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To what extent are adolescents influenced by their peers? You may consider issues and theories such as self identity/autonomy, group-processes/the formation of norms, notions of deviance, gender and culture differences. You will need to apply these theories to individual practice. 3000 words. Our occupations, family issues, class status, religion and education are but a few ways that define out self identity. Goffman (1959) stated that 'what we are and how we see ourselves is the product of a range of opportunities and life chances' (Harrison and Wise, 2005:204). The question at hand is, who creates, gives and controls these opportunities, who provides these chances? It is true that we ourselves choose to take certain opportunities and cease the chances we receive, yet they can also be controlled, withheld and 'restricted by the actions of others' (Harrison and Wise, 2005:204). Government, police, healthcare workers, teachers and parents and some of the many influences in our life that can control our ability to choose our own path. In everyday life is its obvious that adolescents have a strong need to express there self-identity, autonomy and freedom. Every decade has had its identifiable groups that young people associate with from the sixties 'Mods' and 'Rockers' to the modern day 'Chavs' and 'Emos'. So why do young people associate with certain groups? What is their push or influence? Harrison and Wise (2005:204) suggest that there are occasions that 'we are able to express our autonomy and sense of freedom , at other times powerful external forces may gently (or sometimes not so gently) move us in a particular direction. A peer has been defined as 'a person who has equal standing with another or others, as in rank, class, or age' (The Free Dictionary, 2010). To determine the level that peers have upon adolescents I will look at the different social psychological theories, personal and professional examples. The theories I will look at include Socio-biologists, behaviourists, humanists, psychoanalysts, and cognitive theorists. I will try to understand the most trusted idea of describing adolescence as a time of transition between childhood and adulthood. While interpreting this change I comment in detail on the periods ever altering effect upon the young persons physical, cognitive, interpersonal and institutional condition. In 1959 Erik Erikson presented adolescence as a period where young people are searching for their identity. A time where young people start to truly question who they are and where their going, though it is arguable that with a large proportion of people this never changes. James Marcia (1966) took Erikson's (1959) theory and developed the idea that in adolescence young people neither confuse nor resolve their identities. Instead Marcia (1966) focused on the idea of levels of identity achievement based on the opportunities and chances a young person had received in life. Marcia’s theory of identity achievement argues that two distinct parts form an adolescent’s identity: crisis (i.e. a time when one’s values and choices are being re-evaluated) and commitment (Learning Theories, 2008). In personal experience this example works well, I have worked with young people from well of conservative families who have reached an age where they question this belief and commit to socialists views instead. At times I have been working with young people whose family background has prejudice views against certain ethnicities and this view has been challenged when they have found themselves interactive with, friendly or even attracted to that race or nationality. Marcia (1966) describes levels of identity 1
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with four types of identity status; identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, moratorium and identity achievement (Learning Theories, 2008). Identity diffusion is when the young person is indecisive, unaware or not willing to commit to a set identity and this leads to the foreclosure, with the young person questioning values and goals they may be willing to commit to although conforming to authorities decisions is still most likely. With moratorium the young person hits a complete identity crisis experimenting with looks, love, beliefs, physical and mental ability as well as many other areas of life and human existence. It is in this stage that peer influence can play a massive role in the development of the young person, at this stage the capability is strongest to foster democracy and equality or incite hatred and greed. After this stage identity achievement is reached with certain values and goals committed too, this is not to say that they will not change, but the probability is far less and as the phrase goes 'you can't teach an old dog new tricks'. Marcia's (1966) take on Erikson's (1959) theory is psychoanalyst with humanist aspects with the young person making conscious decisions that effect their achievement of identity. There are unconscious aspects to it especially with the first stages identity diffusion and the massive effect peer influence can have during moratorium. Yet the young person makes a conscious choice to pursue and identity they believe is best, but may nor be wholly aware of the the influences. Gerald Adams (1994) suggest a more behaviourist approach suggesting the the ability to develop and consciously choose identity was a behavioural product or the previous upbringing. Adams (1994) suggests that those young people who remain in identity diffusion longest were more likely to have come from backgrounds of little family attention or experienced family rejection. 'In terms of interpersonal relationships, diffusions have reported distant or rejecting caretakers or low level of attachment to parents (Adams and Berzonsky, 1994:214). I can understand this on a personal level, at four years old my mother left me with her parents and I did not see her again for ten years. Throughout my childhood I found it hard to be close to people and find some level of individuality, constantly moving between different social circles, interests, and activities. This was something I did not resolve until my early twenties and still continues in part. Adams (1994) describes identity foreclosure as conforming to the identity of others and those young people who stay in it indefinably or for long periods of time come from very conforming families. Very religious, 'old fashioned', and nationalistic families are good examples. In particular I have worked with young people from strong Muslim and Christian backgrounds who believe that homosexuality is wrong because their religious scriptures (according to them or their family) say it is. They do not question the interpretation, the background, or the validity of the book. They are told it is that way so they believe it. Finally Adams (1994) view of moratorium is that those who have high levels of or progress through quickly to it come from supportive families that foster the ability to think and challenge. 'Parents of moratorium adolescents have emphasized independence in their child rearing patterns' (Adams and Berzonsky, 1994:212). In the youth centres I work in the most free thinking young people I work with are those from mixed and open backgrounds. Usually of mixed class, religion, race, nationality or other. However the mix the tendency is there is some sort of variation in their background that allows them to question home and appreciate outside ideas. Adams (1994) theory suggest that the psychoanalytical and humanist aspects Marcia (1966) makes a case for do exist and happen, but only if parental 2
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behaviourist conditioning allows it. Jean Piaget was a cognitive theorist, therefore he concentrated on the nature of learning in children and young people. During his research he create a theory of cognitive development which consisted of four stages. Sensorimotor (birth to18 – 24 months old), pre-operational (18 – 24 months to 7 years old), concrete operations (7 to 12 years old) and formal operations (12 to 15 years old) (Learning Theories, 2010). It is the final formal operations stage where peers will come into a sizeable effect. It is at this stage that the idea of freedom can be truly understood an used and 'His or her ability for abstract thinking is very similar to an adult' (Learning Theories, 2010). Piaget (1947) stated “an adolescent, unlike the child, is an individual who thinks beyond the present and forms theories about everything, delighting especially in consideration of that which is not”. This statement suggests that once the adolescent has develop a concept of freedom they will pursue an interest that which is not their normal. This is what their peers are fantastic at, fellow adolescents with different backgrounds, ideas, values, beliefs and interests. Some may call it a young persons first exploration of humanity. It is no surprise then that as these 'formal operations' occur a young person gains distance from their parents or guardians. The first stages of independence usually occur at the beginning of adolescence, as dependency on family and guardians decreases the place for friendship amongst peers increases. Young people who wish to assert or find independence and individuality usually do so through belonging to peer groups. This is due to the fact that around this time the influence of friends generally becomes of greater importance than parental influence. This is where Adams (1994) theory can be challenge, what I interpret is that Adams (1994) focuses to much on the behavioural conditioning of family. Suggesting that identity foreclosure is confirming from a family orientated point of view. Whereas peer groups in there exist show (with no need for academic validity) young people year in year out conforming to each other in search of identity. Peer groups show young people who have moved from the blindness of identity diffusion to a stage of identity development where they are starting to evaluate new values, beliefs and goals. A young person who is consistently changing peer groups could be seen as moratorium, intense identity crisis. Nevertheless at this stage in identity development (identity foreclosure) young people find the up most importance in being accepted into a group. There are exceptions, but in general this is the case. I work in two different youth centres and at both centres there are one or two significant groups that all the young people, at least in part try to conform too. Whether its the MC and DJ crews of Cardiff inner city or the Emo / Indie groups of suburbia. It has been suggested that the two main areas of conformity are atheistic and psychological. Conforming to the peers groups dress codes including hairstyles as well as the groups behaviour and values. I would personally imply that peer groups as a whole are massively influenced by the style of music they choose to adhere too. That genre or area of music itself, especially with a younger peer group is something individuals usually must conform to as well. As conformity is part of identity foreclosure and it is one of the earlier stages of identity development complete conformation is expected more in younger adolescents. With the right input from what influence adults do have, as an adolescent ages respect for individualism with increase. As a youth work one of my major objectives is to foster democracy through learning. This is not a task to break 3
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the peer groups but to expand their boundaries and reduce negative peer pressure. Though we should take the time as adults to think carefully about adolescent peer influence. The media, society and general ignorance think of peer pressure as a negative subject forcing young people to have sex, take drugs, drink and commit crime. Hasn't peer pressure among adults forced some to accept homosexuals, different races and gender equality? Surely it was peer pressure amongst adults that brought in equality acts of parliament for all persecuted minorities making proportions of adults more democratic an accepting people? If this peer pressure happens in adults, how do we know it doesn't happen in young people? 'While conformity to peers tends to be regarded (by adults) with some suspicion, the process appears to be significant as an element of coming to terms with extra-familial social environment and it is an oversimplification to represent all, or even the majority, of peer influence as negative' (Durkin, 2002:529). It is in peer groups that young people find their first steps of independence and learning opportunities for social interaction with freedom from adult supervision. In thee groups the norms are developed for sexuality, work ethic, drug use, alcohol consumption, acceptance of other races or cultures and many other social factors in life. Kandel (1974) found that the more frequent the use of cannabis by peers the much greater the increase of probability that an adolescent of that peer group would use it. The peer influence here is massive and will only develop without adult control. This a reason why as a youth worker it is vital to be as on equal a level with the young people as possible, then you can help develop the norms for these young people. It is only through friendly, equal, informal and social education that we can truly reduce crime, drug use, STI's and under-age pregnancy. Once a young person has developed these social capabilities and norms they can start to explore and express their own unique identity through autonomy. Steinberg and Silverberg (1986) noted three levels that can control and adolescents autonomy. Emotional autonomy, resistance to peer pressure and subjective sense of self-reliance. The fact is that none of these can be completely gained. For emotional autonomy we would have to be emotionally numb, we all (even as adults) bow to some level of peer pressure (e.g. saying please and thank you or even wearing clothes). We rely on farmers to grow food, doctors to keep us alive and the police to keep us safe, just three examples of how we are never completely self-reliant. Yet we can achieve high levels of them and it is experimenting with and gaining these traits during moratorium that enables the transition to identity achievement. Suggesting that without peer influence the progression to autonomy could not be gained. As large as peer influence seems, parental influence cannot be ignored. Adams (1994) was right to state family influence on Marcia's (1966) stages of identity development. Parental influence can be of an outstanding nature, especially on the our future personal and intimate relationships. Michael Kahn (2002) a psychologist commented: 'Marsha, the client of one of my students, had a father who was unusually charismatic, 4
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powerful, and successful. He was, not surprisingly, too busy to give much attention to his adoring daughter. Marsha, who was quite beautiful, seemed to have a fine radar for finding and attracting lovers who fit this profile. Whenever she did find a man who really loved her an was prepared to devote himself to her, she soon lost interest in him' (Kahn, 2002:94). This is what Sigmund Freud called this “the repetition compulsion” and it is a prime example of the intensive subconscious influence our parents can have on us. This could work for good or bad with for example a young girl having a hard working, loving, devoted and good looking father. So in turn finding a similar partner for life or it could be as the previous example with 'Marsha'. It is these type of influential examples that can support and challenge socio-biologist theory, but definitely support psychoanalysts such as Freud himself. “The difference between rats and people is that when a rat gets shocked at one end of a maze, he never goes there again” - B. F. Skinner, Harvard College Lecturer, 1959 One theory on that has suggestions on adolescent influence is the socio-biologists theory. Defined as 'The study of the biological determinants of social behaviour, based on the theory that such behaviour is often genetically transmitted and subject to evolutionary processes' (The Free Dictionary, 2010). Its basically suggests that our genetics are our influence and that we behave as they determine, mostly completely unaware that we are. This theory would suggest that peer influence was more a survival of the fittest idea, finding the social group that is most likely to 'survive' and benefit ourselves, mate and offspring. It might be interpreted to influence adolescents more due to the impact of puberty and hormone levels. In conclusion, there are a large array of factors that influence an adolescents identity. The ability to achieve autonomy, at speed, at to what level can be defined drastically by class, race and gender as well as personal or private experiences during childhood. Plus is must also be noted that an adolescents identification between families and peers is not one or the other, both play a major part. Not to forgot teachers, politicians, neighbours, police, healthcare workers, youth workers, etc. With their level of influence depending upon how much of an equal standing they and the young person hold themselves against each other. With all these outside factors and influences it is very hard and near impossible to define an 'amount' or 'percentage' of influence peers have on adolescents. What can be said is that peer groups give young people the ability to start achieving independence away from the family unit, and with that they can start to grasp some personal theory of autonomy. Marcia's (1966) theory on the stages of identity development seem to fit together when including all influential factors in adolescence. Cognitive and psychoanalytical theories seem to make sense of of the complex development adolescence holds. While installing the right guidance and input in that development from all surrounding members of society the development of identity achievement could lead to living life based on the humanist theory. The young person gaining and using the conscious ability to control and change their behaviour, life and learning when they want. Complete freedom. As for the question on peer influence, even though I can conclude no distinct answer I can determine one aspect. If peer groups give the first stages of independence and create many of the 5
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important social norms for the young people, peer influence on adolescents is a major and important one. Without that influence adolescents would never be able to reach any real, functional level of social autonomy. Daniel John Carter ST09003304
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Bibliography • Kahn, M. (2002) Basic Freud. New York: Basic Books. Matthews, G., Deary, I. J. and Whiteman, M. C. (2009) Personality Traits Third Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jeffs, T. and Smith, M. K. (1996) Informal Education: - Conversation, Democracy and Learning Revised Edition. Nottingham: Educational Heretics Press. Harrison, H. and Wise, C. (2005) Working with Young People. London: SAGE. Erikson, E. (1968) Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton. Marcia, J. E. (1996) The Importance of Conflict for Adolescent and Lifespan Development. Leiden: DSWO Press. Steinberg, L. D. (1999) Adolescence. New York: McGraw Hill Steinberg, L. D. and Silverberg, S. B. (1986) The Vicissitudes of Autonomy in Early Adolescence. New York: McGraw Hill. Adams, G. R. and Berzonsky, M. D. (2003) Blackwell Handbook of Adolescence. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. •
Farlex. (2010) The Free Dictionary: Definition of Socio-biological Available from: http://www.thefreedictionary.com/sociobiological [Accessed on 12/02/2010] Farlex. (2010) The Free Dictionary: Definition of Peer Available from: http://www.thefreedictionary.com/peer [Accessed on 12/02/2010] • Learning Theories. (2010) Identity Status Theory (Marcia) Available from:http://www.learning-theories.com/identity-status-theory-marcia.html [Accessed on 14/02/2010] Learning Theories. (2010) Stage Theory of Cognitive Development (Piaget) Available from: http://www.learning-theories.com/piagets-stage-theory-of-cognitivedevelopment.html [Accessed on 14/02/2010] AROPA. (2009) Sigmund Freud – Life and Work: Freud File Available from http://www.freudfile.org/ [Accessed on 15/02/2010]
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