routes of passage. The obelisks would provide navigation on the ground, but beacons or landmarks will increase the camps’ visibility above the tree canopy. Once a camp is ready to receive people, the camp crewmembers will launch and tether large weather balloons. These will serve dual purposes of collecting data for research crucial for future actions, as well as guiding people to the camp.

those providing aid should go to begin their efforts. Incorporating the resilient characteristic of redundancy, the different camps will have different sizes and locations to adapt to each unique typhoon event. If a camp were to become unusable after a storm, people could easily seek shelter in other camps. There will be approximately 100 camps that can each support 1,000 people will be established. While floods do not affect all of Los Baños, having this many camps could potentially shelter all 100,000 residents.

Figure 6-1 Network of Disaster Response Base Camps

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Figure 6-2 Wayfinding obelisk

Figure 6-3 Indicator tablet

Figure 6-4 Location of disaster response network in relation to the floodplains and Los Ba単os D E S I G N S O LU T I O N S

Figure 6-5 Diagrammatic Site Design Plan for Magnetic Hill

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MAGNETIC HILL BASE CAMP The disaster response network will feature camps of all shapes, sizes, and locations. There will be large-area versus small-area camps. Some camps will be established temporarily while others will have year-round functions. The sites for the camps could be either new development or retrofits of existing sites. Magnetic Hill will function as an example of a small-area, existing site for a yearround base camp. Figure 6-6 Individual Disaster Response Base Camp

The services that an individual base camp would provide are shelter, food provisions, medical facilities, fuel supply and power generation, communications, waste disposal, and morale areas. Some of these could be stored previously on the site while others could be delivered via bus or truck after the storm clears (Disaster Management Group).

D E S I G N S O LU T I O N S

Figure 6-7 The site in normal, non-storm conditions

BUSINESS AS USUAL On a daily basis, Magnetic Hill will continue its existing function as a site for recreation and events. Multi-use fields will provide flexibility in programming. In addition, the Magnetic Hill Foundation is looking to expand its role as an environmental steward. Creating an eco-lodge and dedicating a structure as a visitors’ center can provide a venue for this. In addition, a discovery school will function as a “living laboratory” to add an educational component to the events already hosted there. Knowledge about disaster preparedness, what to do in an emergency, technical jargon, and the latest scientific information could be shared in this setting.

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Figure 6-8 Site Programming D E S I G N S O LU T I O N S

Figure 6-9 Terraces can absorb and manage heavy downpours from typhoons

DESIGN FEATURES: WATER When monsoon season arrives, certain landscape features can be established in order to handle the large volumes of water. On a smaller scale, there is lowimpact infrastructure like terraces, swales, constructed wetlands, storage tanks, and detention ponds. Physical structures like these enable rainwater and runoff harvesting: capturing water when it is plentiful during heavy rainfalls and saving it for dry spells. In Magnetic Hill, terraces will be a primary way to slow water down, sink it into the water table, and spread it throughout the site. There is a potential in the future for converting them into rice terraces, a landscape feature that has been a part of Filipino culture for thousands of years. In addition, collecting pools and vegetated bioswales are additional, redundant features that will enhance the function of the terraces (Che et al., 2014; Falk, 2013; C. Folke, 2003; Kundzweicz et al., 2002; Rockstrรถm, 2003; Vojinovic & Van Teeffelen,

Figure 6-10 Water Flow Parti

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2007).

Figure 6-11 Wind breaks and clearings mitigate high-speed winds and their effects

DESIGN FEATURES: WIND On Magnetic Hill, windbreaks, buffer zones, and structural considerations will help prevent extensive destruction, thus reducing the amount of damage control and accelerating the recovery process. Carving out a clearing in the forest and locating structures in the center will minimize the risk of fallen trees destroying buildings. A windbreak will divert the strongest, most turbulent winds. Certain aspects of structures can be built to be typhoon-resistant. For instance, a pyramidal roof will undergo less uplift during a typhoon. Orienting buildings at an angle with regards to the direction of the prevailing wind will increase protection. Symmetrically shapedâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;round, square, and rectangularâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;buildings are less likely to be destroyed. Clustering buildings together dissipates wind energy, whereas rows create wind tunnels. Lastly, materials that are less harmful when separated from the roof are preferred, as well as locally sourced materials

Figure 6-12 Structural Considerations for Wind

that can facilitate re-building more quickly (Dutta, 2012; Miller & MacGowan; Wilkinson & Elevitch, 2000). D E S I G N S O LU T I O N S

Figure 6-13 The site in storm conditions

C L I M AT E C H A N G E I N T H E P H I L I P P I N E S : B U I L D I N G R E S I L I E N C E T O T Y P H O O N S

“The green reed which bends in the wind is stronger than the mighty oak which breaks in a storm.”

WEATHERING THE STORM During a typhoon, several modes of operation will be put into effect. Firstly, temporary structures built in the traditional Filipino “bahay kubo” style of wood and bamboo would be evacuated. In line with the ephemeral design concept, they will be located more closely to the edges of the clearing and allowed to be destroyed. The fortified visitors center in the “bahay na bato” (stone and tile) style will act as a central node for people on the site to gather and enter underground shelters if necessary. The terraces would mitigate the heavy downpours and the windbreaks would diffuse some of the wind forces.

CONFUCIUS Philosopher

D E S I G N S O LU T I O N S

BOUNCING BACK After the storm clears, disaster response procedures will unfold. If any fallen trees block a portion of the road, the dual road will allow back-up access for emergency vehicles. Tents will be erected on the multi-use fields to accommodate service providers, relief goods, and refugees as they arrive. Weather balloons will be released to begin collecting data following the storm, as well as guiding people to the base camp. From base camps like the one at Magnetic Hill, the process of recovery will begin. With a resilient mindset, rebuilding can be completed quickly and to a state that is stronger than it was before.

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Figure 6-14 The site immediately following storm conditions

D E S I G N S O LU T I O N S

Chapter Seven

CONCLUSION

“THE OAK FOUGHT THE WIND AND WAS BROKEN, THE WILLOW BENT WHEN IT MUST AND SURVIVED.” ROBERT JORDAN Author

BUILDING RESILIENCE Change is inevitable. Rather than trying to remove or control it, it is more beneficial to design better ways to deal with it. The Philippines is in a unique situation where the archipelago’s geographical location and geological composition puts its populations at constant risk for natural disasters that will only get worse as the effects of climate change take their course. Like other developing nations, the Philippines has limited financial resources, scientific and technologic knowledge, and capacity to respond to these factors on its own. The international community can help through supporting adaptive measures that are flexible and grow with time and the changing conditions. This can be accomplished through integrated strategies for building resilience at a pilot project level. Integrated strategies are a combination of approaches, so that if one or more fails, the other strategies can continue to activate the landscape while still protecting human populations. Pilot projects rely on hands-on approaches that test existing information and build new knowledge at a small-scale. Successes can be chosen for eventual replication and upscaling in settings with similar conditions. This project aims to implement this model for building resilience to typhoons in Los Baños with a network of disaster response base camps on Mount Makiling. Spatial considerations include shaping landforms to better absorb runoff and store it for dry spells with terraces, reservoir ponds, and bioswales. Similar projects in Washington D.C. and Bali have used green technologies, recycled materials, and native plantings to their advantage, creating sites that enriched their surroundings and provided tangible methods of responding to changing conditions. Social considerations collected from existing literature and a case study in Sweden also provide insight.

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Building social resilience includes designating a leader with a vision of stewardship, such as the Magnetic Hill Foundation. These leaders can develop methods to respond to disturbances through “learn by doing” approaches, increasing access to education about these responses, building knowledge about natural disasters, increasing preparedness, and fostering collaborations between multiple groups of people. On Magnetic Hill, these characteristics are incorporated through an eco-lodge that connects people with nature, in addition to a “living laboratory” on the site that can teach visitors about reducing vulnerability and risk. Successful implementations of projects like these will set an example for others to emulate and expand the capacity of people to respond to natural disasters. In summation, it is no longer safe to assume that the environment is a selfrepairing system that can continue to support both natural and human systems as it has done in the past. A new mode of operation is needed. Integrated social and spatial strategies that build resilience are identified as a crucial framework for creating reproducible solutions to help vulnerable populations in the Philippines bounce back from typhoons now and in the future.

Figure 7-1 To build resilience is to sustain hope CO N C LU S I O N

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“PROGRESS IS IMPOSSIBLE WITHOUT CHANGE, AND THOSE WHO CANNOT CHANGE THEIR MINDS CANNOT CHANGE ANYTHING.”

GEORGE BERNARD SHAW Playwright