In Search of a Sustainable Future
Sustainable development has been identified as an efficient and responsible solution to addressing communities’ current economic, environmental, and social equity based constraints. Understanding how to plan for and encourage widespread sustainable development is critical to achieve the goals of sustainability. This anthological review and context analysis investigates the origins of sustainability theory in addition to previously established conversions of sustainable aspiration into achievable objectives. By defining appropriate drafting strategies as well as implementation levels, a comprehensive understanding of the framework plan is possible. This media continues to identify specific societal contexts in need of reform and proposes appropriate solutions at both the individual and municipal level. The understanding of appropriate strategies results in the formation of a single trend – communities that universally apply the principles of a sustainability framework plan throughout all contexts of communal life are successful by understanding the interdependence of healthy natural systems, fair resource allocation, and responsible economic development to the overall well‐being of their community.
Framework Inspired Direction for Individuals, Planners, & City Officials
Daniel J. Schuler Purdue University, Department of Landscape Architecture May, 2010
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Contents Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………iv Preface………………………………………………………………………….vi Introduction……………………………………………………………………viii
Part I:
Part II:
Part III:
Progression of Sustainable Theory………………………..…….1 Chapter 1:
Origins of Agriculture………………………………………...…2
Chapter 2:
The Industrial Revolution………………………………………4
Chapter 3:
Transcendentalism……………………………………………..6
Chapter 4:
Emergence of Preservation and Conservation……………..8
Chapter 5:
The Sixties & the Birth of Activism …………………………..11
Chapter 6:
Global Environmentalism …………………………………….13
Introduction to Framework Plans.….........................................17 Chapter 7:
System Conditions…………………………………………….18
Chapter 8:
Drafting a Framework Plan………………………………...…19
Chapter 9:
The Municipal Level…………………………………………...21
Contexts in Need of Reform & Appropriate Strategies.23 Chapter 10: The Guiding Principles and System Conditions…………...25 Chapter 11: Renewable Energy Sources………………………………….29 Chapter 12: Transportation & Mobility……………………………………..33 Chapter 13: Ecologically Responsible Housing…………………………..37 Chapter 14: Rethinking Business Practices………………………………42 Chapter 15: Emerson’s Legacy: Self-Reliance……………………………46 Chapter 16: Youth Awareness: Environmental Education………………50 Chapter 17: Managing Consumption and Waste…………………………55 Chapter 18: Protecting Natural Resources………...................................61 Chapter 19: Land Use & Planning. ………………………………………...66
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A Call to Action…………………………………………………………………69 References……………………………………………………………………..70
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Acknowledgements
This anthological review and context analysis grew from the questions that arose in reaction to numerous personal experiences with several unique communities around the globe. Its premise and supporting research was inspired by close interaction with individuals, organizations, and communities striving for a better working relationship with their surrounding environment. To my parents, who first inspired me through their own compassion, environmental responsibility, and appreciation for natural beauty. Without their love and support, none of these extraordinary experiences would have manifested. To my most cherished companion and Editor Maureen McAteer.
Thank you for the constant
encouragement, and inspiration to invest in our shared future. To the Purdue University Department of Landscape Architecture, for providing an excellent base of knowledge and wide array of resources; especially Professor Bernie Dahl. Thank you for your continual guidance and support as I begin down a path you know very well. To my host communities from May of 2008 through August of 2009. Thank you for the incredibly impactful experiences and relationships you made possible. Thank you to the organizations of Verde Milenio, Yungaburra Landcare Group, Trees for the Evelyn and Atherton Tablelands, Tolga Bat Hospital, Keep Austin Beautiful, and the Austin Parks Foundation for welcoming me into their community. Special thanks to Professors David Manahan, Dr. Sigrid Heise-Pavlov, and Tim Curran of the School for
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Field Studies for showing me the potential for change made possible through science and advocacy. To my family on the road. Thank you Thomas Pollom and Kristin Popcheff for the annual accompaniment in my never ending quest for existential experience. The experiences with you are among the memories I draw most inspiration from for my conservational motivation.
A special thanks to my Austin family; Justin Lindaburry,
Marissa Grande, and Mike Ferrara. Thank you for always encouraging me to ask the questions you could not answer.
It is always those unanswerable questions that
motivate me to excel. To the developers of previous sustainable thought, principles, and frameworks. This text, or logic for that matter, would not be possible without the successes and failures of previous attempts at reform. To the scientists, activists, and humanitarians who dedicate their lives to protect and conserve our Earth’s natural beauty. I strive to be like you.
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Preface
In December of 1864, as the American Civil War’s casualties reached, and surpassed, 500,000, President Abraham Lincoln wrote his commanders, reaffirming his responsibility as the people’s moral leader in a time of extreme peril. In a letter signed, “your obedient servant,” to his former political opponent, Union Colonel Edmund Taylor, President Lincoln defined his optimism, stating, “I am a firm believer in the people. If given the truth, they can be depended upon to meet any national crisis. The great point is to bring them the real facts.”14 Responsibility, in modern society, has undertaken a hazy, even subjective meaning. If used in the wrong context, responsibility may be perceived as mandated, or possibly optional. Responsibilities understood as part of societal life elsewhere in the world, are often viewed as burdens, or encroachments on personal liberties in the United States. The responsibility to identify and amend our destructive practices is neither an option nor a burden, but a critical step in the preservation of our quality of life. The reform of our practices we must undertake with this anthropocentric approach will inevitably cause us to take measures to protect not only the diversity of life, but the vitality of justice and potential for growth, simultaneously. The questions we need to pose ourselves, our colleagues, and our children, are: Do we, as individuals in a global community, have innate responsibilities to care for future generations in the same manor we care for our own?
Are the unmistakable correlations between current
practices and global degradations prioritized enough to act upon?
Are we, the
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American people, as dependable as those of whom President Lincoln had such great faith in? The key to responsibility is awareness. In this present era of 60 hour work weeks and fast paced lifestyles, it is too easy to only consume and concern ourselves with what we are handed. We read the articles in the paper, we eat at the restaurants that are on our route, and we listen to the music on the charts. exceptions to this generalization.
Of course, there are
However, in the grand scheme of the American
lifestyle; our agendas are predetermined. It is no secret that we live in a consumer based economy; meaning our purchasing power determines exactly what is produced, how those products are manufactured.
What the following text proposes is a
reassessment of our practices, and an examination of our lifestyles in a holistic cause and effect manor.
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Introduction
In the fundamental core of sustainability, a balance of economic equality, social equity, and environmental conservation must be met.5 The 1987 publication by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), often referred to as the Brundtland Report, broadly defines sustainable development as, “development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”29 The thoughts and ideas compiled in this media were generated in reaction to vast amounts of contrast, observed first hand, in various communities around the world. The values and priorities of communities, in regards to their appreciation and conservation of local resources, vary greatly. These commonly held conservational paradigms depend tremendously upon local culture, traditional land use, and the understanding of natural systems.
Personal accounts of experiences with these communities will not be
referenced; however, themes and trends observed will be taken into account to show causation for fundamental changes. The time to debate the validity of global climate change data has long since passed. Contemporary sustainability is farther distanced from global climate change than most Americans comprehend. Critical review of new research is welcome in the scientific forum, and is often necessary to ensure legitimacy.
Despite the majorly
international acceptance of global climate change as science, there is a large, domestic
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demographic of individuals who remain skeptical. This reaction is understood in the context of American politics and can be expected, especially when the reality of this new science puts the long term health and survival of our species in doubt. Sustainable development is not a reaction to climate change data, nor is it dependant on that data for legitimacy.
The western world’s neglect of global economic equality and social
justice is often considered just as influential, if not more so, to sustainability frameworks than environmental issues. This media is not intended to convince individuals of the actuality of global climate change science; however, it is intended to highlight the necessity for sustainable development. Extensive statistical evidence portraying climactic trends or warnings of doomsday events will not be referenced in this text. Quite the opposite, this compilation of ideas and frameworks is aimed to catalyze motivation through optimism and clear, achievable objectives.
Additionally, this media is not intended to be a weapon for
alarmists. Our species is facing a serious global dilemma; however, extremism can be polarizing and counterproductive. The use of this text is not specifically for one profession, nor is it for individuals holding a single political, equity related, or economic outlook on our domestic or global society. Instead, this material is meant for anyone interested in leaving our naivety behind, and catalyzing the paradigm shift that will ensure the future longevity of our species. It is meant for those interested in sustainable development, and for individuals searching for ways to reform our practices, without impeding on economic progress.
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The primary role
of this media is to provide direction to individuals and
communities searching for a more efficient, mindful, and responsible way of life by reviewing the progression of sustainable theory, outlining proven successful sustainability principals, and analyzing contexts in need of reform.
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Part I: Progression of Sustainable Theory
Not long after Abraham Lincoln expressed his faith in the American people, the Spanish poet and philosopher George Santayana sounded his warning, stating, “Those who cannot remember the past, are condemned to repeat it.”22 In the scope of sustainable development, it is important to be aware of how we as a society let our drive for a modern way of life threaten the endurance of our species.
It is critical to
understand the history of the relationship we have held with the land that not only sustains us, but allows us to thrive and progress at exponential rates.
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Chapter 1: Origins of Agriculture
The emergence of primates occurred nearly sixty five million years ago. It is a widely accepted fact that the human species first separated itself from other primates around seven million years ago. A key factor in that separation was the diversification of the human diet. The development of advanced foraging skills, along with a growing knowledge of hunting and trapping of game species allowed humans to maintain a more nourishing diet. This evolution of the human diet helped to stabilize the species, and encourage population growth.
Populations slowly began to flourish in geographic
regions of diverse plant life as well as plentiful game availability.23, 4 The original identification of potential crop plants likely grew from unintentional propagation around seasonal hunting routes.
Over time, discarded seeds from
gathered wild cereals formed populations around disturbed camp sites.
The
identification of these fast growing, high yield crops that grew well in disturbed sites was key to the development of proto-domesticates (species in early stages of domestication or those that hold high domestication potential).4
The tending to, harvesting, and
eventual yield based selection of these crops led to further stability and growth of human populations.22 The rationale behind the spread of agriculture is not completely understood. However, several theories provide insights into why humans abandoned hunting and gathering and began domesticating selected plant and animal species for sustenance.
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All current models acknowledge that humans needed motivation to make such a switch in lifestyle.
This motivation may have been incurred by the conclusion of the
Pleistocene epoch; an era marked by rapid environmental change, extinction of many game species, rise of sea level, and rapid climate warming beginning around 2 million years ago.4 Another model hypothesizes that the diminishing availability of game may be due to over hunting to meet increasing human population needs. In this scenario, the benefit of the agricultural per-capita production ratio eventually outweighs the initial cost of developing and experimenting with agricultural systems.22 These benefits would be increasingly visible as trade between agricultural based communities and hunter/gatherer tribes expanded. This transition likely took hundreds of years, but once agriculture became the predominant system, no civilization ever reverted back to hunting and gathering.4 The conversion of our sustenance systems in time from hunting and gathering to agriculture is at the root of the land-use paradigm humans have adhered to for thousands of years.
It is also the foundation for which humans have formed a
production based relationship with the land.
With few exceptions, mainly tribal
communities in Indo-Australia and native North Americans, the take-make-waste process is the overwhelmingly predominant progression for handling our natural resources.4 This progression still holds true to this day. Due to the development of technologies making mass production possible, the take-make-waste progression occurs on scales exponentially larger than ever before.
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Chapter 2: The Industrial Revolution
For thousands of years, humans cultivated land in order to meet the direct needs of their community. In many cases, the modes for mass production and trade were slow to develop due to social barriers such as language and opposing governmental systems.
The beginning of the 18th century in Europe marked a change in the
agricultural system.19 The British Agricultural Revolution began from several simultaneous cultural shifts. The social climate had recently shifted due to the end of feudal rule. Innovations in technology aided trade and entrepreneurship. Also, land previously used as common farm land only utilized by individual social classes was now being claimed by powerful landowners as these classes dissolved. This practice of enclosure led to larger scale production and increased trade of surplus.19 For the first time, the monetary value of farming strictly for trade became substantial. These factors culminated to shift the landuse paradigm to a perspective which prioritizes land value in respect to potential monetary gain.4 The ensuing industrial revolution was a dark chapter in the history of environmental stewardship. Many advances in technology were made possible through innovations in agriculture, mining, and manufacturing.
However, the exploitation of
natural resources was immense; far greater than in any prior era. The development of new techniques and uses for metals aided the feasibility of resource mining.1
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This
increase
in
manufacturing
encouraged
urbanization
and
denser
communities. At the time, the harmful effects of byproducts from manufacturing were not known.
The leaching of these byproducts into natural waterways and soils
contaminated entire communities’ fresh water supplies.1 This degradation, in addition to high volumes of air pollutants from manufacturing plants, caused serious health effects. The spread of infectious diseases, especially tuberculosis, became rampant in the urban populations surrounding manufacturing hubs.2 In all, the industrial revolution is responsible for many of the technologies our modern society depends upon today. The average life expectancy in every developed country increased dramatically as result.9 However, we are still battling the negative effects of land use paradigms formed during this era.
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Chapter 3: Transcendentalism
A revolutionary college of new ideas and philosophies developed out of New England starting in the early 19th century. This school of thought, led by the overall principle of viewing nature as a model and teacher, became known as the transcendentalist movement. Writers Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, and Margaret Fuller transformed the movement with publications of essays such as Nature, 1836; The Dial, 1841; and Walden in 1854. The ideals of transcendentalism reached far into the realms of individual perspective on religion, government, and the intrinsic value of life experiences.5 As compared to the culture of American politics at that
time,
transcendentalism
was
considered
a
progressive
movement.
Transcendentalism was anti-slavery, pro-personal liberty, and held parallel ideals with the early workings of socialism. Transcendentalists, much like the later existentialists, believed that understanding of the purist form their philosophy was unattainable. The term itself, transcendentalist, was originally derogatory and suggests the individual holds a position that is even beyond sanity or reason.15 The transcendentalist movement was an impactful era in the progression of sustainability principles. For the first time, a large following of individuals began to view the natural landscape as inspiration for self reflection, and as a model and teacher of healthy living.
This perspective is an extremely contrasting view from that of the
common paradigm held generations earlier. Generally, the previous perspective was that land was still to be viewed as a resource to be exploited. Very little thought was put
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into care for the resource solely for protecting it. Up until this time, property value was assigned according to the degree of potential exploitation.8 The greatest contribution of the transcendentalist movement was the addition of transcendental ideals into the rhetoric of intellectual society.
Harvard University
became the hub of transcendental theory, and its values were unmistakable in the students it produced.
Harvard students went on to contribute to the American
existential movement, as well as the spread transcendental ideals into countless professions and communities.8
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Chapter 4: The Emergence of Preservation & Conservation
The emergence of responsibility in man’s relationship with his environment began to materialize in the form of the naturalist movement around the turn of the 20th century. The transcendentalist works of authors such as Thoreau and Emerson had great effect on individuals of all professions in the years that followed. As the American borders were advancing further westward, new opportunities for land use and appreciation become more apparent. Individuals such as John Muir, Jeanne Carr, and Ansel Adams soon adopted the ideals of transcendentalism, and applied them to their critical review of the development of the vast, virtually untouched, wilderness of the west. They became known as naturalists.27 In particular, John Muir was most notably responsible for leading the naturalist movement and providing one of the first voices for environmental responsibility. He initially became infatuated with the purity of wilderness during his education at the University of Wisconsin in the 1860s. Soon after his graduation, Muir walked over a thousand miles from Indiana to Florida with no particular mission or direction. His only goal was to find a route that was in his opinion, the “wildest, leafiest, and least trodden way I could find.”17 Muir quickly found his way westward and took up residency in the high sierras east of San Francisco. He became known as an expert on the local flora and fauna and was popular with the affluent tourists that summered in the Yosemite Valley. Muir took up an advocacy role in response to noticing the degradation being caused from
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unregulated livestock grazing and logging in the pristine valley. After meeting with and guiding President Teddy Roosevelt on a two day tour of the high sierra backcountry, Muir was able to convince Roosevelt of the urgency of the matter. Legislation denoting the Yosemite area as a protected National Park was agreed upon by congress in the fall of 1890.17 In the spring of 1892, Muir became the co-founder and president of the Sierra Club; a San Francisco based club formed to collaborate the ideas of mountain lovers and alpine enthusiasts.3 The Sierra Club took up positions opposing the unregulated development of the High Sierras. Initially, they were most vocal in the opposition of the damming of the Hetch Hetchy Valley for an additional reservoir serving San Francisco. Two primary arguments resulted from this debate. Naturalists in favor of managing natural resources were pinned against fellow naturalists in favor of preserving natural resources. The two perspectives became known as conservation and preservation, respectively. John Muir, and all in favor of the preservation of Hetch Hetchy, lost the 3 year debate when Woodrow Wilson replaced Teddy Roosevelt in the Presidency and signed off on the movement to dam the valley.16 Decades later, as western wilderness areas came under state and federal management, a new leader in environmental stewardship surfaced.
Following
graduation from Yale’s Forestry Department in 1909, Aldo Leopold was assigned to the Arizona and New Mexico territories as a conservation officer.
After several years
serving in the southwest, Leopold’s advanced skills as an ecologist were recognized and he was offered a teaching position at the University of Wisconsin, Madison. While in Madison, he purchased eighty acres of extremely degraded land in sand county,
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Wisconsin.
Leopold built a modest house there and spent this time applying his
knowledge of ecology to the rehabilitation of his land. His theories revolved around the perspective that working with natural systems is more efficient than combating them. He believed that the health of all species in an ecosystem is of equal priority.13 In 1949, Aldo Leopold published his findings as A Sand County Almanac. It quickly became a best seller, and his description of the Land Ethic is still highly praised by environmentalists today. As Leopold describes, “[A] land ethic changes the role of Homo sapiens from conqueror of the land-community to plain member and citizen of it. It implies respect for his fellow-members, and also respect for the community as such.”13 Leopold’s greatest legacy was establishing the emphasis of ecological understanding into land management.
His writings influenced the founding of The
Wilderness Society, as well as inspired the breakthrough research of environmentalist Rachael Carson in years that followed.7
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Chapter 5: The Sixties & the Birth of Activism
Arguably the single most significant publication in environmental advocacy was released in the summer of 1962. Authored by biologist Rachel Carson, Silent Spring investigates the effects of synthetic pesticides in the environment.
The title Silent
Spring was originally intended as a chapter title of a section discussing the loss of bird life in her case studies. Instead, she used it metaphorically to describe the potential dismal future for natural environments everywhere.12 Silent Spring’s publication occurred just as numerous social movements were gaining momentum in the United States. The popular culture in America at the time was flooded with criticism of outdated social and political paradigms. It soon became a bestseller, and was adopted by progressive anti-governmental groups across the county. The success of Silent Spring is often considered due to Carson’s clear and urgent style of writing.
Within 10 years, the rampant use of the pesticide
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, commonly known as DDT, had been completely banned for private use through legislation. Carson is often praised for urging reform of synthetic chemical regulation; however, she wisely never directly called for a legislative ban in her writing. This political neutrality aided her legitimacy as a scientist as well as a writer.18 Carson’s writings helped to support the feminist movement of the sixties, as well as catalyzed countless grassroots initiatives.
Environmental organizations widely
adopted Silent Spring as a model of a successful initiative. These grassroots initiatives
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were also legitimized by the creation of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970. Until this point, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) handled all regulation of pesticides and herbicides. Carson identified this as a conflict of interests in her essays, and is commonly thought to be responsible for the EPA’s formation. Despite her death in 1964, Rachel Carson’s legacy as an advocate for environmental responsibility transcends to this day.17 According to biologist and environmental engineer Patricia Hynes, Carson’s research and publications “altered the balance of power in the world. No one since would be able to sell pollution as the necessary underside of progress so easily or uncritically.”10 Less than a decade later, as protest rallies urging the end of the Vietnam War became regular in the U.S., another environmental icon was born. The first Earth Day occurred on April 22, 1970. The event was organized by Wisconsin Senator Gaylord Nelson in reaction to visiting the 1969 oil spill site off the coast of Santa Barbara, California.
Nelson sought a strategy to unify the efforts of independent initiatives
occurring around the country as groups protested environmental destruction.
His
strategy was similar to that of grassroots anti-war protests that had adopted a bottom up organizational style. In this way, universities and communities were able to organize their own agendas under a widespread, uniform event.
In 1970, over 20 million
Americans participated in the events of Earth Day. This immense turnout helped to unify and push environmental issues into the national spotlight, and subsequently encourage legislation reform.
Today, 175 countries, and over half a billion people
celebrate Earth Day every April 22.25
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Chapter 6: Global Environmentalism
The events of the 1970 American Earth Day expanded the discussion of large scale degradation around the world. In 1972, Stockholm hosted the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. For the first time, a forum for international efforts and initiatives combating detrimental practices was opened. The result of the conference was the formation of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), with a goal to “provide leadership and encourage partnerships in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing and enabling nations and people to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations.”5 UNEP was a helpful guide for encouraging environmental awareness; however, it did not successfully address the responsibilities of corporations in America. With the support of humanitarian President Jimmy Carter, congress drafted the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA), commonly known as Superfund.
This act created a publically funded industry for
environmental restoration and rehabilitation efforts as well as the increased regulation of industrial waste.5 Comprehensive sustainability outlines first emerged with the publication of The Brundtland Report by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) in 1987.
Gro Harlem Brundtland, former prime minister of Norway, was
assigned the task of preparing a plan:
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1. To propose long-term environmental strategies for achieving sustainable development by the year 2000 and beyond. 2. To recommend ways concern for the environment may be translated into greater cooperation among developing countries and between countries at different stages of economic and social development and lead to the achievement of common and mutually supportive objectives that take account of
interrelationships
between
people,
resources,
environment,
and
development. 3. To consider ways and means by which the international community can deal more effectively with environmental concerns. 4. To help define shared perceptions of long-term environmental issues and the appropriate efforts needed to deal successfully with the problems of protection and enhancing the environment, an long-term agenda for action during the coming decades, and aspiration of goals for the world community. Brundtland’s report, entitled Our Common Future, was the first framework plan to emphasize the worldwide resource exploitation situation.
It analyzed economic
development and concluded that “we are living beyond our means, largely by borrowing against the future”. Brundtland’s was also the first plan to outline national action for addressing identified contexts.
Additionally, the report outlined a new strategy for
responsible decision making it coined sustainable development. Brundtland defines sustainable development as, “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” It continues to
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define sustainable development is the balance of environmental, economical, and social equity base concerns.29 The balance of environmental, social, and economic needs was further addressed at the 1992 UNCED, commonly referred to as the Earth Summit. Rio de Janeiro hosted 182 world leaders to discuss further action towards sustainable development. The summit resulted in the adoption of 27 principles to guide a blueprint for a global partnerships working towards sustainable development.
This guide is
commonly referred to as Agenda 21. The plan made the objectives of sustainable development more achievable by detailing strategies in 4 main ways.5
Agenda 21
resulted in: 1. The Statement of Principles on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of All Types of Forests 2. The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change 3. The UN Convention on Biological Diversity 4. Recommendation for an international convention on desertification Not long after the publication of Agenda 21, U.S. President Bill Clinton established the President’s Council of Sustainable Development (PCSD) in 1993. The council set out on the task of compiling a report proposing specific American strategies for sustainable development. In 1999, the PCSD released their final report; Towards a Sustainable America: Advancing Prosperity, Opportunity, and a Healthy Environment for the 21st Century. The plan proposed 140 actions for communities to undertake in order to reform their practices.5
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In 2002, Johannesburg, South Africa hosted the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD). Its mission was to review the 10 years after drafting Agenda 21, and make any appropriate amendments to the plan. The result was a higher emphasis on social and economic needs of development. Also, WSSD identified a fourth context to balance with the needs of the environment, economy, and equality.
This fourth
context was education.5 The progression of the paradigm of shared environmental responsibility has come a long way since humans first identified natural resources as potential assets to develop. The conversion of compassionate stewardship to environmental advocacy is a crucial step in achieving widespread awareness in our communities. The basics for drafting theory into implementation strategies has been proven at the large scale, however, these strategies, for multiple reasons, have not been widely adopted. The following sections will further define framework plans and the appropriate level of implementation.
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Part II: Introduction to a Framework “As to methods there may be a million and then some, but principles are few. The man who grasps principles can successfully select his own methods. The man who tries methods, ignoring principles, is sure to have trouble.” -Ralph Waldo Emerson
In the global perspective, there are three overwhelmingly dominant trends obstructing the path to sustainable development. In the broadest explanation, these trends are the deterioration of Earth’s natural systems, and the exponentially increasing population and consumption rates. The quantitative loss of species in the past 75 years is estimated to be the 6th most substantial extinction in Earth’s history.23 Simultaneously, the population rate is growing faster than the available food supply in over 60% of developing countries, while the American consumption rate continues to grow faster than any country in the world.21 These detriments of degradation and population rate are converging at increasingly rapid rates, in turn, constricting the time table we have to stabilize them.11 Now is the time for individuals, professionals, and decision makers to connect the dots and see the critical correlations between their skills and productive capacity, and achievable solutions to this looming global dilemma.
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Chapter 7: System Conditions
The first step in making those critical connections is the identification of current system conditions.
By applying the acknowledgement of global trends to the
understanding of biology, natural laws of physics, and ecology, individuals can begin to formulate conditions that respect the progression of time in our environment. This gives us a dynamic perspective of the state of our systems.11 System conditions are broad summaries of trends relating to the negative effects of a program of practices or paradigms. They are written in a manner which identifies practices which are not acceptable, nor reliable, for achieving the collective goals. For example, one developing system condition for an undemocratic government in the process of strategizing reform would read, “In a democratic government, the religious views and opinions of all represented individuals are respected and considered separate from legislation.” Successful system conditions are widely encompassing and consistent with each other. They catalyze further investigation of the immediate and future, local and regional, as well as social, environmental, and economic ramifications of existing practices and paradigms.
After encompassing all identified negligent
practices and paradigms into a set of broad, yet non-conflicting, system conditions, they can be referenced to guide the drafting of individual frameworks for more specific contexts.11, 21
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Chapter 8: Drafting a Framework Plan
A framework plan is simply the product of consulting clear, agreed upon, system conditions when analyzing specific contexts identified as in need of reform. Dr. KarlHenrik Robert, developer of the Natural Step, coined this motto about the Natural Step approach to sustainability: “Find fundamental principles of indisputable relevance, and thereafter ask the advice of others on how to apply them.”21 Once a framework is agreed upon and adopted, it provides a clear vision of the sustainable community future and a shared understanding of strategies to get there.5 Initiatives can be grouped together as programs and discussed not as separate, but interdependent projects. This is an extremely helpful tool to community organizers and planners attempting to educate the public on correlations between local scale projects and big picture themes. Dilemmas can arise when planners of different backgrounds disagree on the meaning and necessity of sustainability. Officials and citizens may still have different interpretations of the seriousness of what is happening on the global level, and may not identify how it directly correlates to the health and security of their local community. Individuals who do identify the seriousness of current global degradation may not know where best to concentrate their efforts, or even understand how they could produce any significant change.11 These concerns are some of many that need to be considered when drafting a framework plan. The vision of sustainable development and how a specific community can achieve sustainability need to be clearly addressed and agreed upon. Contexts, or
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community elements, in need of reform need to be understood prior to the application of the system conditions or principles.
The framework plan needs to be legible and
accessible to all community members once it is published.
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Chapter 9: The Municipal Level
Municipal government is often the level of jurisdiction that regulates aspects of community living that have the most impact on the individual. These municipal systems are almost always in charge of managing utility systems such as waste disposal, street and road maintenance, park and recreation maintenance, and public water systems. Additionally, municipalities are the chief regulators of land use and development, both in its location and quality. It is at the municipal level where individuals can have the most influence in the creation, modification, and regulation of ordinances and legislature.11, 21 Sustainability framework plans have been drafted for the global community, national level, and for individual states.
However, these frameworks have been
commonly shown to be less effective, and require a longer allowance of time to successful manifest reform. By working on the municipal level, the timeline for results is shortened and the rate of paradigm shift is increased.
If properly drafted and
implemented, the results of a municipal framework plan can be apparent and measured sooner than at any other level, further validating the program.11
Overcoming Barriers Communities can be intricate, multi-dimensional systems complicated by changing politics, private agendas, and economic barriers. It is often difficult to rally an entire community behind a single initiative, let alone a program of related initiatives. In the scope of sustainability, it is often not the intention of the initiative that causes it to
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lose support, but the details of its implementation or its ramifications to alternative agendas that become its eventual downfall.5 Potentially, implementation strategies of insufficiently planned initiatives may come in conflict with coexisting initiatives, while both sharing a common mission. For example: A parks department may ban the use of chemical applications to landscapes on public lands, only later to have the health department spray a pesticide to kill mosquitoes carrying the West Nile virus. In this scenario, both departments agree on the mission to protect public health, but their implantation strategies conflict.11 The cliché analogy of a sports team is commonly used to explain coordination of individuals and/or organizations. For clarity, compare a city government to a baseball team. Each player, or department, has unique skills and an individual strategy that they aim to execute. Additionally, each player, or department, understands they must work together to achieve their common mission. Only executing their personal strategies is beneficial to them in the short term, but counterproductive to the team’s long term mission.11
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Part III: Contexts in Need of Reform & Appropriate Strategies “Small shifts in deeply held beliefs and values can massively alter societal behavior and results – in fact, it may be the only things that ever has.” -Dee Hock
Previously published sustainability frameworks often share similar themes, however, vary in relevance or legibility to common citizens. Certain frameworks, such as the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), may lack relevance to small scale initiatives, where others, such as the Principles of Sustainable Development for Minnesota published in 2002, may not accurately represent the social factors stressing a different community.
Well-intentioned communities are challenged with drafting a
framework plan broad enough to stress global connection, as well as clear enough to identify local constraints, successful benchmarks, and multi-disciplinary adoption. The following material is drawn heavily from existing frameworks dedicated to specific municipalities, as well as from the work of planner Sarah James, planner and visionary Torbjorn Lahti, and biologist Karl-Henrik Robert. The Natural Step, developed by Karl-Henrik Robert is the primary source for the following context review. It will not be internally annotated; however, additional information not referenced from The Natural Step will be annotated. It is the role of the individual reader to relate these
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ideas to their specific community as well as to their local environmental, social, and economic constraints.
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Chapter 10: The Guiding Principles and System Conditions
As stated earlier, many existing sustainability framework plans were drafted with similar guiding principles and are the product of several parallel system conditions. These similar system conditions, or guiding themes, help to unite separate communities on similar paths to a more sustainable future. There are approximately seven identified universal principles found in the majority of all sustainability framework plans today.5 These principles include: 1. Stewardship 2. Respect for limits 3. Interdependence 4. Economic restructuring 5. Fair distribution 6. Intergenerational perspective 7. Nature as a model and teacher Establishing system conditions for a model sustainability framework plan requires the understanding of global natural systems as well as the basic destructive patterns of human practices.
Dr. Karl-Henrik Roberts established a method for determining
sustainability system conditions by working backwards from what we know as nonsustainable. The first step in this process is identifying connection points between society and ecosystems and thus forming basic principles of destruction.21 Roberts developed the following three principles of destruction:
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Principle 1: “Nature was damaged if concentrations of substances were continually rising because they were being dispersed outside the Earth’s crust faster than they were returned to it (or re-deposited), leading to a net input of elements into the biosphere (elements never break down).”
Principle 2: “Nature was damaged if concentrations of substances produced by society (combinations of elements) were continually rising because the rate at which they were dispersed exceeded the rate at which they could be broken down and built into new resources by nature (or deposited in the Earth’s crust).”
Principle 3: “Nature was damaged if the basis for the natural cycles and biological diversity was continuously diminishing thorough physical means such as extraction or by manipulation of ecosystems. Examples of extraction included such actions as clearcutting timber on too-large of areas or catching fish at a faster rate than nature could regenerate them.
Ecosystem manipulation
included such things as altering the water table, causing soil erosion through poor management of forests and cropland, risking accidental outcomes from the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), or covering fertile land with asphalt.”
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After these principles of destruction were determined, system conditions could be formulated for broadly outlining how a sustainable society would not contribute to these destructive patterns.21 Dr. Robert’s system conditions for sustainability are as follows: System Condition 1: “In the sustainable society, nature is not subject to systematically increasing concentrations of substances extracted from the Earth’s crust.”
System Condition 2: “In the sustainable society, nature is not subject to systematically increasing concentrations of substances produced by society.”
System Condition 3: “In the sustainable society, nature is not subject to systematically increasing degradation by physical means.”
System Condition 4: “In the sustainable society, basic human needs are met worldwide.”
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These four system conditions are essential to successfully applying a consistent framework to the unsustainable contexts in our society today.
The following is a
collection of commonly addressed contexts by sustainable framework plans already adopted in varying size communities around the world. Developed municipalities’ infrastructures and governmental organization operate similarly in many ways. This review of unsustainable contexts attempts to address elements of every community striving for a more sustainable future. Many identified solutions to contexts in need of reform are parallel to those of related contexts. Often, by addressing a problem in a community with an established framework, initiatives are also aiding the solution to other related contexts. As outlined earlier, most all frameworks are influenced by seven general principles. By adopting those principles, communities can effectively address multiple contexts with consistency and clarity.
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Chapter 11: Renewable Energy Sources “The two most abundant forms of power on earth are solar and wind, and they're getting cheaper and cheaper…” -Ed Begley
The need for change is apparent to all those willing to recognize it.
The
unnatural burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, produce 21.3 billion tons of carbon dioxide alone per year. This is almost two times the amount of carbon dioxide our natural systems can absorb on their own.26 This single practice, for hundreds of years, has created unmistakable environmental and health related problems. In the global perspective, never before seen levels of greenhouse gasses are responsible for dilemmas such as climate change, rapidly melting ice caps, rising sea levels, and increasingly rapid movement of invasive species. On the local level, increased levels of greenhouse gasses have manifested in the form of air pollution, acid rain, and have shown to correlate with the spike in asthma and respiratory illness, worldwide.26 Every sustainability framework plan published to date has identified the burning of fossil fuels to be an unsustainable practice. Not only is the demand for fossil fuels rising due to the expanding global infrastructure dependence, but the supply is decreasing and many wells are projected to be dry by end of the century.26 Many
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communities, most notably in European locations, have already switched to renewable energy sources purely as a response to rising oil costs.21 The two foremost purposes for burning fossil fuels are for heating and transportation.
Existing frameworks suggest two primary routes for sustainable
development in response to eliminating the dependence on fossil fuels. One route encourages the utilization of alternative, renewable resources such as solar power and wind power.
The other route suggests viewing waste as a renewable resource by
converting the constant production of biomass into a viable fuel source. With these two options presented, a framework challenges communities to investigate precedent communities, and then advance on the most appropriate avenue of action.
How to Implement the Solution When applying system conditions to a context in need of reform, it is often helpful to review how the conditions relate to individuals’ personal lifestyles before analyzing their surrounding community. Often, communities’ paradigms are rooted in the shared lifestyles of individuals. As an individual, one has a tremendous amount of power to change their direct impact and influence others. In regards to eliminating dependence on fossil fuels, well-intentioned individuals can: 1. Reduce personal consumption 2. Support technology development of alternative fuels 3. Seek out, and support other well-intentioned individuals
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By making fundamental consumption changes, individuals’ awareness of the issue at hand increases. By relating the dilemma to their lifestyles, individuals’ are more likely to carry that interest of problem solving into their work and social life.18 As the burning of fossil fuels are everyday factors in the production and transport of utilities, city planners and officials play a significant role in decreasing the dependency.
Alternatives must be examined and considered in a long term
perspective. The conversion of infrastructure is the single largest impediment to this conversion.
However, if truly considered in the long term perspective, with social,
economic, and environmental concerns respected, the benefits of investing in alternative energy sources are unmistakable.
Federal assistance and community
support are often catalysts to this conversion, as well as clear and appropriately phased objectives. Political will and long term vision are necessary for this type of conversion to occur. The most renewable resource for political will is community support, and thus, this type of initiative must begin with responsible individuals.
Swedish fossil fuel independent model communities: Falkenberg, Kangos, Eskilstuna, Overtornea, Degerfors, Umea North American precedents of successful initiatives: -District heating via renewable geothermal resources: Eugene, OR; Lansing, MI; Fairbanks, A; San Bernadino, CA
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-Communities embracing significant utilization of solar & wind power: Denver, CO; Austin, TX; Newton, MA -100% powered by renewable energy sources: Santa Monica, CA
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Chapter 12: Transportation & Mobility “All truly great thoughts are conceived by walking.” -Friedrich Nietzche
In the early history of the United States, wide expanses of wilderness and open range were considered a novelty by immigrants traveling from the dense urban communities of Europe and Asia. In a sense, this frontier metaphorically represented the fundamental basis for which the United States government developed its constitution and bill of rights.
Opportunities for development and land use were
seemingly endless. Many American cities built before the Industrial Revolution were intentionally developed in a manner that respected the current technology of mobility. Transportation was accessible, for those who could afford it, via horses and carriages, and by foot for those who could not. This system, modeling European cities, catalyzed the development of an extremely dense urban core. As a result, citizens of these cities are among the leaders in lowest per-capita carbon dioxide emissions today, in regards to transportation.21 The common paradigm was abruptly shifted along with development strategies following the Industrial Revolution.
The invention and mass production of the
automobile by Henry Ford in 1905 led to a new school of city planners. Utilizing the new widespread accessibility of the automobile, communities could now be set up
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farther from neighboring communities, amenities, and utilities without creating isolation. The modern suburb was born. This new school of developers did not have the vision to comprehend that the creation of the modern suburb would someday be a leading cause of fossil fuel dependency, neighborhood cultural deterioration, and urban sprawl.
Today,
greenhouse gasses emitted due to the burning of fossil fuels for American transportation accounts for 21% of all carbon dioxide emissions produced worldwide.26 Urban sprawl can lead to the economic and cultural collapse of communities.
By
locating amenities farther from residential zones, individuals become more and more dependent on their automobile.
In suburban communities all around America, the
cultural fabric of unique communities is being stretched and torn by growing community disaffection and loss of social capitol.1 Some solutions to this complex dilemma are seemingly obvious, yet proportionately, American emissions from transportation are still increasing. Others still need some investigative work by well-intentioned individuals determined to identify root sources of the problem.
How to Implement the Solution Many understanding
community parallel
contexts stressed
cannot contexts.
be
appropriately The
context
addressed of
without
transportation
is
interdependent to that of fossil fuel dependency, and economic self sufficiency. While fossil fuel dependency is often approached through the scope of economic sustainability, transportation is often viewed through a lens of social sustainability. It is important to keep Dr. Karl-Henrik Roberts’ analogy of the three legged stool in mind
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when applying any system conditions to a context, especially transportation. Roberts suggested that the stool, or sustainable development, cannot stand unless equal distribution and attention is given to social, economic, and environmental constraints.21 On the personal level, there are several strategies individuals can undertake to make a significant difference.
The details of initiatives may be different in various
communities; however, by organizing a general strategy, and applying a framework to one’s lifestyle, individuals become the strongest catalysts for change. Well-intentioned individuals can: 1. Seek out and utilize alternative means of transportation that is via carpool, bicycle, on foot, or public transit 2. Urge local officials to invest in alternative transportation infrastructures 3. Support and take part in community initiatives that encourage alternative transportation 4. Personally invest in preserving local commerce, culture, and identity The weight of addressing transportation dilemmas rests heavily with planners and city officials.
City officials need to recognize root problems degrading local
economies, cultures, and environments.
These individuals need to understand the
benefits and feasibility of the long term allocation of federal funds and local revenue to solutions, rather than solely maintenance. They need to be proponents and active players in the development of new urbanism, infill development, and investments in alternative transportation infrastructure.
These infrastructures may include the
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development of greenway systems, light rail, and the conversion of public transportation to vehicles powered via renewable fuels. The appropriate development of alternative transportation is critical to its accessibility by the community. Under a proper approach, the development of these transportation hubs and infrastructures can positively affect noise abatement, business development, emissions management, cultural revitalization, and communal identity. Municipalities need to offer acknowledgement and incentives for individuals to take active rolls in such initiatives.
Appropriate intentions are helpful; however,
incentives encourage individuals to invest time and effort at significantly higher rates.1 Municipalities need to foster and collaborate with private interest groups working parallel to city efforts under a single, or similar, sustainability framework plan.
These
fundamental efforts are necessary for solving problems related to any community context.
Precedents for retrofitting infrastructure to alternative transportation: Overtornea, Lulea, and Eskilstuna, Sweden; Dallas, TX; Cambridge, MA; Portland, OR
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Chapter 13: Ecologically Responsible Housing “What use is a house, if you haven’t got a tolerable planet to put it on?” -Henry David Thoreau
Most Americans have a plethora of housing options compared to the average individual worldwide. The average American home in 1950 was 983 sq. feet. By 2000, the average American home was 2,265 sq. feet.29 Just as the context of fossil fuel dependency is interdependent to the context of transportation, so is ecologically responsible housing interdependent to the issues of protecting our natural resources, land use planning and design, and waste management. To
understand
the
challenges
facing
ecologically
responsible
housing
development, individuals need to recognize what is not responsible. Correlated to the context of transportation, housing underwent a fundamental change after the industrial revolution. As suburban areas became accessible via automobile, the average lot size increased and agricultural land was converted to residential development. As building techniques evolved and distant materials became more accessible, waste generation due to construction increased.
The importing of non-local construction materials,
machinery, and labor indirectly increases carbon dioxide emissions generated to build a house. Additionally, as the size of the average American home increased, so did the amount of energy necessary to heat, cool, and light the average home.26
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Dr. Karl-Henrik Roberts developed four specific system conditions to approach the housing dilemma. These system conditions are the result of applying the principles of the Natural Step to the specific context of housing. They are as follows: Ecological housing is housing that: 1. Reduces wasteful dependence upon fossil fuels, heavy metals, and minerals that accumulate in nature 2. Reduces wasteful dependence on chemicals and synthetic substances that accumulate in nature 3. Reduces encroachment upon ecosystems 4. Meets human needs fairly and efficiently
How to Implement the Solution These four system conditions are valuable for individuals to indentify inconsistencies between their personal living situations and the objectives of sustainability. Frameworks understand that it is unreasonable to expect individuals to make expensive, drastic changes to their current living situation.
Conversely,
sustainability frameworks encourage individuals to retrofit their current situation as much possible to live compatibly with its proposed initiatives.
A well-intentioned
individual, firmly situated in their living situation still has many avenues for action. Potential actions may include:
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1. Create a plan to progressively retrofit current utilities to less impactful systems. These target utilities for reform may include water, heating, cooling, and waste management 2. Reassessing necessary comfort levels. If retrofitting utilities is not an option, consider utilizing natural systems for household comfort as opposed to conditioned climates. Consistent natural systems include wind, sunlight, and precipitation (in respect to geographic location) 3. When remodeling, consider the full life of possible materials and products (non-monetary cost of manufacturing through breakdown). Also, consider the potential range of effects on ecosystems construction techniques may have 4. Consider the distance travelled from manufacturer of all household products used in maintenance or renovation If individuals have the means to relocate, multitudes of new factors need to be considered. These factors are parallel to those of which responsible designers must consider on every possible scale. Well-intentioned individuals intending on relocating must consider: 1. Consider infill, as opposed to building new. 2. Consider location in regards to necessary amenities.
(Within walking
distance or within biking distance) 3. Consider location in regards to public transportation opportunities 4. If individuals choose to construct new housing, consider the above as well as: a. Consider minimal comfortable living square footage
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b. Consider non-monetary cost of building material manufacturing, transportation to site, and instillation c. Consider effects on ecosystem of runoff during construction and after completion d. Assess if architecture works with or against natural systems (ie. Diurnal cycle, wind, precipitation, and seasonal climates) Once again, the weight of reforming the current housing paradigm rests primarily with planners and city officials.
These individuals are responsible for zoning and
regulating quantity as well as quality of development. Well-intentioned municipalities need to consider framework plans that promote urban infill, as well as discourage suburban development. The long term benefits of urban infill are often clouded by developers’ cost benefits of sprawling, suburban communities. As mentioned earlier, municipalities need to offer incentives to families and individuals willing to infill existing or vacant housing close to the urban core. Municipalities also need to plan for urban infill, locating future amenities and interests near the downtown, encouraging commerce.
If implanted successful, urban infill
generates commerce and sparks interest in individuals for the overall well being of the community.1 Planning for and providing affordable ecologically responsible housing for all levels of income is an important task that must be executed on the municipal level. All levels of income must be able to afford locations in urbanity for communities to be vibrant, culturally diverse places.
In locations of existing high property values,
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encouraging tenants of all economic backgrounds to become involved in the design, construction, and maintenance of ecologically responsible housing is a proven solution to ensure diversity and awareness of sustainable development.29 Another often overlooked alternative to unsustainable housing is communal living or cohousing. In these scenarios, individuals share a common facility and often their skills as a professional if called upon. Cohousing addresses individuals’ social needs as well as basic living conditions. Tenants of such communities are often encouraged to share as much as possible for the betterment of the community. This may include an individual’s automobile, professional service, childcare, and food preparation. In return, community members receive the same benefits they offer. These micro-communities are becoming more and more popular in urban areas with high property values. This form of housing can be extremely economically, socially, and environmentally efficient if constructed to simultaneously respect individuals’ privacy when necessary.
North American model communities embracing ecologically responsible housing or cohousing: Austin, TX; Denver, CO; Santa Monica, CA; Portland, OR; Berkeley, CA
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Chapter 14: Rethinking Business Practices “A business that makes nothing but money is a poor business.” -Henry Ford
From the beginnings of commerce, ambitious individuals have had to find a reasonable medium between generating enough income and offering affordable rates. A secondary consideration in any business practice is assessing sustainable levels of extraction, or exploitation, of resources.
If resource levels were low to begin with,
businesses that over exploited soon found out the hard way that they could not operate for extended periods of time. Thinking in a long term perspective, the question arises; what happens when the resource level is seemingly high to begin with? For the longevity of the resource, does it matter at what rate exploitation occurs if the resource can replenish itself? These questions can be easily ignored while the resource supply is seemingly endless. Now, as commerce increases, and more exploiters are in the picture, what happens when the resource is being divided between hundreds, even thousands, of exploiters? As the resource is extracted at higher rates than it can be replenished, competition increases, and businesses are forced to make serious changes. In many instances, this is reality. To date, most business wide overhauls to more sustainable practices have been undertaken for one reason: It makes good economic sense.
Historically, the
relationship between business and various environmental agendas has been one of
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tension and conflict. Within the past 15 years, a new light has been shown on the advantages of reforming business practices to be more efficient, environmentally friendly, and socially acceptable.
How to Implement the Solution As an individual not involved in owning or managing a business, there may seem to be few options available to influence local business practices. In reality, individuals may have the most powerful tool in this challenge; purchasing power.
Businesses
provide, and manufacturers create, what the consumer wants to buy. By exercising their purchasing power, and influencing others to exercise theirs, an individual casts their vote on which products and services they find acceptable. By understanding how the consumer controls the market, individuals can help encourage businesses reform their practices. Potential actions for individuals seeking better business practices in their community may be: 1. Exercise personal purchasing power and influence others to support products and services they find environmentally, socially, and economically sound 2. Research business practices prior to hire 3. Inform others on irresponsible, as well as exemplary business practices in your community 4. Support the development of technology aiding more responsible business practices Individuals who do have financial ties to business management have the most critical job in shifting this paradigm of inefficiency. Economical advantages aside, the
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benefits of environmentally and socially responsible practices are endless through reducing waste, reducing utility costs, reducing fossil fuel dependency, and respecting local natural resources. Working with a framework, business owners need to reflect upon the system conditions and apply them to the specific works of their operation. A few simple guidelines for reform may entail: 1. Assess a sustainable amount resource extraction (refer to framework for detailed definition of “sustainable) 2. Assess waste generation and management in production 3. Assess site for toxic runoff, noise and air pollution, and non-monetary costs for employee transportation (indirect greenhouse gas emissions) 4. Assess full life of product or effects of service: This includes packaging, and media of marketing (newspaper, magazine, flyer, or internet advertisement) City planners and officials can follow the preceding suggestions as well as support, draft, and implement codes that guide businesses to reform. All too often, the complexity of business narrows the scope of consideration for business managers and owners. Their livelihood is dependent on creating commerce the best way they can. Often, alternative, parallel routes of action may make a tremendous difference in the local ecosystem and be more economically efficient. The role of municipal regulation is to spotlight these alternatives and illustrate the economic benefits to business owners. Additionally, municipalities often manage and regulate local utilities. By customizing utility programs, municipalities can offer benefits to businesses making an effort to reform their practices as well as put pressure on businesses that refuse to reform. For example, municipalities can assess the amount of storm water a business contributes to
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the water system and thus increase their rate accordingly.
This simple adjustment
would encourage companies to reassess the water permeability of their site, and install surfaces that can absorb and manage more storm water. In turn, this positively affects the local natural waterway system by putting less stress on streams during heavy rains or melts. For more specific information on reforming business practices to more sustainable ones, refer to The Natural Step for Business by Brian Natrass and Mary Altomare.
Industry specific sustainable business practices are being developed
everyday by innovative individuals, searching for ways to be more economically efficient.
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Chapter 15: Emerson’s Legacy: Self-Reliance “It is easy to see that a greater self-reliance must work a revolution in all the offices and relations of men; in their religion; in their education; in their pursuits; their modes of living; their association; in their property; in their speculative views… Nothing can bring you peace but yourself” -From Essay II 1841: Self-Reliance, Ralph Waldo Emerson
Ralph Waldo Emerson’s essays may have been inspired by his resentment of popular society, an existential value of self, or simply his personal pride of independence. However, his stress on the importance of self-reliance resonated with the followers of transcendentalism and very much so holds relevancy to this day. Emerson was not an expert on the cultural, economic, or environmental effects of urban sprawl or job exportation, but his idealist value of self may hold the key to how communities across the globe can preserve their local identity and prosperity. In the scope of sustainability, self-reliance (the dependence on only one’s self), can be perceived as equivalent to self-sufficiency (the ability to properly provide for one’s self).
As a community, the importance of self-sufficiency cannot be
underestimated. Self-sufficiency encompasses a community’s ability to provide ample food, water, energy, goods and services, housing, as well as other indirect elements necessary to meet basic needs such as jobs and transportation. If one or several of
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these contexts are not addressed, the cultural fabric sustaining identity and prospective growth begins to tear. Communities that fail to provide these amenities to their residents are forced to turn to neighboring communities for assistance.
When this happens, both the
availability and delivery system of the resource can become unstable factors. This puts stress on neighboring communities’ consumption of the resource, and increases the monetary and non-monetary cost of importing the resource for the original community. At this point, the residents of the original community are vulnerable to additional taxes and conflicting agendas from two municipal governments. It is typically thought that this process only happens to small, isolated villages with few natural resources.
However, large communities of significant size can
experience the same crisis. Cities and towns all over southern California experienced this dilemma during the energy crisis of 2001. In many scenarios, importing resources also means losing jobs. The loss of jobs in a community can lead to higher emigration, resulting in a smaller tax base and less locally generated commerce. If individuals decide to stay and commute to jobs elsewhere, this can lead to higher dependence on transportation infrastructure, traffic congestion, and sprawl. In these times of crisis, municipalities may see offering incentives for large corporations to relocate in their community as a quick fix. In reality, this may only exaggerate the problem.
The relocation of large corporations means more jobs,
however, many of which are reserved for employees already familiar with the company who must now commute.
Also, for continuity and dependability, corporations often
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import resources from large wholesalers to all of their locations. By not utilizing local resources, goods, or services, the corporation does not guarantee the generation of local commerce. Wages are paid and production increases, but this avenue does not necessarily equate a solution to the lack of self-sufficiency. Addressing this context does not necessarily imply that communities should prohibit trade or commerce with neighboring communities.
Inter-regional and
international trade can generate significant commerce not possible through local resource trade. However, communities’ ability to provide the elements necessary to fulfill basic needs of their residents ensures their ability to remain in control and not be left vulnerable to external regulation.
How to Implement the Solution As individuals aware of this potential crisis in their community, several measures can be taken. Understanding the vitality of keeping limited resources in the community can be the key to preserving self-sufficiency. Well-intentioned individuals can: 1. Invest income on goods and services guaranteed to support local economy 2. Understand and respect the capacity of local resources in personal lifestyle 3. Inform others of the benefits of respecting local resources, and keeping revenue local 4. Promote the appreciation and recreation of local features and culture The challenge of preserving self-sufficiency can be a complex matter for planners and officials. This context encompasses the challenges of every issue dealing with
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preserving the sustainability of community well-being. Officials must have foresight to predict, and plan for, potential changes in resource availability and changes in regional social climate. Planners need to be creative when faced with diminishing resources. Alternative means of production should be analyzed and considered. Municipal code should reflect pride in locality as well as promote entrepreneurship and local business over transplanted corporations.
Officials need to explore and encourage the
development of economic niches for communities facing diminishing identity. Development of these niches is often how communities can alter their commercial strategies to generate local revenue. And as a rule, planners and officials need to serve as model representatives from their community and personally promote local identity and self-sufficiency initiatives.
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Chapter 16: Youth Awareness: Environmental Education "If you want one year of prosperity, plant corn If you want ten years of prosperity, plant trees If you want one hundred years of prosperity, educate people." - Chinese proverb
It is no secret that the education of today fosters the leaders of tomorrow.
If
individuals do truly comprehend the destructive practices occurring today, should they not want to educate their children to prevent their generation from continuing down the same path? The understanding of the effects of irresponsible practices originates from a scientific understanding of natural systems. Through this knowledge, the scientific community is able to identify where human practices are disrupting the natural behavior of systems and native species in our environment. Thus, a scientific understanding of natural systems is essential to comprehending the correlation with manmade degradation. The American paradigm of the essential modern education includes the grasp of basic mathematics, English grammar and language, basic science, and various topics of social science or history.
In stressful economic times, unfortunately, curriculum
deemed nonessential, such as music, classical arts, performing arts, industrial trades, and outdoor or environmental programs have received limited funding or have been eliminated altogether. It is this prioritization of knowledge that may be responsible for the disconnect in comprehension of cause and effect environmental relationships in previous generations.
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Environmental Education plays a critical role the development of responsible citizens.
As the world continues to become increasingly urbanized, it is vital that
children grow up with an awareness and understanding of the systems they depend on to live efficiently in the urban environment. Dr. Stapp, of the University of Michigan, describes environmental education as curriculum that, “is aimed at producing a citizenry that is knowledgeable concerning the biophysical environment and its associated problems, aware of how to help solve these problems, and motivated to work toward their solution.” Environmental education advances the utility of basic physical science and applies it to the interdependent relationship between man and the environment.24 The advantages of having a population base familiar with the processes of natural systems and our interdependent relationship with the environment are noticeable. One example of this advantage is the effectiveness of our legislative body. Understanding the basics of how our democratic system operates, representatives, proportionately elected from the commons, vote on issues for further action and legislation. Just as we currently expect our representatives to understand significant statistical data provided by advisory committees, we must also expect them to understand all the possible effects of legislation on our precious natural resources. Additionally, as our urban populations increasingly dominate the rural, it is important that representatives from urban districts clearly understand the vitality of environmental stewardship in correlation to the vitality of urban health and well-being.
This
understanding of our interdependent relationship with the physical environment is a cornerstone of environmental curriculum. By implementing environmental education programs into the core of modern education, we ensure that the knowledge of the
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biophysical environment, and our responsibility to respect it, is considered in regulation of future development.
How to Implement the Solution As individuals, and parents, concerned about the current disconnect between public education and knowledge of environment systems, there are measures one can take. The most important of which is to provide your children with exposure to the natural world. By removing the designed environment, children can observe and learn how natural systems operate without human influence. Typically, the more exposure a child gets to the natural landscape, the more they understand it and feel comfortable in it. Parents may often find that by personally exploring environmental issues with their children, they become more aware themselves. Additional measures may include: 1. Explore and learn about natural landscapes with your children 2. Write or personally contact your school board lobbying for increased funding allocation for environmental education programs 3. Enroll your children in city-wide parks departments’ environmental education initiatives 4. Discover the origins and routes of delivery for vital, everyday resources such as clean water, food, and energy with your children An important note to consider is the importance of leading by example. Children will mimic habits and actions of adults they see consistently. By setting a good example of environmental stewardship, children will grow up practicing the habits that will form environmental responsibility.
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As planners and city officials, the most important task, while addressing this context, is to encourage the development of environmental education programs in the public education curriculum.
A potential strategy may involve restructuring the
allocation of funds to school districts. Offering incentives to develop these programs, or partially convert existing ones, may result in new environmental curriculum. Reviewing existing programs and providing a uniform model program is the duty of school boards. By providing a uniform program that is up to date and relevant to the regional environment, school boards help to guarantee every student receives the same information. For communities with declining enrollment, the development of an extensive environmental education program can result in the creation of a local niche. This niche may lead to increased enrollment and immigration.
Currently, there are numerous
federal grants available for the development of environmental educational programs. Such grants may provide the funding for physical improvements such as outdoor labs and learning areas, as well as for expanding curriculum and field study opportunities.
Applicable model environmental education curriculum: Project WILD: A wildlife focused conservation program designed for K-12 educators and their students
UNESCO International Environmental Education Program: prototype curriculum applicable to K-12 programs
Frameworks and
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If Trees Could Talk: Middle School oriented curriculum blending environmental education and social science
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Chapter 17: Managing Consumption & Waste “If we continually convert non-renewable resources into garbage, the prices of those resources and the costs of managing wastes will inevitably rise.” -Karl-Henrik Roberts
Individuals not employed or directly associated with the waste management industry may perceive waste management as the simple act of transporting garbage far away from urban life or residential areas.
In reality, modern waste management
encompasses an entire realm of strategies for dealing with nonrenewable materials. Unfortunately, many of those materials we’ve deemed nonrenewable, could potentially have extended lives. In America, this accumulation of solid waste and greenhouse gas emissions sums to nearly one million pounds per person. citizen, this number is staggering.
Compared to the global
On average, less than two percent of the total
amount generated is eventually recycled.
Of that two percent, more than half is
unintentionally recycled by the initial consumer; meaning waste departments sort and recycle material for state incentives as an after consumer disposal.26 Recycling is the broad title given to employing alternative, secondary utilities for materials and products traditionally sent to landfills or incinerators. These types of initiatives have gained momentum (most notably in Europe), but have not become a universal practice. Voluntary recycling programs provide instant “green gratification” to the participant. In other words, the act of recycling inspires participants to feel proud of
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following through with a voluntary, well-intentioned deed, as well as often motivates them to further act upon an inflated “green conscious.” What processes occur after the material is disposed of are rarely understood or seen by the individual. With that said, there are mandatory municipality-wide recycling programs that have resulted in significant waste management cost savings, and have helped expedite the regional paradigm shift regarding waste. Such programs include waste management operations in Portland, OR; Devins, MA; and Kansas City, Mo. However, these communities are few and far between. In some cases, it may actually cost communities more to recycle than to send material to landfills due to minimal accessibility and poor sophistication of available recycling centers.11, 26 Given effective and accessible foundries and recycling centers, recycling initiatives can be very helpful for communities trying to reform waste management. Yet, despite how pure this type of campaign’s intentions may be, it does not address the root issue; Overconsumption. In The Natural Step for Communities, Sarah James compares voluntary recycling initiatives to a dose of Tylenol. In other words, recycling temporarily alleviates communities’ naivety to the paradigm of overconsumption. Recycling does not encourage individuals to consume less material; in fact, it subliminally condones current consumption rates, and quite possibly, encourages increased rates.11 In the 1990s, two Canadian scientists developed what was later coined as an ecological footprint. This scale, originally designed for the individual, has been further customized to be applied to families, corporations, communities, and ultimately, entire nations.
An ecological footprint converts resource consumption amounts into the
physical land area needed to support that particular rate. On average, the American
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ecological footprint is just over 24 acres.
The average world citizen’s ecological
footprint, including American’s, is 5.6 acres.26 The current consumption rate in comparison to that of world populations, presents America with an undeniable dilemma. Eventually, soon in many communities, landfills will fill to capacity. In addition, incineration centers are proving continuously more detrimental to human and ecosystem health.
How will communities manage
waste if it is not longer feasible to bury or burn it? Addressing this context requires, as with several other demanding contexts, a broad focus on the root issues and practices encouraging its employment. Analyzing all the root issues imploring the acceptance of overconsumption exceeds the realm this essay; however, two key issues need to be identified. First of all, the production and manufacturing of our foods and products is a significant context contributing immense amounts of immediate waste every year. Immediate waste is considered to be nonbiodegradable packaging, as well as materials used solely for transportation or presentation. Such materials are often extremely mass produced, and respectively monetarily cheap.
The cost effectiveness of such
supplementary materials equates the acceptance and promotion of their use, regardless of the limited life of its utility. Post-industrial revolution, the mass production of packaging alone has become an extremely lucrative industry. Prior to the industrial revolution, similarly produced products, such as produce and clothing, were delivered to the consumer without excessive, nonrenewable packaging.
It is understood that the advances in food
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preservation have been significant since the invention of plastics. However, have American’s exceeded a limit of necessity? Is our collective phobia of consuming raw or unpackaged goods a result of experience with contaminated goods, or simply an excess due to capability. Our modern society’s need for extensive packaging spurs a whole new set of social questions. Second, the irresponsible design of products, most notably electronics, with limited life spans is another element contributing immense amounts of waste. Electronics deliver heavy metals to landfills that can result in extremely hazardous conditions for human and wildlife health. Heavy metals pose serious threats to the contamination of drinking water. contaminate large bodies of water.
Relatively minute amounts of heavy metals can Heavy metal poisoning has been associated to
multiple chronic illnesses and cancer. Irresponsible design will be further addressed in Chapter 19.
How to Implement the Solution Individuals have important roles in reforming our American consumption paradigm. As stated earlier, individuals hold tremendous purchasing power. Use it wisely. Support others to make wiser purchases. Micro-communities can influence the practices of local businesses, restaurants, and even inspire municipal initiatives. It is important to understand, and exercise the power of the consumer. Additional strategies for well-intentioned individuals may include: 1. Exercise purchasing power to support products and produce that minimize excessive packaging
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a. Seek out alternatives to excess packaging such as reusable nonsynthetic packaging or reusable grocery bags b. Don’t bag it if you can carry it c. Seek out products sold with no packaging at all such as fresh produce, as well as bulk products such as grain, nuts, cereals, coffees and teas 2. Compost organic and biodegradable materials 3. Support and participate in reduced consumption initiatives 4. Seek out second life utilities for all materials considered for disposal 5. Support others to take part in personal initiatives to consume less Municipalities have the critical role of managing waste for communities. Traditional ways are showing themselves as more and more unsustainable as rates of consumption increase. It is the duty of planners and city officials to explore alternative ways to manage waste in the future. This looming future of unmanageable waste is approaching must faster in some communities than others. Sewage treatment systems are becoming increasingly stressed as cities grow and the area of impervious materials expand. Alternatives to traditional water treatment may include the utilization of natural systems such as the wetland purification system. It has been shown that by utilizing existing “solar aquatic systems” in wetlands, individuals and communities can treat equivalent amounts of water as well as realize equivalent, even higher water quality.20 Municipalities are also responsible for land zoning and drafting industrial codes. By understanding the benefits of practicing well planned industrial ecology, communities can reduce the amount of waste produced by local industries.
Industrial ecology
incorporates successful zoning, land use, utilization of waste bi-products, and the
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development of symbiotic relationships with neighboring industries.
This idea of
developing and locating industries near each other who can utilize each other’s biproducts as fuels or resources allows communities to welcome industrial development, while maintaining relatively low waste management costs. By matching industries with perfect pair industries, waste can be significantly minimized and completely eliminated in many instances.
Extensive Recycling Precedents with Significant Results: The Global Action Plan (GAP): Portland, OR; Seattle, WA; San Jose, CA; Chattanooga TN Precedent Solar Aquatic Systems: Toronto, ON; Henderson, NV; and multiple counties in NY, NH, TX, and MA Models of Industrial Ecology: Londonderry, NH; Fort Charles, VA; Tiverton, ON; Dartmouth, NS
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Chapter 18: Protecting Natural Resources “A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise.” -Aldo Leopold
Natural resources are often referred to as if they are grouped together as a stock pile of goods that communities in a region must share equally. But the specifics of resource management, delivery, and significance of protection are rarely known by community members. How many individuals, business, or restaurant owners truly know what are, and how much of, our natural resources are needed to uphold their way of life? What is not considered a natural resource? Are praised wildlife and pest species both considered resources worth conserving? If we neglectfully allow degradation of one natural resource, or species, will it affect all the others? These are all questions that need to be addressed when applying a framework plan to the context of regional natural resources and biodiversity. Over the past 50 years, environmental science has advanced significantly to be able to identify what human practices are detrimental to the vitality of natural systems and species. We have learned the importance protecting resources used everyday such as clean air, water, and food.24 However, can we truly understand the importance of the overall biodiversity in a region?
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As stated earlier, the current rate of species extinction is estimated to be the sixth most extensive period in the history of our world. The question remains, how does degradation, or decline, of species affect the health of other resources, and especially us (assuming we are not directly dependent on the species)? In the local perspective, we know that species dependent upon declining species also become stressed. Two things can occur. (1.) The dependent species adapts to find new resources, previously provided by the declining species. (2.) The species also begins to decline, and may put stress on additional species dependent on it. This pattern continues until, eventually, the ecosystem stabilizes and all niches are utilized. This process has been occurring naturally due to a variety of factors for millions of years.28 Understanding this process still does not fully answer the question of how declining biodiversity affects the human species. If the current rate of species extinction continues, is there a threshold that once met leads to the decline of all species, including us?
Unfortunately, the answers to these questions are not fully known
(Wilson). As the biologist E.O. Wilson stated, “by the time we find out [the answers of biodiversity thresholds], however, it might be too late. One planet, one experiment.” Consider an analogy of an airplane flight, during which the airplane loses rivets to visualize declining biodiversity. Each species that declines to extinction represents a rivet being lost mid-flight. At what point would the amount of missing rivets cause the plane to crash?
With that said, understand the limits of this analogy, and that
ecosystems can sometimes heal themselves, given the appropriate resources.28
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The importance to communities of protecting the natural resources tangible to us everyday has clearly been shown through severe situations of declining human health, growing dependence on neighboring communities, and increasing emigration. On the other hand, the importance of protecting natural systems and biodiversity, regionally distant to our communities, has not necessarily been shown essential. However, by reviewing the natural processes of an isolated ecosystem facing a decline or extinction of a species, we can apply that science to the larger scale. All ecological projections estimate that the increasing rate of species extinction will have negative effects on human well being. By reviewing situations of previous mass extinctions, the trends suggest the most stress falls upon the dominant species in each ecosystem.28, 26 The complete effects of declining biodiversity are certainly not fully known. The protection of biodiversity, other than for its innate value, can be metaphorically viewed as purchasing insurance. This may not seem like enough of an incentive for some individuals; however, many economic benefits have also been correlated to appropriately utilizing and embracing regions of rich biodiversity.28
How to Implement the Solution As an individual interested in protecting a region’s natural resources and biodiversity, one has several avenues of action. A useful action may be to identify resources and species that are currently being threatened in your community. A good strategy in this effort may be referencing data collected by established conservational organizations. The World Wildlife Fund and The Nature Conservancy are excellent
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resources for identifying stressed species, and discovering ways to contribute to their preservation. Alternative strategies for a well-intentioned individual may include: 1. Personally research and critique your communities strategy for natural resource protection 2. Support local initiatives focused on the preservation of regional “keystone” species 3. Exercise a minimal amount of consumption, especially if local resources or resource infrastructures are stressed 4. Respect distant region’s natural resources by consuming local goods 5. Support others to invest in the preservation of local natural resources Municipalities’ primary role in the effort to protect natural resources is through responsible zoning, environmental codes, and development regulation. Officials need to have the foresight to plan years in advance prior to resource allocation. Regulations on land development can preserve the health of ecosystems in and surrounding communities. The health of natural systems is vital to the preservation of biodiversity. It is important for departments in municipal governments to work closely to coordinate their operations to ensure minimal damage to surrounding ecosystems. Frameworks emphasizing natural resource protection need to be applied universally to all departments of public office. Appropriately addressing additional contexts such as minimizing consumption, decreasing dependence on fossil fuels, and reforming zoning codes all help to protect local biodiversity indirectly.
Municipalities should develop
public initiatives and encourage community members to take ownership of the effort.
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This community ownership catalyzes the spread of awareness to larger demographics more effectively. By involving the community in the process, and delegating leadership roles to local organizations, municipalities ensure the durability of the initiative despite official changes.
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Chapter 19: Land Use & Planning “He, who fails to plan, plans to fail.” -Italian Proverb
Every context addressed in Part III of this text has been about planning. Planning, in a broad sense, refers to the foresight of potential future obstacles and challenges. Developing plans to echo that foresight denote a community’s commitment to sustaining their existence and identity. The context of land use, planning, and design incorporates the acknowledgement of all other contexts challenging the human health and well-being of a community. By voluntarily adopting a framework, municipalities can begin to create some consistency and clarity in the overall vision of the community. In the United States, it is not always required by states for communities to have a comprehensive regional masterplan.
This reflects the traditional assumption that
communities should not have an overwhelming amount of regulation from the federal or state level.
Unfortunately, this independence sometimes leaves unprepared
communities in the dust. There are several general obstacles that have manifested in municipalities attempting to adopt framework plans. One common misunderstanding is the question of how to treat existing projects, initiatives, and codes once any new guidelines are agreed upon. The role of sustainability frameworks is not to completely replace the existing way of operations, but work with them to reform the inefficient practices.
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Unfortunately, experienced professionals are sometimes unwilling to change their practices, if the framework isn’t clearly meant for their particular operation. A second common obstacle in universally implementing a framework can occur in the confusion of its significance to all departments. Sustainability is often perceived as only referring to environmental issues, and so a common misconception is that such frameworks should only apply to land use and management departments. The success of a framework, or masterplan, is the universal application to all departments and organizations in a municipality.
How to Implement the Solution Individuals concerned with appropriately utilizing planning can primarily find ways to relate the framework vision to their personal future. By adopting the guiding system conditions to an individual’s lifestyle, it helps to encourage personal ownership of the community-wide attempt at reform. Additional actions of well-intentioned individuals may include: 1. Creating personal lifestyle framework inspired by the adopted plan to reform habits and practices 2. Promote the awareness of an adopted framework plan to encourage community ownership 3. Take leadership roles in the implementation of initiatives inspired by the framework 4. Research and review alternative framework plans and critique inconsistencies within your community’s plan
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As stated earlier, municipalities have the responsibility to appropriately zone land for development. This responsibility may directly impact all of the contexts reviewed in this text. It is critical that officials and planners agree upon and stick to a clear vision of future development in the community. Current zoning codes and maps need to be reviewed and amended if found inconsistent with the system conditions of the adopted framework. New legislation may be developed to encourage developers to develop responsibly. It is also the responsibility of planners and city officials to monitor the activities of other communities’ journeys down the same path to sustainability. The successes and missteps of other municipalities may easily be related to the local community to help guide its progression. In this way, communities can help support each other as we are not a nation of isolated populations.
The most efficient level of legislation for
implementing reform is the municipality, however, the collective success of our cities reflects on the progress of our states and nation.
For the collective paradigm of
irresponsibility to move further towards stewardship, we have to work together.
U.S. Precedent Municipalities for Successful Framework Implementation: Santa Monica, CA; Seattle WA; Burlington, VT; Chattanooga, TN,
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A Call to Action
As its title explains, this text was written for individuals, planners, and city official searching for strategies to influence more responsible practice.
These individuals
already understand the significance of degradation caused by our collective paradigms. Hopefully, the contexts reviewed in this text have inspired individuals to identify the elements in their community in need of reform.
Strategies must be developed to
overcome agenda influenced politics and realize a vision for a healthier and more secure future.
The necessary technology has been developed and is accessible.
The necessary guiding frameworks for universal
application are proven and flexible.
The keys to success are
addressing the lack of public awareness, and generating the political will to organize strategy.
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