Section 2 views on menstruation across cultures by Daun Barr Stansfield

Section 2

BIO327 SPRING 2015

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Views on Menstruation across cultures

ð C OU R SE W IK I

TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1 _____________________________________________________________ 1 Group 1 ___________________________________________________________________ 1 Views on Menstruation across Cultures ________________________________________ 1

Chapter 2 _____________________________________________________________ 7 Group 2 ___________________________________________________________________ 7 Views on Menstruation across Cultures _________________________________________ 7

Chapter 3 ____________________________________________________________ 13 Group 3 __________________________________________________________________ 13 Views on Menstruation across Cultures _______________________________________ 13 Menstruation in the Bible ___________________________________________________ 13

Chapter 4 ____________________________________________________________ 23 Group 4 __________________________________________________________________ 23 Cross Cultural Views on Menstruation ________________________________________ 23

Chapter 5 ____________________________________________________________ 33 Group 5 __________________________________________________________________ 33 Menstruation in Buddhist and Jewish Cultures _________________________________ 33

Chapter 6 ____________________________________________________________ 38 Group 6 __________________________________________________________________ 38 Menstruation Across the Navajo Culture _______________________________________ 38

Chapter 7 ____________________________________________________________ 44 Group 7 __________________________________________________________________ 44 Judiasm view on Menstruation _______________________________________________ 44

Chapter 8 ____________________________________________________________ 48 Group 8 __________________________________________________________________ 48 Menstruation Across Cultures : The Sambia tribe and the Cherokee _______________ 48

Chapter 9 ____________________________________________________________ 53 Group 9 __________________________________________________________________ 53 Views on Menstruation Across cultures: India __________________________________ 53

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Topic: Menstruation Across Cultures Project Roles Menstruation Across Cultures Potential Articles References

Africa

article on what it's like for girls in zimbabwe http://www.huffingtonpost.com/miriammufaro/menstrualhygienemustbe_b_5652340.html

Menstruation Across Cultures

Background (created by Chantelle O'NeillDuncan on Tuesday, February 10, 2015, 5:50 PM) The menstrual cycle is a cycle occurring in the uterus and ovaries that is an essential part of making sexual reproduction possible. It occurs only in female humans and primates, usually beginning between the ages of 8 and 16. The length of the menstrual cycle varies based on factors such as heredity, culture, and health, but is generally between 21 to 35 days in length. There are two ways to outline the events of the cycle: the ovarian cycle and the uterine cycle. Each cycle consists of three phases. During menstruation, a released egg has the chance to become fertilized by sperm. If fertilization doesn’t occur, then menstruation happens, where hormones in the uterus cause the uterine lining to shed, along with blood and mucous.

Historical Overview (created by Frank Montana on Wednesday, February 11, 2015, 11:24 AM) Throughout history, menstruation has been a controversial topic; its occurrence was often regarded as a supernatural event. For instance, much of the western attitude towards menstruation in the late 19th century rendered people to believe that women were periodically dangerous, and that any contact with women during menstruation should be strictly limited. Even physicians claimed that menstruation was a pathological occurrence, which often led to strict societal restrictions to be placed on women during their time of menstruation. A good example of such taboo attitudes towards menstruation is an article published in the British Medical Journal in 1878, which claimed that menstruating women would cause bacon to putrefy. Historically, some religions such as Jewish Orthodox and Islamic cultures held severe restrictions when it came to women and the menstrual cycle. For example, in Jewish Orthodox, a woman is considered to be in an “unclean”

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WIKI Going with the Flow: Views on Menstruation across cultures phase during menstruation. During this “unclean” phase, a woman’s husband is prohibited from any contact with his wife’s body during the time of menstruation and an additional week after. In Islamic culture, a similar rule is placed upon men to avoid contact with their wives during menstruation, as well as rules that prohibit women to pray or fast in duration to menstruation. Views Across the World (created by Frank Montana on Thursday, February 12, 2015, 10:57 PM) INDIA In India, a majority of women believe that they should avoid regular daytoday tasks during menstruation.During this time, they believe that they are impure, and so they avoid things such as cooking, praying in temples, and contact with their husbands. The idea that menstruation is a curse has led many women to believe that during their time of menstruation, women will contaminate anything they touch.

The taboo beliefs regarding menstruation in some areas of India have caused serious harm to its women. For example, in some areas, women are forced to live in cowsheds throughout their periods, which leave them at great risks for serious infections and various other health issues. In addition to poor living conditions, women often lack sanitary means of supplies needed for menstruation, such as tampons, pads, or clean cloths. For instance, according to outreach workers in Yatra, one young girl was too embarrassed to ask her mother for a clean rag during her period. The young girl resorted to using a dirty rag, which was unknowingly infested with lizard eggs. Subsequently, her uterus was removed due to infection; she was only 13 years old.

AFRICA

In many parts of Africa, young women are troubled by their periods. Similar to other taboo attitudes towards menstruation across the world, women in some parts of Africa are urged not to pray, work, or clean during their monthly periods. Many times women aren't even aware of the eminent event of menstruation and are thus completely shocked when it does occur. Becuase of this several girls may feel there is something wrong with them, or have no idea how to solve the problem. This may rrsult in unsanitary protection. Even worse, menstruation often acts as a roadblock in the education process for young women throughout the continent. For instance, with the lack of proper protection, young girls find it difficult to sit through classes. It’s estimated that young girls miss out on over 20% of their total school year due to a lack of proper protection, while others may resort to dropping out of school indefinitely.

The lack of proper protection causes even more harm outside of the educational realm. For example, young girls have been shown to use any means available to protect themselves every month. Reports of young girls and

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WIKI Going with the Flow: Views on Menstruation across cultures women alike using anything from leaves, cloth, dirty rags, and old tshirts to clean the mess are common in underdeveloped parts of the continent. Being able to clean their materials causes a problem for many women as well they are unable to avoid bacteria in their materials that can cause problems. Such unsanitary methods often lead to embarrassment around peers, and even worse, severe infections.

EAST ASIA (created by Chantelle O'NeillDuncan on Friday, February 13, 2015, 5:11 PM) In East Asia, women who are menstruating are treated as though they are incapacitated, and should take time to rest. In this culture, women serve as the incubators for their children. Therefore, during menstruation, they are said to be weak, and should rest to regain their strength, to keep the body healthy for future children. Most countries in East Asia, including Japan and most recently Taiwan, have a practice called "menstrual leave." It is written into labor law that women can take a certain number of days paid leave during their menstrual time. These laws began around the time of World War Two when women were increasingly entering the workforce. Since there was a lack of sanitary washrooms for the women, they were given time to stay home and take care of themselves during their periods. This topic is widely debated, with opinions varying from feminist views, to inequality for men. Feminists see the opportunity to leave work as another way of calling women weak. Some men believe that it is unfair to them, since they don't receive the same opportunities.

Even though this option is offered in many Asian countries, the actual rates of women taking menstrual leave has been falling rapidly. Survey results report that women feel uncomfortable telling their supervisors and peers that they are menstruating, and they are afraid they will seem weak. Some women, teachers especially, simply don't have the time in their busy work schedules to leave without a real reason to.

UNITED STATES (created by Carli Wickham on Friday, February 13, 2015, 10:36 PM) In the United States, menstruation is a topic that cultures view as not as taboo as many others view it as. Although it is not a topic many people choose to discuss on a regular basis, its presence is commonly known among most people. In America, in comparison to many other countries and cultures, preteens are many times given basic education about their future experiences with puberty. This education can range from basic menstruation awareness to awareness about the puberty of oppostie sexes as well. The education of opposite sexes usually occurs in a year or two after learning about their own sex (ex: if learning about self in 5th grade, may learn about opposite sex in 8th.) This is unlike many other countries, like Africa for instance, where women commonly have no idea that they are going to go through menstruation, and thus do not know what to do when it occurs. Because of the limited education many of the students in the United States receive, they are also aware of where

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WIKI Going with the Flow: Views on Menstruation across cultures to receive proper sanitary pads and/or tampons for their use. Many times schools provide emergency protection as well very unusual in other countries where education is greatly affected by this monthly inconvenience. Media also plays a role in the United State's awareness of menstruation. If we just consider television viewers are constantly subjected to commercials regarding different brands of menstrual pads or tampons, or sometimes silly plays on the beginning of a cycle for women. The media constantly displays ideals of menstruation for its viewers. If we then consider radio, paper publicity, and internet, we can then see how media is constantly portraying these realities.

Over the last few years in America, the average age of menarche (initial onset of menstruation) has declined. In the last century the average age of menarche has decreased from about 17 years of age to 13. Although this could be caused by many external factors within our society, some research has shown that decreasing menarche age can be linked to decreased rates of disease, increased nutrition, and female ability to adapt to environmental cues like health, food, and shelter. Infants and children are also constantly vulnerable to chemicals in our environment that can have an affect. This can lead to an increased risk of cancer, developmental problems, as well as social problems, for example loss of childhood. Changing the Stigma (created by Chantelle O'NeillDuncan on Friday, February 13, 2015, 3:58 PM) Many initiatives have been started to help change the taboo of menstruation that women face around the world. The day of May 28, 2014 marked the world's first Menstrual Hygiene Day. The day began what is hopefully to become the first of many to reach out to cultures all over the world and promote menstrual health. Volunteers visited towns and schools to give presentations that taught men and women the proper ways to manage menstruation. The goal for the initiative is to break the taboo and help women become comfortable with the natural processes of their bodies.

Many other initiatives address the issue of clean protection for the women in Africa. AFRIpads is a business in Uganda that creates and sells menstruation kits to African woman. The kits include enough reusable, economic friendly cloth pads to last a woman for a year. AFRIpads' mission is to provide women with safe, clean protection that is costeffective.

References (created by Frank Montana on Friday, February 13, 2015, 12:35 PM) https://ispub.com/IJWH/5/2/8213

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http://pub209healthcultureandsociety.wikispaces.com/Symbolic+meaning+of+menstruation+across+different+cultures+and+p http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/29/opinion/thetabooofmenstruation.html http://qz.com/252419/thefullextentofwhaturbanindiabelievesaboutmenstruationisextraordinary/ http://www.theguardian.com/globaldevelopmentprofessionalsnetwork/2014/may/28/menstruationgirls educationugandasanitation http://cc.csusm.edu/pluginfile.php/225971/mod_resource/content/1/Menstruation%20across%20cultures.pdf http://www.ipsnews.net/2014/08/eastafricabreaksthesilenceonmenstruationtokeepgirlsinschool/ http://rhrealitycheck.org/article/2008/03/25/inafricamenstruationcanbeacurse/ http://cc.csusm.edu/mod/resource/view.php?id=166031 http://afripads.com/blog/theissue/ http://menstrualhygieneday.org/faq4/menstrualhygieneday/ http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/culture/2014/04/399_123535.html http://www.ctvnews.ca/health/shouldwomenbeofferedpaidmenstrualleave1.2141401 http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/05/shouldwomengetpaidmenstrualleavedays/370789/ http://www.speakingofchina.com/chinaarticles/lijiachinamonthlybreak/

Potential Articles

Hey guys, just thought we could all post our articles here if we find some interesting ones? Then they will all be local for us to pull the info and the links from! I found an article on Zimbabwe that I'll post here later! Africa Hey there! I found an article that might be worth taking some information from. In this article I found a couple main points about how menstruation is viewed in Uganda. According to the experiences of this young girl (and many others like her) girls many times are not taught about the likelihood of them beginning their period at a certain age. Many are initially shocked by the idea when it occurs and then are illprepared to know what to do once it happens. Then, they feel they cannot talk to anyone about it and lack the sanitary necessities of dealing with it. It does look like a little bit of change is occurring as this program looks to "break the silence" but I am not sure to what extent it is helping. If this article isn't worth using information from I won't be offended, just trying to get more out here! I also added the article we were required to read from Cougar Courses: I don't think it'd be a bad idea to use it, and it has some good information. Carli http://www.ipsnews.net/2014/08/eastafricabreaksthesilenceonmenstruationtokeepgirlsinschool/ http://cc.csusm.edu/pluginfile.php/225971/mod_resource/content/1/Menstruation%20across%20cultures.pdf More Articles (created by Mallory Carr on Thursday, February 12, 2015, 4:45 PM) http://rhrealitycheck.org/article/2008/03/25/inafricamenstruationcanbeacurse/ This article talks about things they do to, "stem the flow of monthly periods, the women and girls use anything from rags, tree leaves, old clothes, toilet paper, newspapers, cotton wool, cloths or literally anything that can do the job. Most girls from poor, rural communities do not use anything at all." http://www.theguardian.com/globaldevelopmentprofessionalsnetwork/2014/may/28/menstruationgirls educationugandasanitation This one talks about how it affects school, "Not only are these girls dealing with a lack of materials, they are also stigmatised by cultural attitudes that regard menstruating women and girls as dirty. Many girls grow up dreading their period because of the social stigma associated with menstruation, as well as the lack of services and facilities to help them." http://www.ipsnews.net/2014/08/eastafricabreaksthesilenceonmenstruationtokeepgirlsinschool/ This is another article that talks about the affect on their school day and how the girls felt during. Missing about 20% of their school year. Discussion (created by Ashley Ricchio on Friday, February 13, 2015, 11:30 PM) Articles on Africa are on point Mallory. I like how you not only researched how they handle the menstruation period for girls in Uganda or different parts of Africa, but how much they miss out on because of this menstrual

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WIKI Going with the Flow: Views on Menstruation across cultures process.

Project Roles Roles: Project Manager: Chantelle O'NeillDuncan Researchers: Chantelle O'NeillDuncan, Frank Montana, Amanda Lawrence Link Layer: Sydney Toledo Graphic Designer: Vanessa Monsalud, Jelly Ulloa Flowmaster: Mallory Carr, Amanda Venezia Spelling Cop: Mallory Carr, Jelly Ulloa Discussion Starter: Ashley Ricchio Captain Spit & Polish: Carli Wickham, Diana Penaloza, Frank Montana

References

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FAQ's About the Menstrual Cycle ~ Views on Menstruation Across Cultures ~ TEST/References The Menstrual Cycle Defined The menstrual cycle is the cycle of changes that occur in the uterus and ovary as a part of making sexual reproduction possible. The cycle is necessary for the production of eggs, and prepares the uterus for pregnancy. In fertile human females, the cycle occurs repeatedly between the age of menarche, when the cycle begins, until menopause, when it ends. During the cycle, there are four phases that occur. The menstruation phase, which is represented by a woman’s monthly bleeding, is the first phase. When women menstruate, the body sheds the lining of the uterus. Menstrual blood then flows from the uterus through the small opening in the cervix, and passes out of the body through the vagina. Although menstruation is a normal occurrence in all fertile human females, this phase of the menstrual cycle is seen differently across the different cultures in our world. Image representing menstruation as the first phase in the menstrual cycle:

FAQ's About The Menstrual Cycle Q: What happens during the Menstrual Cycle? A: The amount of estrogen that the woman's body produces begins to increase in order to prepare for pregnancy. This increase in estrogen results in a thickening of the uterine lining, which would provide nourishment for a future embryo. One of the woman's eggs also begins to mature. This is a process called Ovulation. If the egg does not become fertilized during this time, the egg will break apart and the drop in hormones will cause the lining to be shed. This process is called Menstruation. This is in preparation for the process to begin again.

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Day 1 starts with the first day of your period. This occurs after hormone levels drop at the end of the previous cycle, signaling blood and tissues lining the uterus (womb) to break down and shed from the body. Bleeding lasts about 5 days.

Usually by Day 7, bleeding has stopped. Leading up to this time, hormones cause fluidfilled pockets called follicles to develop on the ovaries. Each follicle contains an egg.

Between Day 7 and 14, one follicle will continue to develop and reach maturity. The lining of the uterus starts to thicken, waiting for a fertilized egg to implant there. The lining is rich in blood and nutrients.

Around Day 14 (in a 28day cycle), hormones cause the mature follicle to burst and release an egg from the ovary, a process called ovulation.

Over the next few days, the egg travels down the fallopian tube towards the uterus. If a sperm unites with the egg here, the fertilized egg will continue down the fallopian tube and attach to the lining of the uterus.

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If the egg is not fertilized, hormone levels will drop around Day 25. This signals the next menstrual cycle to begin. The egg will break apart and be shed with the next period.

Q: What is a typical Menstrual Period like? A: A typical Menstrual Period can last anywhere from 37 days and can vary from light (little blood loss) to heavy (a lot of blood loss) flows. Many women also experience symptoms as a result of their fluctuating hormones, such as "mood swings," irritability, bloating, irritated bowels, breakouts, and cramping in the uterus. These symptoms are usually manageable, especially with the help of hormonal birth control or other pain killers like Midol or Pamprin. Q: At what age to women typically experience Menarche (onset of first period)? A: The average age among most cultures is around 12 years old. The time of menarche depends mainly on the amount of body fat that a young woman has, which cannot be too much or too little because that is essential for her being able to healthily carry a child. A woman typically has about a year of menstruating before she actually begins ovulating. Q: At what age to women typically end Menstruation? A: The average age that a women ends Menstruation and begins Menopause is around 50 years old. This is because the amount of estrogen that the body produces begins to decline as a woman ages. Because women are only born with a certain number of eggs and do not produce more throughout their lifetime, as this age there eggs are not as healthy and continued ovulation and fertilization could have very negative effects on a future embryo.

TEST References Avis, Nancy, and Sybil Crawford. "Cultural Differences in Symptoms and Attitudes toward Menopause." Menopause Management. Healthcom Media, 17 Sept. 2007. Web. http://www.menopausemgmt.com/culturaldifferencesinsymptomsandattitudestoward menopause. Botha, Leslie. "Harnessing the Power of Menstrual Blood." Holy Hormones Journal. Web. 22 Aug. 2008. http://holyhormones.com/womenshealth/menstrualcycle/harnessingthe powerofmenstrualblood. Brien, Suzanne J., and Dennis F. Kelley. American Indian Religious Traditions an Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABCCLIO, 2005. Print. Castañeda, X., Garcia, C., Langer, A.. Ethnography of fertility and menstruation in rural Mexico. Soc. Sci. Med. 1996. 42(1): 133140

Dinsmore, Cynthia. "Traditional Beliefs of MexicanAmerican Women: Implications for Health Care." Institute of Midwifery. Web. http://www.instituteofmidwifery.org/MSFinalProj.nsf/a9ee58d7a82396768525684f0056be8d/a66f5b OpenDocument. F, Shannon. "Menstrual Rites Of The Native Americans." CycleHarmony. 1 Jan. 2015. Web.http://www.cycleharmony.com/stories/menstrualmythsarituals/menstrualritesof thenativeamericans. Guterman, Mark A., Payal Mehta, and Margaret S. Gibbs. "Menstrual Taboos Among http://cc.csusm.edu/mod/ouwiki/entirewiki.php?id=166035&group=9165&format=html

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Major Religions." Internet Scientific Publications. N.p., 2013. Web. Jain, Anupma. "Menstrual Hygiene Management: A Taboo That Must Be Broken!" Asian Development Blog. 6 June 2013. Web. http://blogs.adb.org/blog/menstrualhygiene managementtaboomustbebroken. Marvan, Maria, Sandra CortesIniestra, and Regina Gonzalez. "Beliefs About and Attitudes Toward Menstruation Among Young and MiddleAged Mexicans." Sex Roles 53 (2005): 273.Springer. Web. "Menstruation." Academic Dictionaries and Encyclopedias. Academic, 1 Jan. 2014. Web. http://contemporary_chinese_culture.academic.ru/516/menstruation. "Menstrual Cycle." Cougar Courses. Web. http://cc.csusm.edu/pluginfile.php/225970/mod_resource/content/2/Menstrual cycle.pdf. "Menstrual Cycles and Ovluation." Clearblue. 1 Jan. 2014. Web. http://uk.clearblue.com/menstrualcyclesandovulation. Nelson, Lawrence. "Menstruation and He Menstrual Cycle Fact Sheet." Womenshealth. Office On Women's Health, 23 Dec. 2014. Web. http://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/ourpublications/factsheet/menstruation.html. "NEPAL: Menstruating Girls Miss out on School." IRIN. IRIN, 1 Jan. 2015. Web. http://www.irinnews.org/report/88992/nepalmenstruatinggirlsmissoutonschool. "Phases of Menstrual Cycle." Menstrupedia. 1 Jan. 2015. Web. http://menstrupedia.com/articles/physiology/cyclephases. "The Menstrual Cycle: A Feminist Lifespan Perspective." The Menstrual Cycle: A Feminist Lifespan Perspective. Web.

Views on Menstruation Across Cultures

American Culture

Over time, American's views on menstruation have changed greatly. Dating back as far as the early 1800's, there have been myths, taboos, and even magic associated with women who are menstruating. These differences in viewpoints over time have to do with economic, social, and medical changes which have taken place over the past few centuries. Initially, menstruation was viewed as a beautiful right of passage that marked a young girl's transition into womanhood. It signified good health, fertility, and was considered completely natural. Despite these commonly positive beliefs, some people still did view menstruation as a negative thing, even back then. Some thought that menstruating women were impure, unclean, and polluting the earth. In many instances, women who were menstruating were not even allowed in churches. Many of these taboos came from Christian scriptures, which spoke of menstruating women as being unclean and not being allowed to leave their homes for the entirety of their menstrual cycle. It also stated that both men and women who engaged in sexual intercourse while a woman was menstruating were impure. There have been many taboos associated with the menstrual process, and discussion of the topic is greatly discouraged in modern American culture. Young girls are often taught by society to be embarrassed of menstruation, and should never discuss it in front of strangers or members of the opposite sex. Not only is there a negative connotation associated with the idea of menstruation, but with the side effects that come with it. Often, women are criticized for "PMSing," or experiencing Premenstrual Syndrome, which can lead to influxes in hormones that cause mood swings or emotional sensitivity. Many Americans argue that the presence of PMS is a weakness in women, and that it renders them unable to hold important positions, such as CEOs, military leaders, or even president of the United States, because they are unable to make rational decisions. Such stereotypes have created a problem for women whose ambitious efforts are thwarted by the natural process of menstruation. From a woman's perspective, menstruation can be seen as an inconvenient and sometimes painful process, but it is usually not as debilitating as it is often presented to be. There are many options for women to ease the pain or discomfort of their periods available in America, such as hormonal birth controls, pain killers such as Midol or Pamprin, and increasing knowledge of what kinds of food and exercise are beneficial.

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WIKI Going with the Flow: Views on Menstruation across cultures The shift in perspective over the centuries may be greatly related to the lifestyle changes that have made menstruation so much more common. In the 1800's, many women did not experience regular menstruation, because they were malnourished. As a result, experiencing menstruation was considered a great blessing, because it signified that the woman was healthy enough to become pregnant and have children. As Americans have had less and less problems with malnutrition, menstruation is usually a monthly phenomenon for most women, and does not hold the same implications about health and fertility. This is especially true because the onset of menstruation is happening earlier and earlier for young girls.

Hispanic Culture

Hispanic views on menstruation are changing with generations. It is mainly thought of as a general annoyance. According to an article titled “Women’s Health Care Traditions”, a Mythical level in the Precolumbian Mexico stated that there was link between menstruation and the moon. Although menstruation was seen as a natural even related to the life cycle, it was also seen as an imbalance and a sort of “illness”. From another source, it explains that some women believe "[…] the moon takes advantage of the woman before the man does, and that is why she has her period. The moon breaks the woman in for the first time." (1). There are many taboos that relate to the menstrual cycle. For instance, in some areas related to the MexicanAmerican culture believe that if a mother is angry with her daughter, then her daughter would have cramps during her menstrual cycle. In some areas of the Hispanic culture, "Problems related to fertility and menstruation are linked to symptoms which are related to an excess of cold in the body. A woman who is unable to conceive is stigmatized by the community and is called worthless and a mule […]” (1). A woman’s ability to conceive is a symbol of her worth, but if she is unable to conceive she is seen as worthless.

Asian Culture The topic of menstruation remains taboo in many Asian societies. About 20 percent of girls consider menstruation a necessary "evil." Due to cultural practices, social myths, and religious beliefs, the topic is difficult for both men and women to talk about. Lack of information, separate latrine facilities, menstrual hygiene products, poor management and disposal of these products further exasperates the situation for women and girls. During menstruation women and girls in some South Asian communities are not allowed to use water sources. It is feared that if they do, the disposal of menstrual hygiene products will cause latrines to become clogged, and assets will begin to deteriorate at a rapid rate. The lack of menstrual hygiene management (MHM) in these areas is an important gender issue that affects 1.1 billion women living in Asia and the Pacific. There is a lack of gender sensitivity affecting girls and most schools in Asia are continuing to neglect the special needs of adolescent girls. Many girls are missing out on between ten to twenty percent of all class days. The reason, they state, is due to a lack of privacy, unavailability of sanitary disposal facilities and water shortages. Due to the fact that schools are regarded as temples, there are no toilets attached to them. Consequently, with no privacy what so ever, menstruating girls have no choice but to carry whatever water is needed to clean themselves between the taps and the toilets that are located far from each other. This causes girls to become humiliated, and they therefore lose interest in going to school. In some rural areas of Asia, girls cannot afford sanitary products, so they instead use rags. If not cleaned property, this can result in infection.

Native American Culture Unlike their Euro American Christian counterparts, who viewed the female menstrual cycle as being somewhat of

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WIKI Going with the Flow: Views on Menstruation across cultures a biblical curse, unsanitary, and a failure of not being in a pregnant state, Native Americans shared a much different view on menstruation and menarche (a woman’s first cycle period). Instead of viewing menstruation as being unsanitary, Native Americans met a woman’s menstruation period with a more ritualistic and ceremonial approach. Although there were certain restrictions for women during their cycle period, such as no cooking, and no sleeping with or living with men, they were not inplace because menstruation was viewed as unclean, but because women were viewed as being in their most powerful state during this time. For example, in the Lakota tribe, women who were on their cycle were prohibited from being in close proximity to healers and warriors. This was because the Lakota saw menstrual blood as being too powerful and that it could potentially weaken the spirit and strength of their warriors to fight and hinder the ability of healers to heal. It was a time when women were thought to be wielding enormous power, almost thought of as holy as their bodies were going through a sort of ritualistic purification, and showing their astonishing capability to bear children. Menstrual huts were also common among Native American tribes. They were a kind of getaaway for women during the heaviest days of bleeding during their menstrual cycle. Once their menstruation period began, women would leave their family huts and enter a menstrual hut where they would join other women collectively and go through their cycles together. This was also a type of bonding time between women of the tribe. They would often engage in telling stories, arts and crafts, and have discussions about female issues.

Ceremonial and ritualistic examples include that of the Navajo tradition called Kinaalda, where the tribe celebrates a young girl who enters into her first menstrual cycle. The celebration will go on for four days and rituals such as ceremonial dances, cleansing rituals, and other physical activities like racing are performed in celebration of the young girl’s rightofpassage, her entrance into womanhood. Among Cheyenne tribes, announcements are made publicly and immediately once a girl enters menarche; and the father of the young woman traditionally gives away a horse, and the older women of the tribe ceremonially remove the braids from her hair, bathe her, and then paint her body red.

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Native American Culture

Menstruation involved strong oral tradition, rituals, and ceremonies. It was not something that was viewed as shameful, but as a joyful and memorable moment in a woman's life. Certain tribes believed that women were holy because they were able to bleed lots of blood without dropping dead, and certain Native American tribes believed that this involved some sort of divine power as they also thought that women were "purifying" themselves during their periods. Menstrual huts existed for women (on their periods) to visit and comingle with each other in order to explore their more creative sides. Women were believed to have psychic abilities while on their period. The Cheyenne and Apache tribes would openly celebrate their daughters' periods, and even the entire village would join in on the fun. Hindu Culture

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(created by Emanuel Santana on Friday, February 6, 2015, 5:09 PM) Women on their periods are seen as impure, and they must not be touched by men because they would infect men with their "impureness." Men wash away this dirtiness by bathing his entire body, including dunking his head underneath the bath water. Having a period is considered a purification of a woman's sins. Women aren't allowed to do any chores like cooking because she can "infect" others with her period. The only thing a woman is allowed to do on a period are lay on the ground to go to sleep, and "drink out of a large vessel, or out of her joined hands, or out of a copper vessel. Other activities a woman is restricted from doing while on her period include: Taking a bath Sleeping during the day Being anywhere near an open fire to keep warm Making rope Cleaning her teeth Eating meat Looking at the sky Chores around the house Running Smiling Mayan Culture

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(created by Emanuel Santana on Friday, February 6, 2015, 5:29 PM) When a woman has a late menstruation while trying to conceive a child, the Mayans believed in making a drink made with a dried umbilical cord in order to cure the problem (p. 265). It was considered sinful to tell a girl about menstruation before her first period. For Mayan women, they see their period as something shameful. For example, some tell their mothers that they hurt themselves from playing outside, or they would just hide the blood and not tell anyone anything (From Menarche to Menopause p. 104). Menstruating women are considered to be carrying an evil wind that destroys everything. It's believed that if a woman on her period visits a newborn baby, the umbilical cord will bleed and cause death (From Menarche to Menopause p. 105). If a menstruating woman goes near men doing projects like digging wells, it is believed that she will cause a cavein and kill everyone. To prevent these disasters, "Households with newborn babies hang Anona leaves outside the door until the umbilical cord is dried off, to signal the villagers; men who are digging wells usually take the precaution of wearing woman's garment [...] on their heads or hanging it on a stick nearby. Mayan woman fear delayed menstruation because they fear that "dirty blood" can cause health problems. To avoid getting a delayed period, they believe they should avoid: Cold drinks Bathing in cold water Wetting her feet Walking in the rain Drinks with citrus Greek Culture

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(created by Emanuel Santana on Friday, February 6, 2015, 6:04 PM) Menstruating women are considered "Impure and polluted." She is banned from religious activities until she becomes clean again (by going off her period). Greeks believe that: If she touches the wine at home, it will become flat. If she touches any dough while baking bread, it will not rise. If she touches feta cheese, it will turn yellow. The Greeks also believe that menstruating women should be exempted from the same activities that Mayan menstruating women are barred from. Heavy blood flow is considered very good because a woman is getting rid of her sins and is considered a sign of fertility. Telling their daughters about a period before it occurs is considered sinful. If women did on get their periods quickly, Greeks believed that they would get "hysteria, pallor, headaches, dizziness, vomiting, nosebleeds, choking and suicidal thoughts." Women who lived long enough to go through menopause, were seen as chosen by Artemis to deliver other women's children. Late menstruation was dealt with by putting warm lambskin on a girl's abdomen in order to try to ease the flow of menstrual blood. African Culture

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(created by Maria Chalez on Wednesday, February 11, 2015, 8:28 PM) In rural Kenya, young girls have been led to believe that menstruation is like a curse. Men stay away from them because they are considered dirty. Women are not allowed to milk goats or walk near them. They can't even eat the goats' meat because it is believed that animals will be cursed and become infertile. Because women feel so ashamed of their periods, they do not talk to their daughters about it. Most girls feel uncomfortable talking to their mothers about it as well for the same reason. In New Guinea, sex is not allowed because menstrual blood was believed to corrupt a man's "vital juices" and weaken him. Menstruating women are seen as pollutants and they are not allowed near crops or animals for fear of contamination. Some places in Africa use special huts for women while they are on their periods to isolate them from the rest of the community. In other areas, the huts are not viewed as a seclusion fro women but instead as a time for them to get together with other menstruating women and sing songs together. Sometimes the men standing outside would sing with them.

Did you Know... In Nigeria, women are very cautious about how they dispose of rags or pads (for those who have access to them) because it is believed that during this time they are very vulnerable to black magic attacks? Some women avoid washing for fear that they might be cursed if others found out that they were having their period. In rural areas of Venezuela, when a woman starts her period, she is expected to sleep in a hut every night until her period is over. Similar practices take place in Nigeria. Girls are not allowed to sleep near their family members. In remote villages of Nepal, women are sent to a special hut in the wilderness when they start their period and cannot return until it's over. They are forbidden to have contact with anyone because menstruating is something embarrassing and these women are willing to seclude themselves to conceal the shame. In Southeast Asia, menstruating women are forbidden from using the same water facilities as the rest of the community to prevent contamination of the water. As many as 48% of young Iranian girl think that menstruation is a disease because of all the myths that they've been told.

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WIKI Going with the Flow: Views on Menstruation across cultures Religion and Menstruation: A look at Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. (created by Ashley Jolley on Thursday, February 12, 2015, 5:49 PM) Judaism

Jewish law forbids any physical contact between males and females during the days of menstruation and for a week after. This includes interactions as simple as passing objects between each other, sharing a bed , sitting together on the same cushion of a couch, to eating directly from the wife's leftovers, smelling her perfume, and listening to her sing . A ritual states that an Orthodox Jewish wife is responsible for immersing in the Mikvah which is a ritual bath, following 2 weeks after menstruation. Niddah, which literally translates as “separation” is the point of menstruation when women are viewed as “ritually unclean” and therefore must avoid contact with their partners. The reason behind these “Laws of Family Purity” is that menstrual blood is considered ritually unclean. The source for this law is Leviticus 18:19, which reads, “You shall not approach a woman in her time of unclean separation, to uncover her nakedness.” Christianity

Most Christian religious groups do not follow any specific rituals or regulations related to menstruation, although in Western Civilizations there are many historical taboos related to perspectives on menstruation. For example, in early Western cultures, the menstruating women were believed to be evil and dangerous. Also, the history of the menstrual taboo has been a major reason in the decision to keep women from positions of authority in Christianity. Authorities of the Orthodox Church will not allow women to receive communion during their menstrual period. Other taboos surrounding a woman’s menstrual are also responsible for the belief of many Catholics that a woman should not have intercourse during her monthly period. Catholic canon law refuses to allow women or girls to be in any semisacerdotal roles, such as altar server . Russian Orthodox Christians have certain rules and laws regarding women menstruating as well. Menstruating women are secluded in a small huts and do not attend church services, cannot have any contact with men, and may not touch raw or fresh food. Menstruating women are also thought to offend and repel fish and game. A menstruating woman's gaze is also thought to affect the weather negatively.

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In Muslim cultures, women are considered to be impure while menstruating and are required to be avoided by men.avoided by men. These laws are derived from the Qur'an in which it states, “They question thee (O Muhammad) concerning menstruation. Say it is an illness so let women alone at such times and go not into them til they are cleansed. And when they have purified themselves, then go unto them as Allah hath enjoined upon you.” Islam does not consider a menstruating woman to possess any kind of “contagious uncleanness” but the Islamic law treats menstruation as impure for religious purposes only. There are two main prohibitions placed upon the menstruating woman. First, she may not enter any shrine or mosque while menstruating .Secondly, she is not allowed to have sexual intercourse for seven full days. She is also “exempted” from rituals such as daily prayers and fasting. In addition, the woman must complete a “ritual washing” before she becomes “clean” again. Once the cycle is done, she is able to return to the aforementioned religious practices. Buddhism and menstruation

(created by Alexia Barrientos on Thursday, February 12, 2015, 10:47 pm) Buddhism views menstruation as a natural physical excretion that women experience once a month. In countries like Taiwan, Buddhists consider women who are menstruating as polluted and therefore place taboos upon them. Women are taught that during their menstrual cycle, they are dangerously vulnerable, and that menstrual blood is dirt or poison. Traditionally, Buddhist scriptures state that human bodies, both male and female, are flawed and secrete unpleasant bodily fluids; however although these scriptures do not say the female body is polluted, many people still discriminate against women due to their menstruation. The taboos that women experience while on their menstrual cycle include being banned from participating in folk ritual or entering temples, they cannot meditate, and they are not allowed to participate in ceremonies such as weddings. Women are also thought to lose chi when on their menstrual cycle. A popular Buddhist belief is that ghosts like to eat blood, and therefore a women who is menstruating is a threat to herself as well as to others. Buddhist women are believed to stop menstruating when they reach the first level of arhatship, an arhat being a person who is able to reach nirvana through his or her own will. It is a belief that they are able to control their own bodies. Tribal religions and menstruation

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(created by Alexia Barrientos on Thursday, February 12, 2014, 11:21 pm) Many tribal religions view the menstrual cycle to be supernatural since it mirrors the moons cycle. Because they are not aware of the biological factors that cause the menstrual cycle it is confusing for some that menstruation only occurs in females, stops in pregnancy, and stops at middle age. However, some taboos for menstruation in tribal religions exist today. The Huaulu of Indonesia have menstrual huts at the end of the villages, where women must live during their menstruation cycle, although the women are not confined to them and are allowed to wander the forest. These women, however, must refrain from eating game, and must bathe in special fountains that are forbidden to men. The Dogon, who live in central Mali, also have menstrual huts where women must live, but must continue with their agricultural labor by working in the fields, and are not allowed in the village streets or family compounds. Intercourse and cooking for men is also forbidden during this time. In tribal religions from Papa New Guinea, which include the Hagen, Duna, and Pangia areas, menstrual huts were also used in the past; however these huts are now abolished along with other practices. Tribal religions in New Guinea that include the Enga, Kaulong, and Sengseng, believe that intercourse during menstruation can weaken a man. (Language:) Greek: A girl's first menstrual period is called menarche from the Greek word men= month and arkhe= beginning. Another name for menstruation is "catamenia" in Greek kata= by and menia=month. A catamenia cup is a firm, flexible cup worn inside the vagina to catch menstrual blood. Old English: Menstruation equals monadblot or "month blood". In German, French, and Spanish regel, regle, and las reglas are words for menstruation that mean "measure" or "rule", which suggest orderliness, ceremony, law, and leadership. Tampon is french for "plug". Polynesian: The word taboo comes from tapua, meaning both sacred and menstruation. Sanskrit: The term ritual is derived from R'tu, which means "menstrual". Classical Latin: The term ovaries meant "egg keeper". Italian: Gabreillo Fallopio, who first described the fallopian tubes, were named after him. (created by Michelle Bailey) Sources http://www.hinduwebsite.com/sacredscripts/hinduism/dharma/vash1.asp http://www.hinduwebsite.com/sacredscripts/hinduism/dharma/vash1.asp (http://www.facts.randomhistory.com/randomfactsaboutmenstruation.html)

https://books.google.com/books? id=YHmPUmpJrsEC&pg=PA264&lpg=PA264&dq=maya+menstruation&source=bl&ots=H zsLcmirw&sig=i2zR8cJb98eJQO9NjASIszYGMeM&hl=en&sa=X&ei=02nVVLvWFIj8oAS3pIH4Aw&ved=0CFQQ6AEwCQ#v=

From Menarche to Menopause: https://books.google.com/books? id=okq5bkBOu1EC&pg=PA104&lpg=PA104&dq=maya+culture+menstruation&source=bl&ots=ZAjG4aA7Jv&sig=xv0xBtmc7D

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From Menarche to Menopause https://books.google.com/books? id=okq5bkBOu1EC&pg=PA104&lpg=PA104&dq=maya+culture+menstruation&source=bl&ots=ZAjG4aA7Jv&sig=xv0xBtmc7D http://www.mum.org/greekmen.htm http://www.soschildrensvillages.org.uk/news/blog/socialtaboosdamagethehealthofgirlsandwomen http://science.jrank.org/pages/11545/UntouchabilityMenstrualTaboosMenstrualTaboosinTribalBand Societies.html http://www.soschildrensvillages.org.uk/news/blog/socialtaboosdamagethehealthofgirlsandwomen http://www.femmeinternational.org/theissue.html M Guterman, P Mehta, M Gibbs. Menstrual Taboos Among Major Religions. The Internet Journal of World Health and Societal Politics. 2007 Volume 5 Number 2. https://ispub.com/IJWH/5/2/8213 M. Guterman, P. Mehta, M Gibbs. Menstrual Taboos Among Major Religions. The Internet Journal of World Health and Societal Politics. 2007 Volume 5 Number 2 M. Guterman, P. Mehta, M. Gibbs. Menstrual Taboos Among Major Religions. The Internet Journal of World Health and Societal Politics. 2007 Volume 5 Number 2. http://www.soschildrensvillages.org.uk/news/blog/socialtaboosdamagethehealthofgirlsandwomen http://science.jrank.org/pages/11545/UntouchabilityMenstrualTaboosMenstrualTaboosinTribalBand Societies.html

Photo Sources http://www.dpchallenge.com/image.php?IMAGE_ID=330333 Photograph by Manuel Librodo Jr. http://gypsycult.com/2014/10/26/riteofpassagewomanhood/

http://rebloggy.com/photography+art+hippie+hipster+vintage+boho+indie+Grunge+nature+retro+bohemian+shAdow+long+ha http://www.relaxmenstrualcramps.com http://worldhindunews.com/2014062726731/hindustantricfertilityfestivalgoingon/ http://www.thewombwellnesscenter.com/mayaabdominaltherapy.html http://www.flickr.com/photos/18090511@N03/6591006093/ Mayan ruins of Tonina in Chiapas, Mexico http://mayamoonhealingarts.com/ixchelmayagoddess/ http://greekmythology.wikia.com/wiki/Hera http://goddessofsacredsex.com/2013/03/17/thesacredpowerofmenstrualblood/ https://journeyingtothegoddess.wordpress.com/tag/uni/ http://www.dhushara.com/paradoxhtm/culture.htm http://adarwinstudygroup.org/sexuality/menstrualtaboos Image of a menstrual hut in Kenya. www.darussalampublishers.com mythoughtsbornfromfire.wordpress.com www.telegraph.co.uk http://www.japanspecialist.co.uk/traveltips/shintobuddhism/ http://tripwow.tripadvisor.com/

Unlinked pages Project Roles

Emanuel Santana Researcher Maria Chalez researcher and graphic designer Crimson Williams Flowmaster / graphic designer Jacy Ann Fong Spelling cop and Graphic Designer Kiara Stinson Researcher/linklayer Dina NasryProject Manager and Graphic Designer Michelle BaileyDiscussion starter and spell cop Kristen TwedtGraphic Designer and Spell cop Ashley JolleyResearcher

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Cross Cultural Views on Menstruation There are numerous societies around the world that have cultural traditions and ceremonies based upon the menstrual cycle. Menstruation is a natural part of a woman's life, yet people from all over view it differently. Cultural and social aspects influence the way people experience and interpret menstruation. This causes the symbolic meaning of menstruation to differ across a variety of cultures and societies.

Menstruation Paintings & Art Menstruation North America Europe Africa Asia References

Africa

Egypt In ancient Egypt, menstrual blood was considered to have healing powers and was used to create ointments and medicines. There are writings that show different herbal drinks that were taken for menstrual pain as well as uterine discharge. Menstrual blood was also thought to cure sagging breasts. The menstrual blood was rubbed over the women's belly and thighs. As for menstrual hygiene, it is thought that they used small pieces of linen. They just washed and reused them. Men did try to avoid the women at this time, because it was seen as ritually unclean. Also, men tended to have two wives. When one is not available, they can go to the other one and the wives were alright with this arrangement. In rural areas of Africa, many woman do not have sanitary napkins and tend to use a cloth over their underwear. When finished, they burn the cloth.

Ethiopia Ethiopian girls and woman who have low social economic status cannot afford sanitary napkins or tampons. Coupled with low water usage, Ethiopian woman cannot afford extra water that would be required for

menstruating days. In order for woman to afford their menstruating needs, they would have to work up to 483 hours just to afford their sanitary items. Furthermore, girls tend to miss up to 50 days of school due to their menstruation days. Missing school means missing assignments, and falling behind. Many eventually drop out of school. It is difficult for girls to attend school while menstruating, because they do not have privacy and most teachers are males. Along with other countries, when woman are menstruating they are seen as impure. Ethiopian woman are to stay isolated when they are menstruating. They can keep a child with them and can get visits from other woman, but only to be fed. Once they are done with their menstruation, they may come out of isolation and wash their clothes and themselves in the river.

Asia

Indonesia On the island province of Bali, menstruating women are prohibited from entering the kitchen. They are not allowed to have intercourse with their husbands during this time period. Females that are menstruating must sleep separately from the family as well. During this time, women must keep their menstruation clothes away from their temple garments. It is strictly forbidden for a menstruating woman to attend temple. On another island of Indonesia, Sumba, women do not disclose information about their cycles. With this secret, the women of Sumba are led to believe that they will always have control of men. Men on the other hand, find this tactic very deceitful. Sumba women are not supposed to have sex. It is believed that sexually transmitted diseases or infections are transferred due to a woman's deceitfulness. The STI gonorrhea translates to "disease you get from a woman." Due to this translation, it is believed that an infected man can rid himself of gonorrhea by having intercourse with a menstruating woman. Many believe that the woman will absorb the disease and will cleanse itself during the menstruation cycle.

India In welleducated urban Indian cities, women are seen as unclean during their menstruation. Even in 2015, there is still a great deal of shame for a woman on her period. They reuse rags as sanitary napkins to avoid the shame of buying tampons from a male clerk. Sometimes they will buy the tampons, but wrap them in a newspaper or magazine when approaching the counter. The shameful habits these Indian women deal with leads to infections and difficulties within families and marriages. Even for an educated country their still needs to be enlightenment toward menstruation. There has been a grass roots movement called menstrupedia.com. They use cartoons to explain the biological process in easy terms and to try to bring about change to Indian culture. This online comic has brought about a powerful change to how the Indian culture views menstruation. This comic has been the focus on a recent TED talk. The simple cartoons are being marketed to the public by the prime minister of India. He is the first male in India to speak so openly about menstruation. According to Colin Schulz, girls who get their periods often are forced to stop attending school and religious services and are even denied attending social events. India also has a high risk of cervical cancer due to unsanitary napkins and reusing cloths instead of sanitary napkins. BBC Magazine confirms that, “approximately 70% of all reproductive diseases in India are caused by poor menstrual hygiene.”

Brazil amenorreah Use of hormonal contraceptives to control menstrual bleeding: attitudes and practice of Brazilian gynecologists Abstract Metrics Get Permission Authors Makuch MY, Osis MJD, Pádua KS, Bahamondes L

Published Date November 2013 Volume 2013:5 Pages 795—801 DOIhttp://dx.doi.org/10.2147/IJWH.S52086 Received26 July 2013, Accepted 11 September 2013, Published 27 November 2013 María Y Makuch,1 Maria José D Osis,1 Karla Simonia de Pádua,1,2 Luis Bahamondes3 1Center for Research in Reproductive Health (CEMICAMP), 2Prof Dr José Aristodemo Pinotti Women's Hospital,

University of Campinas, 3Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, and National Institute of Hormones and Women's Health, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil Background: The purpose of this study was to assess the attitudes and prescribing practices of Brazilian obstetricians and gynecologists regarding use of contraceptive methods to interfere with menstruation and/or induce amenorrhea. Methods: We undertook a nationwide survey of Brazilian obstetricians and gynecologists selected using a computergenerated randomization system. Participants completed a questionnaire on prescription of contraceptives and extended/continuous regimens of combined oral contraceptives (COCs). Results: In total, 79.2% of Brazilian obstetricians and gynecologists reported that 20%–40% of their patients consulted them for menstrualrelated complaints and 26%–34% of the gynecologists reported that 21%–40% of their patients consulted them for reduction in the intensity, frequency, and/or duration of menstrual bleeding. Overall, 93% stated that medically induced amenorrhea represents no risk to women's health and 82.5% said that they prescribed contraceptives to control menstruation or induce amenorrhea. The contraceptives most commonly prescribed were extendedcycle 24/4 or 26/2 COC regimens and the levonorgestrelreleasing intrauterine system. Poisson regression analysis showed that Brazilian obstetricians and gynecologists prescribing contraceptives to control menstruation or induce amenorrhea consider extendeduse or continuous use COC regimens to be effective for both indications (prevalence ratio 1.23 [95% confidence interval 1.09–1.40] and prevalence ratio 1.28 [95% confidence interval 1.13–1.46], respectively). They also prescribed COCs with an interval of 24/4 or 26/2 to control bleeding patterns (prevalence ratio 1.10 [95% confidence interval 1.01–1.21]). Conclusion: Brazilian obstetricians and gynecologists were favorably disposed toward prescribing extendeduse or continuoususe COC regimens for control of menstrual bleeding or to induce amenorrhea on patient demand.

Europe

The United Kingdom The history of menstruation in Europe dates back to the 1800's Victorian era. Women typically started menstruating at a later age than they do today. Menstruation was thought to have harmful environmental effects. Some women were even asked not to work in the chance they might contaminate something. Homemade pads were common at this time, but were only available for higher class women. Most lower class women bled into their clothes. Some women believed the smell of menstruation would bring potential husbands as a sign of fertility. The idea of menstruation across cultures has changed drastically from being something that was taboo, to something that has made great progress in knowledge and information for young girls. The age of menstruation in European cultures statistically tends to be at a higher age than those in other cultures like the Caribbean or Indian subcontinents. This leads to the younger individuals partaking in risky behaviors such as sex, which has led to higher teen pregnancies in the United Kingdom. One possible idea behind this statistic could be that the legal drinking age is lower than other countries and that sexuality is viewed a little more openly in European countries. Many diverse cultures and religions are practiced in Europe and in countries such as the United Kingdom. This brings about different cultural views. These views include orthodox religions such as Judaism, Hinduism, and Muslim, which regard the idea of menses as unclean. Other sexual taboos in these religions are, sex outside of marriage, the use of birth control, abortion, and anyone besides the husband and wife involved in intimate circumstances.

Italy Women are forbidden from making red sauce while on their periods because they think it spoils the sauce. So women who are menstruating are not allowed to be part of the process because the sauce would then be deemed unclean. Menstruation was of concern to classical, medieval and Renaissance medical writers and physicians. Modern anthropologists have noted that excessive concern with menstruation is a characteristic of many birthpositive cultures. Not only did regular menstruation indicate fertility, but by the theory of humors, women's excess humors and buildup of bodily wastes were flushed by regular monthly courses. If these did not occur, the wastes would build up and cause illness. An older woman who no longer menstruated posed a serious safety concern since the excess humors and wastes were thought to be able to poison men, children and others with whom she came into contact with. Menstruation indicated fertility. The concern for regular menstruation led to a number of remedies 'to bring down women's courses', which may or may not have been abortifacient. However, most of the items specified as causing menstruation have little or no potential to case an abortion. Women who did not menstruate might suffer from wandering of the uterus; a misplaced uterus could cause pain in other parts of the body, and even cause stoppage of breath. 'Suffocation of the uterus' due to lack of menstruation was treated in various ways. Such as with drinks, steambaths, and manual manipulation. For young women, treatments for disorders of menstruation generally included the suggestion of marriage and sexual intercourse.

Menstruation

Menstruation is the process of a woman shedding her uterine wall, which causes a discharge of blood and mucus. This is a cycle that typically occurs for 37 days every month. When one menstruates, the body sheds the lining of the uterus (the endometrium). Menstrual blood flows from the uterus through the small opening in the cervix, and passes out of the body through the vagina. The average age that a woman first experiences menstruation begins around 12 to 13 years of age. Menstruation cycles continue throughout a woman's life until menopause.The menstrual cycle provides the body with important hormones and prepares the reproductive system for pregnancy each month. The average cycle is 28 days long, but can range from 2145 days from teen to adult.

What happens during a menstrual cycle? In the first half of the cycle, the female hormone estrogen, starts to increase. Estrogen is very important in the female body and does a number of things. Estrogen keeps bones strong as you grow older, helps the lining of the endometrium wall to thicken and grow, and enables the ovaries to mature. Around the 14th day of an average cycle, the egg leaves the ovary. The body then begins experiencing increased levels of progesterone. This is the start of ovulation. The egg will then travel out of the ovary through the fallopian tube on its way to the uterus. At the same time, estrogen is thickening the uterine wall and preparing the uterus for pregnancy. It is during this time, within the first three days, that the egg may become fertilized. A drop in progesterone and estrogen causes the thickened lining of the uterus to break down. In other words, if the egg does not become fertilized and does not attach to the uterine wall, it will then break apart and the lining is shed. This is when a woman's period starts. Women can use sanitary pads, tampons, or menstrual cups to absorb their menstrual flow. Many women use different ones at different times during menstruation. There are a wide variety of pads and tampons. Some are for lighter flows, while others are for heavier flows. Some are made of cotton or organic cotton. Others are made of rayon or a blend of cotton and rayon.

What controls the menstrual cycle? A change in hormone (estrogen and progesterone) levels can affect fertility. Both teens and women nearing menstruation tend to have low progesterone levels, which may explain heavy menstrual bleeding and cycles that change in length. Other things may disrupt a women's cycle. Such as birth control pills, low body fat, extreme weight loss, being overweight, stress, extraneous exercise, and pregnancy.

Possible Issues Women May Have with Their Period There are a wide variety of premenstrual symptoms (PMS) that women may experience. The timing, number, and severity of symptoms vary from woman to woman. In addition, the severity of the symptoms can vary from each month. Common PMS symptoms include: Bloating Breast tenderness Weight gain

Aggression Trouble concentrating Headaches/backaches Food cravings/overeating Fatigue Emotional Irritability Anxiety Acne Mood swings and/or depression Treating or Taking Care of Symptoms Eating a healthy diet and practicing regular exercise may improve symptoms. Trying to reduce stress may also be helpful, as well as limiting alcohol and caffeine consumption. A warm bath or a heating pad may soothe cramps. Another solution could be taking an overthecounter medicine for PMS symptoms such as pain and bleeding. Common overthecounter drugs for these symptoms are Midol, Ibuprofen, or Naproxen. Dysmenorrhea Dysmenorrhea is characterized as painful periods with severe cramps. When teens experience this it does not relate to any serious disease. Although, in older women dysmenorrhea can be caused by endometriosis or uterine fibroids. Possible remedies: Heating pad or warm bath Over thecounter pain medications such as Naproxen or Ibuprofen Amenorrhea Amenorrhea is characterized by multiple symptoms: A lack of menstrual period If one has not received their period by age 15 If one hasn't had a menstrual cycle for a period of 90 days. It is important to talk to a doctor in the event of this occurrence.

Possible causes: Extreme weight loss Pregnancy Breastfeeding Stress Eating disorders Any serious medical conditions Abnormal Uterine Bleeding Abnormal uterine bleeding is vaginal bleeding that is different from the normal occurrence of menstruation. This can be characterized as: Bleeding between periods Spotting Bleeding after menopause Bleeding after sex Bleeding heavier for a longer than normal amount of days Some causes are not serious and can be treated. Although, it is always important to be cautious. These problems can occur in the event of cancer, uterine fibroids, or polyps.

North America

The United States & Canada The average age of initial menstruation for a female in the United States is around 12.5 years old. In Canada, it is about 13 years old. There have been many changing views and ideas about the menstrual cycle throughout time. In the U.S., Victorian women believed that swimming or bathing might disrupt their flow and cause tuberculosis or even a stroke. We now know much more on this topic. Many in North America now view the start of a girls menstrual cycle as her first step into womanhood and maturity.

Native Hawaii During ceremonies and rituals, menstruating women are asked to only be observers. They are given separate responsibilities from those who are active participants. This varies among district, tribe and tradition. Although valued from the time it is collected to the time it is offered, offerings known as ho'okupu should not touch the ground or be touched by a female who is menstruating.

Native America In the Native American culture, menstruation involved a strong oral tradition involving ceremonies, and rituals. During the time of menstruation women were treated with a great amount of respect. However, women were not allowed to cook or sleep with their husbands. The Native Americans believed a woman held worldly powers with her ability to bleed or embodying some time of higher power. During menstruation, women were considered more spiritual and some members of the tribe would ask for advice and guidance from the women. Others believed this was the bodies way of purifying itself. Tribes also had what they called menstruating huts. Women would leave their homes to be with other women experiencing menses at the same time. This being where they would have a chance to bond or have "girl time" and story tell. As well as puberty for girls, it was not seen as embarrassing or shameful like in the European culture. It was a rite of passage for the Native Americans. In cultures such as the Navajo, they see the first menarche as something to be celebrated and enjoyed. The Navajo have been known to celebrate the first menstruation with a celebration called the Kinaalda. There is dancing, activities, cleansing ceremonies, and she is given a special cake. This celebrates the girls closeness to mother nature. In Apache tribes, they also have a similar celebration called the sunrise ceremony.

Mexico In PreColombian Mexico, social and religious prestige was closely related to procreation. On a mythical level, there was a clear link between menstruation and the moon. Fertility, menstruation, pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium were seen as natural events and part of the life cycle. These times were also seen as a time of imbalance. Every society builds complex belief systems in relation to the reproductive cycle. Hot cold duality are still very evident in rural contemporary Mexican society. Many women believe that heat and cold can interfere with the menstrual cycle in various ways. It is also believed that certain foods can cure symptoms during menstruation. A Mexican woman's first period usually occurs between the ages of 914. Prior to menstruation, girls tend to get their information through media, friends, school and their parents. The majority of the time young girls are not told about their menses until they actually get their menstruation. Often enough they don't even give them the right information as to why they are getting it. Rather, the parents just say that it's normal in a woman's life and that it's like a right of passage to womanhood. Although, there is an aspect that makes it even more difficult for these girls. As mothers explain to their young daughters about their menstruation, it is being seen as a proud, but disgraceful and secret event.

References 1. Britton, C. J. (1996). "Learning about the curse." Women's Studies International Forum, 19(6), 645653. doi: 10.1016/S02775395(96)000854 2. "Definition of Menstrual cycle." (n.d.). MedicineNet.com. Web. 3. F, Shannon. (2011). "Menstrual Rites Of The Native Americans." Cycle Harmony. Web. 4. G. Nicole. (2011). "Rites of Passage Into Womanhood in Native American Cultures." Cycle Harmony. Web. 5. Habiger, Petra. (1998). "Early History: Menstruation, Menstrual Hygiene and Woman's Health in Ancient Egypt." The Museum of Menstruation and Women's Health. Web. 6. "Handbook of Patients' Spiritual and Cultural Values for Health Care Professionals." (2013). HealthCare Chaplaincy. Web. 7. Heise, Jennifer A. (2007). "Women and Medicine in the Middle ages and Renaissance." gallowglass.org. Web. 8. "History of Menstruation." (2010, Nov. 17). My Period Blog. Web. 9. "Impoverished girls in Ethiopia: menstruation and immobilisation." (2014, Mar. 6). SOS Children. Web. 10. Kenny, Tim. (2013). "Periods and Come Period Problems." Patient. Web. 11. Madhok, Diksha. (2014). "The full extent of what urban India believes about menstruation is extraordinary." Quartz India. Web. 12. Mansfield, P., & Stubbs, M. (2007). "The Menstrual Cycle: Feminist Scholarship from the Society for Menstrual

Cycle Research." Women & Health, 15. 13. Marvan, M.L., MolinaAbolnik, M. (2012). "Mexican Adolescents' Experience of Menarche and Attitudes Toward Menstruation: Role of Communication Between Mothers and Daughters." Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology. 25, 358363. Web. 14. Office of Women's Health. (2015). "Menstruation and the menstrual cycle fact sheet." U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Web. 15. "Periods Around the World." (2014, Aug. 7). The Periodical. Web. 16. Severy, L. J. (2000). Menstruation. 180182. US: American Psychological Association. doi: 10.1037/10520 085 17. Scultz, Colin. (2014). "How Taboos Around Menstruation Are Hurting Women's Health." Smithsonian.com.Web. 18. Walker, Anne. (1997). The Menstrual Cycle. London: Routledge. 19. "What is menstruation? What are periods?." (2015). Medical News Today. Web. 20. Willacy, Hayley. (2014). "Ethnocultural Issues in Contraception." Patient. Web.

Unlinked pages cross cultural views on menstruation endometriosis

http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseasesconditions/endometriosis/basics/definition/con20013968 Endometriosis (endoemetreeOsis) is an often painful disorder in which tissue that normally lines the inside of your uterus — the endometrium — grows outside your uterus (endometrial implant). Endometriosis most commonly involves your ovaries, bowel or the tissue lining your pelvis. Rarely, endometrial tissue may spread beyond your pelvic region. In endometriosis, displaced endometrial tissue continues to act as it normally would — it thickens, breaks down and bleeds with each menstrual cycle. Because this displaced tissue has no way to exit your body, it becomes trapped. When endometriosis involves the ovaries, cysts called endometriomas may form. Surrounding tissue can become irritated, eventually developing scar tissue and adhesions — abnormal tissue that binds organs together. Endometriosis can cause pain — sometimes severe — especially during your period. Fertility problems also may develop. Fortunately, effective treatments are available.

fertility

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertility Fertility is the natural capability to produce offspring. As a measure, fertility rate is the number of offspring born per mating pair, individual or population. Fertility differs from fecundity, which is defined as the potential for reproduction (influenced by gamete production, fertilization and carrying a pregnancy to term)[citation needed]. A lack of fertility is infertility while a lack of fecundity would be called sterility.

menopause

http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseasesconditions/menopause/basics/definition/con20019726 Menopause is defined as occurring 12 months after your last menstrual period and marks the end of menstrual cycles. Menopause can happen in your 40s or 50s, but the average age is 51 in the United States. Menopause is a natural biological process. Although it also ends fertility, you can stay healthy, vital and sexual. Some women feel relieved because they no longer need to worry about pregnancy.

menstrupedia.com http://menstrupedia.com/

Oceania

Australia Info here Pacific Islands Info here

polyps

http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseasesconditions/uterinepolyps/basics/definition/con20027472 Uterine polyps are growths attached to the inner wall of the uterus that extend into the uterine cavity. Overgrowth of cells in the lining of the uterus (endometrium) leads to the formation of uterine polyps, also known as endometrial polyps. These polyps are usually noncancerous (benign), although some can be cancerous or can eventually turn into cancer (precancerous polyps). The sizes of uterine polyps range from a few millimeters — no larger than a sesame seed — to several centimeters — golf ball sized or larger. They attach to the uterine wall by a large base or a thin stalk. You can have one or many uterine polyps. They usually stay contained within your uterus, but occasionally, they may slip down through the opening of the uterus (cervix) into your vagina. Uterine polyps most commonly occur in women who are going through or have completed menopause (peri and postmenopausal women), although younger women can get them, too.

Sources http://www.mum.org/germnt5.htm http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smartnews/howtaboosaroundmenstruationare hurtingwomenshealth180949992/?noist http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=7865 http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.csusm.edu/science/article/pii/S1083318812000861 http://www.mum.org/whatwore.htm http://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/ourpublications/fact sheet/menstruation.html#b http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/154699.php http://www.cycleharmony.com/stories/menstrualmythsarituals/ritesofpassageinto womanhoodinnativeamericancultures http://www.cycleharmony.com/stories/menstrualmythsarituals/menstrualritesofthe nativeamericans http://www.patient.co.uk/health/periodsandsomeperiodproblems http://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/ethnoculturalissuesincontraception#ref2 http://myperiodblog.com/2010/11/17/historyofmenstruationpart1/

http://www.healthcarechaplaincy.org/userimages/Cultural%20Sensitivity%20handbook%20from%2 12%202013).pdf (http://www.dovepress.com/useofhormonalcontraceptivestocontrolmenstrual bleedingattitudespeerreviewedarticleIJWH) Severy, L. J. (2000). Menstruation. (pp. 180182). US: American Psychological Association. doi: 10.1037/10520085 Britton, C. J. (1996). Learning about “the curse. Women's Studies International Forum, 19(6), 645653. doi: 10.1016/S02775395(96)000854 http://qz.com/252419/thefullextentofwhaturbanindiabelievesaboutmenstruationis extraordinary/

Walker, A. (1997). The menstrual cycle. London: Routledge. Mansfield, P., & Stubbs, M. (2007). The Menstrual Cycle: Feminist Scholarship from the Society for Menstrual Cycle Research. Women & Health, 1 5.http://theperiodstore.com/blog?category=Periods+Around+the+World http://www.soschildrensvillages.org.uk/news/blog/impoverishedgirlsinethiopia menstruationandimmobilisation http://www.gallowglass.org/jadwiga/herbs/WomenMed.html

South America

Brazil A large amount of gynecologists have admitted to prescribing contraceptives to patients to help reduce bloodflow or induce amenorrhea. A substantial amount of urban Brazilian women would rather not have their menstruation cycle. Brazil amenorreah **This section seems sparse and maybe unnecessary? Nicolle

TED talk

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bpROqmb5I8k

this guy

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ppuMaQ4hZE4

tuberculosis

http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseasesconditions/tuberculosis/basics/definition/con20021761 Tuberculosis (TB) is a potentially serious infectious disease that mainly affects your lungs. The bacteria that cause tuberculosis are spread from one person to another through tiny droplets released into the air via coughs and sneezes.

uterine fibroids

http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseasesconditions/uterinefibroids/basics/definition/con20037901 Uterine fibroids are noncancerous growths of the uterus that often appear during childbearing years. Also called leiomyomas (lieomyOmuhs) or myomas, uterine fibroids aren't associated with an increased risk of uterine cancer and almost never develop into cancer. Uterine fibroids develop from the smooth muscular tissue of the uterus (myometrium). A single cell divides repeatedly, eventually creating a firm, rubbery mass distinct from nearby tissue. The growth patterns of uterine fibroids vary — they may grow slowly or rapidly, or they may remain the same size. Some fibroids go through

growth spurts, and some may shrink on their own. Many fibroids that have been present during pregnancy shrink or disappear after pregnancy, as the uterus goes back to a normal size. Fibroids range in size from seedlings, undetectable by the human eye, to bulky masses that can distort and enlarge the uterus. They can be single or multiple, in extreme cases expanding the uterus so much that it reaches the rib cage. As many as 3 out of 4 women have uterine fibroids sometime during their lives, but most are unaware of them because they often cause no symptoms. Your doctor may discover fibroids incidentally during a pelvic exam or prenatal ultrasound.

wrap tampons in a newspaper or magazine when approaching the counter with them. http://qz.com/252419/thefullextentofwhaturbanindiabelievesaboutmenstruationisextraordinary/

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Menstruation in Buddhist and Jewish Cultures Group 5 Background: The menstrual cycle is the natural monthly cycle in women that occurs in the ovaries and uterus as an essential part of sexual reproduction. The first menstruation, or menarche, happens in girls ranging from 816 years of age. Biologically, they are now capable of reproducing. The menstrual cycle lasts most of a woman’s life until menopause, the cessation of the menstruation cycle, occurs around the age of 4555. The menstrual cycle consists of three different phases in the ovaries and uterus that last for 2135 total. The first phase is the follicular phase in which the hypothalamus releases gonadotropin which then causes the pituitary gland to release FSH and LH. The FSH stimulates the follicle of the ovaries to produce a mature egg. During this time, the lining of the uterus begins to thicken in the proliferative phase. When the mature egg is released from the follicle ovulation occurs. The follicle then turns into the corpus luteum (the luteal phase) and produces progesterone. Progesterone helps to keep the endometrium, or uterus wall lining, thick in preparation for possible implantation of the fertilized egg. This is the secretory phase of the uterus. If no fertilized egg implants and preganacy does not occur then the uterus sheds the built up lining in the final phase: menstruation. The cycle then repeats itself. http://cc.csusm.edu/pluginfile.php/225970/mod_resource/content/2/Menstrual%20cycle.pdf

Buddhism

http://humansareweird.com/2013/11/07/whyimnotabuddhist/

Practice: Many Buddhists hold the belief that a woman who is menstruating holds a secret power to overcome magical spells. Since men feel that they have to be superior, Buddhists believe that a menstruating woman is unclean. One practice among Buddhists is to prohibit women from being near fermenting rice while they are menstruating because they believe it will cause the rice to spoil. A lot of the practices and beliefs that Buddhists have towards menstruation among women stems from Hinduism. Such practices include being banned from participating in folk rituals, meditating, having contact with priests, and participating in ceremonies, such as weddings. Women are also forbidden from entering the temple during this time.

http://myperiodblog.com/2010/11/22/menstruatingwomeninreligioustemples/

Belief: Buddhists believe that menstruation is a natural physical excretion that women must go through. They also believe that it is a time of emotional unbalance for womena time when they need religious support the most.

http://ayurmater.blogspot.com/2013/06/menstruationforbuddhistwomen.html

Symbolic meaning in the Buddhist Culture:In the Buddhist culture, their views on the menstruation process and what it means is a little different. By different, they're a little less "strict" but still have extreme views as to what it means to go through it. They view a woman and her menstruation cycle as a natural, physical secretion that women have to go through on a monthly basis, 'nothing more, nothing less'. However, while this a the general view, some Hindu beliefs have carried over into Taiwan, and the Buddhism culture symbolizes this cycle on the more negative side. They characterize woman on their menstrual cycle as polluted, and they teach young girls that having your period is a dangerous vulnerability. Even menstrual blood itself is viewed as dirt or poison. Some Buddhist scriptures, or sutras, discriminate against women for having to go through this cycle and view them as filthy, leaking creatures. They see it as such a disadvantage that they even believe that women lose Qi (the Buddhist belief in the life force and spiritual energy) when they start their menstrual cycle. Some continue to say it's natural and it must flow out so you don't get sick, but most stick to the belief that it's dirty and some say even shameful. https://ispub.com/IJWH/5/2/8213 http://www.buddhanet.net/elearning/history/wbq21.htm

Judaism

http://www.prestonfaithforum.org.uk/judaism/judaism.html

Practice: Jewish law prohibits male and female contact during the week of menstruation as well as the week after. An Orthodox Jew is responsible for immersing herself in a bath known as the Mikvah for the two weeks following menstruation. The time from the beginning of bleeding until the days of getting clean in the bath is known as the “Niddah Period” which translates to the “ritually unclean” period. In Judaism, the man is not allowed to have any kind of physical contact with pleasurable intent before his wife has done the Mikvah bath. This includes hugging, kissing and holding hands. Men are also forbidden from playing any games or sports with women, handing or receiving objects between them, and from eating off of each others' plates. In practice, a woman does not enter a Mikvah until her wedding, so it is believed that all women who are unmarried and have started menstruating should not be touched. ModernOrthodox Jews view menstruation as a blessing and do not discriminate against the woman for menstruating.

Example of the Mikvah bath used for after menstruation. https://ispub.com/IJWH/5/2/8213

http://www.judaicapress.com/TheLawsofNiddah.html

Symbolic meaning in the Jewish culture:The Jewish culture has pretty extreme views on the meaning of the menstrual cycle and what it means when a woman is on it. When a woman starts her menstruation cycle, she achieves something called Niddah Status. However, this can also be obtained from cervical dilation due to a medical procedure. Either way, this status is only achieved when uterine bleeding begins to happen. During this week or cycle of uterine bleeding, Jewish Law prohibits men from all physical contact with a woman, especially sexual intercourse. Even during the days leading up to their cycle, or when they're anticipating it, intercourse is already forbidden. The woman stays in Niddah Status until all uterine bleeding has stopped and she has been immersed in a kosher bath. When the woman feels the bleeding has stopped, and she stops getting certain sensations, that were triggered by the uterine bleeding, she performs a test. When the cycle has ended, she will then insert a white cloth deep into the vaginal canal and then check it for blood. The cloth must remain in the vagina for 2072 minute. Even after menses has ended, the women continues into the second phase of this process. For 7 days after their menstrual cycle, they continue to do the cloth check twice daily in order to have 7 clean "white days", meaning the cloth is always clean and free of blood. Only after this process is complete will they then immerse into their kosher bath. http://www.jewishwomenshealth.org/article.php?article=12

http://www.koshersex.com/menstruation.html The Kosher Pass During Menstruation Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ccQP52qxjwA

Similarities: During menstruation, women in both Buddhist and Jewish cultures are prohibited from entering temples of worship and prayer. This isolates them from their religion at a time when they often need more support. Menstruating women are seen as impure in both religions, though Judaism focuses more on the spiritual impurity while Buddhism stresses more of the physical impurity. Both religions stress a restraint from sexual intercourse during menstruation. Sources

Sources

Sources: Sources used for Buddhism http://humansareweird.com/2013/11/07/whyimnotabuddhist/ http://myperiodblog.com/2010/11/22/menstruatingwomeninreligious temples/ http://ayurmater.blogspot.com/2013/06/menstruationforbuddhist women.html https://ispub.com/IJWH/5/2/8213 http://www.buddhanet.net/elearning/history/wbq21.htm

Sources used for Judaism http://www.prestonfaithforum.org.uk/judaism/judaism.html https://ispub.com/IJWH/5/2/8213 http://www.judaicapress.com/TheLawsofNiddah.html http://www.jewishwomenshealth.org/article.php?article=12 http://www.koshersex.com/menstruation.html

Source for Video on Kosher Sex: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ccQP52qxjwA

Source used for Background Information:

http://cc.csusm.edu/pluginfile.php/225970/mod_resource/content/2/Mens (from the PDF file on Cougar Courses)

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Start page Edit page Latest edits: Wednesday, March 4, 2015, 5:26 PM (Daun Stansfield); Saturday, February 14, 2015, 11:44 PM (Dianna Nguyen); Saturday, February 14, 2015, 11:37 PM (Sandra Ferrer); full history

Menstruation Across the Navajo Culture Navajo Women In certain cultures it is common to have a patriarchal society and for most, it is the way of life . However, in the Navajo culture a woman is considered to be an important aspect of their everyday life. Women are considered to hold an important position in social and economic matters. For example, they are well known to own land and take care of livestock. Navajo women are potters, weavers, and occupy a role in passing these traditions to future generations. It can be well said that Navajo women hold liberation positions in their culture. They are free to work on the land, accompany their husbands in taking care of the land, and also influence future women to do the same. "Navajo women wear the trousers in Navajo society. They work the land, they raise the kids, and they preserve the culture and traditions. And they butcher the sheep! So you can see they are so much more than just a pretty face" Billy Luther, MISS NAVAJO Filmmaker

The Origin of the Kinaalda Ceremony (Maturity Ceremony for Navajo Girls) In the Navajo culture a Kinaalda ceremony is the rite of passage ceremony from a girl to a woman. The ceremony is rich in culture and tradition. This Kinaalda ceremony is a tradition that still occurs today. The earliest accounts of the arrival of the Kinaalda was in the late 16th century, and at the

beginning of the 18th century their religion had become a unique tradition and aspect to their culture. The Kinaalda ceremony lasts four days and occurs after a girl's first menstruation cycle.

The Kinaalda translates to "puberty ceremony". The ceremony is based on a myth where it is performed by and for 'Changing Woman'. The Changing Woman are the Navajo culture's deity identified with the Earth; she is known to the Navajo culture as the first fertile woman on Earth. She is the source of sustenance of life and controls fertility. The ritual symbolizes a girl's physical and closeness to and transformation into the image of Mother Nature.

A FourDay Ritual: The first day: On the morning after the first sign of a young girl's menstrual cycle, she bathes, has her hair combed, and is dressed in her finest ceremonial clothes. This particular day requires participation of others from her tribe, generally her closest female family members. The young girl lies facedown just outside of her home (hogan), with her head pointing toward the entrance of the hogan. The girl's female relative symbolically remolds her into 'Changing Woman'. The most lively women of the neighborhood are involved by dressing the young girl's hair into a special knot using deerskin strings, called tsklólh shown here. During this time, she is also required to run to the east three times (about a quarter of a mile or 400 meters), particularly done at dawn, noon, and sunset. Doing this assures the young girl to be strong, lithe, and active throughout womanhood. The second day: Not only is she required to run to the east on this day, the young girl is required to grind corn. This corn will be ground and prepared to make a ceremonial corncake. A corncake to the Navajo culture symbolizes Mother Earth.

The third day: The young girl will make a fire pit and place the batter of the corncake inside the pit where it will be blessed according to the Navajo cultural tradition. This is followed by singing and spreading of corn pollen. The fourth day: This is the final day of the Kinaalda ceremony for the young girl. Her hair is washed with cornmeal, along with her jewelry. The final day of her run to the East occurs, and on this day she is followed by any children from her neighborhood and family to symbolize that she will be a good mother and her children will follow and obey her. She will share the corncake with everyone that participated in the Kinaalda ceremony. At the end of the final day, she leaves with her hair brushed, her body painted with white clay, and her body molded outside of her home.

The Purpose of the Kinaalda Ceremony The ceremony celebrates her transition from young girl to woman, essentially the same as child to adult Ensures her capability of reproducing Allows her to gain a role as a Navajo woman Tests and builds her endurance and strength Development of personality Gives the young girl good posture and physical beauty Protects her future The young girl receives harmony in her future, and protects her from any misfortune It gives her a lasting impression on her identity as a "Changing Woman" Kinaalda: A Navajo Celebration of Womanhood. This video explains every step of the Kinaalda and shows wonderful pictures of the ceremony. It shows how important this ceremony is for the womanhood of each girl. Kinaalda: A Navajo Celebration of Womanhood

References: Bjorklund, David F., Blasi, Carlos H. (2012). Child and Adolescent Development: An Integrated Approach. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning Carey, Harold. "Navajo Culture." Navajo Language and Culture. Web. 15 Feb. 2015. Kenner, Tess. "Kinaalda." Hidden World of Girls RSS. Web. 15 Feb. 2015. "Kinaalda Celebrating Maturity of Girls among the Navajo." Navajo People Culture. Web. 13 Feb. 2015.

Luther, Billy. "Miss Navajo." PBS. PBS, 27 Oct. 2007. Web. 15 Feb. 2015. "Rites of passage into Womanhood in Native American Cultures." Web. 15 Feb. 2015. Smith, Rick. "The Kinaaldá Ceremony in the Navajo Nation." ATH 175 Peoples of the World. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Feb. 2015. Picture References: Carey, Harold J. “Navajo Language and Culture.” Web. 15 Feb. 2015. “Kinaalda: The Navajo Puberty Ritual.” White Wolf Pack. Web. 15 Feb. 2015. “Navajo Woman Spinning.” Web. 15 Feb. 2015. “Pictures of Indians in the United States.” The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Web. 15 Feb. 2015. Video References: “Kinaalda: A Navajo Celebration of Womanhood.” YouTube. Web. 15 Feb. 2015. “Traditional Hairstyle of Navajo.” YouTube. Web. 15 Feb. 2015.

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Judaism View on Menstruation Background Menstruation (menstreyshuh n) is the monthly bleeding a woman experiences. During menstruation the lining of the uterus is shed and menstrual blood flows from the uterus through the cervix, passing out of the body through the vagina. Most menstrual periods last from 35 days and when these periods are regular they are referred to as the menstrual cycle. The menstrual cycle is a very important sign that ones body is working normally. The cycle prepares a woman’s body for pregnancy each month; it also provides the body with important hormones that ensure healthy function. During the first half of the menstrual cycle the hormone called estrogen begins to increase. Estrogen has many functions in the human body including aiding to build strong bones and thicken the lining of the uterus. Growing the lining of the uterus prepares a safe and nourishing site for an embryo if pregnancy occurs. At the same time an ovum (egg) begins to mature in one of the ovaries. It is estimated that around day fourteen the ovum leaves the ovary, in a process also known as ovulation. After the ovum has left the ovary it travels down the fallopian tube to the uterus. It is said that women are most likely to get pregnant 3 days before or on the day of ovulation. If the woman does become pregnant then the fertilized egg will attach to the uterine wall; however, if the egg is not fertilized it will break apart and shed during the menstrual period. The average length of a menstrual cycle is 28 days, typically counted from the first day of the last period to the first day of the next. The average age for a girl to get her first period is 12; however, a girl can start her period anywhere between the ages of 8 and 15. Menstruation usually occurs 2 to 3 years after breasts begin to develop. Menstruation is viewed differently in many cultures and some place restrictions on women during their menstrual cycle. Major religions such as Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism have made statements regarding menstruation's negative effects on women. Some of these cultures view menstruation as taboo ultimately leading to prohibitions about cooking, attending places of worship, physical intimacy and often require women to live separately from men during their cycle.

Judaism Culture

Judaism is one of the oldest monotheistic religions and was founded over 3,500 years ago in the Middle East. Jews believe that God appointed them to be his chosen people in order to set an example of holiness and ethical behavior to the world. Jewish traditional or oral law, the interpretation of the laws of the Torah, is called halakhah. The following is the symbols associated with Judaism. The Star (Shield) of David, also called Magen David, is a relatively new Jewish symbol. Supposedly, it represents the shape of King David's shield. Judaism views menstruation as a girl becoming a woman. During the period a girl is considered impure and unclean. There are many ritualistic things that Judaism follows once a girl starts menstruating and we can read about it below.

Menarche Menarche is the first menstrual cycle or first menstrual bleeding in female humans. Among certain Jewish people, it is tradition for the mother to slap her daughter's face. Many would describe it as more of a firm tap that is often seen as a congratulatory statement such as "today you are a woman". The tradition holds that the slap is to draw the blood back up to the cheek to relieve the bleeding from below. One source reports the slap as an admonition that the daughter should not disgrace the family by becoming pregnant before marriage. The tradition is less common than it was before the 1950s; certain mothers who were slapped have decided not to carry on the ritual because of its pejorative connotation.

Niddah According to Orthodox Jewish law (halavah, in Hebrew), women become Niddah or ritually unclean at the onset of their menstrual period. During Niddah a woman is seen as a physical and spiritual danger to all men. Nahmanides states that her breath is harmful and her gaze is detrimental. A woman was instructed not to walk between two men because if she did so at the end of her period she would cause strife between them and if she passed between them at the beginning of her period, she would cause one of them to die. This shows that the “danger” of the menstrual woman is not simply the blood, but even the atmosphere around her. Additionally, a woman is instructed to be careful when cutting her toenails during her menses, for fear that her toenail clippings would spread infection to anyone who stepped on them. Due to the "physical danger" of menstrual women a book of laws is enforced upon women during Niddah.

Physical Contact and Niddah The Jewish code of law, Halakha, details strict rules governing every aspect of the daily lives of Jews, including their sexual lives. Jewish law expressly forbids literally any physical contact between males and females during the days of menstruation and for a week thereafter. An observant Jewish husband is prohibited from having sex with his wife while she is niddah. Other physical restrictions include passing objects between each other, sharing a bed, sitting together on the same cushion of a couch, eating directly from the wife's leftovers, smelling her perfume, gazing upon her clothing (whether or not it has been worn), or listening to her sing. Although the laws of family purity are only required with one's own wife, any form of physical contact with pleasurable intent (including holding hands, hugging, and kissing) is prohibited with any menstrual woman who has not yet immersed in the Mikveh. Since brides will immerse in the Mikveh for the first time before their weddings, all unmarried women are presumed to be in a state of Niddah. Therefore, every woman who has had her first period is not allowed to be

touched, according to Jewish law. A man who has sexual relations with a niddah is rendered ritually impure for seven days, as opposed to one day of impurity for coming into contact with her or her midras.

Bedikah The bedikah cloth or "checking cloth", called an eid ["witness"] in Hebrew, is a clean piece of white cloth used in the process of purifying a niddah. Observant Jewish women use bedikah’s to determine whether they have finished menstruation. The cloth is inserted into the vagina, if no blood is found the woman may start counting the seven bloodfree days. On each of these days she performs this examination in the morning and in the later afternoon before sunset. If no blood is found she may go to the mikveh on the eighth evening after nightfall and then engage in intercourse with her husband. Jewish men use this method to check if blood has gotten on himself after intercourse with his wife to determine whether she is still menstruating. Such cloths are about two by four inches and are available at local Judaica stores in Orthodox neighborhoods in Israel or may be cut from clean allwhite soft cotton or linen fabric.

Mikveh

After her menstrual bleeding has completely stopped an Orthodox woman must wait seven full days before immersing herself in a mikveh, a ritual bath that removes the taint of uncleanliness. Only at the end of the Niddah period, after the ritual bath, are spouses permitted to touch each other, once again.

References https://ispub.com/IJWH/5/2/8213 http://www.patheos.com/blogs/daylightatheism/2011/08/sexandtaboosinorthodoxjudaism/#ixzz3Ri72EQrl http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niddah Menarche How Menarche Is Treated In Different Societies Gender, Family, Girl, and Menstrual JRank Articleshttp://family.jrank.org/pages/1153/MenarcheHowMenarcheTreatedinDifferent Societies.html#ixzz3Ri0xp3oF en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menarche http://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/ourpublications/factsheet/menstruation.html#a http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/ataglance/glance.shtml

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Menstruation Across Cultures:The Sambia Tribe and The Cherokee Tribe Introduction Many cultures have different beliefs on the woman's menstrual cycle being that of something that is beneficial or something that is harmful to the cultural group. Throughout history there have been many different types of myths and taboos that were created to give a reason for why women bleed each month. These myths are more misbeliefs that were constructed with no real scientific evidence to provide reasons for women's menstrual cycles. These myths were produced from each culture's positive or negative outlook on menstruation (6). Each culture has their own unique idea about the menstrual cycle for example, the American view of menstruation acts as a rite of passage for girls to womanhood. This very act means that she is now able to bear a child, therefore a woman (11). The Sambia and Cherokee Tribe have opposite views towards menstruation which goes along with their cultures beliefs and superstitions.

Menstruation Taboo Video: Cultural Practices Label Menstruating Women as Taboo (7)

Sambia Tribe Background The Sambia Tribe is located in the vast virgin rain forest along the fringe areas of the Eastern Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea. Gaining their independence in 1975, they continue their long set of beliefs and superstitions starting with women during childbirth and their menstrual cycle (5).

Beliefs The Sambia Tribe is a patriarchal culture and believes in the separation of the sexes. The villages that these tribes live in consist of two extra huts, such as

one for the women and one for the men where different rituals and ceremonies take place for the opposite sexes (5). The men's huts are where they stay from ages seven to ten, until marriage. This is where they go through a series of initiations and ceremonies to go from boys to masculine men. The men's hut and ceremonies are extremely important to this tribe because the men are seen as superiors over the women (5). One of the major ceremonies that boys undergo is the nasal bleeding, which they see as a type of male menstruation. The men of this tribe have an extreme fear of the women’s menstrual blood as well as blood from the womb, so a way to rid the child of womb blood they create nasal bleeding which is supposed to take away the contamination. The men also wear nose plugs during intercourse to restrict their nose passages from smelling a woman’s vaginal odor (3). The other hut for women is located directly below the village and this is where the women go to have their menstrual cycles as well as to give birth (4). After a girls first menstruation she also goes through a nose bleeding ceremony called, “kwassi”. During this ceremony there is a lot of dancing and singing while also chanting, “Men are the enemy.” At the end of the “kwassi” ceremony the girl is taken down to the river where her mother’s brother shoves some sharp leaves into her nasal passage to create lots of bleeding. This part of the ceremony is believed to be a way for the men to express their dominance over the women (3). The Sambian men have a belief that women of the tribe try to steal their semen during intercourse. They believe semen is how they get their strength and power. Due to the idea of semen being very powerful and important the way to protect it, as well as protecting the superiority of the men, the woman are shunned to their hut for the whole duration of their menstrual cycles (4). It is also believed in this culture that the blood from women during their menstration is dirty, contaminating, and a form of weakness which is another reason why the women are shunned to these particular huts (4).

Cherokee Tribe Background The Cherokee people is a thriving tribe, advancing socially and culturally. Long before the Europeans annexed America, the Cherokee tribe lived in the southeastern part of what is now the United States. With a long line of development, the Cherokee people started their tribe with a set of rules, beliefs and taboos, especially with the women's menstrual cycle (1).

Beliefs The Cherokee Tribe had a matrilineal kinship system where women would hold more power than men. For example, every Cherokee person's lineage would and could be traced through their mother or through any woman in their family, not through the men. This was a hard concept for the Europeans to understand. (8) During their menstrual cycle or "moon time", women would be separated from the community and stay in a house built by the community during this time. The women would avoid men, never touch them, prepare food for them, and never take part in any community ceremonies. At the end of their cycle, they would cleanse themselves by sweating and going to water before entering the community again. This is not in disrespect to women, this is done because of great respect for women and their power. Having a menstruating woman near a ritual or ceremony could make it ineffective or cause another problem (10). Continuing with the belief in the Cherokee culture that women were a source of power, it was never frowned upon for a woman to be on her menstruation cycle. Menstrual blood was seen as something that gave women strength and the ability to defeat their enemies. It was seen as a positive feature when a woman was on her menstruation cycle (4). Cherokee women were also believed to have more power while menstruating because this gave them the ability to change the shape of their community. Menstruation blood was also commonly seen as the spiritual power of life. However, blood outside of it's appropriate place (the body) was also alarming to them. Because of this, women took extra precautions and isolated themselves. They also believed that the power of blood could possibly neutralize treatments of medicine in other people (2).

Although, it is a time during which women should be careful because of the strong energies they attract. This power is exemplified in the myth of “The Stone Man” who was a cannibal with solidasrock skin that hunted Indian hunters (10). When the hunters saw the Stone Man on its way to a village, he found the medicine man who then rounded up seven menstruating women to lure in the Stone Man so that he would get weaker as he got closer and eventually collapse as he reached the last one of the seven menstruating women (10). The medicine man then kill the Stone Man by driving a seven sourwood stake through his heart and burning him. As the Stone Man was dying, he taught the village songs for hunting a curing illnesses. Because of the power of menstruating women, the people were able to gain good fortune (9).

Differences Overall, the Sambia Tribe and the Cherokee Tribe have very opposite views on the menstrual cycle of a woman. The Sambia and Cherokee women were both sent away from their village or community during their menstrual cycle, though they were different reasons. The Sambia Tribe shamed women during their menstruation and sent them away because they thought they were dirty. They have an extreme patriarchal culture and believe that the menstrual cycle contaminates the men of the tribe. The Cherokee women were sent away because of the tribe’s great respect for them during this time. They have a matrilineal culture and believe that feminine blood brings strength to their tribe.

References 1. Cherokee Nation. "Our History." Cherokee Nation. Cherokee Nation, n.d. Web. 13 Feb. 2015. http://www.cherokee.org/AboutTheNation/History/Facts/OurHistory.aspx.

2. Ember, Carol R. Ember, Melvin. "Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender: Men and Women in the World's Cultures". 2014. Web. 13 Feb. 2015. https://books.google.com/booksid=XUAsskBg8ywC&pg=PR3&lpg=PR3&dq=Encyclopedia+of+Sex+and+Gender:+Men+and+

3. Favazza, Armando. “Bodies Under Siege: Selfmutilation, nonsuicidal selfinjury, and body modification in culture an psychiatry”. Web. 13 Feb. 2015. https://books.google.com/booksid=xmdKklZM9kC&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=Sambia+tribe+and+beliefs+of+menstruation& 4. Garewal, Komal. "Perspectives on Menstruation from Different Cultures." The Green Feminine Hygiene Queen. N.p., 30 May 2012. Web. 13 Feb. 2015. <https://greenfemininehygienequeen.wordpress.com/2012/05/30/perspectivesonmenstruationfromdifferent cultures/>;. 5. Herdt, Gilbert. "Sambia." UCLA Social Science Division. Department of Anthropology, n.d. Web. 13 Feb. 2015. <http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/anthro/faculty/fiske/135b/sambia.htm>. 6. Pande, Anupriya. “Busting Menstrual Myths the Right Way”. N.p. 28 Jan. Web. 13 Feb. 2015. http://menstrupedia.com/blog/category/menstrualmyths/ 7. Pawar, Rohina, dir. Cultural Practicies Label Menstruating. VideoVolunteers, 2012. Web. 9 Feb. 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0EpdcqqsBFU. 8. Purdue, Theda. "Cherokee Women." Learn NC. North Carolina Museum of History, 1984. Web. 14 Feb. 2015. http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchisttwoworlds/1882.

9. Purdue, Theda. Cherokee Women: Gender and Cultural Change, 17001835. N.p.: U of Nebraska Press, 1998. 3040. Web. 14 Feb. 2015. <https://books.google.com/books? id=HNR6RcvCJ8MC&pg=PA30&lpg=PA30&dq=cherokee+tribe+menstruating&source=bl&ots=AZEakOVaXL&sig=B9dn6HpH 10. SilentFeathers, Jim. "Cherokee Belief System." SilentFeathers Sacred Pathways. N.p., 2014. Web. 13 Feb. 2015. <http://www.silentfeathers.com/cherokeemedicineway.htm>;. 11. Solinger, Rickie. "Pregnancy and Power: A Short History of Reproductive Politics in America". N.p. 2014. Web. 13 Feb. 2015. http://nyupress.org/books/9780814798270/

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BACKGROUND In Indian culture, the society in general has an interwoven set of traditions, myths and misconceptions about the menstrual cycle. Menstruation is typically considered unclean in Indian society, although each religion in India has its own views towards the menstrual cycle, and even within each religion there may be differing views.

COUNTRY HISTORY India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventhlargest country by area, the secondmost populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. India has four religions Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism who originated here, whereas Judaism, Zoroastrianism,Christianity, and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and also helped shape the region's diverse culture. India is split up into 5 regions; East India, North India, NorthEast India, South India and West India. Within those regions range a vast variety of the religions.

REGIONS IN INDIA East India (also known as Eastern India) is a region of India consisting of the Indian states of West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha and also the union territory Andaman and Nicobar Islands. West Bengal's capital Kolkata is the largest city of this region. The states of Odisha and West Bengal share some cultural and linguistic characteristics with Bangladesh and with the state of Assam. Bengali is the most spoken language of this region and it is also the second most spoken language in India after Hindi. Oriya is the only language in east India accorded the status of a Classical Language of India. Together with Bangladesh, West Bengal formed the ethnolinguistic region of Bengal before partition in 1947. The historic region of Bengal which was ruled by Nawabs of Bengal comprises the present, West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand and Bangladesh from where the British started their conquest of India. North India is a loosely defined region consisting of the northern part of India. The dominant geographical features of North India are the IndusGangetic Plain and the Himalayas, which demarcate the region from the Tibetan Plateau and Central Asia. North India has been the historical centre of the Maurya, Gupta, Pala, Harsha,Mughal, Sur, Maratha, Sikh and British Indian Empires. The term North India officially refers to the six North Indian states of Punjab , Jammu & Kashmir , Delhi , Haryana , Himachal Pradesh , Uttarakhand and the Union Territory of Chandigarh. Northeast India is the easternmost region of India connected to East India via a narrow corridor squeezed between Nepal and Bangladesh. It comprises the contiguous Seven Sister States (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura), plus the Himalayan state of Sikkim. In terms of

geographical size, Northeast India constitute about 8% of the total India's size, and is roughly 3/4th the size of the state of Maharashtra. Northeast India's population (all 8 states combined) is approximately 40 million (2011 census), which represents 3.1% of the total Indian population (1,210 million). South India is the area encompassing India's states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala as well as the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry, occupying 19.31% of India's area (635,780 km² or 245,476.03 mi²). South India lies in the peninsular Deccan Plateau and is bounded by the Arabian Sea in the west, the Indian Ocean in the south and the Bay of Bengal in the east. The geography of the region is diverse, encompassing two mountain ranges, the Western and Eastern Ghats, and a plateau heartland. The Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra, Kaveri, and Vaigai rivers are important nonperennial sources of water. Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Coimbatore and Kochi are the largest and most industrialized cities in the region. Chennai is termed as Gateway of South India, being one of the largest metropolitan cities in India. Western India consists of the states of Goa, Gujarat and Maharashtra, along with the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The region is highly industrialized, with a large urban population. Roughly, western India is bounded by the Thar Desert in the northwest, the Vindhya Range in the north and the Arabian Sea in the west. A major portion of western India shares the Deccan Plateau with south India. Before the partition of India, the nowPakistani territories of Sindhand Balochistan were also included in this region.

TOP FIVE RELIGIONS IN INDIA India's top five religions and their views on the menstrual cycle.

Hinduism Hinduism is the majority religion of India. About 80% of the entire Indian population adheres to this religion. Hinduism originated in India and is considered to be the oldest major world religion today. With that being said the people that follow Hinduism in India have different views on the menstrual cycle compared to other religions in India. In the Hindu faith, women are prohibited from participating in normal life while menstruating. She must be "purified" before she is allowed to return to her family, and this has been considered as a negative view of menstruation. This follows a description in the Puranas about India's 'Brahmahatya' (act of killing of the Brahmin demon Vritra) and the mitigation of the sin. Part of this sin was taken by women, and is considered to be active during the menstrual period, therefore menstruating woman are forbidden from performing any rituals. Contact with menstruating woman is also forbidden (with exception of small children). However in some respects Indians view menstruation, especially first menstruation or menarche, as a positive aspect of a girl's life. In South India and also in the Assamese community, girls who experience their menstrual period for the first time are given presents and celebrations to mark this special occasion, though women who are menstruating are not allowed in the household for a period of 3 nights. This certainly does not mean that they are driven away from the house during the cycle of their menstruation: according to Indian architecture, in a house with four blocks, 'dakkini' the south block, is for women and during the menstrual cycle women would confine themselves within this block, and would not even enter the kitchen or go to the north and east sides of the house, nor would they go near a temple.

Islam "Islam is the second largest religion across India; however, that is only 14% of the population. Islam first came to India on the western side and then to north but is now spread throughout the entire country". Among the Islamic religion, menstruation is referred to as Haiz, which directly translates to menses. They believe that menstrual bleeding occurs is anywhere from three to ten days (this includes days and nights). If a woman bleeds fewer than three consecutive days or longer than the ten days it is called “Istehada”, but only the days that differ from the expected menstrual cycle. Istehada also refers to the blood that is shed before the age of nine and after the age of fiftyfive, when menopause is expected to have been reached. Once the monthly cycle has finished, each woman must perform a type of purification bath that is called “ghusl”. In some cultures women have to completely remove themselves from their daily activities and are not even allowed to be around men, such as eating with their husband or even sleeping in the same room. The Islamic religion says that when a woman is in her monthly cycle she cannot perform her prayers (referred to as Salat al Fard), walk into a temple, touch the Qur’an, fast, or have sexual intercourse with her husband. Women are allowed to think of the Qur'an and her words as long as she is not saying them loud. The prayers that are to take

place during this time are excused from being made; however, if fasting has occurred during this time period it is expected to be made up. The Islamic religion believes that any kind of blood is considered unclean and that is why these women are forbidden from participating in their routine prayers. Although, there are two Eid holidays that women are allowed to attend even if they are on their cycle.

Christianity Christianity is India's thirdlargest religion, with approximately 24 million followers, constituting 2.3 percent of India's population. Christianity in India is a blend of cultures, as Christians do not share one common culture and there are various types of denominations such as: Syriac, Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestants. Christians are found all over India, with major populations in parts of North East India, South India, and the Konkan Coast. Overall, Indian Christians do not hold an extreme negative belief towards the menstrual cycle, although the menstrual taboo is the main reason why women are not allowed to hold positions of authority in Christianity. Ancient belief is that they feared that the women would make the altar “unclean.” Some conservative Orthodox Christians believe in women abstaining from the Holy Communion while menstruating, but most modern women do not follow this as it is an ancient rule.

Buddhism Buddha opened the gates for women in religion by making them eligible for admission called Bhikkhuni Sangha " the Order of Nuns" . This allowed women to explore culture and opportunities for public life. This recognition of their importance enhanced their social status. Buddhism also known as Theravada or Hinayana views menstruation as "a natural physical excretion that women have to go through on a monthly basis, nothing more or less". However, Hindu belief and practice has carried over into some categories of Buddhist culture, under the influence of which, menstruating women cannot meditate nor can they have contact with priests. They cannot take part in ceremonies, such as weddings.There is also a Buddhist belief that ghosts eat blood and a menstruating woman is thought to attract ghosts and is therefore a threat to everyone around. In addition, Buddhism belief is that the menstrual cycle is connected to nature such as the moon. During menstruation, women are thought to lose Qi. (Qi, also commonly spelled chi, is believed to be part of everything that exists, as in “life force”, or “spiritual energy”.) Women supposedly stop menstruating when they enter the first level of arhatship (“stream enterer”). (An arhat is “one who is worthy”, the perfected person who attains nirvana through his or her own efforts.) It is believed that they prove their ability to control their bodies and eradicate the greatest barrier to enlightenment (Lhamo, 2003).

Sikhism A Sikh woman has equal rights to a Sikh man in the Indian religion. In the ancient times, most of them were known to be the warriors. “Unlike Christianity, no post in Sikhism is reserved solely for men. Unlike Islam, a woman is not considered subordinate to a man. Sikh baptism is open to both sexes. The Khalsa nation is made up equally of men and women.” The concept of maiden and married names is not something followed in the Sikh philosophy. In regards to menstruation Sikh women do not believe in staying away from the temple during the days of menstruation. “Whether your clothes are blood stained or not (including clothes stained from menstrual blood) is not of spiritual importance”. Thus, there are never any restrictions placed on women during her menstruation cycle. She is free to visit the “Gurdwara” (temple), take part in prayers and do “Seva’’ (ibid). Which is unlike the other religions within India. For many reasons, like the fact that women bleed to give birth to their children, men respect the women body. There is no degrading or hiding of women,as in other religions. Sikhism is one of if not the first religion to promote equality among men and women since hundreds of years ago. Because of this belief, women are more active, open, and respected during their menstruation.

Fascinating about this perspective is that recently, a highly contentious and public debate is taking place, both on line and through the worldwide circulation of petitions, which is dealing precisely with the lack of women’s access to service in that most revered of Sikh holy space, the Harimandir Sahib (the Golden Temple). “One of the issues raised by those opposed to women’s seva is women’s impurity during her menses”. This is usually considered

dirty to serve god during your menstrual cycle and in Hinduism food is respected so much that a women will not enter the kitchen during her days of menstrual cycle. Unlike the sikh women, the Hindu women can enter the kitchen on the 4th day of her period, because on the fourth day, a women is supposed to have cleansed the majority of her period and takes a shower washing from headtotoe to become pure again. “Contrary to scriptural assertions, impurities associated with menstruating women are not considered justifiable, but the lived realities of women tell them otherwise”. (Adi Granth 140). However, sikhisms no way tied to lowering the status of women definitely. Sikhism values the worth of the female body just as much as the males.

Taboo

Despite several misconceptions, reaction and beliefs towards the menstrual cycle research studies have shown that a strong tie with traditional religious beliefs, taboos and misconceptions can also lead to health problems regarding poor personal hygiene and sanitary conditions.heavily depend up. There is a low level of awareness about the menstrual cycle among Indian girls when they experience their first menstrual cycle. Parents do not like to talk about it and many girls get their information from their friends.These girls lack the right kind of information because of social prohibitions and negative attitudes in discussing menstruation, especially in rural and tribal communities on awareness and knowledge about the subject.

Ancient India The earliest Human remains dates back to 30,000 years ago and was found in South India. The first settlements dates back to 7,000 BCE near Pakistan. This eventually became the first urban city in India. The city flourished during 26001900 BCE in Pakistan and western India. These cities became cities of major trade and engaged in crafts production. During 2000500 BCE many regions of India transitioned to the Iron Age. Many historians have credited this period to several waves of IndoAryan migration into the subcontinent. During these times the Indians began trading with other various countries such as the Roman Empire and parts of South East Asia. In North India, Hinduism created more patriarchal control within the family, which lead to a subordination of women. With Hinduism people began to base their beliefs on devotion rather than management of ritual. This renewal of religious beliefs in India can be found in many of the beautiful sculpture and architecture which showed men as the elite group. The Medieval age in India began in 600 CE.

Please select the links to watch the following YouTube videos that explain Menstruation in India Managing menstruation in India Cycle of Monthly Discrimination

References Jakobsh, D. (n.d.). Sikhism, Interfaith Dialogue, And Women: Transformation And Identity.Journal of Contemporary Religion, 183199. International Sikh Conferences. (2004). WHAT SIKHISM SAYS ABOUT GENDER AND SEX. "STATUS OF WOMEN IN BUDDHISM." Status of Women in Buddhism. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Feb. 2015.

"Period, Postnatal Bleeding and Random Spotting |." N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Feb. 2015. Olson, Carl. The Different Paths of Buddhism: A Narrativehistorical Introduction. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers UP, 2005. Lhamo, Y. C. (2003). The fangs of reproduction: an analysis of Taiwanese menstrual pollution in the context of Buddhist philosophy and practice. History & Anthropology, 14(2), 157178. Stephen Neill (2004). A History of Christianity in India: The Beginnings to Ad 1707. Cambridge University Press. p. 29. Robert Eric Frykenberg (28 January 2010). Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present. Oxford University Press. "During Periods Not Worshiping God." Menstrupedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Feb. 2015. Chris Knight (1991), Blood relations: menstruation and the origins of culture, New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. Knight, Chris; Camilla Power & Ian Watts (1995), "The Human Symbolic revolution": A Darwinian Account", Cambridge Archaeological Journal5 (1): 75–114. "Women Were Considered Ritually Unclean." Women Were Considered Ritually Unclean. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Feb. 2015. "Menstruating Women in Religious Temples My Period Blog." My Period Blog. N.p., 22 Nov. 2010. Web. 13 Feb. 2015.

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