Nutrition: Fascinating Facts on Foraging and Enrichment lafebervet.com /nutrition/f un-f acts-on-f oraging-enrichment/ Date: March 31, 2014 Author: Yvonne R.A. van Z eeland, DVM, MVR, PhD, Dipl. ECZ M (Avian); University of Utrecht Department of Clinical Sciences of Companion Animals Division of Z oological Medicine Utrecht, T he Netherlands Key words: Fo raging, enrichment, co ntrafreelo ad, behavio r, nutritio n, Nutri-Berries
Adapted from van Zeeland YRA, Schoemaker NJ, Ravesteijn MM, et al. Efficacy of foraging enrichments to increase foraging time in Grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus erithacus). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 149:87-102, 2013.
1. Foraging makes up a signif icant part of the wild parrot’s day Foraging is the act of searching f or, f inding, and procuring f ood. In the wild, most animals, including psittacine birds, spend a signif icant part of their daily activity on f oraging. In f act, many f ree-ranging parrots regularly travel several miles between f eeding sites in search of f ood (Symes 2003, Wirminghaus 2001, Gilardi 1998, Synder 1987). Once f ree-ranging parrots arrive at a f eeding site, a wide variety of f oraging behaviors are observed including searching, selecting and obtaining, manipulating, as well as consuming f ood (Synder 1987). Foraging makes up a signif icant part of the wild bird’s day (Fig 1). Depending on the species and the season, time invested on these behaviors can range f rom 40% to 75% of daytime or approximately 4 to 8 hours per day (Renton 2001, Sydner 1987, Magrath 1985). ↑ top
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2. Captive parrots are motivated to f orage, too Most parrots kept in captivity should be considered as non-domesticated species, being only one or two generations removed f rom the wild. T heref ore the instincts, behaviors, and needs of captive parrots are probably similar to those of their wild conspecif ics (Davis 1998, Graham 1998). It would thus be likely that captive parrots have a need to f orage, too. Previous studies have provided evidence in support of the hypothesis that f oraging is a behavioral need by demonstrating that parrots are motivated to work f or f ood (Joseph 2010, van Z eeland 2009, Coulton 1997). Similar to other animals, parrots would choose to work f or f ood even when identical f ood is f reely available. T his behavior is also known as “contraf reeloading” (Video 1).
Figure 1. Fre e -rang ing p s ittac ine b ird s s p e nd a s ig nific ant p art o f the ir d ay fo rag ing fo r fo o d . Click image to enlarge.
Video 1. View this example of contraf reeloading in psittacine birds (1:01). Note: T his video is the property of Dr. Yvonne R.A. van Z eeland and the Division of Z oological Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands, and cannot be downloaded or used without permission. ↑ top
3. Thwarting the ability to f orage may be detrimental to the parrot In the conventional captive parrot environment, f ood is of ten of f ered in a regular f ood bowl f rom which it may be readily consumed by the parrot thereby resulting in f oraging times of less than an hour (Oviatt and Millam 1997; Rozek et al 2010; van Z eeland 2013). T his leaves little room f or the parrots to display their natural f oraging activities. As a consequence, abnormal repetitive behaviors can arise including oral stereotypies, such as wire chewing or tongue playing, and f eather destructive behavior (Fig 2) (Lumeij 2008, Meehan 2004, Meehan 2003, Huber-Eicher 1998). ↑ top
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4. Foraging enrichment of f ers many benef its Foraging enrichment is considered one of the most ef f ective strategies to improve welf are and reduce behavioral problems in captive animals including parrots (Dixon 2010, Lumeij 2008, Miller 2005, Meehan 2004, Meehan 2003, Elson 2001, Coulton 1997, van Hoek 1997). Foraging increases physical activity, provides cognitive stimulation, relieves stress, f rustration, or boredom while reducing and preventing aggression and abnormal repetitive behaviors including stereotypies (Box 1) (Brinch-Riber 2008, Vargas-Ashby 2007, Aerni 2000). Box 1. Benefits of foraging (Brinch-Ribe r 2008, Vargas-Ashby 2007, Ae rni 2000)
Increases activity Provides cognitive stimulation, and manipulative activities
Figure 2. Ab no rmal re p e titive b e havio rs , like fe athe r d e s truc tive b e havio r, may d e ve lo p in c ap tive p s ittac ine b ird s that are unab le to ind ulg e the natural d e s ire to fo rag e . Pho to c re d it: Dr. Yvo nne R.A. van Ze e land . Click image to enlarge.
Alleviates stress, f rustration, boredom Reduces and prevents aggression and abnormal repetitive behaviors including stereotypies
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5. Foraging opportunities are endless, but may dif f er in their ef f ect Several approaches have been developed to stimulate f oraging behavior and increase f oraging times in a variety of species ranging f rom megavertebrates to reptiles (van Krimpen 2009, Aerni 2000, Bauck 1998, Newberry 1995): Multiple bowls to of f er smaller, more f requent meals in multiple locations Mix f ood with inedible items Increase f eeding time by of f ering vegetation, bones, ice blocks, whole f ood item, carcasses, etc. Foraging devices (puzzle f eeders)
Scatter or hide f ood in enclosure Live prey (in predatory animals) Increase dietary f iber (promote satiety) Feed at irregular time intervals to decrease the predictability of f eeding times Although many studies have been perf ormed into the ef f icacy of f oraging enrichment on normal and abnormal behavior in various species, most of these of f ered multiple types of f oraging enrichment at once, thereby making it dif f icult to evaluate the relative merit of each individual technique. ↑ top
In search of the perf ect f oraging enrichment In our study, the f ollowing f oraging enrichment techniques were evaluated in 12 grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) (van Z eeland 2013): Increasing the spatial distribution of f ood within the enclosure: Pellets were placed in f our f ood bowls rather than one location. Two bowls were hung at the level of the highest perch and two were placed on ground level on opposite ends of the cage. Increase search time by mixing f ood with inedible items: Food items of f ered to grey parrots were mixed with marbles measuring 1.5 cm in diameter. Increase extraction time: Foraging devices or puzzle tend to remain stimulating to the animal, especially when they contain the individual’s total daily diet (Lumeij 2008, Shyne 2006, Bauck 1998, Coulton 1997). Eight dif f erent devices were evaluated. Increase the time needed to process and ingest f ood: Laf eber Company Nutri-Berries were of f ered as an example of a larger-sized f ood particle. T his nutritionally balanced mix of seeds, grains, nuts, and pellets is shaped into the f orm of a berry measuring 2.5 cm in diameter (Fig 3). Af ter acclimatization and assessment of
Af ter acclimatization and assessment of baseline f oraging times, enrichments were presented in a random order. Enrichments were gradually introduced, and video recordings were used to analyze total f oraging time as well as the time spent on dif f erent f oraging activities. T he f requency and duration of f oraging periods and the times at which they occurred were also determined. In addition, learning curves and f amiliarization with enrichment items were assessed over a 1-week period. Dif f erences in learning curves were most likely due to dif f erences in the dif f iculty level of enrichments. Parrots needed 8.3 +/- 1.1 days to learn how to use the f oraging enrichments. For two puzzle f eeders, it took considerably longer. Parrots in this study needed little to no time to learn how to use Nutri-Berries; they only needed to learn where f ood was located and no f urther ef f ort was required to obtain f ood.
Figure 3. Nutri-Be rrie s we re o ffe re d in the s tud y as an e xamp le o f a larg e r-s iz e d fo o d p artic le . Pho to c re d it: Drs . Nic o Sc ho e make r and Yvo nne R.A. van Ze e land . Click image to enlarge.
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How ef f ectively can f oraging enrichments increase f oraging times? Our study investigated the ef f ects of dif f erent types of enrichment on f oraging times and f oragingrelated activities in grey parrots (Box 2) (van Z eeland 2013). Box 2. Hypothesis (van Z e e land 2013) Although all types of f oraging enrichment would result in signif icant increases of f oraging times compared to baseline values, puzzle f eeders would result in the highest increases in f oraging times. T he parrots in our study spent an average 47 + 18 min per day on f oraging activities when of f ered a conventional pelleted diet in a regular bowl. T hese baseline values are similar to those reported in Amazon parrots (Rozek 2010, Oviatt 1997). Foraging enrichments could indeed increase f oraging times, and nine out of 11 f oraging enrichments signif icantly increased f oraging times in the grey parrots studied. T he most ef f ective enrichments resulted in a 2- to 2.5-f old increase compared to baseline. T he most ef f ective enrichments were three dif f erent puzzle f eeders, which increased f oraging time up to 123 + 52 min (Fig 4 and Fig 5). T he ef f ect of Nutri-Berries was comparable to the most ef f ective puzzle f eeders, resulting in f oraging times that exceeded 100 minutes per day. T his increase in f oraging time was similar but less to that compared to the f eeding of larger-sized pellets by Rozek 2010. As both f ood items were similar size in size (approximately 2.5 cm diameter) other f actors such as hardness, structure, nutritional composition, and/or energy content may have contributed to this
dif f erence. T he least ef f ective f oraging enrichments were two f oraging devices as well as f ood placement in multiple locations. T his latter technique has been shown to be most ef f ective in parrots housed in a large enclosure or aviary (Elson 2001, Coulton 1997, van Hoek 1997), and the results of our study seem to support this f inding (van Z eeland 2013). ↑ top
Considerations f or the f uture T he results of this study (van Z eeland 2013) will help make evidence-based decisions on best way to provide f oraging enrichment to grey parrots. Approaches that f ocus on increasing extraction time by using puzzle f eeders and increasing f ood processing time with larger-sized f ood particles such as Nutri-Berries appear to be most ef f ective in increasing f oraging time. T hus f ar the maximum f oraging times that have been obtained in captive parrots provided with f oraging enrichment have not exceeded 3 hours per day (Rozek 2010, Lumeij 2008, Elson 2001). To f urther increase f oraging times in captive parrots, new more ef f ective f oraging and currently available f oraging enrichments should be developed, tested, and ref ined, during which individual pref erences f or specif ic colors, sizes, hardness and/or structure (as demonstrated in studies by Rozek 2011, Webb 2010, Kim 2009, Fox 2007) should also be taken into account. As pref erences may dif f er between genders, ages, and/or species, these should be f urther studied to be able to adapt the enrichment to the needs and pref erences of the bird. ↑ top
Figure 4. Trans p are nt ac rylic c ap s ule in whic h fo o d c an b e p lac e d . The p arro t mus t p ull d o wn a p latfo rm in o rd e r to have p e lle ts d ro p into the lo we r c o mp artme nt whic h c an the n b e ac c e s s e d via ho le s in the s id e . Pho to c re d it: Cre ative Fo rag ing Sys te ms , p o s te d with p e rmis s io n.
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Ref erences Aerni V, El-Lethey H, Wechsler B. Ef f ect of f oraging material and f ood f orm on f eather pecking in laying hens. Br Poultry Sci 41(1):16-21, 2000. Bauck L. Psittacine diets and behavioral enrichment. Sem Avian Exotic Pet Med 7(3):135-140, 1998. Brinch-Riber A, Mench JA. Ef f ects of f eed- and waterbased enrichment on activity and cannibalism in Muscovy ducklings. Appl Anim Behav Sci 114(3-4):429440, 2008. Coulton LE, Waran NK, Young RJ. Ef f ects of f oraging enrichment on the behavior of parrots. Anim Welf 6(4):357-363, 1997. Davis C. Appreciating avian intelligence: the importance of a proper domestic environment. J Am Vet Med Assoc 212(8):1220-1222, 1998.
Figure 5. Trans p are nt ac rylic fe e d e r in whic h fo o d c an b e p lac e d . To as s e s s fo o d , the b ird mus t s hre d the c ard b o ard . Pho to c re d it: Cre ative Fo rag ing Sys te ms , p o s te d with p e rmis s io n. Click image to enlarge.
Dixon LM, Duncan IJH, Mason GJ. T he ef f ects of f our types of enrichment on f eather-pecking behavior in laying hens housed in barren environments. Anim Welf 19(4):429-435, 2010. Elson HLG, Marples NM. How captive parrots react to f oraging enrichments. Proc Ann Symp Z oo Res 2001:1-8. Fox RA, Millam JR. Novelty and individual dif f erences inf luence neophobia in orange-winged Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica). Appl Anim Behav Sci 104(1-2):107-115, 2007. Gilardi JD, Munn CA. Patterns of activity, f locking, and habitat use in parrots of the Peruvian Amazon. Condor 100(4):641-653, 1998. Graham DL. Pet birds: historical and modern perspectives on the keeper and the kept. J Am Vet Med Assoc 212(8):1216-1219, 1998. Huber-Eicher B, Wechsler B. T he ef f ect of quality and availability of f oraging materials on f eather pecking in laying hen chicks. Anim Behav 55(4):861-873, 1998. Joseph L. Contraf reeloading and its benef its to avian behavior. Proc Assoc Avian Vet 2010:399-401. Kim LC, Garner JP, Millam JR. Pref erences of orange-winged Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica) f or cage enrichment devices. Appl Anim Behav Sci 120(3-4):216-223, 2009. Lumeij JT, Hommers CJ. Foraging enrichment as treatment f or pterotillomania. Appl Anim Behav Sci 111(1-2):85-94, 2008. Magrath RD, Lill A. Age related dif f erences in behavior and ecology of crimson rosellas during the non-breeding season. Austr Wildl Res 12(2):299-306, 1985. Meehan CL, Millam JR, Mench JA. Foraging opportunity and increased physical complexity both
prevent and reduce psychogenic f eather picking by young Amazon parrots. Appl Anim Behav Sci 80(1):71-85, 2003. Meehan CL, Garner JP, Mench JA. Environmental enrichment and development of cage stereotypy of orange-winged Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica). Dev Psychobiol 44(4):209-218, 2004. Miller KA, Mench JA. T he dif f erential ef f ects of f our types of environmental enrichment on the activity budgets, f earf ulness, and social proximity pref erence of Japanese quail. Appl Anim Behav Sci 95(3-4):169-187, 2005. Newberry RC. Environmental enrichment: increasing the biological relevance of captive environments. Appl Anim Behav Sci 44(2-4):229-243, 1995. Oviatt LA, Millam JR. Breeding behavior of captive orange-winged Amazon parrots. Exotic Bird Rep 9:6-7, 1997. Reed HK, Price DJ. Environmental enrichment and the behaviour of hyacinth macaws at Paignton Z oo. Proc Ann Symp Z oo Res 2000:89-94. Renton K. Lilac-crowned parrot diet and f ood resource availability: resource tracking by a parrot seed predator. Condor 103(1):62-69, 2001. Rozek JC, Danner LM, Stucky PA, Millam JR. Over-sized pellets naturalize f oraging time of captive orange-winged Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica). Appl Anim Behav Sci 125(1-2):80-87, 2010. Rozek JC, Millam JR. Pref erence and motivation f or dif f erent diet f orms and their ef f ect on motivation f or a f oraging enrichment in captive orange-winged Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica). Appl Anim Behav Sci 129(2-4):153-161, 2011. Shyne A. Meta-analytic review of the ef f ects of enrichment on stereotypic behavior in zoo mammals. Z oo Biol 25(4):317-337, 2006. Snyder NFR, Wiley JW, Kepler CB. T he Parrots of Luquillo: Natural History and Conservation of the Puerto Rican Parrot. Western Foundation. Vert Z ool. Los Angeles, CA. 1987. P. 384. Symes CT, Perrin MR. Daily f light activity and f locking behavior patterns of the Greyheaded Parrot (Poicephalus fusciollis suahelicus) Reichenow 1898 in Northern Province, South Af rica. Trop Z ool 16(1):47-62, 2003. van Hoek CS, King CE. Causation and inf luence of environmental enrichment on f eather picking of the crimson-bellied conure (Pyrrhura perlata perlata). Z oo Biol 16(2):161-172, 1997. van Krimpen MM, Kwakkel RP, van der Peet-Schwering, et al. Ef f ects of nutrient dilution and nonstarch polysaccharide concentration in rearing and laying diets on eating behavior and f eather damage of rearing and laying hens. Poult Sci 88(4):759-773, 2009. van Z eeland YRA, Schoemaker NJ, Lumeij JT. Contraf reeloading in grey parrots. Proc Assoc Avian Vet 2009:9. Vargas-Ashby HW, Pankhurst SJ. Ef f ects of f eeding enrichment on the behaviour and welf are of captive Waldrapps (Northern bald ibis) (Geronticus eremitta). Anim Welf 16(3):369-374, 2007. Webb NV, Famula T R, Millam JR. T he ef f ect of rope color, size and f ray on environmental enrichment device interaction in male and f emale orange-winged Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica). Appl
Anim Behav Sci 124(3-4):149-156, 2010. Wirminghaus JO, Downs CT, Perrin MR, Symes CT. Abundance and activity patterns of the cape parrot (Poicephalus robustus) in two af romontaine f orests in South Af rica. Af r Z ool 36(1):71-77, 2001. Wolf P, Graubohm S, Kamphues J. Experimental data on f eeding extruded diets in parrots. Proc Joint Nutr Soc 2002:137. ↑ top
Further reading van Z eeland YRA. T he f eather damaging Grey parrot: an analysis of its behaviour and needs [dissertation]. University Hall, Domplein 29, Utrecht: University of Utrecht; 2013.
Dr. van Zeeland’s thesis can be downloaded for free from dspace library or contact Dr. van Zeeland to order a printed copy, which includes a special cover with a lenticular image of a grey parrot that either has its feathers plucked or is normally feathered (Fig 6).
Young RJ. Environmental enrichment f or captive animals. UFAW Animal Welf are Series. Blackwell Publishers. Ames, Iowa; 2003. 228. ↑ top
Figure 6. Fro nt c o ve r o f the s is b y Dr. Yvo nne R.A. van Ze e land . Click image to enlarge.
To cite this page: van Z eeland YRA. Fun Facts on Foraging Enrichment. Laf eberVet website. March 31, 2014. Available at http://www.laf ebervet.com/nutrition/f un-f acts-on-f oraging-enrichment/.