C U LT FOL LOW ING
C U LT - a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l g r o u p of pe ople hav ing re ligious be liefs or practices re garde d by others as strange or siniste r.
AUM S HINR IK YO / A LEPH
In 19 8 4, A s aha ra form e d A um S hins e n no K ai. He c ha ng e d his na m e from C hiz uo M atsum oto to S hok o A s aha ra a nd re na m e d his g roup A um S hinrik y o in 19 8 7. A s aha ra a pp lie d for g ov e rnm e nt re g is tration a nd , althoug h au thoritie s w e re initially re luc ta nt , afte r a n a ppe al, the Tok y o M e tropolita n G ov e rnm e nt e v e ntually g ra nte d it le g al re c og nition as a re lig ious c orporation in 19 8 9. A fte r this , a m onas tic ord e r w as e s tab lis he d , a nd ma ny lay follo w e rs joine d . A s aha ra g aine d c re d ib ility b y a ppe a ring on T V a nd on mag az ine c ov e rs . He g radually attaine d a follo w ing of b e lie v e rs a nd b e g a n b e ing inv ite d to le c ture -m e e ting at univ e rs itie s . A s aha ra als o w rote s e v e ral re lig ious b ook s , inc lud ing B e y ond L ife a nd D e ath a nd S upre m e Initiation.
S hinrik y o A um is a s y nc re tic b e lie f s y s te m that d raw s upon A s aha ra’s id io s y nc ratic inte rpre tations of e le m e nts of e a rly Ind ia n B ud d his m a nd T ib e ta n B ud d his m , as w e ll as Hinduis m , tak ing S hiv a as the main imag e of w ors hip a nd inc orporating m ille nnialis t id e as from C hris tia nity, Yog a , a nd the w ritings of No s trad a m us . Its found e r, C hiz uo M atsum oto, c laim e d that he s oug ht to re s tore “orig inal B ud d his m” bu t e m p loy e d C hris tia n m ille na ria n rhe toric . In 19 9 2 , M atsum oto, w ho had c ha ng e d his na m e to S hok o A s aha ra , pub lis he d a found ational b ook , d e c la ring hims e lf to b e “C hris t ”, Ja pa n’s only fully e nlig hte ne d mas te r, as w e ll as id e ntif y ing hims e lf as the “L a m b of G od ”. A s aha ra’s purpor te d m is s ion w as to tak e upon hims e lf the s ins of the w orld , a nd he c laim e d he c ould tra ns fe r s piritual po w e r to his follo w e rs a nd ultimate ly tak e aw ay the ir s ins a nd bad d e e d s . W hile s om e re je c t A um S hinrik y o’s c laims of B ud d his t c ha rac te ris tic s a nd aff iliations w ith B ud d his m , othe r s c hola rs re fe r to it as a n off s hoot of Ja pa ne s e B ud d his m , a nd this
w as ho w the m ov e m e nt g e ne rally d e fine d a nd s aw its e lf. A s aha ra ou tline d a d ooms d ay prop he c y, w hic h inc lud e d a third w orld w a r ins tig ate d b y the Unite d S tate s . A c c ord ing to R ob e r t Jay L ifton, a n A m e ric a n p s y c hiatris t a nd au thor : [A s aha ra] d e s c rib e d a final c onflic t c ulm inating in a nuc le a r ‘A rmag e d d on’, b orro w ing the te rm from the B ook of R e v e lation 16:16”
O n the m orning of 20 M a rc h 19 9 5 , A um m e m b e rs re le as e d a b ina r y c he m ic al w e a pon, m o s t c lo s e ly c he m ic ally s im ila r to s a rin, in a c oord inate d attac k on fiv e trains in the Tok y o sub w ay s y s te m , k illing 13 c om m u te rs , s e rious ly injuring 5 4 a nd aff e c ting 9 8 0 m ore . S om e e s timate s c laim as ma ny as 6,0 0 0 pe op le w e re injure d b y the s a rin. It is d iff ic ult to obtain ex ac t num b e rs s inc e ma ny v ic tims a re re luc ta nt to c om e for w a rd . P ro s e c u tors alle g e that A s aha ra w as tippe d off b y a n ins id e r ab ou t p la nne d polic e raid s on c ult fac ilitie s a nd ord e re d a n attac k in c e ntral Tok y o to d iv e r t polic e atte ntion aw ay from the g roup. T he attac k e v id e ntly bac k fire d , a nd polic e c onduc te d hug e s im ulta ne ous raid s on c ult c om pound s ac ro s s the c ountr y. O v e r the nex t w e e k , the full s c ale of A um's ac tiv itie s w as re v e ale d for the firs t tim e . A t the c ult 's he ad q ua r te rs in K a m ik uis hik i on the foot of M ount F uji, polic e found ex p lo s iv e s , c he m ic al w e a pons , a nd a R us s ia n M il M i-17 m ilita r y he lic opte r. W hile the find ing of b iolog ic al w a r fa re ag e nts suc h as a nthrax a nd E b ola c ulture s w as re por te d , tho s e c laims no w a ppe a r to hav e b e e n w id e ly ex ag g e rate d . T he re w e re s toc k pile s of c he m ic als that c ould b e us e d for produc ing e noug h s a rin to k ill four m illion pe op le .
M a rs hall He r ff A pp le w hite w as the le ad e r of the He av e n’s G ate re lig ious c ult in Tex as . He w as a s e lfproc laim e d prop he t , d raw ing rhe toric from s c ie nc e fic tion a nd s c ripture . He le d his g roup to c om m it mas s suic id e in 19 9 7 in hope s of b e ing lifte d into a s pac e s hip. H is c lo s e pa r tne r, B onnie Lu Ne ttle s , d e c id e d the y w e re “ T he Tw o” m e ntione d in the B ook of R e v e lation, m e a nt for a n im por ta nt m is s ion.
He av e n's G ate m e m b e rs b e lie v e d the p la ne t E a r th w ould b e "re c y c le d " (" w ipe d c le a n, re ne w e d , re furb is he d , a nd re juv e nate d ") b e fore 20 2 7 a nd the only c ha nc e for the ir c ons c ious ne s s (d e fine d s om e tim e s as s oul or m ind ) to sur v iv e w as to le av e the ir huma n b od ie s at a n a ppointe d tim e . Initially the g roup had b e e n told that the y w ould b e tra ns por te d w ith the ir b od ie s on b oa rd a s pac e c raft that w ould c om e to E a r th a nd tak e the c re w to he av e n, re fe rre d to as the "nex t le v e l". W he n B onnie L ou Ne ttle s ( T i) d ie d of c a nc e r in 19 8 5 , it c onfound e d A pp le w hite 's d oc trine b e c aus e Ne ttle s w as alle g e d ly c ho s e n b y the nex t le v e l to b e a m e s s e ng e r on E a r th, y e t he r b od y d ie d ins te ad of le av ing p hy s ic ally to ou te r s pac e . T he b e lie f s y s te m w as the n re fine d to inc lud e the le av ing of c ons c ious ne s s from the b od y as e q uiv ale nt to le av ing the E a r th in a s pac e c raft . W hile the g roup w as ag ains t suic id e , the y d e fine d "suic id e " in the ir o w n c ontex t to m e a n " to turn ag ains t the Ne x t L e v e l w he n it is b e ing off e re d " a nd b e lie v e d the ir "huma n" b od ie s w e re only v e s s e ls m e a nt to he lp the m on the ir journe y. S uic id e , the re fore , w ould b e not allo w ing the ir c ons c ious ne s s to le av e the ir huma n b od ie s to join the nex t le v e l; re maining aliv e ins te ad of pa r tic ipating in the g roup suic id e w as c ons id e re d suic id e of the ir c ons c ious ne s s . In c onv e rs ation, w he n re fe rring to a pe rs on or a pe rs on's b od y, the y rou tine ly us e d the w ord " v e hic le ". T he m e m b e rs of the g roup ad d e d -od y to the firs t na m e s the y ad opte d in lie u of the ir orig inal g iv e n na m e s , w hic h d e fine s "c hild re n of the Ne x t L e v e l". T his is m e ntione d in A pp le w hite 's final v id e o, D o's F inal E x it , film e d M a rc h 19 – 20, 19 9 7, jus t d ay s prior to the suic id e s . T he y b e lie v e d that , " to b e e lig ib le for m e m b e rs hip in the Ne x t L e v e l, huma ns w ould hav e to s he d e v e r y attac hm e nt to the p la ne t ". T his m e a nt all m e m b e rs had to g iv e up all huma n-lik e c ha rac te ris tic s , suc h as the ir fa m ily, frie nd s , s ex uality, ind iv iduality, job s , m one y, a nd po s s e s s ions .
O n M a rc h 19 – 20, 19 9 7, M a rs hall A pp le w hite ta pe d hims e lf in D o's F inal E x it , s pe ak ing of mas s suic id e a nd " the only w ay to e v ac uate this E a r th". A fte r as s e r ting that a s pac e c raft w as trailing C om e t H ale – B opp a nd that this e v e nt w ould re pre s e nt the "c lo sure to He av e n's G ate ", A pp le w hite pe rsuad e d 38 follo w e rs to pre pa re for ritual suic id e s o the ir s ouls c ould b oa rd the suppo s e d c raft . A pp le w hite b e lie v e d that afte r the ir d e aths a n unid e ntifie d fly ing ob je c t (U F O ) w ould tak e the ir s ouls to a nothe r "le v e l of ex is te nc e ab ov e huma n", w hic h he d e s c rib e d as b e ing b oth p hy s ic al a nd s piritual. T he ir pre pa rations inc lud e d e ac h m e m b e r 's v id e ota ping a fa re w e ll m e s s ag e . To k ill the ms e lv e s , m e m b e rs took p he noba rb ital m ix e d w ith a pp le s auc e or pud d ing a nd w as he d it d o w n w ith v od k a . A d d itionally, the y s e c ure d p las tic bags a round the ir he ad s afte r ing e s ting the m ix to induc e as p hy x iation. A ll 39 w e re d re s s e d in id e ntic al b lac k s hir ts a nd s w e at pa nts , b ra nd ne w b lac k a nd-w hite Nik e D e c ad e s athle tic s hoe s , a nd a rm ba nd patc he s re ad ing "He av e n's G ate Aw ay Te a m" (one of ma ny ins ta nc e s of the g roup's us e of the S ta r Tre k fic tional univ e rs e 's nom e nc lature ). E ac h m e m b e r had on the ir pe rs on a fiv e -d olla r b ill a nd thre e q ua r te rs in the ir poc k e ts : the fiv e -d olla r b ill w as to c ov e r v ag ra nc y fine s w hile m e m b e rs w e re ou t on job s , w hile the q ua r te rs w e re to mak e p hone c alls . O nc e d e ad , a liv ing m e m b e r w ould a rra ng e the b od y b y re m ov ing the p las tic bag from the pe rs on's he ad . T he y the n po s e d the b od y s o that it lay ne atly in the ir o w n b e d , w ith fac e s a nd tors o s c ov e re d b y a s q ua re purp le c loth for priv ac y. T he id e ntic al c lothing w as us e d as a uniform for the mas s suic id e to re pre s e nt unity w hils t the Nik e D e c ad e s w e re c ho s e n as the g roup "g ot a g ood d e al on the s hoe s ".
n 19 51, t w e nty -y e a r-old Jone s b e g a n atte nd ing g athe rings of the C om m unis t P a r ty US A in Ind ia na polis . He b e c a m e flus te re d w ith ha ras s m e nt during the M c C a r thy He a rings , pa r tic ula rly re g a rd ing a n e v e nt that he atte nd e d w ith his m othe r foc us ing on P aul R ob e s on, afte r w hic h s he w as ha ras s e d b y the F B I in front of he r c o -w ork e rs for atte nd ing . He als o b e c a m e frus trate d w ith the pe rs e c u tion of ope n a nd ac c us e d c om m unis ts in the Unite d S tate s , e s pe c ially during the trial of Julius a nd E the l R o s e nb e rg . Jone s s aid he as k e d hims e lf, "Ho w c a n I d e m ons trate my M a r x is m? T he thoug ht w as , infiltrate the c hurc h." Jone s w as surpris e d w he n a M e thod is t d is tric t supe rinte nd e nt he lpe d him g e t a s ta r t in the c hurc h, e v e n thoug h he k ne w Jone s to b e a c om m unis t . In 19 5 2 , he b e c a m e a s tud e nt pas tor at the S om m e rs e t S ou ths id e M e thod is t C hurc h, bu t late r c laim e d he le ft the c hurc h b e c aus e its le ad e rs ba rre d him from inte g rating b lac k s into his c ong re g ation. A round this tim e , Jone s w itne s s e d a faith-he aling s e r v ic e at a S e v e nth Day B a ptis t C hurc h. He ob s e r v e d that it attrac te d pe op le a nd the ir m one y, a nd he c onc lud e d that he c ould ac c om p lis h his s oc ial g oals w ith fina nc ial re s ourc e s from suc h s e r v ic e s . Jone s org a niz e d a ma m m oth re lig ious c onv e ntion to tak e p lac e June 11–15 , 19 5 6 in C ad le Tab e rnac le . He ne e d e d a w e llk no w n re lig ious fig ure to d raw c ro w d s , s o he a rra ng e d to s ha re the pulpit w ith R e v. W illia m M . B ra nha m , a he aling e v a ng e lis t a nd re lig ious au thor w ho w as as hig hly re v e re d as O ral R ob e r ts . Jone s w as ab le to launc h his o w n c hurc h follo w ing the c onv e ntion, w hic h had v a rious na m e s until it b e c a m e the P e op le s Te m p le C hris tia n C hurc h F ull G o s pe l. T he P e op le s Te m p le w as initially a n inte rrac ial m is s ion.
A lthoug h a v a rie ty of b e lie fs ex is te d in P e op le s Te m p le , t w o main s y s te ms of thoug ht c a n b e id e ntifie d . T he firs t s y s te m , w hic h te nd e d to b e c onc e ntrate d in Jim Jone s a nd a s mall le ad e rs hip c orp s , c om pris e d a b e lie f in the s alv ific po w e r of s oc ialis m . S om e w hat athe is tic , or at b e s t ag no s tic , in nature , this b e lie f re s e m b le d huma nis m in its und e rs ta nd ing of the po w e r of huma n b e ings to re -c re ate a nd re -s ha pe re ality for the b e ne fit of all. In this v ie w, re lig ion c ould b e us e d to attrac t pe op le into the org a niz ation s o that the re al m e s s ag e of C hris tia nity — rad ic al s ha ring a nd m u tual suppor t — c ould ac tually b e liv e d . T he s e c ond b e lie f s y s te m in the Te m p le , a nd b y fa r the la rg e s t , w as a trad itional C hris tia nity w hic h e m p has iz e d the prop he tic c all to s oc ial jus tic e a nd a b e lie f that the k ing d om of G od c ould b e e s tab lis he d on e a r th b y liv ing in a n a po s tolic c om m unity. T his s y s te m re s e m b le d the S oc ial G o s pe l m ov e m e nt of the late 19 th a nd e a rly 20 th c e nturie s in its c om m itm e nt to s olv ing s oc ial prob le ms ; at the s a m e tim e , ho w e v e r, the g roup had u topia nis t id e als w hic h c ould only b e liv e d ou t throug h the e s tab lis hm e nt of a c om m unity s e pa rate from the e v il a nd injus tic e of the re s t of the w orld , e s pe c ially A m e ric a .
In 1974, the Pe ople s Temple s igne d a leas e to rent land in G uy ana . T he c ommunity c reate d on this property was c alle d the Pe ople s Temple A gricultural P roje c t, or, informally, "Jone s tow n". It had as few as 50 re s idents in early 197 7. Jone s s aw Jone stow n as both a "s oc ialist paradis e" and a "s anc tuar y " from me dia s c rutiny that had s tarte d w ith the K ins olv ing artic le s . F ormer Temple member T im C arter s aid the Temple move d to Jone stow n be c aus e "in '74, w hat w e s aw in the Unite d S tate s was c re eping fas c is m." C arter ex plaine d, "It was apparent that c orporations , or the multinationals , w ere getting muc h larger, their influenc e was grow ing w ithin the government, and the Unite d S tate s is a rac ist plac e ." C arter s aid the Temple c onc lude d that G uy ana was "a plac e in a blac k c ountr y w here our blac k members c ould live in peac e", "it was a s oc ialis t government " and it was " the only E nglis hs peak ing c ountr y in S outh A meric a ." Inc reas ing me dia s c rutiny bas e d on alle gations by former members plac e d further pre s sure on Jone s , e s pe c ially after a 197 7 artic le by M ars hall K ilduff in New W e s t M agaz ine . Jus t be fore public ation of the New W e s t pie c e, e ditor R os alie W right telephone d Jone s to read him the artic le . W right ex plaine d that s he was only doing s o be fore public ation be c aus e of "all the support letters w e re c eive d on y our behalf, from the G overnor of C alifornia (Jerr y B row n)" and others . W hile s till on the phone listening to the alle gations c ontaine d in the artic le, Jone s w rote a note to Temple members in the room w ith him that s aid, " We leave tonight. Notif y G e orgetow n (G uy ana)." O n November 17, 1978, L e o R y an, a U.S . C ongre s s man from the S an Franc is c o area inve s tigating c laims of abus e w ithin the Pe ople s Temple, v is ite d Jone s tow n. During R y an's v is it, a number of Temple members ex pre s s e d a de s ire to leave w ith him, and, on November 18, they ac c ompanie d R y an to the loc al airstrip at Port K aituma . T here they w ere interc epte d by s elf-s ty le d Temple s e curity guards w ho opene d fire on the group, k illing R y an, thre e journalis ts , and one of the de fe c tors . A few s e c onds of gunfire from the inc ident w ere c apture d on v ide o by B ob B row n, one of the journalists k ille d in the attac k . T hat evening , in Jone stow n, Jone s ordere d his c ongre gation to drink a c onc oc tion of c y anide lac e d, grape -flavore d F lavor A id .
TL U C LOF WOL GNI