1.0 IB History in Europe by David Kong

IB HISTORY OF EUROPE V1.0 IB History In Europe

Study guide compiled by David Kong With stuff from:

Simon Babakhani and Jude L. TABLE OF CONTENTS IB History of Europe ................................................................................................................................................. 1

Table of Contents ...........................................................................................................................1 How to use this Study Guide .................................................................................................................................... 3 Topic 1: Causes Practices and Effects of War ........................................................................................................... 5

First World War ..............................................................................................................................7 Second World War........................................................................................................................ 23 Comparing WWI and WWII (work in progress) ............................................................................... 33 Russian Civil War .......................................................................................................................... 39 Chinese Civil War .......................................................................................................................... 51 Topic 3: The rise and rule of single party states ..................................................................................................... 53

Lenin’s Russia ............................................................................................................................... 55 Stalin’s Russia ............................................................................................................................... 81 Paper 1....................................................................................................................................... 103 Mussolini’s Italy.......................................................................................................................... 105 Hitler’s Germany ........................................................................................................................ 117 Mao’s China ............................................................................................................................... 123 Topic 5: The Cold War .......................................................................................................................................... 125

Cold War .................................................................................................................................... 127

HOW TO USE THIS STUDY GUIDE This study guide covers Europe in the 20th century. For Asia, there is a companion book. Number of Words in this document: 37738. Number of Pages in this document: 136. However, this guide is easy to read and youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll get through the material with ease. Features a lot of essays, most of which are level 6. These can act as starting points for your own essays. The electronic version gives you the added benefit of quick links and bookmarks Use the table of contents effectively for studying purposes as they include the key ideas you must know

[Lenin, Conditions]

Typical Page Set-up

LENIN, CONDITIONS Russia up to 1905

NICHOLAS II

Good husband, crap politician Limited intelligence, couldn’t speak very good Russian, spoke good French hated the Japanese after his grand tour didn’t want to be leader of Russia did his own paperwork and had no sense of the big picture had no military experience but took over the Russian army was a seriously bad move left Russia in the hands of Rasputin and the Tsarina, who were unpopular

1894-1918 (Abdication 1917)

MILITARY WEAKNESS

Russo-Japanese War Japan a rapidly modernizing power in the far east with imperial interests in Korea and China This expansion threatened Russia’s interests in the area Nicolas underestimated Japanese suggested that a war might take people’s minds off of the crisis (the economic depression following the overthe-top, brutal industrialisation) The Russians were very poorly equipped for this war, had out of date techniques, and were trying to organise it from 6000 miles away Infantry was soon defeated in Manchuria, whilst the fleet was beaten at Tsushima. The unrest triggered by the conflict meant that there were calls for reform. NII was not willing to meet these, leading to Bloody Sunday. Treaty of Portsmouth ended the war (favourable to Russia)

1904 to 1905 Defeats in Manchuria, Tsushima Treaty of Portsmouth

Key ideas which correspond to the table of contents

Explanation of the key idea Understand this section

Details which appear in the explanation Memorize this section

TOPIC 1: CAUSES PRACTICES AND EFFECTS OF WAR

FIRST WORLD WAR First World War ....................................................................................................................................................... 7

A short introduction .......................................................................................................................8 Causes of WWI ...............................................................................................................................9 1. Economic Rivalries .................................................................................................................................... 9 2. Colonial Rivalries ....................................................................................................................................... 9 3. Militarism................................................................................................................................................ 10 4. Alliances .................................................................................................................................................. 11 5. Nationalism ............................................................................................................................................. 12 6. Eastern Question..................................................................................................................................... 12 7. Alsace-Lorraine ....................................................................................................................................... 13 Internal Stresses ............................................................................................................................................. 13 Failure of Diplomacy ....................................................................................................................................... 13 Historiography ................................................................................................................................................ 14 Essay: Assess critically three causes of the First World War ............................................................................ 14

Reasons for Victory....................................................................................................................... 16 Did Germany lose WWI? ................................................................................................................................. 16 Essay: Account for the defeat of the Central Powers during WWI ................................................................... 17

Results of WWI ............................................................................................................................. 18 Atmosphere in Paris ........................................................................................................................................ 18 Fourteen Points .............................................................................................................................................. 19 Treaties of Paris .............................................................................................................................................. 19 Regional Consequences .................................................................................................................................. 20 Germany ......................................................................................................................................................... 20 Successes ........................................................................................................................................................ 22 Failures ........................................................................................................................................................... 22

[A short introduction]

A SHORT INTRODUCTION The First World War is a great place to start when learning about modern history. It marked the beginning of thirty years of the contest for German supremacy which the Allied nations could not afford to give. In past wars, wartime living was not much different from peacetime living. WWI, of course changed this, as entire economies were converted to wartime economies. WWI was also the first international war that involved most of the European powers, as well as Japan and USA. WWI began as a ‘jolly little war,’ where people thought that it would be over by Christmas. The war began with a cavalry charge and ended with a war of attrition, made possible by new technology like the machine gun. This was the nature of WWI. However, we aren’t so concerned about what happened, but rather, why it happened. Historians generally discuss the causes of WWI and abruptly stop in August 1914 – that’s what interests them. There are so many theories that the topic is absolutely one of the most interesting topics available. The orthodox view blames the Germans and their aggression. This theory puts all the blame onto Germans, and was the view throughout the war. Franz Fischer goes so far as to condemn Germans of wanting “world domination,” though that is unlikely as Germany only waged war in Europe. However, revisionists quickly came to rescue these Germans as they proposed other theories, such as that of the “Eastern Question,” where the conflict broke out, or the French problem over Alsace/Lorraine. Perhaps it was British fault for not making their alliances obvious enough. German aggression is probably the most widespread viewpoint. It was by far the strongest and most important country of the Central Powers. German aggression can be traced back to their unification in 1871, coupled together with their defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian war 1870-1871. This unification created the strongest nation in Europe, tipping the balance for power. Into the twentieth century, Germany challenged Britain’s navy, against the advice of Bismarck. Germany had also challenged Britain’s colonies: in the Middle East, Asia and Africa, and challenged France’s colonies in North Africa. Such an example would be the Kruger telegram, which effectively destroyed German-British relations. Evidently, Germany wanted its place in the sun, and Britain wasn’t into giving it to Germany. However, this theory is offset by another theory based on “preventative war.” It is evident that Germany was fearful of “encirclement.” Bismarck had feared the exact same circumstances. In 1905, Germany signed the treaty of Bjorko with Russia. The only reason the Kaiser might sign a treaty with these “barbarians” was because he was afraid of this 2-front war. Russia had the largest army in Europe; neither the loss of the Crimean war nor the defeat to Japan in 1905 could change the fear it commanded. In 1905, Russia had lost to Japan, and by doing so left France without an ally, as France had been in 1871. The balance of power was lost in Europe, and war could have erupted right there. A short while later, the Kaiser went on his ship to Tangiers, Morocco to challenge France’s right to the colony. In an attempt to show its power to England, who the Kaiser continuously wanted to ally with, he actually gave the entente cordiale military character. In both 1905 and 1911, there was a greater fear of starting the war than there was in 1914. So why did it begin in 1914?

CAUSES OF WWI Details

1. ECONOMIC RIVALRIES

British-Germany o Germany industrialization; leading power by 1900 o German merchant ships threatened Britain (Bismarck avoided this) French-Germany o Alsace-Lorraine loss coal o Coal competition Morocco Russia-Germany AH o Germany-Baghdad railway for commercial gain in the region o Dardanelles Germany afraid of being overtaken by USA + Russia (preventative war?)

2. COLONIAL RIVALRIES

Scramble for Africa (minus Russia/AH) caused strained relations, Kruger telegram: William II, Boers 1896 1881 Tunis; Italy lost Tunis to France; (triple alliance) 1907 Britain-Russia entente because of aggressive Germany (Moroccan Crises) Germany built battleships (need navy for colonies) 1898 Fashoda: France and Britain meet at a standoff on the Nile. France gives in. Entente Cordiale – Britain in Egypt; France in Morroco 1905 Tangiers Crisis: France demanded control of Moroccan banks and police, the Kaiser sailed to Tangiers and gave a speech to the Moroccans to resist the French. Britain and Russia supported France, Anglo-French Entente became military. 1911 Agadir Crisis: France was about to annex Morocco after putting down a rebellion, so the Kaiser sent in the gunboat Panther to Agadir to warn the French. Drove the British and the French closer together but an agreement was made where Germany gave France a free hand in Morocco while France made concessions to Germany in the Congo. Russia: Constantinople/Dardanelles

Analysis Minor Cause Economic rivalries began 43 years earlier (German independence + industrialization). Why 1914? Exaggerated: Russia not industrialized 10 years before war, Germany traded in Europe; Britain traded in its colonies

Minor Cause 1914 – colonial disputes greatly diminished Yes Colonial rivalries increased European tensions Moroccan crises aggravated bad relations between France and Germany Germany plan for a railway from Berlin to Baghdad, opening up Turkey and Middle East to Germany influence o Threatened the southern flank of the Russian `Empire o Threatened the land route of the British Empire of the India No Main conflicts were Britain vs France, or Britain vs Russia, but they all fought on the same side Colonial rivalries (Fashoda 1898, Morocco 1905, Morocco 1911) settled without going to war Colonies kept European conflict off of the continent

· · · · · · ·

· · · · · · · ·

German unification 1971 Leading economy by 1900 Bismarkian Fear Coal in A+L Baghdad Railway Dardenelles 10 years before WWI, Germany = Europe / Britain = Colonies

Scramble for Africa 1896 Kruger Telegram 1881 Tunis 1907 British-Russian entente 1898 Fashoda 1905 Tangiers 1911 Agadir

3. MILITARISM

Military Control o Germany: General Staff imposed Schlieffen upon parliament/politicians o Russia: generals forced Czar to mobilization Conscription o Continental European powers by 1870 o Increase of standing armies o Increase of military term Arms Race o Increase military expenditure o Franco-German Arms Race o Britain-German Naval Race British (twice 2nd place) British Dreadnaught German threat for navy-imperialism (Bismarck connection) Britain won Schlieffen Plan vs. Plan 17

Major Cause

Yes

· · · ·

Lord Grey: Armaments create insecurity and fear, making war inevitable Germany afraid of losing its economic lead (and arms lead) sought war Military control in civilian government Prepared for war by 1914 No The main arms races (Franco-German Arms, AngloGerman Naval) were not the start of WWI. RussoAustrian was, Britain and Germany were the last two countries to go to war

1870 – conscription across Europe Schlieffen Plan IMPOSED Plan 17 Britain’s navy = 2nd + 3rd Lord Grey’s militarism

4. ALLIANCES

1882: Italy joins the Triple Alliance o Germany stops Italy-Austria hostilities. Italy wanted south Austria o Tunis (North African contests) 1886: Three Emperor’s league (Austria, Russia, Germany) died because of Baltic problems o Declining Ottoman Empire o Russian initiatives to get access to the Mediterranean o British initiative to maintain status quo 1887: Russia friendly with Germany (Reassurance Treaty) o Germany would hold back Vienna for Russia o Ensured Germany would be part of 3 large powers (in a Europe of 5 powers) o Ensured Germany would not fight on two fronts 1890: Bismarck’s successors fail to renew the reassurance treaty o Russia looks to France for military expansion Italy: Unreliability o Anti-Austrian feelings grew in Italy o British and France not to hinder Italian N.A. contests o Italy was allied with Germany/AH, but were friends with Britain/France o 1915, Italy breaks treaty and attacks AH. The Triple Alliance o The treaty was far too simple, that powers were given flexibility o If Russia attacked Austria-Hungary, Germany = help, Italy = no help o If France attacked Germany, Italy = help, AH = no help o If both France and Russia attacked Germany, all parties had to war The Triple Entente o If France attacked by Germany, or attacked by Italy with German support, Russia = help o If Russia attacked by Germany, or attacked by AH with German support, France = help o Only an understanding. No obligation. However, morally support had to be given.

Major Cause

· ·

Yes German fears of encirclement (Edward the Encircler) Defensive alliances given military character (Morocco 1905 and Bosnia 1909) Woodrow Wilson argues that secret agreements provoke fear and mistrust o Competitions of power, conspiracy, hostile competition Existence of rival armed alliances made war inevitable o Generated the arms race, war plans like Schlieffen Plan Germany’s blank check for Austria was because Germany needed it as an ally in hostile Europe Germany made AH less cautious about confronting Serbia The alliance system made the Assassination crisis from Balkan to European No AJP Taylor argues alliances created a balance of power o When the balance of power was disrupted by Russian – Japanese war, Germany tried to be superior o When France and Russia wanted to be treated as equals, Germany fought to destabilize balance Alliances were primarily defensive Alliances did not force a war o Russia had no actual alliance obligation to go to the aid of Serbia o Germany had no obligation to give Austria freedom to ultimate Serbia o France did not declare war on Germany as soon as Germany declared war on Russia o Britain only intervened re Belgium, this is NOT an alliance o Italy remained neutral, against the alliance

· · · · · · · · ·

1882 Triple Alliance 1886 Three Emperor’s League 1887 Reassurance Treaty 3 of 5 European powers 1890 fail to renew Russian treaty Italy wanted Austrian land 1915 Treaty of London Encirclement 1905 Agadir 1909 Bosnia gives military character AJP Taylor’s balance of power

5. NATIONALISM

Germany o 1871: Bismarck unification (strongest nation) o 1871-1890: preserve hegemony through alliances o After 1890: Weltpolitik; European prestige Italy o 1861: unification but corrupt/inefficient, bad industry o Imperialism Africa (Tunis) o Wanted Italia Irredenta, which was under A-H o Trieste, Trentio and Tyrol Austria-Hungary o 1867: dual monarchy o Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, Rumanians and Poles resented their loss of political freedom o Serbia: south slav empire Russia o Brother to slav nations o Treaty of Paris (1856) disallowed Balkan aggression o 1870 broke treaty France o Alsace Lorraine / Defeat

6. EASTERN QUESTION

Decline of Ottoman Empire Russia denied Balkan territory at Congress of Berlin Russia: Constantinople Austria: Counter Slav nationalism; protect Danube trade route Britain: Secure Mediterranean, trade routes to India 1908 Bosnian Crisis: A-H annexed Bosnia o Germany supported A-H (military character to alliance) o French withdrew o Russia: no further Serbian appeal would go unheeded

· · ·

1861: Italian unification Italia Irredenta Trieste, Trentio and Tyrol

· ·

1867: Dual monarchy Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, Rumanians and Poles

French Revanche

Serbia: south slav empire

Russia: Treaty of Paris (1856) 1908 Humiliation

Yes

1871: Bismarck unification Weltpolitik

1908 Bosnian Crisis Paul Schroder

No War would have begun either way Without alliances, war would have been isolated.

7. ALSACELORRAINE

1971 Loss Revanche Germans began making things better but it was a little too late

INTERNAL STRESSES Franz Fischer Threat of revolution in Russia Austro-Hungary; tearing up of multi-national empire Germany and peaceful Marxists o War to unit people against socialism

FAILURE OF DIPLOMACY Kaiser thought Britain would remain neutral French present was away Austria assumed Russia not to intervene Russia assumed Germany not to intervene Britain thought crisis would be resolved

Marx: German annexation meant no way could France + Germany reconcile However, there was loss in sentimentalism in the 2 provinces. No real thought of revenge.

1971 Loss

[Causes of WWI]

HISTORIOGRAPHY 1.

Orthodox interpretation: The view of the victors – blamed Germany and its allies German government had issues the ‘blank check’ Germany militarism and belligerence Revisionist interpretation: Serbia experimented dangerously in terrorism for national ambitions A-H was too quick to crush its enemies Russia’s mobilization expanded the crisis beyond the Balkans and put pressure on Germany France failed to restrain Russia The British did not make their intentions clear (something that could have deterred the Germans) Conclusion: no single country was to blame for the war Specific historians: Sidney Fay cited the alliance system, militarism, imperialism and national (MAIN) Fritz Fischer argued that Germany’s government and elites had pursued a drive towards world supremacy. The German government had deliberately provoked the crisis of 1914 in an attempt to preserve the German social order (prevent socialism) Wolfgang Mommsen argued that Germany’s rapid industrialization and backwardness of A-H and Russia created instabilities in central and eastern Europe and were compensated by aggressiveness Paul Schroeder thought that A-H was the key to European stability but the other powers gradually undermined the Habsburg monarchy. A-H was threatened with collapse because of its multi-national composition. The ambitions of Russia, France and Britain pushed A-H over the brink. Germany (who was unable to develop its overseas Empire) was left with the choice of watching her only ally (A-H) collapse or risking a war against the rest of Europe. L.C.F. Turner argued that the war was a result of incompetence among the leaders and tragic miscalculations. A-H and Germany thought that Russia would not support Serbia and Russia though mobilization would not lead to war (they were wrong).

ESSAY: ASSESS CRITICALLY THREE CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR In the study of the First World War, historians care much more about the origins as opposed to the war itself, probably because it is just so debatable. The orthodox perspective, the perspective that dominated during the war as well as during the peace conference must be German aggression. However, 20 years later revisionist historians consider many other causes that place emphasis on other countries. For example, the balance of power in Europe was disrupted in 1905. As well, one needs to consider the Eastern Question: with the breakup of the Ottoman empire, Europeans struggled to create a sphere of influence. Other possible causes place blame on the French, who were annoyed at the annexation of Alsace and Loraine, as well as Britain, who did not make their alliance clear, giving Germany the hope of non-intervention. To begin, we’ll access the impact of German aggression, a theory whose proponent must be Franz Fischer who goes as far as saying Germans wanted world domination. However, this might be a step too far, though Germans definitely wanted to become a power in Europe. Their aggression can be traced back to 1871 to their unification, which they used against France in a war that resulted in the annexation of Alsace and Loraine. At that time, Bismarck warned the Kaiser Wilhelm I that aggression on land was fine; just don’t challenge Britain in the sea. This

[First World War]

is exactly what Wilhelm II did when they began a naval race (which they lost). The aggression was also felt in Africa. Perhaps in an effort to be respected, Germany entered the scramble for Africa. In 1905 the Kaiser went into Morocco to ask the Moroccans to rebel against the French. By trying to show its military strength, the Kaiser gave the Entente Cordiale military character, strengthening the alliance system which was to be an important in the escalation of WWI. However, German aggression might be a mistake for German fear. There is no doubt that the triple entente scared the Kaiser – his fear of encirclement. As well, he was afraid that the Russians would overtake him in a matter of decades. Russia’s loss in the Crimean war and loss to Japan in 1905 did not tarnish the fear commanded by their standing army of 4million plus. German fear can be best witnessed at a peculiar treaty, known as “Bjorko,” which was actually a German-Russian treaty of 1905. Just the hate Kaiser had for Russians would make one question why he would sign a treaty with the Russians. Perhaps fear of encirclement was really an integral part of German aggression, and their need for a ‘preventative war’. Of course, the treaty fell through, as we look to another explanation of the origin of WWI. The Russian defeat to Japan was enough to upset the balance of power, which was previously established in 1815, after the defeat of Napoleon. However, the Russian loss to Japan left France without an ally, and against Germany, which had a greater birthrate, and 4x the industrial capability. German had defeated France only decades earlier, and France was absolutely terrified of German aggression. Now while Alsace and Loraine are sometimes attributed as the reason why France might want revenge on the Germans, it is likely incorrect. The territory had been historically fought over, and French need for that territory had decreased between 1871 and 1914. Only months after Russia’s loss to Japan, the Kaiser showed up in Morocco. The balance of power had been upset forcing France to look to Britain for aid, thus splitting Europe into two distinct camps: the allied and the central powers. These alliances were able to take a regional conflict between Serbia and Austria-Hungary and change it into a ‘world war’. The Austrians acted aggressively, knowing they’d have German backing, and once war was declared on Serbia, Russia entered, followed by Germany, France then England. However, alliance systems from an upset balance of power are not enough to create a war. The formula for failure was a lack of diplomacy. Although the camps knew about the alliances, they doubted whether they’d actually do anything. The Austrians declared war on Serbia, assuming Russia would withdraw, just as it did in 1908 (Bosnian Crisis). Perhaps they did not know that Nicholas vowed to never let another Serbian cry for help go unheeded. Russia declared war on Austria assuming that German might not help its allies, but Germany likely gave Austria the blank check so that it could begin that preventative war against Russia. Once Germany declared war on Russia, it did not believe that England would come to Russia’s aid, even though England told Germany to respect Belgium neutrality. Perhaps the greatest fault lies on Britain for adopting a stand of non-intervention, luring Germany into attacking, and finally taking a stand. In fact, Germany had always wanted to make a pact with Britain, saying that if they signed a treaty, not even a mouse could stir in Europe without us knowing. Germany and Britain were both monarchies, whereas France was a Republic and Russian was autocratic. But Britain was not going to be challenged on the sea, and was definitely not going to allow the Germans to capture a port that was a short trip across the channel. This is a compelling theory: everyone entered the war without knowing that a general war was going to begin. WWI was a mistake that arose from miscalculations and misjudgement more than anything else. WWI is interesting because the causes are of upmost importance, especially to those of the period. An entire generation had died from WWI in some countries. While countries entered WWI with a great deal of hopes, they exited it vowing to never have a war again. That’s why the causes are important: understanding the causes could possibly help prevent the next war. But the fact that WWI began when no one expected it makes it an extremely difficult origin to explain. Countries entered the war with unclear war aims, and seemed like the war was happening for no specific reason; and perhaps that’s the best explanation. WWI was a mistake.

[Reasons for Victory]

REASONS FOR VICTORY DID GERMANY LOSE WWI? Yes

No Germany defeated August 1918, end of September 1918, fuel of 6 weeks. Germans thought they were defeated November criminals o Communists o Jews

No fighting took place on German soil President: “we greet you undefeated” German army was home and intact

Decision Germany, in fact, did lose WWI. It was spared the embarrassment occupation because the Allies could not afford another year of war (though the US did want to occupy Germany). Germans who believe they did not lose WWI use this as a justification for the problems of Versailles, creating the atmosphere that led to WWII.

Although Germany had Germany had

Allies had: Numbers

Seas

Two Fronts

USA

Internal lines of communication (supply of army/movement of troops from one front to another) More developed industry and technology Army was the best/Uboats challenged Britain 27 Allied states fought against 4 Central Powers, so the Allied states had more manpower and more resources. a. 28% vs 19% of ‘world production’ (not counting the USA b. Germany had less useful allies c. 42 million troops vs 23 million troops The Allied states had almost complete control of the seas, so they could successfully blockade the German coastline and starve the Central Powers of food and raw materials. a. Allies could call the resources of oversea empires The first was the invasion of Belgium which offended the moral conscience of the world and brought Britain into the war. a. War on two fronts (Bismarkian fear) b. Lusitania: unrestricted submarine campaign which strengthened universal hatred of German militarism and brought about the entry of the United States into war on the Allies' side c. Fight for democracy d. Zimmerman Telegraph

10/30m lives $330b

States 27 vs 4 Production 28% vs 19% Troops 42m vs 23m

Lusitania Zimmerman

[First World War]

ESSAY: ACCOUNT FOR THE DEFEAT OF THE CENTRAL POWERS DURING WWI It is interesting that the decade following WWI, Germans were convinced that they weren’t actually defeated; Allied troops had never entered Germany. The reason for this is because the Allies were absolutely exhausted and probably only won because of the US (who supported “unconditional surrender” because they were fresh). In fact, Germany was defeated by November 1918. The lines that moved a few hundred yards suddenly collapsed and the allies broke through. And finally, the Germans simply didn’t have enough resources. By August of 1918, it was estimated that they would have 6 weeks’ worth of oil left, and then the entire military campaign would shut down. To begin a look at the defeat of the Central Powers, one must begin at the Schlieffen plan which was supposed to be the cornerstone of quick German victory: they would quickly take down France through Belgium then swing back and defeat Russia before it could mobilize. The French planed to prevent this, by having Russia fully mobilized by the 16th day. Schlieffen heeded the old Bismarkian problem of the war on two fronts. However, Schlieffen was dead, and his successors did not heed HIS warning: make the right wing strong. Instead, Moltke weakened the right wing and placed them in Alsace-Lorraine – the place that was supposed to trap the French, who would be ever so delighted for the opportunity to reclaim the territory. The weak right front spread the forces thin; and it was at the battle of Marne that France broke through. The Belgians under King Albert were effective at ‘stalling’ the Germans, and the English also broke through the German flank. And that effectively stopped their offense. Had the right wing been stronger, the Schlieffen plan would have worked to trap the French, giving them enough time to capitalize on Russian mobilization. Instead, their defeat was initially caused by the failure of the Schlieffen plan, the entry into the war of attrition which the Allies were more equipped to handle, and a war on two fronts! However, the defeat of the Central powers is more importantly because of a change in 1918 that entirely shifted the war in the favour of the Allies. Between 1914 and 1917 very little changed; a huge number of men were lost to gain a few hundred yards. 1918, the Russians withdrew from the war, and the Germans had an extremely successful spring offensive. The allies were on the verge of losing when the US supplied fresh men and supplies to the Western front. The defeat of the Central powers can be attributed to their carelessness when dealing with the Americans, who had a policy of isolationism. However, as they carelessly destroyed British ships with American passengers, using uboats (such as the Lusitania), and as the Zimmerman telegram attempted to keep US out of the war, the opposite became true.

[Results of WWI]

RESULTS OF WWI Costs of War

• • •

Geography:

10 million lives lost / 30 million wounded Direct financial costs- 180 billion, indirect 150 billion = 330 Billion Four great powers had crumbled. Fall of 4 Empires 7 New Countries: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania and Finland Italians: failed to realize ambitions of Treaty of London

Political

Loser Treaties League of Nations 1920 Italy: overthrow of government Dictatorships (Soviet Union, Italy, Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Austria, Germany, the Baltic Republics and Spain)

Economics:

USA – went from debtor to a creditor; Europe not the leading continent Mass unemployment in Italy, Germany, Britain and France Economic nationalism

10/30m lives $330b

4 empires 7 nations (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania and Finland) League of Nations 1920 Dictatorships: Soviet Union, Italy, Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Austria, Germany, the Baltic Republics and Spain US: $10 billion credit Unemployment: Italy, Germany, Britain and France

ATMOSPHERE IN PARIS Secret Treaties:

New States

Communism

After-war bitterness

March 1915 France: Alsace-Lorraine / left bank of the Rhine / German colonies in Africa Britain: German colonies in Africa and the Pacific April Italy: Austrian / Turkish territory August 1916 Rumania: Transylvania / Bukovina The Big Three had to respect these treaties when they were making the territorial settlement after the war. From Austro-Hungarian Empires: Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland. The Big Three simply had to recognize strengthen the neighbouring states of Russia Stopped German retreat "cordon sanitaire" against spread of Communism. people of the Allied countries still had a fierce hatred against the enemy nations / brought pressure on their governments

Secret Treaties 1915 France 1915 Italy 1916 Rumania

Austro-Hungarian Empires: Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland. Cordon sanitaire

[First World War]

FOURTEEN POINTS National Selfdetermination

'Open Diplomacy'

League of nations

Impartial adjustment of colonial claims: the settlement of colonial problems with reference to the interests of colonial peoples b) Germany's surrender of her past conquests: Russian / Belgian / Alsace-Lorraine c) The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Turkish Empire and the granting of independence to all the oppressed nationalities: Italian frontier to extend northward to recover some land from AustriaHungary / Autonomous development for the people of Austria-Hungary Rumania, Serbia and Montenegro to be independent / Peoples under Turkish rule to be autonomous / An independent Poland In short, Wilson hoped to remove one of the fundamental causes of the First World War, namely the attempt of the big powers to rule over alien races. all diplomacy and negotiation between states should be carried on openly 'Open Sea' absolute freedom of navigation 'Open Trade' fair and equal trade no tariff barriers 'Disarmament' In other words, Wilson wanted to remove 3 root causes of the First World War, namely alliance systems, economic conflict and armaments race. independence of all nations international cooperation in economic and social spheres replace national rivalries with international cooperation.

alliance systems economic conflict armaments race

To sum up, Wilson's ideals of a peaceful world consisted of a removal of all the basic causes of the First World War (namely armaments race, secret diplomacy, economic rivalry and the struggle of the oppressed nationalities to get independence) and the formation of an international organization to promote the political, economic and social progress of the whole world.

TREATIES OF PARIS Versailles for Germany Neuilly for Bulgaria Trianon for Hungary St. Germaine for Austria Sevre for Turkey, Later Lausanne

June 1919 November 1919 June 1920 September 1919 August 1920, July 1923

[Results of WWI]

REGIONAL CONSEQUENCES Austria

· · · · ·

· · · · Bulgaria

China Czechs

· · · · ·

France

Purpose: to break up the Austro-Hungarian Empire Austria and Hungary became separate states The new state of Czechoslovakia was recognized The new state of Yugoslav was created Parts of the former empire were given to: o Poland got Galicia o Roumania got Transylvania o Italy got South Tyrol, Trentino and Istria The boundaries of Austria were define with plebiscite in Southern California Austria was forbidden to unite with Germany without League of Nations approval Limitations were placed on the size of the Austrian armed forces A war indemnity was imposed on Austria, the amount to be determined later by a commission Bulgaria lost territory to Yugoslavia (from Macedonia) and to Greece (from West Thrace) Bulgaria gained territory from Turkey in East Thrace. Limitations of Bulgarian army. Bulgaria was liable to pay a war indemnity. May 4 Revolution Sudetenland had a lot of Germans / most industrially developed part Pyrrhic, 1.3m Frenchmen died, 16.5%, 70% coal destroyed

GERMANY

Spartacus Revolution lost land, reparations, army, war guilt (paid only small portions of reparations. Received 3x as much) / Hitler German Territorial Losses: Alsace Lorraine went to France Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium Northern Schleswig to Denmark Pomerania, West Prussia (the Polish Corridor) and part of Silesia to Poland Danzig to League of Nations mandate The Saar and its produce to the League for 15 years (the produce of the coalfields would go to France for the first five years)

Germany

Other Terms of the Treaty: Allied armies of occupation were placed west of the Rhine and east of the Rhine at Cologne, Coblenz and Mainz. All German overseas territories went to the League of Nations which gave mandates to Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Japan. German concessions and trading rights in China and Egypt were forfeit German could not unite with Austria

Czechoslovakia Yugoslav Italy got South Tyrol, Trentino and Istria No anchluss

May 4 Revolution Sudetenland 1.3m Frenchmen died, 16.5%, 70% coal destroyed 1919 Spartacus Revolution Remember some territory changes

Mandates: Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Japan Demilitarization of Rhine 100,000 men

Germany

Hungary

[First World War]

Military restrictions: o A demilitarized zone was established 30 miles of Rhine o The German army was limited to 100,000 men o The navy was to be handed over to the Allies o No submarine were to be built o No military air force to be maintained o The fortifications of Heligoland were to be taken down The war guilt clause put sole blame for the war on Germany. Its main purpose was to provide justification for requiring Germany and its allies to pay compensation. The amount of reparations was to be decided later The Germans were to withdraw from the Baltic states, disregarding the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Aftermath The Americans and the French disagreed on the sum Germany should pay: The Americans had ended the war wealthier than they begun it, so they thought Germany should pay a smaller amount The French who ended the war in debt, had suffered destruction from the German invasion and a considerable loss of life wanted a higher payment from Germany—they wanted to slow down the German recovery. A compromise was made and Germany only had to pay for losses to civilians and their property. In may 1921, the reparations were fixed at 132,000,000,000 gold marks. France wanted to break up Germany so it could not retaliate while the US wanted to treat Germany leniently so it could return to the community of nations with resentment. The compromise was to keep a united Germany but punish it harshly this ensured a resentful Germany would remain to seek revenge. · · ·

132 trillion gold marks

Hungary was reduced in size by the creation of the new nations and expansion of Roumania Limitations were placed on the size and composition of the Hungarian army Hungary was liable to pay a war indemnity, the amount to be determined later

Italy:

denied northern Dalmatia (Fiume) / rise of Mussolini

Japan Russia US

· · ·

racial equality, invades China 1917 revolutions prosperity, no Versailles for republicans

northern Dalmatia (Fiume) 1917 revolutions Owed $10 billion to the U.S

[Results of WWI]

Assessment of Paris

SUCCESSES

· ·

FAILURES

1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

19 monarchies and 3 republics became 15 out of 27 states were republics Independent states 20 in 1914 to 27 in 1919

defeated states were never allowed to discuss the terms punishment on Germany was somewhat excessive, since a democratic government had come to power national minorities in the new states of Europe—about 17 millions: Italy obtained South Tyrol which contained 250,000 Austrian Germans and Rumania obtained Transylvania where more than half of the population were Hungarians victorious powers did not disarm Some historians believe that blaming Germany for the war and imposing reparations on them was: o The war was so complex with the alliance and what not, so it’s unfair to solely blame Germany o Weakened the Weimar government, making it vulnerable to right-wing charges collaboration J.M. Keynes warned that the reparations would deprive Germany of 15% of her agricultural land, 16% of her coal, 14% of her iron ore, and 10% of her manufacturing ability.

19 monarchies and 3 republics  15 out of 27 states were republics Independent states 20 in 1914 to 27 in 1919 17m nationalities

[Second World War]

SECOND WORLD WAR Second World War ................................................................................................................................................. 23

WWII Timeline.............................................................................................................................. 24 Causes of WWII ............................................................................................................................ 25 1. 2. 3.

Versailles ................................................................................................................................................. 25 League of Nations ................................................................................................................................... 25 Appeasement .......................................................................................................................................... 26 Why Appeasement? .................................................................................................................................... 26 Appeasement and Path to War ................................................................................................................... 26 Anglo-German Naval Agreement ............................................................................................................. 26 Re-Militarization of the Rhineland ........................................................................................................... 26 Spanish Civil War ..................................................................................................................................... 26 Anschluss ................................................................................................................................................ 27 Sudetenland and Munich ........................................................................................................................ 27 Criticism of Munich ................................................................................................................................. 28 Czechoslovakia ........................................................................................................................................ 28 The Abandonment of Appeasement ........................................................................................................ 28 4. Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact ........................................................................................................................ 28 5. General Long-Term Causes of WWII ........................................................................................................ 29 Expansionism .............................................................................................................................................. 29 Fascism, Nationalism & Totalitarianism ....................................................................................................... 29 Isolationism & Protectionism ...................................................................................................................... 29 Racism ........................................................................................................................................................ 29 Historiography ................................................................................................................................................ 30

Why did Allies win WWII............................................................................................................... 31 Results/Consequences of WWII .................................................................................................... 32 Short Term ...................................................................................................................................................... 32 Long Term ....................................................................................................................................................... 32 Total War ........................................................................................................................................................ 32 Comparing WWI and WWII (work in progress) ...................................................................................................... 33 Essay: Compare and contrast the results of the First and Second World Wars ................................................ 33 Essay: Compare and contrast the causes of WWI and WWII. .......................................................................... 34 Essay: Compare and contrast the causes of the First and Second World Wars ................................................ 35

[WWII Timeline]

WWII TIMELINE Date June 1919 1922 1931 1933 1934 1934 Summer 1935 1935 1935 October 1936 1936 October 1938 February 1938 March 1938 September 1938 September 1939 March 1939 1939 August 23rd 1939 1941 June 1941 December 7th 1942 Autumn 1942 1943 December 1944 June 6th 1944 July 1944 August 1944 September 1944 October 1944 December 1945 February 1945 July 1945 July 1945 August

Event Treaty of Versailles Treaty of Rapallo Japanese Invasion of Manchuria Hitler withdraws from the League of Nations German non-aggression treaty with Poland Dolfuss putsch Stresa Front Hitler Re-occupies Rhineland Abyssinia Crisis Spanish Civil War at its Peak Rome Berlin Axis Schuschnig meets Hitler Anschluss Nuremburg Party Rally Munich crisis Rest of Czechoslovakia invaded Molotov replaces Litvinov Nazi-Soviet Pact World War Two starts Attack on Russia Pearl Harbour (‘Danny!!’, please don’t take my wings away!!) German army stuck in Stalingrad Battle of El Alamen Meeting at Teheran D-Day Warsaw Uprising Paris liberated Bridge too far offensive at Arnhem. Blue Pencil meeting Germany abandons Greece Yalta conference First successful detonation of an atomic weapon Potsdam conference End of WW1, Japan bombed

[Second World War]

CAUSES OF WWII 1. VERSAILLES

2. LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Versailles treaty Germany 1) Germany believed it was harsh/unfair 2) Too lenient to constrain Germany for long – Investment was 3x more than reparations Italy Italy left empty-handed helped Mussolini rise to power and establish Europe’s first fascist state. Bolshevik Revolution and Brest-Litovsk Independence: Finland, Baltic states, Poland Russia had grown into an aggrieved power like Germany and Italy. The Soviets also remained an enemy to non-communist states. Failure to enforce Versailles US showed little desire to uphold the settlement France wanted Germany to remain weak o Occupation of the Ruhr in 1923 / Justified as Germany failure to pay debt Britain was concerned with the survival of her empire and the recovery of trade o Guilty for harsh treaty / undermined Versailles / Locarno 1925 (reparations scaled back / Germany treated as equal) / 1926 Germany was admitted into the League of Nations. By 1929, Britain and France agreed to end their occupation of the Rhineland / France who still distrusted the Germans constructed the Maginot Line defences in 1929. Failures of the League 1. 1923 Corfu / The Conference of Ambassadors intervened and ordered Greece to pay a fine when Mussolini was at fault 2. Manchurian Crisis of 1931-32 / League condemned the Japanese invasion of Manchuria / Japan just left the League 3. World Disarmament Conference (1932-1933) failed when Hitler walked out 4. Abyssinia 1935 / sanctions were ineffective / did not include products necessary in waging a war (coal, oil, steel and iron) By 1935, the League became irrelevant Reasons for failure 1. US rejected membership 2. No permanent military force 3. States tended to seek security independently of the League 4. Members often appeased powerful aggressor states

Germany got 3x more money than it paid Finland, Baltic states, Poland – independence 1923 Occupation of Ruhr 1925 Locarno 1926 Germany admitted

1923 Corfu Manchurian Crisis of 1931-32 World Disarmament Conference (1932-1933)

[Causes of WWII]

3. APPEASEMENT W HY A PPEASEMENT ? Britain Sympathy

Fear Weakness

Communism

France *© Sympathetic with Hitler’s desire to unite the German-speaking people of Austria, Poland and Czechoslovakia Hitler might have legitimate grievances / mid-1920s British policy was to give way to German demands for revisions to Versailles feared a confrontation with a newly rearmed Germany Britain was not materially ready to fight a war in 1938

France was traumatized by the loss of life / Feared conflict with Germany *Weakness Politically and socially divided Appeasement was really a policy forced on France because of its weakness.

Especially ©

A PPEASEMENT AND P ATH TO W AR A NGLO -G ERMAN N AVAL A GREEMENT

R E -M ILITARIZATION OF THE R HINELAND

S PANISH C IVIL W AR

Agreement signed between Germany and Britain in 1935 that essentially permitted the re-arming of Germany. Raised the ratio of German ships to British ship to level of 35:100. Locarno and Versailles: Rhineland should be demilitarized. March 1936 Hitler sends nineteen German infantry Battalions to the Rhineland as well as a few planes He expected the French to stop the German advance / they were psychologically unprepared to fight a war against Germany. Britain did not see the German move as harmful / no protest Hitler continued to add fortifications and military units to the Rhineland in the years leading up to the war Britain and France allowed Germany to test its armed forces (bombers) in the Spanish Civil War on the side of the Nationalists Anti-communism

1935 Anglo-German Naval Agreement at 35:100 March 1936 Remilitarization of Rhineland

1936 Spanish Civil War

A NSCHLUSS

S UDETENLAND AND M UNICH

[Second World War] Nazis pretext / planned for an uprising in Austria / discovered / Austrian Chancellor was bullied and threatened by the Nazis / agreed to Nazis in his cabinet 1938 Anschluss was approved by a massive majority Britain and France had little warning of the Austrian crisis Chamberlain recognized that there was little he could do France protested / Austrians expressed their joy at joining Germany Sudetenland: a German speaking area of Czechoslovakia / ruled by a Nazi politician Konrad Heinlein

Reasons for Appeasement Hitler: Czechs persecuted the German minority USSR and France both had Alliances with Czechoslovakia and were not prepared materially or politically Hitler was prepared to invade: directed his Field Marshall Wilhelm Keitel even if the French were to intervene The French premier, Edouard Daladier agreed that all of the Sudetenland with more than 50% Germans by given to Germany New Demand Hitler then increased his demand to include the entire Sudetenland Britain and France rejected / France + Czechoslovakia mobilize Munich September 1938 Hitler promised to go no further / signed an agreement to resolve their further differences peacefully

1938 Anschluss

Sudetenland 1938 Initially based on areas with 50% Germans Munich Sept 1938 Hitler Mussolini Chamberlain Daladier

[Causes of WWII]

C RITICISM OF M UNICH

C ZECHOSLOVAKIA

T HE A BANDONMENT OF A PPEASEMENT

Chamberlain hailed as success: “My good friends, for the second time in our history, A British Prime Minister as returned from Germany bringing peace with honour. I believe it is peace for our time” / Winston Churchill saw it as a “total and unmitigated defeat” for British Hitler despised Chamberlain for promoting the agreement as a success for peace. Stalin was angry since the USSR was not included in the conference and that Britain and France colluded with Germany / lead to the partition of the Soviet Union between western and fascist powers / MolotovRibbentrop Pact Czechoslovakians were angry that the decision had been forced upon them. March 1939, Nazi forces invaded the Bohemia and Moravia (Czech) / Slovakia was established as a Nazi puppet state. Chamberlain takes a tougher stand against Germany / British and French armies were mobilized. Italian troops into Albania / prove not a puppet of Hitler / succeeds in making an Italian protectorate. Spread of fascism Franco won the Spanish Civil War in Feb 1939 / Mussolini conquers Albania in April 1939 Chamberlain promised to defend Poland / this made war inevitable if Hitler attacked Poland Pact of Steel May 1939: Germany - Italy / showed that Hitler was building up for a war. Anglo-Soviet talks fail in Aug 1939 because: Suspicion: Chamberlain and Stalin did not trust each other and Poland did not trust USSR. o Choice: Poland o Appeasement: Munich; Stalin thought Britain would leave him to fight Hitler alone o Britain Delayed: the official made it to the USSR too late Result: German Soviet Pact See Stalin’s Foreign Policy o

4. MOLOTOVRIBBENTROP PACT

March 1939 Czechoslovakia Albania

Facism: Spanish Civil War / Albania Promise to Poland Pact of Steel May 1939 Anglo-soviet talks Aug 1939

[Second World War]

5. GENERAL LONG -TERM CAUSES OF WWII E XPANSIONISM

Italy wanted to recreated the Roman Empire Invasion of Abyssinia / Albania / Greece Germany wanted Lebensraum Versailles: Polish Corridor, Silesia, Danzig, Memel, Posen and the Saar. Greater Germany: unite all German people under one nation. Japan wanted to regain territory that it had captured in WWI Shantung Peninsula, former German Pacific islands, parts of Siberia, Russia port of Vladivostok

F ASCISM , N ATIONALISM & T OTALITARIANISM

I SOLATIONISM & P ROTECTIONISM

R ACISM

Fascist governments believed that the structure of the army should be emulated by the rest of society. Fascists like Hitler and Mussolini believed that war was necessary for improvement, so they not opposed to starting a European conflict. Nationalism was used by leaders to build public support for a was Single party states like Germany, Italy and USSR made decisions without public consent. US foreign policy was isolationist / they did not involve themselves in European affairs in the interwar years / Their economy was protectionist / did not want to rely on any other nations for economic well-being. Britain and France was very isolationist because they did not want to relive the horrors of WWI Intervention could have prevented Hitler Belief in master races and inferior races Social Darwinism had put races against each other- Teuton vs. Slav. National self-determination developed the idea of panGermanism and pan-Slavism (which excluded other races from a nation). Hitlerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s desire to wipe out inferior peoples/races.

Italy: Abyssinia / Albania / Greece Germany: Polish Corridor / Silesia, Danzig / Memel / Posen / Saar Japan: Shantung Peninsula, German Pacific islands, parts of Siberia, Vladivostok

Teuton vs. Slav

[Causes of WWII]

HISTORIOGRAPHY Orthodox

1. 2.

Revisionist

Synthesis

6. 7.

William Shirer view is that Hitler had a timetable for war. Specifically it was his aims to dominate Europe and expand Germany. E.M. Robertson believe that Hitler’s actions were based mainly on Revenge o It is actually a valid argument because of Treaty of Versailles and his contempt for Britain and the Soviet Union. He did fight in WWI. A common German Perspective on the war: o Opposed Hitler’s racial views o Did see the benefits of Hitler in rebuilding Germany o Saw that the German’s were outnumbered by the Allies. o Germany’s allies were not strong. o Constant complaint of Italy pulling down Germany i. The Italian failure in North Africa, needed German support ii. It was through Sicily and Italy that the Allies penetrated Europe Revisionist/A. J. P Taylor o Hitler’s ideology was nothing more than the sort of nationalist sentiments “which echo the conversation of any Austrian café or German beer-house” o Hitler’s ends and means resemble those of any “traditional German statesman” o It was partly Britain and France’s fault for their appeasement, which gave Hitler the wrong idea / Hitler really just miscalculated response the situation o Germany needed to expand to recover from its economic slump in the 1930s it needed more resources. Fischer supports with o Hitler’s policies were really just a continuation of German imperial practices by Kaiser and Bismarck o However, traditional imperialism of Kaiser’s Reich vs fanatical racism of Nazi Reich Alan Bullock: A compromise was that Hitler did have aggressive long-term aims but was not as rigid and up-tight about how he was going to achieve them A Soviet perspective links Fascism to capitalism. Fascism is the ideological opposite to Communism. o However, Really this relation to capitalism it not correct, as Facism existing at an extreme end of the political spectrum means that there is high government involvement therefore capitalism cannot exists.

[Second World War]

WHY DID ALLIES WIN WWII 1.

The war became a war of attrition, and the resources of the Allies (USA, USSR and British Empire) far outweighed those of Germany and Japan a. Germany and Japan didn’t have nickel, rubber, oil etc. b. Liddel-Hart says that they “became stretched out, far beyond their capacity for holding their gains” c. Allies won Atlantic and pacific, starved Axis of supplies Axis made tactical mistakes a. Hitler didn’t take Britain seriously b. Russia i. Winter ii. Didn’t have the support of non-Russians/anti-stalinists because of his racial policies iii. War of attrition c. Contempt for the USA misplaced since USA became important in a war of attrition d. Japanese produced battleships dominated by US aircraft carriers e. Hitler didn’t retreat f. Produced V rockets instead of Jet aircraft which may have prevented aerial attacks of 44-45

[Results/Consequences of WWII]

RESULTS/CONSEQUENCES OF WWII SHORT TERM

30 Million were killed directly in the war (half were Russians) 11 million ‘undesirables’ killed in the holocaust Europeans infrastructure was in ruins 20 million displaced Internal stresses within occupied countries between people who had resisted and who had collaborated with the occupier Showed that fascism failed Immediate spread of Communism

30m killed / half were Russians 11m holocaust killed 20m displaced

LONG TERM

European domination had ended it was now a world of two superpowers Germany (short term) France and Britain (long term) were destroyed as great powers Soviet Union became a major force in Europe- it extended its empire and established the Warsaw Pact. The US sided with many Western European countries (through the Marshall Plan) and formed Nato These two alliances formed to basis of the Cold War Racism and Anti-Semitism became unaccepted Governments around the world progressed socially created social security, fair income tax, employment measures (Atlee and de Gaulle) Led to the Nuclear Arms race By 1941, every world power was involved in the war and it spanned 5 continents The civilian population had never been so greatly involved in a war before. Why? o Never has there been such a destructive force threatening the nations of world o After France was defeated, Britain was all alone to fight Germany. It came down to civilian work in the war effort determining the future of the world o Siege of Leningrad. o The Blitz Civilians were seem as legitimate targets from the beginning: o The SS Einsatzgruppen in Germany eliminated entire groups of the population in occupied countries o Bombing raids were targeted at civilians The holocaust was the one of the most severe genocide in history, and surely the most systematic. Changed the racial makeup of Europe. War was fought on all types of terrain

Fall of Germany, France, Britain Warsaw Pact Nato

TOTAL WAR

5 continents Seige of Leningrad Blitz

[Comparing WWI and WWII (work in progress)]

COMPARING WWI AND WWII (WORK IN PROGRESS ) ESSAY: COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE RESULTS OF THE FIRST AND SECOND WORLD WARS In 1918, Germany signed an armistice with the allied powers, ending “the war to end all wars.” Nevertheless, another war arose in 1939, where Germany lost again in 1945, never to compete on the world stage again. Both wars were to have extreme economic and social consequences. The first killed 10 million people while the second killed at least 30 million. The first resulted in the fall of the Austria-Hungarian, German, Russian and Ottoman empires while the second resulted in the rise of US and USSR, effectively shifting the world’s center away from Europe. WWII arguably grew out of WWI, but very different ideas arose out of the wars. The western powers in the peace of Paris of 1919 were motivated by punishing the Germans and granting self-determination, whereas in the peace of 1946-47, they were motivated by rehabilitating the Germans and checking communism. In 1918, an armistice was signed before a German military defeat. The Germans never thought they lost, and thought that they only surrendered because of “November Criminals,” Jews and communists. When the Allies imposed the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, Germans were absolutely repulsed to see such harsh terms, when they had a new democratic government that was supposed to be different than that of the old Kaiser. However, Germany was still able to compete for the world stage. In fact, Germany may have ended the war in a better position than it began. Poland created a buffer between Germany and Russia, and the break-up of Austria Hungary improved their goal of creating a large Teutonic state. Germany had 4x heavy industry than France and its birthrate was higher, and already had 2x as many people. Therefore, in 1918, the treaty of Versailles created an angry German nation that was in a position of strength. Therefore, it isn’t surprising that they were able to wage another way in 1945. However, this time, Roosevelt insisted on an “unconditional surrender.” The Allies occupied Germany and at Yalta (1945) decided to carve Germany into different spheres of control. The Germans were the first to admit that Europe would no longer be the center of attention, implying that Germany would no longer seek world-class status. Instead, the result of WW2 was the creation of two superpowers: USSR and USA, and created the conditions for the Cold War. While WWI created a number of small states, WWII converted most of these states who were in Eastern Germany to communism. A great example would be the creation of Czechoslovakia, which was created after the fall of the Austria-Hungarian empire. Woodrow Wilson immensely support these Czechs as he supported ethnic nationalism, and even went as far as to intervene in the Russian Civil War to help out the Czech legion. However, within the Czech boundaries was many “south germans” or “Sudeten germans” who Hitler used as a reason to annex the Sudetenland. In 1938, the Czechs felt betrayed by the Munich agreement, which allowed Hitler to occupy Czechoslovakia. The result of WWII was the conversion of Czechoslovakia to communism. It was the last EasternEuropean country to convert in 1938. It is interesting that a country that was definitely allied with the Western powers after WWI converted to a Communist/Eastern country after WWII. The same can be said for Yugoslavia, which grew out of Paris 1919, which Tito was going to convert to communism. Poland as well would turn communist, after growing out of capitalists. The results of the two wars were very different. After WWI, eastern European countries were motivated by ethnic-nationalism, with only Russia as the proponent of Bolshevism. After WWII, the side east of the Iron Curtain was communist. Although Germany was defeated in both wars, the Allied nations dealt with the loser nations very differently. After WWI, the loser nations were subject to harsh treaties; new countries with rights of self determination were

[Results/Consequences of WWII]

created from the loser nations. However, after WWII, the loser nations were no longer important; German supremacy was again denied. Instead, the world shifted to the conflict between previous allies: US and Russia.

ESSAY: COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE CAUSES OF WWI AND WWII. Although the atmosphere of pre-WWI Europe greatly differed to that of pre-WWII Europe, both wars were a result of similar factors such as German aggression, nationalism and imperialism. However, these factors were evident in different ways/circumstances for both wars. Causes that differed include the failure of diplomacy, appeasement, and the significance of Versailles. Ultimately, one war can be blamed on a single aggressor, while the other may be blamed collectively on imperialist powers. Firstly, German aggression played an important role in the outbreak of both WWI and WWII. Pre-WWI Europe was plagued by German brinkmanship, initiated by Kaiser Wilhelm II. For example, in the Tangiers Crisis of 1905, the Kaiser sailed to Morocco to deliver a speech urging Moroccans to resist French colonial interests. This resulted in the Anglo-French Entente adopting a military nature. Another example of German military aggression is the fact that they were the first national to “march” in WWI (excluding Austrian bombardment of Serbia), during their invasion of Belgium/France. Historian Fritz Fischer links German aggression in pre-WWI Europe to the desire of German elites and the monarchy to dominate Europe. Similarly before WWII, Hitler’s aggressive actions pushed Europe closer to war. His violations of the Treaty of Versailles, such as the remilitarization of the Rhine in 1936, the union with Austria (Anschluss 1938) and the annexation of Czechoslovakia (1938) heated up tensions in the pre-war climate. Just as in WWI, it was the Germans who were first to march- though the difference being that Hitler’s invasion of Poland in 1939 caused Britain and France to declare war, while by the time the Schlieffen plan was being carried out in 1914, war had already been declared. Furthermore, in both WWI and WWII, nationalism and imperialism served as a factor leading to war. In WWI, nationalism was an important force at play in nearly all European countries. In the larger powers such as Britain, France and Germany, nationalism was connected to each country’s desire to expand its influence- often through imperialism (i.e. obtaining colonies). Nationalism in the smaller countries and states of Europe was a very different force. In Serbia nationalism was focused on strengthening its independence and freeing other Balkan states from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This lead to the rise of nationalist movements such as the Narodna Obrana in Serbia, whose subunit, the Black Hand was behind the 1914 Assassination Crisis in Sarajevo. In pre-WWII Europe, nationalism was also and important factor but was mostly confined to the Axis powers such as Germany and Italy. German nationalism was represented by Hitler’s desires such as lebensraum (living space) and the creation of a “Greater Germany” by uniting all German-speakers in the surrounding regions. Acting on these aims caused a conflict of interests between the powers with France and the USSR who were “committed” to defending Czechoslovakia, Britain who wanted to avoid war at all costs and Germany who was following its expansionist policies. Italian nationalism (represented by its desire to recreate the Roman Empire) had similar effects and was demonstrated by Mussolini’s 1936 of Abyssinia. However, there were also many specific causes exclusive to one war or the other. The years leading up to WWI were marked by various arms races, most notably the German-French arms race and the Anglo-German Naval Race (1898-1912). Such “races” contributed greatly to the militaristic atmosphere in Europe at the time and reinforced the competitive relationship between nations. Conversely, WWII saw a very different, almost opposite factor at play, appeasement. The continued appeasement of German demands by Britain and France marked the failure of diplomacy (clearly Britain and France could not restrain Hitler through diplomacy – evident at 1938 Munich conference) and as a result, resorted to war once appeasement was no longer applicable (i.e. 1939 German invasion of Poland).

[Comparing WWI and WWII (work in progress)]

The last significant contrast between the causes of WWI and WWII is the role of the Treaty of Versailles. Obviously Versailles was not a factor leading to WWI, but before WWII it left Germany with bitterness at the Allies for collaborating to ruin Germany. Although by the late 1920s, Germany was improving (economically) but with the onset of the Great Depression of the early 1930s, the Nazis under Hitler came to power, reviving old bitterness over the Treaty of Versailles and later violating its terms. WWI did not have Versailles as a factor, but bitterness still existed. In fact, France was still stinging from the outcome of the Franco-Prussian War (1870) and the unification of Germany (1871). Even though it was the French who held the bitterness, it was still the Germans who attacked in 1914. In conclusion, both WWI and WWII arose from similar general causes such as aggression, nationalism, and imperialism, though each was also the result of specific events exclusive to those wars (i.e. appeasement in WWII and the arms race in WWI). However in the end, WII can be blamed on a single-aggressor nation (Germany) while WWI was much more collectively the result of the aims and actions of the European power at the time.

ESSAY: COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE CAUSES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND WORLD WARS While historians seem ever so interested in the causes of the First World War, the same interest does not seem to extend to the Second World War. Twenty years after the first, revisionist historians were already debating whether the causes of the first can be solely attributed to German aggression. Twenty years after the second, there were no revisionists. Everyone seemed content to attribute blame solely to Hitler. The Allies were happy to claim their appeasement was effective, but Hitler was just too unpredictable. The Germans were equally happy to claim that it was entirely Hitler’s fault, and the German people were simply slaves. So that is the greatest difference in the causes: WWII seemed to arise out of a number of faults from the different nations, whereas WWII seems to be the fault Hitler’s Germany. World War I began out of an imbalance of power. The German unification of 1871 made it the number one European country in terms of people and resources. Statesmen in Europe counted through alliances: the French made an alliance with Russia, but Russia’s weakness was exposed in 1905 when it was defeated by the Japanese. All of a sudden, French was without a worthy ally, and Germany immediately showed it strength, when the Kaiser appeared in a gunship in Morocco, challenging the French to their right of imperialism in Africa. WW2 did not seem to have such an imbalance of power. The treaty of Versailles left Germany with 132 billion marks of repayment which effectively shut down the Germans. How could Germany have ever been a threat again? The power seemed entirely in the hands of the big three: US, Britain and France. However, their treaty actually left Germany in a better position after WWI: they had Poland as a buffer so that they were no longer juxtaposed beside Russia, their greatest fear. All the small Eastern European countries from the breakup of the Austro-Hungarian empire could not contain Germany. Still, Germany should not have been a threat, had the appeasers not let it happen. The appeasers, notably Neville Chamberlain, allowed Hitler to grow: his reoccupation of the Rhineland (1936), Anschluss (Austria hungary – german union) and his annexation of the Sudetenland, all products of the Peace of Paris in 1919. Evidently, war was not on the agenda of the Allied nations as it was in WWI. In world war I, war was extremely popular. Russia enjoyed the opportunity to reassert itself in Eastern Europe and Constantinople (fresh water sea lanes), German may have been seeking world domination, a theory of Franz Fischer that is based on extreme nationalism that evolved from Bismarck’s goal of a greater Germany, Austria-Hungary enjoyed the opportunity to destroy the nationalistic states of the south slavs while Serbia wanted the chance for independence. However, by WWII, there war was largely unpopular. WWI destroyed an entire generation of humans in many countries, and WWII was to be an even greater sacrifice. None of the democratic countries would support politicians that wanted war; instead they wanted the money to improve their stand of living after the

[Results/Consequences of WWII]

depression that began in 1929. Russia did not want a war as Stalin drew up the Molotov-Ribbertrop pact (1939), trying to stall Germany, knowing its own economic weakness. Mussolini said he’d only be prepared for war in 1941; it was only Germany that drew these nations into war, including the US which only entered the war after Pearl Harbour. In 1914 all countries wanted war while in 1939 only Germany seemed to want war. World War II origins are often attributed to German aggression and Allied appeasement. Even A.J.P. Taylor, who is a revisionist, sees WWII as a strictly a German affair, though stresses that WWII was implicit as soon as WWI ended. On the other hand, WWI is much more debatable. Since so many countries wanted war, it is difficult to decide who is more to blame. Since there was a huge shift of power in Europe in WWI, war could have been started by anyone, though the spark is officially the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand at Sarajevo. WWII is much more straight forward. Germany attacked Poland, expecting Britain and France to allow him to do as he wished. His misjudgement caused a war, but not a ‘world war’ until he attacked the superpowers: Russia and USA in 1941. The causes of WWI are much more exciting for the modern historian, much more interesting than the origins of WWII. There’s just not much to the causes of WWII! There are by far many more books on the origins of the first world war. However, what this might imply is that the 2nd world war has not be studied enough: perhaps it’s not as black and white as we believe it is.

ESSAY: COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE NATURE OF WWI AND WWII The early twentieth century was mainly an extension of the nineteenth century. The dominant powers and their governments as well as political and social ideologies were largely unchanged. The First World War, or "Great War", as it was known, began the transformation of the world, but it took the Second World War to finish it. Both world wars seemed to be inevitable. The dominant political movements of militarism, imperialism and entangling alliances, pushed by rapid industrialization, lead to constant conflict between the great powers of Europe. These powers were ready to fight, they just needed a reason. That reason came with the assassination of the Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand on June 28, 1914 in the city of Sarajevo. The great powers of Russia, England and France (Triple Entente) quickly found themselves at war with Germany, Austria and the Ottoman Empire (Triple Alliance). The Second World War was really an extension of the first. The Treaty of Versailles that ended the First World War punished and humiliated Germany to such a degree, the rise of the Nazis and start of WWII was almost inevitable. In direct defiance of the treaty Hitler rearmed Germany and went on an expansionistic campaign that could only end in war. The style of warfare between the two world wars showed the adjustments that had been made in the use of technology. The First World War introduced many new war making technologies. The Germans introduced the submarine to naval warfare, terrorizing the Atlantic and tipping the scales of naval power away from the British. The French used tanks for the first time to counter the strategy of trenches. Cannon technology advanced into long range shelling and machine gun technology made their use much more prevalent. Airplanes were used early in the war for reconnaissance and later became weapons of war. The use of chemical and biological weapons added a ghastly component to the new technologies used in the war.

[Comparing WWI and WWII (work in progress)]

Unfortunately for the soldiers in the field, the battle strategies of the First World War did not advance along with the technology. The trench warfare technique lead to fatalities on a scale that was unimaginable even five years before the war. In the Battle of the Somme alone the British lost 25,000 men in the first day. The technology leap between the world wars was incredible for the relatively short amount of time involved. Submarines and tanks became larger, faster and more powerful. Naval ships also became larger and more powerful, and the introduction of the aircraft carrier may have been the most important development of the war. Of course, the Second World War introduced the most destructive weapon in human history when the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. The Second World War was more of a total war than the first, in a variety of ways. More than forty-one million civilians died in the Second World War, more than any other war. Prior to WWII civilians were generally considered off limits for attack. However, the blitzkrieg strategies of the Nazis as well as bombing campaigns in both the European and Pacific theaters specifically targeted civilian populations. The Second World War was a truly global conflict. Whereas in the First World War the colonies of the European countries did get involved in the fighting, the majority of the war was fought over approximately one hundred miles of territory. In the Second World War the fighting engulfed virtually every continent. Even neutral countries such as Switzerland, found themselves either invaded or attacked. The most important difference between the world wars was their long term impact. The First World War lead to the rise of the fascists in Italy, Germany and Spain, and had a role in the creation of the Soviet Union, but the world structure was relatively unchanged. The major powers of the world, both politically and militarily were still in Europe. European issues dominated the international landscape. The world structure was still predicated on a euro-centric, balance of power model. After the Second World War that model changed dramatically. The old powers were gone, the empires were disbanded and Europe itself was split. The new world organization was a bi-polar model with two super powers leading the discussion. The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the focal points of the new international structure. Other countries either allied with one of these powers or made a go of it on their own. The new international hierarchy would last for the next fifty years and the fall of the Soviet Union. While both world wars involved many of the same combatants there were many more differences than similarities. The First World War set the stage for the Second World War. WWII changed the world entirely.

[Russian Civil War]

RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR Causes of Russian Civil War ........................................................................................................... 40 The Formation of the Red Army ...................................................................................................................... 40 A class war? .................................................................................................................................................... 40 War over Food ................................................................................................................................................ 40 The role of the Social Revolutionaries (SRs) .................................................................................................... 40 The Czech Legion ............................................................................................................................................ 41

Course and character of the war ................................................................................................... 41 Campaigns ...................................................................................................................................................... 41 Defeat of the Whites ....................................................................................................................................... 41 Reasons for Red Victory .................................................................................................................................. 42 Reasons for White Loss ................................................................................................................................... 42 Two Advantages ............................................................................................................................................. 42

Results: Impact of the war on the Bolsheviks ................................................................................. 43 Toughness ...................................................................................................................................................... 43 Authoritarianism ............................................................................................................................................. 43 Centralisation ................................................................................................................................................. 43

Summary Diagram: The Civil War 1918-20 ..................................................................................... 44 Foreign Intervention ..................................................................................................................... 45 Brest-Litovsk ................................................................................................................................................... 45 Ideological reasons for foreign intervention .................................................................................................... 45 Comintern....................................................................................................................................................... 45 Foreign Debt ................................................................................................................................................... 45

Results of the Foreign intervention ............................................................................................... 46 Who intervened and where? .......................................................................................................................... 46 Failure of the interventions ............................................................................................................................. 46 Consequences of the interventions ................................................................................................................. 47 Summary Diagram foreign Intervention .......................................................................................................... 47

Summary...................................................................................................................................... 48 Historical Investigation: Russian Foreign Intervention ..................................................................................... 49

[Causes of Russian Civil War]

CAUSES OF RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR THE FORMATION OF THE RED ARMY

A CLASS WAR?

WAR OVER FOOD

THE ROLE OF THE SOCIAL REVOLUTIONARIES (SRS)

Bolsheviks took advantage of the mutiny of the Russian Army / promised to end the war / give out land to peasants returning to their villages An army was needed / continuing German advance before Brest Litovsk / Pskov / defence of Petrograd Trotsky / Commissar for War / wanted to see the army made up of workers but ended up being mostly volunteers and criminals / lacked training, discipline, weapons, especially recruits Trotsky employed former officers of the tsarist army / Bolshevik harshness and political commissars kept the tsarist officers (the “class enemy”) in check coercion and brute force / gunners were set up behind the Soviet fronts to cut off retreat / 5 million troops / abilities of Trotsky. By 1918, large portions of the Russian population had been alienated, but they did not have united aims. Lenin felt that it was better to have a short, brutal struggle to rid the Bolshevik’s of any opposition than face many years of being harassed and challenged by the anti-Bolsheviks who were a large majority in Russia Summer 1918: struggle between the Bolsheviks (the Reds) and their political enemies (the Whites SRs, Mensheviks, Liberals, Cossacks, Peasants) Greens such as the Ukrainians and Georgians fought in the war primarily to establish their independence from Russia As in all civil wars, the disruptions provided a cover for settling old scores The Bolsheviks presented the struggle as a class war, but it was never simply this Famine provided the backdrop for the War. Lenin’s lost to Germany: Russia’s main wheat-supply area, the Ukraine / bread ration in Petrograd reach 50 grams per day. Hunger forced many workers out of the major industrial cities / June 1918, the workforce in Petrograd shrunk by 60%. The SRs, who had been driven from the government for their refusal to accept the Brest-Litovsk settlement, organized a coup in Moscow. The Civil War could be said, therefore to have begun not as a counter-revolution but as an effort by one set of revolutionaries to take power from another. Revenge by the a majority party (SRs) against a minority party (the Bolsheviks) who usurped authority. The SR coup failed but their terrorism came closer to success. Lenin narrowly survived two assassination

Pskov, defence of Petrograd Criminals, volunteers, Tsarist officers coercion and brute force 5 million troops

Red / Whites / Greens

50g bread/day workforce 60%

2 assassinations Moscow coup

THE CZECH LEGION

[Russian Civil War]

attempts organized by the SRs. In their desperation at being denied any say in government, the SRs joined the Whites. 40,000 Czechoslovakian troops who had volunteered on the Russian side in WWI found themselves isolated after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Their aim was eventually to rejoin the Allies on the western front in the hope of winning international support for the formation of an independent Czechoslovak state. The presence of this well-equipped foreign army making its way arrogantly across Russia was resented by the Bolsheviks Local soviets began to challenge the Czech legion and fighting broke along the trans-Siberian railway. All this encouraged the White and the revolutionary groups who had been outlawed by the Bolsheviks to come out openly against Lenin’s regime.

40,000 Czechs (Legion)

COURSE AND CHARACTER OF THE WAR CAMPAIGNS

DEFEAT OF THE WHITES

SRs organized a number of uprisings / central Russia and established an anti-Bolshevik Volga “Republic” at Samara General Deniken / volunteer army (conscripted) / Caucasus region of southern Russia / formed from tsarist loyalists and outlawed Kadets / British and French support, had cleared the Don and Kuban regions of Bolsheviks Admiral Kolchak / the self-proclaimed ‘Supreme Ruler of Russia’ / Siberia, the presence of the Czech Legion Yudenich In Estonia Germans and nationalities in the west Tsarist general EK miller In the north, with British support controlled Murmansk In the east, a coalition eventually formed between those holding the Trans Siberian railway White units appeared in many regions elsewhere. The speed with which they arose indicated just how limited Bolshevik control was outside the cities of western Russia. Victory in the East: Kolchak, centered on Omsk - Reds were unified, the whites were not. In November 1918, Kolchak became the ‘Supreme Leader of all Russians’, and by June 1919 he’d been pushed back beyond the Urals. By November 1919 Omsk was taken and in February 1920 Kolchak was handed over to the Red Army and shot. Victory in the south and west: Deniken and Yudenich initially made rapid progress, got from Odessa to near Moscow and St. Petersburg. Retreat was equally rapid, after stubborn defense from Trotsky they were pushed back to Estonia. From April 1920, only the Crimean region, with the Whites led by Wrangel, remained untaken. He was quite a good commander, but evacuated in November 1920.

Deniken in Caucasus Kolchak in Siberia

Kolchak: Omsk Moscow and St. Petersburg Estonia Crimean region, Wrangel

[Course and character of the war]

REASONS FOR RED VICTORY

REASONS FOR WHITE LOSS

TWO ADVANTAGES

Geography Their control over the central heartland of Russia / better system of communications Economy Controlled a considerable part of the industrial territories of the former empire / Factories in Moscow and Petrograd that had been harnessed to the war effort against the Central Powers could easily be redirected to the needs of the civil war. Leadership The Bolsheviks had better organization and leadership The Whites were in turn divided as to overall leadership and goals. The goals of Denikin and Kolchak alienated the mass of peasants in their regions (like supporting the former landowners) The White had few political goals other than personal power which would have resulted in a military dictatorship. The whites were unwilling to sacrifice their individual interests in order to form a united anti-Bolshevik front. The White armies were widely scattered over a vast territory ď&#x192; impossible for the leaders to communicate, they fought as separate detachment The support of the Western Allies was half-hearted, especially after the collapse of the Kolchak campaign The Whites could only be supplied by foreign powers and once that support was reduced, their armies faded away The Red kept control on the railway network The civil war became at least in part a national struggle ď&#x192; Bolshevik propaganda emphasized the need to preserve Russia from outside enemies- even those who had little sympathy for the Bolsheviks could support such a campaign. The mass of peasants who were alienated by the goals of the Whites were happy to throw their support behind the Bolsheviks. Superior leadership of Trotsky

Kolchak campaign / Disenchantment of foreign invervention

[Russian Civil War]

RESULTS: IMPACT OF THE WAR ON THE BOLSHEVIKS The Civil War proved to be one of the great formative influences on the Bolshevik Party.

TOUGHNESS

AUTHORITARIANISM

CENTRALISATION

The government had been born in war, like the revolution One third of all the members of the Communist Party (renamed in 1919) had fought in the Red Army This created a tradition of military obedience and loyalty. Historian Robert Tucker stresses that it was the military aspect of early Bolshevik government that left it with a ‘readiness to resort to coercion, rule by administrative command, centralized administration and summary justice’. No regime placed in the Bolshevik’s situation between 1917 and 1921 could have survived without authoritarian measures. The emergencies of war required immediate dayto-day decisions to be made. This led to effective power moving away from the Central Committee of the Communist (Bolshevik) Party to the subcommittees of the Politburo and Orgburo.

[Summary Diagram: The Civil War 1918-20]

SUMMARY DIAGRAM: THE CIVIL WAR 1918-20 Reasons for the war

Why the Reds won

• Reds • Needed military victory to consolidate their hold on Russia • Lenin welcomed it • Whites: War was the only way to challenge Bolshevik absolutism • Greens: Fighting for national independence

• Fighting a defensive war against disunited enemies • Showed greater sense of purpose • Higher morale • Trotsky's leadership and the strong Red Army

Impact on the Bolsheviks

• Toughness • Authoritarianism • Centralisation

[Russian Civil War]

FOREIGN INTERVENTION BRESTLITOVSK

IDEOLOGICAL REASONS FOR FOREIGN INTERVENTION

COMINTERN

FOREIGN DEBT

The Allies had backed the provisional government in Russia, by providing them large amounts of capital and military supplies to keep Russia in the war. However, the seizure of power by the Bolsheviks (funded by the Germans) saw the end of Russia’s involvement in the war (exactly what Germany had hoped for). France and Britain tried to offer the Bolsheviks support. The signing of the Brest-Litovsk treaty in March 1918 ended al hope of Lenin’s Russia renewing the war against Germany. From now on, any help given by Britain to anti-German Russians went to anti-Bolshevik forces. To the Bolsheviks, it appeared that Britain and its allies were intent on destroying them. The allies felt that making separate peace with Germany betrayed the Allied cause. The Allies were determined to prevent their vital war supplies in Russia from falling into German hands. In March 1918 British, French and American troops occupied the ports of Murmansk and Archangel in the White Sea. Lenin’s view: Allied mission was to suppress global communism. EH Carr: The intension to re-declare war against Germany in the East as a pretext, and due to ‘fear and hatred felt by Western governments for the revolutionary campaign’. After WWI had ended in Nov 1918, the attention of the major powers (especially Churchill and Foch) turned to the possibility of an allied offensive against the Bolsheviks. They were alarmed by the creation of Comintern and by the spread of revolution in Germany and central Europe. o The Spartacists’ attempted coup in Berlin o 1918-19: a short lived Communist republic was established in Bavaria o March 1919: in Hungary a Marxists government was set up under Bela Kun. One of the first actions of the Bolshevik government was to declare that the new government had no intention of honoring the foreign debts of its predecessors. The Bolsheviks nationalized a large number of foreign companies and force all foreign assets in Russia. There was bitter reaction to this ‘international theft’, especially in France where financiers invested in Tsarist Russia. Britain and the US had slightly smaller investments to defend

[Results of the Foreign intervention]

RESULTS OF THE FOREIGN INTERVENTION WHO INTERVENED AND WHERE?

FAILURE OF THE INTERVENTIONS

1918: British land forces entered Transcaucasia in southern Russia and also occupied part of central Asia. British warships entered Russian Baltic waters and the Black sea, along with French vessels The French established a major land base around the Black sea port of Odessa Japan wanted to make territorial gains in Asia at Russia’s expense. So US sent troops into Siberia to block Japanese aspirations in the region. In 1918, 70,000 Japanese troops were sent into Vladivostok, Sakhalin and E. Siberia. Czech, Finnish, Lithuanian, Polish and Romanian forces crossed into Russia At the end of 1918 there were 150,000 troops in N. Russia who were all extremely war weary Cooperation: The interventions were not coordinated attacks: there was little cooperation between the occupiers. Individual Interests: The motives of Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Japan and the US was the legitimate protection of their individual interests. And the countries bordering Russia (i.e. Finland, Romania, etc.) had separatist aims. Anti-Bolshevism: Despite anti-Bolshevik preaching, no concerted effort was ever made to unseat the Bolshevik regime. WWI: The truth was that after the long stalemate of WWI, the European interventionists had no stomach for a prolonged campaign. There were serious threats of mutiny in some British and French regiments ordered to fight in Russia. Trade unionists who were sympathetic to the new “workers’ state” (Bolshevik Russia) refused to transport military supplied bound for Russia. The only success was when the national forces of the Baltic states, backed by British warships and troops, crushed a Bolshevik invasion and obliged Lenin’s government to recognize the independence of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. By the end of 1919, all French and American troops had been recalled and by 1920 all other Western forces left (the Japanese stayed until 1922).

50,000 Czech (TransSiberian railway) 70,000 Japanese (Vladivostok region) 24,000 Greeks (Crimea) 16,000 British (Arkhangelsk and V) 13,000 Americans (A+V) 12,000 French (Odessa)

1919 French/Americans withdraw 1920 All Western forces withdraw 1922 Japanese withdraw

CONSEQUENCES OF THE INTERVENTIONS

[Russian Civil War]

These foreign withdrawals were portrayed in Soviet propaganda as a military victory for the Bolsheviks. Lenin’s government presented itself as the savoir of the nation from foreign conquest – all the interventions had been imperialist invasions of Russia intent on overthrowing the revolution. The success helped the Bolsheviks recover from their concessions to Germany in 1918 It put resolve in the doubters of the party and it lent credibility to the Bolshevik depiction of the Whites as agents of foreign powers, intent on restoring reactionary stardom. The failure of the intervention encouraged the Bolsheviks to expand their authority outside of Russia. In 1920, the Red Army marched into Poland (expecting the Polish workers to rise in favour of the Russians) but the Poles saw the invasion as traditional Russian aggression and drove the Red Army back across the border. Soviet morale was damaged and Lenin realized that the revolution could not be exported easily.

Independence of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania Polish War 1920

SUMMARY DIAGRAM FOREIGN INTERVENTION

Why the interventions? •Resentment at Russian withdrawal from war •To cover war supplies •Fear of Bolshevism •Anger at writing off Russian debts by Bolsheviks Who were the interventionists? Britain-France-Japan-USA-Italy-Finaland- Lithuania-Poland-Romania Where were there intervenetions? Black Sea- Murmansk-Valdivostok-Siberia-Poland-Romania Why did the interventions fail? •Interventionists had no real stomach for another war •Very limited obkectives •Not a concerted effort to bring down the Bolsheviks •Lack of coordination

Consequences •The Bolsheviks overxteneded themselves by invading Poland- only for the Red Army to be beaten back by the Poles •Lenin realised revoluttion could not be exported easily

[Summary]

SUMMARY O PPOSITION OF B OLSHEVIK POWER 1. 2. 3.

Revolutionaries Counter-revolutionaries Non-Russian nationals

I MMEDIATE C AUSE Left SRs coup d’etat SR Fannie Kaplan attempted assassination

F OREIGN I NTERVENTION : Afraid of revolution in their own states French – repudiation of debts Brest-Litovsk (most significant) So, 200,000 men were sent to Russia, fighting for the whites, causing the beginning of the Civil War.

R ED V ICTORY Red Strength Control of major cities Appease major demographics Perceptive Strength (Peace, bread)

Overrate War Communism Famine in 1921 Armistice by November

White Weakness to compensate Small cities Foreign countries Capitalists, landowners White terror Whites failed to keep foreign interests past 1920

W AR C OMMUNISM Bolsheviks used Civil war as an excuse for War Communism: nationalize/publicize industry/production Although this definitely hurt production o Breakdown of services and production o ¼ of output in 1913, ½ of workers o Collapse of economy o Black Market o 5 million deaths War Communism was a victory for Bolsheviks because it gave the state control through Kulak class enemy (it’s their fault and not the Bolsheviks etc.)

M ILITARIZATION Civil war created red army which was used to consolidate Russian power until the end of soviet union o Standard of “coercion” o Rule by administrative fiat (arbitrary order) o Centralized administration o Summary justice (execution without trial) Militarization kept citizens always afraid of war (so you need Bolsheviks to protect you)

D EFEAT TO NATIONAL MOVEMENTS

[Russian Civil War]

War resulted in a defeat to nationalist movements o Poland o Ukraine o Finland (etc) Although promised right to self-determination In practice, they imposed Russian hegemony

HISTORICAL INVESTIGATION: RUSSIAN FOREIGN INTERVENTION Wilson’s intervention may have been motivated by any of Anti-Bolshevism, winning WWI, Japanese Imperialism, fear of disappointing the Allies and the Czech Legion. The least important factors were anti-bolshevism and winning WWI. While Soviet historiography insists that the US intervened to overthrow Bolshevism, it was never a motive when the Allies were preoccupied with Germany. Robert A. Divine supports the Soviet notion in America Present and Past, a student textbook, writing “Wilson and others hoped to bring down the fledgling Bolshevik government, fearful it would spread revolution around the world.” 1 However, historians such as George Kennan refute this, arguing that because of Wilson’s ideology of a new world order, anti-bolshevism was unlikely; one of Wilson’s fourteen points was to allow Russia to solve its own problems. 2 Divine’s argument is overshadowed by Kennan because America Present and Past is a general text and lacks the depth of Kennan’s monograph. As Wilson outlined in his Aide-Memoire of 17 July, had US troops been used against Bolsheviks, they would be withdrawn. Therefore, contrary to Divine’s argument, Wilson did not seek to topple the Bolshevism by means of foreign intervention. In another general text, David MacKenzie argues that Wilson’s reason for intervention was to win WWI. His work is limited by the same reasons as America Present and Past.3 While Allied generals stressed the importance of reopening the Eastern front, Wilson was convinced on keeping his troops in the West. He maintained that the establishment of an eastern front via Siberia as suggested by the Supreme War Council 4 was physically impossible.5 As intervention continued after WWI, it would be senseless to consider it to be a main cause. Wilson’s attempt to please the allies is a cause that is rarely explored, but is imperative. Wilson’s main war aim was to create a New World Order, which would have been of little use without Allied support after the war. 6 However, since Wilson already satisfied the demands of 3 June, he was not obliged to satisfy the demands 6 July.7 While it seems as if Wilson complied, he actually chose an independent course that had practically no relation to the French and British appeal. His decision of 6 July was not to please his allies. 8

Robert A. Divine, T.H. Breen, and others, America Past and Present (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 726. Kennan, Russia and the West, 110. 3 David MacKenzie and Michael W. Curran, A History of Russia, the Soviet Union, and Beyond (Belmont, California: Wadsworth Pub. Co., 1993), 566. Co., 1993) p. 566. 4 British Army Command 5 Kennan, Russia and the West, 103. 6 Wilson’s New World Order includes: League of Nations, national self-determination, etc. 7 Melton, Between War and Peace, 9. 8 Kennan, Russia and the West, 103. 2

[Summary]

While members in Wilson’s administration were alarmed at Japanese imperialism, Wilson neither feared it nor was prepared to act militarily.9 On the other hand, Wilson had strong Czech sympathies. Firstly, Wilson supported both Czechoslovak independence and its main proponent Masaryk, who was in Washington at the time. Secondly, Wilson himself stated in his Aide-Memoire that “helping the Czechoslovaks, there is immediate necessity and sufficient justification”; it is the most important cause mentioned to his allies and to the American public. Finally, even the allies knew that Wilson had a soft spot for the Czech Legion, and it worked in bringing Wilson into the Russian Civil War. 10 American intervention in the Russian Civil War has always been an irritant in the Russian-American relations, with ramifications that extend as far as the Cold War. 11 Therefore it is worthwhile to question Wilson’s motives since leaders will always claim to be acting on right grounds. Contrary to much Soviet historiography which claims American intervention as a move against Bolshevism, Woodrow Wilson based his Russian foreign policy on the protection of the Czechs. As an idealist, Wilson entered WWI with motives of spreading democracy, proposed national self-determination and the League of Nations, and finally, sought to help the Czechs in Russia. Wilson’s support also extended to Masaryk and the Czechoslovak independence of 1918. The importance of this investigation is that it tries to dispel any reservations people might have about Wilson’s motives for intervention.

Trani, "Woodrow Wilson and the Decision to Intervene in Russia", 448. Melton, Between War and Peace, 20. 11 Trani, "Woodrow Wilson and the Decision to Intervene in Russia", 440. 10

[Chinese Civil War]

CHINESE CIVIL WAR See companion: IB History in Europe

[Chinese Civil War]

TOPIC 3: THE RISE AND RULE OF SINGLE PARTY STATES

[Lenin’s Russia]

LENIN’S RUSSIA Lenin’s Russia ......................................................................................................................................................... 55

Timeline ....................................................................................................................................... 56 Lenin, Conditions .......................................................................................................................... 58 Nicholas II ....................................................................................................................................................... 58 Military Weakness .......................................................................................................................................... 58 Revolution 1905 .............................................................................................................................................. 59 Duma .............................................................................................................................................................. 60 Stoypin Economic Reforms ............................................................................................................................. 60 Strikes ............................................................................................................................................................. 60 The First World War ........................................................................................................................................ 60 Summary ........................................................................................................................................................ 61

Lenin, Methods............................................................................................................................. 63 Bolshevism...................................................................................................................................................... 63 The First 1917 Revolution: .............................................................................................................................. 63 Provisional Government ................................................................................................................................. 63 April Theses: ................................................................................................................................................... 63 Lenin: .............................................................................................................................................................. 64 Second 1917 Revolution: ................................................................................................................................ 64 The Traditional View Of Lenin’s Role In These Events ...................................................................................... 64 The More Recent View .................................................................................................................................... 65 How Important Was Lenin? ............................................................................................................................ 65

Ideology ....................................................................................................................................... 67 Lenin and Marxism ......................................................................................................................................... 67 How he used Marxism .................................................................................................................................... 67 Patrimonialism ................................................................................................................................................ 67

Domestic Policies.......................................................................................................................... 68 The Beginnings Of The Soviet State: ................................................................................................................ 68 War Communism: ........................................................................................................................................... 68 The New Economic Policy: .............................................................................................................................. 68 Politics 1917-1924 .......................................................................................................................................... 69 Nationalities Issue 1917-1924 ......................................................................................................................... 69 Culture And Social Life 1917-1924: ................................................................................................................. 69 The Communist Party Under Lenin: ................................................................................................................ 70 Summary ........................................................................................................................................................ 70

Foreign Policy ............................................................................................................................... 73 The End To Russian Involvement In The War:.................................................................................................. 73 Foreign Policy ................................................................................................................................................. 73

Assessment of Lenin ..................................................................................................................... 74 Successes ........................................................................................................................................................ 74

[Timeline]

Failures ........................................................................................................................................................... 74

Essays .......................................................................................................................................... 75 Essay: Compare and contrast the nature and results of the two Russian Revolutions. .................................... 75 Essay: Compare and contrast the causes of the two Russian Revolutions........................................................ 76 Essay: Analyze the methods used and conditions which helped Lenin's rise to power. ................................... 78 Essay: Evaluate Lenin's successes and failures between 1917 and 1924. ......................................................... 79

TIMELINE 1801-1825 1825-1855 1854-56 1855 1856 1857 1859 1861 onwards 1863 1864 1865 1866 1870 1871 1873 1874 1875 onwards 1876 1877 1878 1881 1887 1890 onwards 1891 1894 1896 1904 May 1905 Aug 25 1905 Jan 1905 Oct 1906 April 1906 April-June 1907 Feb-June 1907 Nov-June 1912 1911 Sept 1912 Nov-Aug 1914 1914 1915

Alexander 1 Nicholas 1 Crimean War Alexander II comes to power AII speech to nobility re. Emancipation and reforms, Treaty of Paris Reform plan of action proposed Representatives to Moscow, official emancipation decree, army service reduced Emancipation decree Military reform, educational reform Polish revolt Zemstva decree, judicial reform, Censorship laws slackened First assassination attempt Marxism in Russia Great Power conference in London Three Emperors League with Austria-Hungary and Germany Populists in the country Balkan issues-slavic uprising in Turkey Serbian uprising Russia declares war on Turkey Treaty of San Stefano, Vera Zusilish trial Alexander II dies, Alexander III comes to power, Russification begins Universities statute Period of industrialisation and urbanisation Famine Nicholas II comes to power Coronation celebrations Russo-Japanese War Treaty of Portsmouth First revolution October Manifesto Fundamental laws First Duma Second Duma Third Duma Stolypin murdered, end of land reform Fourth Duma First World war breaks out NII becomes supreme commander of the Russian Army

57 1917 Feb 1917 March 2nd 1917 April 1917 June 1917 August 1917 Oct 1917 Oct 1918 Jan 1918 1918 Aug 1918 3rd March 1918-1921 1920 Feb 1920 mid 1921 March 1921 1921 1922 onwards: 1922 1922 1922 1924 1924 onwards 1926 1927 late 1927 1929 1931 1931-34 1934 1934 Dec 1934 1936 1936 1936 1936 1937 1938 1939 August 1941 1946 1949 1953 March

[Lenin’s Russia]

Second Revolution part one and even earlier... Tsar Abdicates, beginning of PG April Theses (surprisingly enough...) PG go for major offensive and army gets wasted Kornilov Affair Second Revolution part two Beginning of ideological period Constituent assembly election and dissolution RSFSR is formed Lenin assassination attempt, Red Terror begins Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Civil War in Russia, Period of War Communism Kolchak shot Won Crimean region Krondstadt mutiny NEP, ban on factions Famine Lenin’s descent, Stalin’s rise Red Terror Treaty of Rapallo Stalin becomes Gen Sec Lenin dies Stalin consolidates his power Trotsky is falling from power Failed communist uprising in China, Britain and Russia break off diplomatic relations, collectivisation piloted Collectivisation is made official policy Collectivisation introduced across Russia Stalin’s 50-100 yrs speech Famine Purges begin Kirov assassinated Decree against Terrorism act Kamenev, Zinoviev, Rykov killed Collectivisation is complete Rome-Berlin Axis The originally named ‘1936 constitution’ Japan joins the Rome-Berlin Axis Yezhow, Tomsky, Bukharin killed Molotov/Ribbentropp pact Trosky killed with an ice-pick in Mexico Post-war five year plan is undertaken Leningrad party leadership is purged Stalin dies

[Lenin, Conditions]

LENIN, CONDITIONS Russia up to 1905 NICHOLAS II

MILITARY WEAKNESS

1894-1918 (Abdication 1917)

1904 to 1905 Defeats in Manchuria, Tsushima Treaty of Portsmouth

REVOLUTION 1905

[Lenin’s Russia]

Causes The War Unrest since 1861 emancipation: redemption payments were despised Population growth: The population is expanding, but the modernization isn’t occurring with it. Famine 1891: 36 million people were affected in 17 provinces, and distribution remains a really serious problem. Zemstva: Raised literacy levels and hence allowed the spread of ideas and opposition to occur more rapidly. Industrialization: Urban conditions were awful, and labour unrest had increased dramatically; St Petersburg textile workers strike of 1896 Bloody Sunday massacre (Jan 1905) · 150,000 workers go to the winter palace · Winter palace to deliver a petition to the Tsar, · Father Gapon · Shot (responsibility with Nicholas) DEMANDS: Liberals was national parliament with democratic elections, constitution, freedom of speech, political amnesty. Peasants want food and an end to redemption payments. Workers want trade unions, better conditions, shorter hours and better pay, at this stage no-one wants to abolish Tsarism, which was definitely the case in 1917. Obviously these demands are not exactly compatible so there is not a great deal of co-operation. EVENTS: 2700 uprisings General strike by October. Black sea fleet mutinied, and troops were sent in to Odessa to sort it out Response October Manifesto satisfied the liberals –legislative powers, freedom of assembly worship and speech. Backtracked completely with Fundamental laws of April 1906, which stated that he still had ultimate power WHY HE SURVIVED: Most importantly had the support of the army thanks to the Treaty of Portsmouth. Troops were able to put down worker unrest which was localised and not organised. All spontaneous and fragmented plus none of it was actually targeted at the Tsar and the autocratic system. Opposition is divided and have different demands which he is basically able to meet. Government was relatively decisive and acted quickly.

Emancipation of 1961 Famine of 1891/36 million people were affected in 17 provinces St Petersburg textile workers strike of 1896 Jan 1905 Bloody Sunday; 150,000 workers

2700 uprisings in 1905

October Manifesto Fundamental laws of April 1906

[Lenin, Conditions]

Russia 1905-1914

DUMA

STOYPIN ECONOMIC REFORMS

STRIKES

1917 THE FIRST WORLD WAR

First Duma- disbanded by Tsar Second Duma: February-June 1907. same Third Duma: November 1907-June 1912. Fourth Duma: November 1912-August 1914 o More conservative, Stolypin’s reforms

Agriculture rose between 1906 – 1911 Hereditary tenure Farming cooperatives Migration to Siberia

Rationale: Reduced revolutionaries by: creating “kulaks” to balance out peasants Allowed peasants to leave mir (6.2 million families) – industrialization

2000 in 1912 2400 in 1913 4000 in 1914

17 million roubles spent on it inflexible, artillery renovation, equipment shortages, 10 days worth of shells, 10 shots per day per soldier, 679 cars and 2 ambulances. On 22nd August 1915, Tsar took personal control of army Between 1914-15, the army lost 4 million men (50% conscripts). Disease, disillusionment, desertion. Army started to hate Tsar-key factor was lack of army support in 1917. Rail network still couldn’t cope Inflation quadrupled up to 1917 no jobs, loads of crime, loads of death, both internal and external problems Strikes in 1915 over price of bread, by 1917 people began to target the Tsar himself. 63 factories in Oct 1916 went on strike. Petrograd garrison (had been key in 1905), whom NII was relying on were all viciously anti-war.

4 Dumas Agriculture rose between 1906 – 1911 10% of peasants consolidated holdings 6.2 million families left for industrialization

Strikes 2000 in 1912 2400 in 1913 4000 in 1914

17 million rubles spent 10 days worth of shells, 10 shots per day per soldier August 1915 His own control of the army 4 million men died Inflation quadrupled food deliveries to Moscow fell 60% short of need infant mortality doubled crime rate tripled

SUMMARY Conditions

Condition

Weakness of Economy

Anti-Czar

Political Opposition

Class stratification WW1

Religious/Cultural

[Lenin’s Russia]

1. 2. 3. 4.

1900 Least developed of the Great Powers Primitive 3 strip 1890 industrialization created poor workers in overcrowded cities 1906-1914 Stolypin positive economic reforms o industries growing, railways expanding, exports half of US, had a parliament, capitalism and private property spreading, a guarded freedom of press WWI Food shortage WWI Inflation – drop Vodka Power derived from God 1881 Assassination of Alexander II 1904 Japan made Alex look incompetent 1905 Bloody Sunday12, Dismissed Duma Implicated in shooting of Stolypin (1911) Alexei – Tsarina – Rasputin Command of Army = responsibility for failures 1905 Disorganized SR, SD, KD KD =?, SR = peasants, SD = proletariat 1917 SD + Mensh ran Soviet 1917 October: SR won constituent assembly SR attempted coup d’etat/assassination 1918-1920 – Civil War 1861 Abolition of Serfdom: peasants tied to land/now in debt Workers: strikes: 1912 2000; 1913 2400, 1914 4000. 1914: strengthened national unity (Bolsheviks arrested, Lenin to Switz) Failures: east Prussia, Poland Food shortage Lenin saw WW1 as imperialist war 1881 Anti-Semitism13 Anti religious minorities Automony for Poland

F EBRUARY R EVOLUTION February Revolution was a 1) spontaneous reaction the chaotic food and transport situation, 2) a revolt against the autocracy by bourgeois liberals, constitutionalists, industrial workers and peasants as well as a 3) revolt against the war. Resulted in abdication of Czar + Dual Control

1905 Revolution Caused by incompetence during War Resulted in 200 dead, October Manifesto (Duma) Showed uncoordinated polticial groups 13 1881 Anti-Semitism: Persecution of Jews after Alex II assassination Segregation to Poland, Ghettos Forbidden from legal profession Forbidden from Zemtvos Quotas to secondary schools

[Lenin, Conditions]

S TOYPIN E CONOMIC R EFORMS Agriculture rose between 1906 – 1911 Hereditary tenure Farming cooperatives Migration to Siberia

Rationale: Reduced revolutionaries by: creating “kulaks” to balance out peasants Allowed peasants to leave mir (6.2 million families) – industrialization

WWI F OOD SHORTAGE 1/3 agricultural labor force in army Soldiers needed food Food transportation diverted to military use German/Turkish blockage chocked imports (prices rose) Scorched earth tactics

W EAKNESS OF E CONOMY Undeveloped (3 strip)

1861 Abolution of Serfdom

1906-1914 Stolypin's Reforms

WW1 Food shortage

WWI Inflation

A NTI C ZAR 1914 Incompetence against Japan

1905 Bloody Sunday

1911 Shooting of Stolypin

Alexei / Tsarina / Rusputin

1915 Command of WWI Army

1917 Failed to solve problems

1917 SRs Elected

SR - terrorism

1918-1920 Civl War

P OLITICAL O PPOSITION 1905 Disorganized Opposition

C LASS S TRATIFICATION

Peasants

Workers

Soldiers

•redemption payments •food

•better conditions • control of factories

•out of war

WWI Accentuated the other problems

[Lenin’s Russia]

LENIN, METHODS BOLSHEVISM

BP part of SD The Bolsheviks, under Lenin did not believe in revolution as a mass movement, couldn’t wait for Russia to go through the capitalist phase. The Mensheviks (Trotsky was a former member) had theories which were closer to Marxist theory, but were not as well supported or represented in the Soviets.

THE FIRST 1917 REVOLUTION :

CAUSES: Lenin et al were not involved- it was a spontaneous revolution.

February/March 1917 revolution

PROVISIONAL Problems faced WAR. Wanted to have some success before GOVERNMENT

Unsuccessful June offensive July Days – Kronstadt naval officer revolt August – Kornolov Affair

APRIL THESES:

April Theses unsupported

quitting, and needed to maintain support from the allies (Br and Fr), this was in conflict with public opinion, people wanted to see an end to all of their families being dead. June offensive means they lose even more support, and army discipline collapses yet further. LAND. Peasants wanted it and began to take it illegally. PG does nothing much, needs peasant support too. There is still chaos in the countryside, and the mir remains the controlling factor. DUAL AUTHORITY. Soviet drains support from PG, have practical control over Petrograd which is the important thing. People in both begin to lose credibility. Bolsheviks gain support as they were never involved in the PG, bided their time. The country was in complete chaos as a result of the war. 3rd July – Kronstadt naval officers revolt, supported, but not organized by Bolsheviks. August – Kornilov affair, general tried a military coup to take away the power of the Soviets, Kerensky’s involvement damaged his reputation. Led to further collapses in army discipline. Made by Lenin. Said that – capitalism must be overthrown, no support should be given to the provisional government, power should lie with the Soviets, land and banks should be nationalised. First suggestion of a second revolution, also contradicting Marxist theory.

[Lenin, Methods]

LENIN:

SECOND 1917 REVOLUTION :

THE TRADITIONAL VIEW OF LENIN’S ROLE IN THESE EVENTS

Died in 1924, was not really in control from 1922. April Theses was the first suggestion of revolution, he was important as it was antiMarxist, he wanted to force a revolution to occur, and doesn’t believe in the need for a mass movement. He was extremely influential. Between 1918 and 1922 he was a dictator, almost personally responsible for the conclusion to WW1, the ban on factions, the end of the assembly, War Communism, the NEP and Red Terror. From 1922 onwards he was still important as he influenced the power struggle, believing that there should not be one single successor. Politics just got in the way of spreading the Marxist message, which was his main aim. Russia came before Marxism, hence the NEP. Made sacrifices for the safety of the revolution, he didn’t care about individuals. PG had done no better than the Tsar- just another ‘Rubber Stamp democracy’. Soviets had more power than PG and Trotsky had the brilliantly organised Red Army. OCTOBER 1917- Incited by the Bolsheviks, Mensheviks did not believe that the time was right. It was not a revolution involving the masses, but was undertaken by a number of professional revolutionaries under the leadership of Lenin and Trotsky. It was not spontaneous- it is a coup carried out by an elite group. Thought that Europe was on the brink of Revolution, and that Russia could set it off. The next day, Lenin issued his peace and land decrees. Traditionally there was unanimity about Lenin’s importance- he was presented as the maker of the revolution. People thought that he’d founded and developed a strictly controlled and disciplined party, made in his own image. This view also states that the Bolsheviks gained support legitimately in the Soviets, and that the lower classes were aware of what Bolshevism stood for.

64 Died in 1924, was not really in control from 1922. 1918-1922: WW1, the ban on factions, the end of the assembly, War Communism, the NEP and Red Terror 1922-1924: influenced Stalin vs. Trotsky with his ‘testament’

October/November 1917 revolution Red Army – Trotsky -5m men by 1921

[Lenin’s Russia]

THE MORE RECENT VIEW

Modern opinion is quite different. In fact, the Bolshevik party was not a strict, disciplined party- it was very loosely organised. Regional leaders often disobeyed the central party line, and did not follow the policy dictated by Lenin. It certainly was not a robotic organisation with Lenin in some kind of all powerful role at its head. Lenin himself was not present between April and October, and his suggestion for an earlier revolution was ignored. He was not always the active leader, and there was a lot of talent at the provincial leadership level- not just in the central committee. Many of the members of the party didn’t even know what he looked like, and he also rarely wrote in pravda.

HOW IMPORTANT WAS LENIN?

Must not downgrade him too much. He was quite a modern politician in terms of his ability to manipulate people and appease all kinds of audiences. With fellow Marxists, he talked about the need for terror, and a dictatorship over the proletariat, whilst with workers, he toned his ideas down and talked about freedom for the workers. He was also far less arrogant than someone like Trotsky or Zinoviev. He had the common touch. He didn’t really have control over the whole party, but critically was dominant in Petrograd. He knew that the party would not reject a seizure of power if it was already underway, meaning that he did not need widespread support, even among the party. Also set up the first modern dictatorships, which in time would go on to cover almost 1/3rd of the globe.

[Lenin, Methods]

S UMMARY E MPTY PROMISES Group Peasants Workers

Army Nationals

1917 Reform 540 million acres seized from landowners and church Workers to take over factories Supreme Council of National Economy Major industries nationalized 8hr day Social insurance Army: End to War Nationals: Self - Determination Constituent Assembly

Broken 1921 Famine (5 million peasants to die) War Communism: Government to control 80% of the factories

March 1998 – Terms vs November 1998, No terms Regime to impose Russian Hegemony Abolished 1917

C OUP D ’ ÉTAT April Theses – initially rejected but accepted as Lenin argued it Lenin opposed Kerensky, gaining him support when Russia lost war Kerensky’s loss = Lenin’s gain; he chose a good time when their weakness was highest Kornilov Affair14 In Finland, Lenin pushed for seizure of power (saying it had to occur!) he argued it, and was accepted Using the army, he seized the city

P ERCEPTIVE S TRENGTH Factionalism Democratic Centralism The only party that would deal with the issues of the day

S HORT T ERM C ONDITIONS /M ETHODS The Provisional Government had been challenged by the existence of the soviets and the population never accepted its legitimacy The Provision Government had unpopular policies such as postponing the land question and staying in the war- which weakened its support among the radical population. The moderate Kadets left the Provisional Government, leaving Kerensky isolated. Lenin was prepared to compromise, building popularity by ac Lenin judged well the moment of Kerensky’s maximum level of un The Bolsheviks were untainted with compromise with the Provisional Government Leon Trotsky executed the coup successfully.

Kornilov Affair Right-wing military coup, Germany at Riga, no defense for the city Bolsheviks got weapons and respect for defending the city

[Lenin’s Russia]

IDEOLOGY LENIN AND MARXISM

Lenin was really a convert- he discovered Marxism but became even more outspoken than Marx. Leninism added more to Marxism as a movement than as a theory. Lenin was an activist, supreme agitator, a field commander in the class war who could dominate a party congress and address the issues of the workingman as well. Lenin believed that intellectuals supply the brain power and the workers the brawn. Leninism accomplished the marriage of Russian revolutionary traditions with the western doctrine of Marxism: offspring was communism.

HOW HE USED MARXISM

Lenin used Marxism to help him attain power and maintain power Saw Feb 1917 as Bourgeoisie revolution Super-quick industrialization to bring about Communist revolution Changed Marxism to suit his own needs (Mensheviks wanted to work with Provisional Government to strengthen the proletariat) Lenin as “Vanguard of the Proletariat”

PATRIMONIALISM

Government of senior men Marx fit Patrimonialism · Autocracy C: Power from God L: Sovnarcom = façade. Party controlled by Bolshevik central committee. He attended to minute details of the state · Owner of country’s resources C: title to production L: Decree of Land/Decree of Worker’s Control · Right to demand unlimited services from subjects C: farmers cultivated his land L: Jan 1918 Universal labor obligation · Control of information C: Okhrana (only European country with censorship) L: Cheka

[Domestic Policies]

DOMESTIC POLICIES THE BEGINNINGS OF THE SOVIET STATE: WAR COMMUNISM:

THE NEW ECONOMIC POLICY:

Summer of 1918 a state was set up that remained in power until 1985. The constituent assembly meets for one day in January and is dissolved by Red Guards as the Bolsheviks only gain ¼ of the seats.

War/Ideological Bolsheviks ran factories and began a program of nationalization Rationing was based on class, with soldiers and workers being the most favoured The Bolsheviks take the peasants grain and apportion it all over the country, no private dealing is allowed and all surplus is taken, so the peasants just stop producing surplus, or at least try and hide any surplus that they have. Only works at gunpoint, led by the CHEKA. famine in 1921 that kills 5 million people Lenin viewed all of this as a sacrifice to the Soviet state, and therefore justified. 1921: response to the Kronstadt Mutiny. no more requisitioning, private trade is allowed, peasants are encouraged to produce more and allowed to keep surplus, small scale private industries are allowed, this is capitalist Not Marxist they were able to set up Gulags, they destroyed the SRs, executing them, and adopted factionalism/democratic centralism

Soviet state: 1918 – 1985

CHEKA famine in 1921 that kills 5 million people Industry to ¼ of pre WW1 Kronstadt Mutiny

1921, Kronstadt Mutiny 10% taxation

POLITICS 1917-1924

NATIONALITIES ISSUE 19171924

CULTURE AND SOCIAL LIFE 1917-1924:

[Lenin’s Russia]

Increasing party membership (mass movement) Council of People’s Commissars, 10 members, the most powerful body, power was concentrated on just a few people. By 1921 the bureaucracy is 10X larger than the Tsarist one, consuming 90% of all the paper in Russia… As the size of the party grew, it became more corrupt. Bolsheviks begin to bring their own people into the bureaucracy, this leads to Stalin’s appointment as Gen Sec in 1922 which would prove to be a very important position, in 1918 it was a shit job. In the 1921 conference, Lenin introduced a ban on factions To deal with external opposition they won the civil war. Also arrested a vast number of SRs and Mensheviks. Cheka (30,000 members ) played a very important role in the Red Terror which ran from 1921 to 1923. Tsar and his family are killed in Ekaterinburg in 1918 Red terror: 2 million deaths. Trotsky ‘we shall not enter into the Kingdom of socialism with white gloves on a polished floor’ –it’s going to get messy. Jan 1918-declaration of the rights of the toiling and exploited people (autonomous development) Lenin initially believed in self-determination, by 1920 is beginning to change his mind after the failed invasion of Poland (nationalism > socialism) B’shiks continue to unofficially support communist uprisings such as in Poland. Baltic states supposedly get independence following BrestLitovsk. Ukraine is retaken in 1921 and made part of the old empire. Asian states are brought into the empire, despite the race issue. By 1922 USSR had emerged, remained up until 1991.

Bureaucracy = 10x more in 1921 than Tsar 1918 Tsar family murder 1921 Ban on factions Red Terror: 2 million deaths 30,000 members in the Cheka.

1918-Proletkult By 1922, too abstract for peasants; Proletkult is disbanded, bringing an end to the cultural flowering, instead you get lots of Socialist Realism art. Religion was also eventually banned, 8000 clergy are killed in the terror, and the wealth of the church is taken over by the state. 1922: freedom i.e. it is much easier to get a divorce, women get equal property rights, it is a forward looking period. 1924: no freedom; it all began to change and all of the writers and poets got exiled, people couldn’t write what they wanted to anymore, very depressing.

8000 clergy are killed in the terror

1918 – declaration of nationalities right USSR 1922-1991 1920 failed invasion of Poland Ukraine retaken in 1921

[Domestic Policies]

THE COMMUNIST PARTY UNDER LENIN:

PARTY MEMBERSHIP: 1917-24000, 1921-733000, 1924- 1700000. Members were given elite jobs in the armies and factories. By 1921, most of the members had little understanding of the concepts of Marxism or Leninism but knew that being in the party would be good for them. It became a mass movement.

SUMMARY P OLITICAL 1921 Factionalism Democratic Centralism - Bolsheviks 1918 Sovnarcom – Soviet State 1922 USSR

S OCIAL Decree on Land – peasant loyalty through Civil War Decree on Worker’s Control – seized factories which were taken by workers Anti-Religion (300) o Moscow Patriarch condemned Bolsheviks o Church associated with Czar o Churhces owned land o Churches were xenophobic, anti-Semitic and obscurantist o Replaced by science Propaganda o Supervise educational system o Censor the arts

1917-24000 1921-733000 1924- 1700000.

[Lenin’s Russia]

E CONOMIC W AR C OMMUNISM Causes •Civil War •Counter Revolution

Control over Production

Grain Requisition resulted in drop in production •Famine in 1921

Excecution of Czar

CHEKA

Attack on Kulaks/Church

Red Terror

Productionism

Seige Mentality

Bolsheviks welcomed it as true communism Six Emergency Decrees: 1. Large factories were nationalized 2. Banks were abolished 3. Private trade was banned 4. Grain requisitions – food surpluses taken from peasants to feed Red Army 5. Production quotas issues to all industries 6. “Communist Saturdays” workers worked an extra day with no pay.

[Domestic Policies]

N EW E CONOMIC POLICY Causes End of grain requisition

Market/Money reintroduced

Gulags

Sham trials for SRs

Secret Clauses against Workers Opposition

Communist concession for Political Advantage

Divisions within party

Ban on factionalism

•Hunger •Kronstadt •Failure of War Comunism

Economic Recovery

Peasants could again sell surplus for profits after paying Small-scale enterprise was permitted again. 90% of businesses were returned to their original ownersstate still controlled the “commanding heights” of the economy. Incentives and bonuses were introduced for workers. Public markets restored

[Lenin’s Russia]

FOREIGN POLICY THE END TO RUSSIAN INVOLVEMENT IN THE WAR:

Brest-Litovsk

FOREIGN POLICY

Brest-Litovsk March 3 loses 32% of its land, 34% of its population, 54% of its industry and 89% of its coal. Poland, Ukraine, Finland and Baltic states all gain independence. 1921 Spartakist uprising 1922 Rapallo 1924 withdrawal recognition (Britain)

S UMMARY Brest Litovsk (March 1918) o 34% of popn, 32% of farmland, 54% of industrial plant, 89% of coal mines, all cotton/oil o Destroyed foreign relations Rapallo o Reconciliation with Germans, further deteriorating relations with entente Cancellation of Debt o France hated it Comintern o TEMPORARY Munich and Budapest o Civil war proved communism was not easily exported (Polish people were more patriotic) Riga o Russia gave up Ukraine and other White Russia o Shows communism didn’t change anything.

[Assessment of Lenin]

ASSESSMENT OF LENIN SUCCESSES

Shaped the party to conform with his own views of what was needed (met with limited success) Adapted Marxism according to the changing views of Russians/ the Russian situation. Positioned the Bolsheviks as spokesmen for the general population during the dual control Chose the ideal moment to launch the coup dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;etat. Laid the foundations for building socialism in Russia Prevented the break up of an empire, brought the country through and Civil War Left a model for the efficient organisation for the mobilisation of society

FAILURES

Split the Russian Marxists He presided over great suffering (20 million lives lost) The development of industry/productionism was the chief goal of the leader of state and party to fulfil the needs of the people and build a strong proletariatď&#x192; increase production at all costs He made the Bolshevik regime a totalitarian police state by insisting on democratic centralism (Central committee decides all policy, everyone else follows), secret police and gulag, outlawed factionalism in the party, relied on Stalin for important tasks (like constitution). He left the questions of mixed economy or state control, peasants and land ownership, the growth of party and state bureaucracy, and the leadership succession unsolved.

Destruction of Trade Unions

Concentratio n camps (Gulag)

Ban on criticism and free speech

Lenin's Legacy

The secret police Purges and show trials introduced

USR's international role left unresolved

The oneparty, bureaucratic state

Restriction on religious freedom

[Lenin’s Russia]

ESSAYS ESSAY: COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE NATURE AND RESULTS OF THE TWO RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS. Thesis: Both February (a spontaneous revolution resulting in bourgeoisie rule) and October (a planned Bolshevik revolution to establish communism) wished to overthrow the existing government to implement their reforms but neither solved Russian problems. In 1917, Russia saw two revolutions: a February/March revolution against the Russian Czar Nicholas II and an October/November revolution against the provisional government which replaced the Czar. The social democrats saw these revolutions as the bourgeoisie revolution followed by the communist revolution, in true Marxist fashion. This essay will compare and contrast firstly the nature (excluding the causes) and secondly the results. February was a spontaneous revolution resulting in bourgeoisie rule whereas October was a planned Bolshevik revolution which established the first communist country in the world. However, both revolutions were met with limited resistance and the resulting leaderships were both unwilling to deal with Russian problems. The February Revolution was a spontaneous revolution where Petrograd citizens took to the streets, initially without the goal of overthrowing the monarchy. However, in October, Bolsheviks planned to take over St. Petersburg, and wanted to remove any opposition by arresting members of the Provisional Government. In February, revolutionaries were met with little because the war occupied much of the troops. The Petrograd Garrison, along with the Cossacks mutinied. The October revolution was also free of resistance because the of the dissatisfaction soldiers had for the decision of continuing the war. Bolsheviks were seen as the party that could bring change, as seen in the Kornilov affair, where Bolsheviks were seen as defenders of Petrograd. Therefore, though both revolutions were bloodless, one was spontaneous where the other was planned. After the February Revolution, a system of dual government was invoked in place of the Czar, who was exiled. After the October Revolution, a Council of Peoples’ Commissars (Sovnarcom) replaced the provisional government and executed the Czar and his family. The result of the February Revolution, which was a revolution of soldiers against war, peasants on the issue of land, and workers for food, was a provisional government which failed to solve either issue. In fact Kerensky’s failure to pull out of the war resulted in German occupation of Riga, opening the route to Petrograd. In contrast, the Sovnarcom from the October revolution, made peace of German though Brest-Litovsk and confiscated hundred million acres of land from land owners and churches without compensation. Ending the war, was supposed to solve the issue of food (since soldiers were farmers, and soldiers needed more food than farmers), but Brest-Litovsk transfer about 30% of Russian land to Germany. Although October resulted in Brest Litovsk, the Bolsheviks dealt with war in a fashion quite similar to the provisional government. In fact, Trotsky knew how unfair Brest-Litovsk was (Germany took massive amounts of land and resources) and tried to “postpone” Brest-Litovsk. Neither Trotsky nor Kerensky wanted an end to war. However, Trotsky was forced to do so to gain popularity for Bolsheviks. Both February and October were filled with empty promises. The provisional government, after February, was supposed to start a constituent assembly, but Kerensky postponed it. Lenin heavily criticized Kerensky based on this issue, and ordered an election right after the October revolution. Despite Lenin’s attempts at “rigging” the election (such as by dismissing the Kadets), Bolsheviks still lost. Lenin dismissed the constituent assembly just as Kerensky stalled. Both revolutions wished to overthrow the existing government to implement their reforms. Both revolutions did not live up to their promises, and were followed by a challenge to the revolutionaries’ government. The February Revolution (provisional government) was challenged by the October Revolution (Bolsheviks), and the October

[Essays]

Revolution was challenged by the whites in the Russian Civil War. Neither revolution solved Russian problems: February did not tackle the problem of War whereas October tackled War only to gain support in the constituent assembly election. February postponed the election whereas October simply dismissed it. Since neither February nor October solved any problems, one might wonder if the Czar was the best to lead. This would certainly support Pipes’ notion that Nicholas only abdicated for the good of his people. But I believe abdicating only transferred Russian problems into different hands, both of which were incapable of solving them.

Notes Intro Thesis: Both February (a spontaneous revolution resulting in bourgeoisie rule) and October (a planned Bolshevik revolution to establish communism) revolutions wished to overthrow the existing government to solve Russian problems but neither did so. Bourgeoisie/Communist = Marxist Compare/Contrast Nature: Though both revolutions were bloodless, one was spontaneous where the other was planned. Contrast Results: dual government vs Council of Peoples’ Commissars (Sovnarcom) Czar: exile vs execution Similar reasons for revolution, different solutions o soldiers against war o peasants on the issue of land o and workers for food Compare Results: Brest-Litovsk Constituent Assembly Conclusion February October / OctoberCivil War Pipes’ notion that Nicholas only abdicated for the good of his people

ESSAY: COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE CAUSES OF THE TWO RUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS. It is interesting that both the revolutions in 1917 were successful but the 1905 revolution was not. Even though between 1905 and 1910, the creation of the Duma, and Stoypin’s positive reforms should have stopped revolutions in its tracks, 1917 was successful because it was immersed in the largest war Russia had ever seen. This goes to suggest that the main cause of 1917 was World War I, which is considered to be short term because World War I is only 3 years old, whereas long term causes such as discontent for the Czar has appeared for around 20 years. Therefore, WWI created the conditions for both revolutions, but did so in different ways. This essay will begin by looking at the similarities, and they diverge into differences in regards to militaristic, economic, and political factors which led to the 1917 revolutions. When the Czar took control of the army, people associated all of Russia’s failures to the Czar. The failure of Brusilov Offensive got the ball rolling for February. After the revolution, it was obvious people wanted Russia to drop out of the war. But the provisional government, continued to fight it. Kerensky’s failures in the Galicia Offensive lost provisional government its support, and gave support to the Bolsheviks, who were decisively against Galicia. In the Kornilov affair, Bolsheviks were given weapons to defend against a rogue Kornilov. Again, this gave

[Lenin’s Russia]

Bolsheviks weapons, and the reputation as the only party that could defend the capital. Although military reasons were significant to both, military failures only decreased the government in February, whereas in October, military failures actually improved the face of revolutionaries. Economic causes were very similar for the February and the October revolutions. The immediate cause of February was a shortage of food, which is an economic problem caused by the war. The war took away farmers from their land, decreasing produce, and also diverted a lot of food because soldiers had to be fed. Also, transportation lines messed up because of war could not transport food. The Germans also blocked imports so prices of food rose. Finally, Russians disallowed drinking of Vodka during the war, bankrupting itself, and thus inflation. After the February revolution, the provisional government was supposed to change all of this. However, it did not drop out of the war, making all the problems in February the same in October. October Revolution occurred because Bolsheviks were the only party which would deal with war, food and land. Basically, economic reasons were part of both revolutions, were both results of war, and could have been ended had war ended. Political factors were also very important to both revolutions. Although both revolutionary groups were anti-Tsar, February wasn’t actually caused a want of getting the Tsar of the throne, whereas October was caused by a Bolshevik majority. Both revolutions can be traced back to the dislike of the Czar, his German wife and Rusputin, the backward divine right of kings and the Czar’s problems with leadership in the war. However, February was a food riot, that did not initially want to dethrone the Czar. On the other hand, October’s immediate cause was the majority established by the Bolsheviks. Bolsheviks took power, perhaps because Lenin wanted a single party state, or because Bolsheviks wanted to reform all the economic and military problems stated above. Therefore, the political causes of the revolutions were different: February was not affiliated with any political party, thus resulting in a myriad of parties (SR, SD, Kadets, Octobrists) in the dual government, whereas October was fully affiliated with Bolsheviks, who dismissed the constituent assembly because they wanted to be the single party. In conclusion the Thesis: WWI created the conditions for both revolutions, but did so differently through militaristic, economic and political reasons. 1905-1910 - Duma, and Stoypin’s positive reforms Why war as short term? Militaristic: Brusilov Offensive vs. Calicia Offensive Kornilov Affair Economic: Food Prices Inflation Political Anti-Czar vs Bolsheviks

[Essays]

ESSAY: ANALYZE THE METHODS USED AND CONDITIONS WHICH HELPED LENIN'S RISE TO POWER. Thesis – The most significant condition which helped Lenin rise to power was peasant/worker discontent caused by economic problems, which Lenin promised to solve by making empty promises. Lenin’s rise to power is the same thing as the Bolshevik rise to power. After their separation from the Mensheviks in 1903, Bolsheviks were not influential. In fact after the February revolution in 1917 February, the Soviet was dominated by SRs and Mensheviks. I’d like to begin Lenin’s rise in February 1917, when his power and the party’s power was very limited. After the coup d’etat in October 1917, Lenin was faced with much opposition, and thus the Civil War. His height of power, and thus the end of his rise will be considered to be December 1922 because this is when all of the Russian republics came together to form the USSR, the entity that will be in Russia until 1991. The most important condition for the rise of Lenin’s power was peasant/worker discontent caused by economic problems, which lenin promised to solve by implement economic reform. The economic state of Russia must be the most important condition that helped Lenin rise to power. I believe this because the economic state of Russia seems to trump all out causes, as seen in the period between the 1905 revolution and the 1917 revolutions. In this period of time, the Czar broke his promises of the Duma, and the Czar was even more disliked. The Czar promised a Duma but ended up dissolve all the powerful ones and Russia was left with useless ones. The Czar grew to be more disliked because of his part in 1905, his association with Rusputin, his wife and his suspected murder of Stoypin. It is a wonder why it took 12 years for them to get another revolution. The reason is because within these 12 years, Stoypin made many positive economic reforms: he allowed output to rise between 1906 and 1914, he allowed for hereditary tenure, he offered free land in Siberia, and created a Kulaks class. However, by 1914, the war had begun and all of Stoypin’s positive reforms were undone. Although dissatisfaction with the Czar, dissatisfaction with the war, class stratification etc. were conditions which made Russia revolutionary, the above shows that economics is probably the most important standing condition. When economics are good, revolutions did not happen despite all the other bad things. When War destroyed Russia’s economy, people were dissatisfied and created the conditions for Lenin’s rise to power. Poor economic conditions culminated in three things: lack of food, peasant-land problems and the war (which created the economic problem). The method which Lenin uses to rise to power is what Pipes believes as Lenin giving every group what they wanted: land for peasants, army peace, workers a plan to take over the factories, and ethic minorities self-determination. This method provides promises which initially allowed Lenin into power, but Lenin will soon break all of these promises. In October 1917, Lenin was able to rise to power because he was the only one who wanted to solve the issues presented above. However, these promises were false and were designed only to give Lenin power. Land and factories were not given to peasants/workers, but rather confiscated by the government. The treaty of brest-litovsk in March 1918 was next to useless since the war ended by November 1918 (and may have ended quicker had Russia stayed in). Finally, although Lenin promised national self-determination, the Bolsheviks were famous of imposing Russian hegemony. Therefore, Lenin’s method of promising every group what they wanted ultimately resulted in a list of false promises only designed for gaining power.

[Lenin’s Russia]

ESSAY: EVALUATE LENIN 'S SUCCESSES AND FAILURES BETWEEN 1917 AND 1924. Thesis - Lenin was on the large part, successful in his own country but unsuccessful outside it. After Lenin took control in 1917, he had many domestic and foreign policies. I would argue that basically all of Lenin’s failures were failures for Russians. However, the domestic policies: War Communism, the New Economic Policy were largely successful for the party, whereas the foreign policies: Brest-Litovsk, and Comintern were both unsuccessful. Beginning with domestic policies, War Communism was brought forward as a response to Civil War (Lenin’s attempt at silencing his opponents), and could be seen as an excuse to nationalize the industry for the party. For the people, War Communism was an outright failure. The decrease in production resulted in the famine of 1921, where 5 million peasants died. However, for the party, War Communism helped leadership. It gave the government control of 80% of Russian industry; it gave them the ability to militarize the state, such as executing prisoners without trial, it created a class enemy – the kulaks, who are used as scapegoats even in Stalin’s rule. Through war communism, Lenin was able to improve his status but with horrific losses for his people. The New Economic Policy was also a success for Lenin but a failure for the Russians. The NEP helped Lenin mitigate a revolution, and allowed them to use economic goodness to balance out all the bad political things they could do now. With the Cheka, they were able to set up Gulags, they destroyed the SRs, executing them, and adopted factionalism/democratic centralism (where there could not be anti-party speeches. The NEP was probably the highlight of Lenin’s rule for Russians. Since it could be considered Lenin’s retreat from socialism, it was positive for Russians. It created Kulags and Nepmen, it gave farmers a reason to do work because it paid them a percentage of money, and it gave workers incentive to work. Overall, NEP improved the Russian economy. The NEP was a success to both the party and the workers. Foreign policies were failures for the party. Beginning with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918) which was a treaty between Russians and Germans. This treaty was signed most likely because Lenin wanted to improve his popularity with the people. The fact of the matter is that Brest-Litovsk hurt Russians to a great extent. It deprived them of 30% farmland, 50% of industry, 30% population, 90% coal, etc. Had they not signed Brest-Litovsk, they could’ve gotten out in November 1918 and reaped the benefits the allies were going to give them for being an ally. Instead Brest-Litovsk crippled Russia, and destroyed their relation with the foreigners. Therefore, brest-Litovsk was a failure for Lenin. Another failure was the idea of the “comintern”. One reason for the signing of Brest Litovsk was the belief that other countries would soon join Russia in a socialist revolution. However, this was a massive failure. Comintern scared the allies enough to intervene in the Civil War, and helped cause this internal struggle against Lenin. In the end, this international communist revolution didn’t occur outside of a few Eastern European countries. In the end, it proved that patriotism was stronger than socialism.

[Stalin’s Russia]

STALIN’S RUSSIA Stalin’s Russia ........................................................................................................................................................ 81

Internal Opposition ...................................................................................................................... 82 Stalin .............................................................................................................................................................. 82 Trotsky ............................................................................................................................................................ 82 Triumvirate ..................................................................................................................................................... 82 Kamenev And Zinoviev .................................................................................................................................... 82 Bukharin ......................................................................................................................................................... 82 Summary ........................................................................................................................................................ 83

Economic Policy ............................................................................................................................ 84 Stalin’s Plans For Russia .................................................................................................................................. 84 Collectivization ............................................................................................................................................... 85 Famine 1931-1934 .......................................................................................................................................... 86 Five Year Plans ................................................................................................................................................ 86 Living Standards Under Stalin ......................................................................................................................... 87 Historiography of Stalin’s Economic Policies ................................................................................................... 88

Rearmament ................................................................................................................................ 89 Red Army ........................................................................................................................................................ 89 Winter War ..................................................................................................................................................... 89 Technology ..................................................................................................................................................... 89

Political Policy .............................................................................................................................. 90 The State ........................................................................................................................................................ 91 The Party ........................................................................................................................................................ 92 Soviet State under Stalin ................................................................................................................................. 92 1936 Constitution ........................................................................................................................................... 93 The Stalinist Government ............................................................................................................................... 94 Stalin’s Control over the Party ........................................................................................................................ 94 The Purges ...................................................................................................................................................... 94 Show Trials ..................................................................................................................................................... 95 Historiography of Stalin’s Political Policies ...................................................................................................... 95 Cult Of Stalin ................................................................................................................................................... 97 The Last Years Of Stalin ................................................................................................................................... 98

Foreign Policy ............................................................................................................................... 99 Stalin’s Foreign Policy ..................................................................................................................................... 99

The Nazi-Soviet Pact, Aug 1939 ................................................................................................... 100 Why was it Signed ......................................................................................................................................... 100 Terms ........................................................................................................................................................... 100 Results .......................................................................................................................................................... 101

Essay .......................................................................................................................................... 102 Account for the ineffectiveness of internal opposition to two rulers of single-party states. .......................... 102

[Internal Opposition]

INTERNAL OPPOSITION STALIN

Lenin’s Testament: Georgia to become an autonomous republic / foreign trade monopoly Lenin / arrogant and the greatest problem for the party / didn’t stop him / he was too ill / wanted to balance out the threat of Trotsky / never appointed a successor. Stalin created ‘Cult of Deceased Leader’ / presented himself as the rightful heir / Lenin’s funeral / mausoleum against wife’s wishes

800,000 party members in 1925 1.5m by 1929

Manipulated the economic policy debate Patronage: Commissar for Nationalities / Politburo / General Secretary, he had filled the party with his own people and was surrounded by his supporters: Lenin enrolment / unsophisticated support Underestimated (Great Blur) ‘permanent revolution’ vs Socialism in One Country

TROTSKY

TRIUMVIRATE KAMENEV AND ZINOVIEV BUKHARIN

Red Army / most able Lenin’s #2, particularly during the Civil War era Missed funeral / formally been with the Mensheviks / never held a party post / was not a team player / did not have political allies vocally anti-NEP ‘Marxism before Russia’ / ‘permanent revolution’ vs Socialism in One Country / former was clearly not going to happen by 1924, and believers began to lose credibility. Accused of Bonapartism, as in someone who would betray the revolution. Was defeated by the Triumvirate. Jewish in a anti-Semitist country 1922-1924 Zinoviev and Kamenev and Stalin Lenin’s stroke Lost credibility as they were opportunistic. First of all in Triumvirate with Stalin as they hated Trotsky and saw him as their main threat. As tide turned, allied themselves with Trotsky in 1925 but lost credibility for doing this. In 1927 they were both evicted from the party and the Politburo. pro-NEP, heavy central control could lead to another famine, his views on the economy are not popular party comes down more on the side of the left at the critical moments ‘Marxist with reserve’ i.e. does not have the right belief system.

1926 Trotsky out of Race

Triumvirate 19221924 Zinoviev and Kamenev and Stalin 1925 – allied with Trotsky 1927 evicted from party

[Stalin’s Russia]

SUMMARY Trotsky

Kamenev and Zinoviev (Left)

Bukharin, Rykov, Tomsky (Right)

Dates 1922 – formation of united opposition) 1925 – Congress votes against Trotsky

Weaknesses/Mistakes LACKED POWER BASE Intellectual, self-assured, diffident, expediency Jewish in anti-Semitic country Menshevik past Didn’t make a speech at funeral

1925 – out of favour with Stalin 1926 – expelled from Politburo 1929 – Stalin evokes 5 year plan

Indistinguishable from Trotsky-ism

Ideas · Invasion scare: appeared timid/unrealistic · Soft line with peasants, who were enemies of revolution · Underestimated crisis Organization · Stalin had party machine · Sense of loyalty, fearful of factionalism Support · Only support in trade unions, which were purged · Incapable of resistance

Debate bureaucratization · party members were hired based on bureaucracy NEP · Accused as anti-Lenin Modernization · Permanent Revolution (comintern) vs Socialism in One Country (USSR First) · Trotsky: too intellectual idea · Threatened security · Affront to Lenin · Fear of Invasion Attacked NEP and Socialism in One Country Replaced by Molotov and Kirov (hiring/firing)

Stood in the way of industrial/agricultural schemes in 1928

Defeated Defeated by triumvirate

Defeated by right

Stalin defeats them (not hard)

[Economic Policy]

ECONOMIC POLICY STALIN’S PLANS FOR RUSSIA

‘50-100 years behind other countries’ speech, had to ‘make good the difference in 10 years’ or be crushed by the Western powers. Unlike Lenin and Trotsky, he believed in ‘Socialism in one country’ and was inward looking and xenophobic. He wanted to make Russia strong and socialists By 1926, Trotsky is out of the power struggle, so Stalin is able to take the leftist line on the economy and hence shaft Bukharin (good bloke) and Rykov. He wanted to take the country back to true communism, things had to be changing, with none of this capitalist economy bollocks. NEP is also not a very effective policy, by 1926 only 17% of what is grown is marketed Peasants hoard grain, afraid of famine, no point having money because there are no goods in Russia The government grain prices were also very low Crisis developing- now is the time to implement Stalin’s plans for Russia As with Lenin, he is an ideological pragmatist, if you know what I mean.

50-100 years 10 years 1926 only 17% of grown is marketed

COLLECTIVIZATION Motives: 1.

3. 4.

[Stalin’s Russia]

Acquire state control / grain procurement crisis 1927-28 / state price fell behind market price / few consumer goods Funding for industry / grain NEP: 2m tons vs Tsar 10m tons / Yield per Hector of Germany to increase Stalin’s control over the peasantry / OGPU to increase efficiency and productivity through modernisation and improvement of methods / tractors

Nature: First in Urals-Siberia in early 1927 and made official policy by the party by the end of the year. Kolkhozes / Soukhozes By 1929 it was being introduced across Russia, initially as a voluntary program, which no-one wanted to join / until the government began to use coercion. brings chaos to countryside, crops burnt, livestock killed. 1930 March / ‘dizzy with success’/ recognises that the process needs to be slowed down / goes from 58% falls to 22% / Restarts Sept 1930 harvest goal of collectivization for every peasant by 1932 This time, much more organized, exciting ‘incentives’ like tractors, but peasants were reluctant because of past example Scale 120m people / 600k villages / 25m holdings / 240k collective farms Urban population increased 120m Results In 1936 it is finally complete Kulak class (around 10 million people) disappears, either sent to Gulags like Kolyma or collectivized Only 7% higher than 1928 Procurement rose: 14% 1928 / 26% 1931 / 39.5% 1933

Collectivization tested in 1927 in Siberia Dec 1929 and March 1930, 60% of the peasants are collectivised, June, 25% Sept 1930 restart 1936 = done 10 million people kulaks disappear 120 million people

[Economic Policy]

FAMINE 19311934

FIVE YEAR P LANS

1st FYP

Peasants burning their crops / farms take a while to ‘get going’ / grain continued to be exported (10m prior / 2m during) / 5 10-15 million people die / 5m from Ukraine Peasants so hungry they eat next year’s seeds. Stalin wants to get rid of the mir and the kulaks Motives 1. rapidly industrialise / 50-100 years speech 2. abandonment of the NEP 3. “war scare” / 1926 anti-communist Polish leader / 1927 Britain cuts relations / 1927 Chiang Kai-Shek massacres communists Gosplan, central planning agency set up in 1921- national quotas which filter down to the local level. 1928 -1932, 1933 to 1937, 1938-1941 Ran from 1928 to December 1932. Main emphasis was on infrastructure and the production of energy and construction materials, at an envisaged rate of increase of 20%. Not all quotas were reached, but there were significant increases in production in all areas. Machinery output increased X4, oil production X2, electrical output by 250%, 17 new blast furnaces. Some showpieces, Dnieprostoi Dam, and iron and steel production centres at Magnitogorsk and Kuznetsk. Laid foundations for second five year plan. Some quota shortfalls, (Steel, iron, heavy metallurgy and consumer goods suffering the worst setbacks). Also kinda like a ‘peasant buying a gramophone not a cow’- although the showpieces were very nice, they weren’t exactly all that practical. Possibly a little too hard and fast.

86 10-15 million people die from famine 1931-1934

1921 Gosplan central planning agency

1st 5 year plan: 1928 1932 rate of increase of 20% Machinery output increased X4, oil production X2, electrical output by 250%, 17 new blast furnaces Dnieprostoi Dam Magnitogorsk Steel, iron, heavy metallurgy and consumer goods suffering the worst setbacks

87 2nd FYP

LIVING STANDARDS UNDER STALIN

[Stalin’s Russia]

Ran from 1933 to 1937. Had a lower annual target of 14% and was designed to build on the successes of the first five year plan with a more skilled workforce. Focused again on heavy industry, metallurgical resources (Pb, Zn, Ni, Sn) and communications. Much better quality and less waste than first five year plan, more showpieces, MoscowVolga canal and Moscow metro. Some quota shortfalls again, some administrative inefficiency and deterioration of diplomatic situation leading to spiralling military expenditure all slowed the developments. Military expenditure was 3.4% of gov’s total expenditure in 33, 16.1% by 1936 and 32.6% by 1940. Few individual freedoms for the worker. Working conditions were dangerous, particularly on the major projects away from the traditional industrial centres. If targets were not met, even a lowly worker could face charges of sabotage. However, they did get subsidised food and free medical care. But there were still problems of overcrowding and poor sanitation since the size of the industrial work force doubled between Food prices were high during the early years of collectivisation. In 1933, there was an 80% increase in the price of food and bread and a 55% increase in the price of butter. The industrial drive also brought rewards for some people, and there were privileges for the most skilled and productive workers. In 1935, a Donbas miner Alexei Stakhanov cut fourteen times his quota of coal. Workers such as this got better houses, higher wages and access to scarce consumer goods. But for everyone else, the Stakhanovite movement created problems, as shift production quotas increased by up to 50% between 1936 and 1939.

2nd 5 year plan 1933 to 1937 Target 14% heavy industry, metallurgical resources (Pb, Zn, Ni, Sn) and communications Military expenditure was · 3.4% in 1933 · 16.1% in 1936 32.6% in 1940.

1927 and 1933 industrial work force doubled 80% increase in the price of food 1935, a Donbas miner Alexei Stakhanov cut fourteen times his quota of coal shift production quotas increased by up to 50% between 1936 and 1939

[Economic Policy]

HISTORIOGRAPHY OF STALIN’S ECONOMIC POLICIES

Successes Limitations

•Massive expansion of industrial output •This enabled the USSR to survive WWII

•Over-emphasis on heavy industry •Poor balance between sectors of industry •Neglect of agriculture •No attention of worker's needs

S TALIN : THE MASTER - PLANNER ? The FYPs are often referred to as “Stalin’s economic model” Some scholars are wary of using such term. Norman Stone interprets Stalin’s policies as having very little planning from the top. Stalin’s government forced the workers towards greater production but such planning occurred at a local level. It was the regional and site managers who formulated the actual schemes for reaching their given production quota. Alec Nove

Robert Conquest Leonard Shapiro Norman Stone

Sheila Fitzpatrick

Dmitri Volkogonov

Peter Gattrell

Argued strongly that Stalin’s industrialization and collectivization policies were bas economics. They caused upheaval and misery without producing the industrial growth that the USSR needed. The living standards fell as well. A sharp critic of Stalin’s totalitarianism: “Stalinism is one way of attaining industrialization, just as cannibalism is one way of attaining a high protein diet”. Claims that the industrial growth under the tsar, if continued beyond 1914 would have reached no less a level of expansion by 1941 than that achieved by Stalin Argues that without the expertise and basic industry structure that was built by the tsars before 1917, the FYPs would have been unable to reach the level of success they did Generally agrees with Nove and Conquest, but adds that Stalin’s ‘gigantomania’, his obsession with large-scale project, distorted the economy at a critical time when what was needed was proper investment and planning. However, she looks at the greater context. Harsh as Stalin was, he was trying to bring stability to a Soviet Russia that had known only turmoil and division since 1917. A soldier and administrator in 1930s Russia, Volkogonov argues that Stalin’s policies were only incidentally economic Stalin was really aiming at removing all opposition to himself by making his economic policies a test of loyalty. To question his plans was challenge his authority. He acknowledges that Stalin was certainly severe and destructive in his treatment of people, but pointed out that the outcome of collectivization and industrialization was an economy strong enough to sustain the USSR through four years WWII. As hard at is for the Western liberal mind to accept, it may be that Russia could not have been modernized by any other methods except those used by Stalin.

[Stalin’s Russia]

REARMAMENT RED ARMY

From 1937, alarmed by Hitler’s rearmament programme, Stalin massively expanded the Soviet armed forces. In 1936 the Red Army totalled 940,000 men; by the time of the Nazi invasion in June 1941, the Red Army had grown to nearly 5 million strong. This huge increase meant that the Soviet government struggled to recruit and train an additional 250,000 officers. This was made worse by Stalin’s purge of the Red Army. Though the Red Army fought well against the Japanese in July-August 1939 on the Mongolian border, it performed very poorly against the Finns in the Winter War

1937 – Hitler 1936 940k men / 1941 5m 250,000 new officers 1939 Japanese War

WINTER WAR

Moscow pressed the Finns to accept a border away from Leningrad and they also wanted naval bases on Finnish soil, but Helsinki would not tolerate this. So the Red Army invaded on 30 November 1939. This “Winter War” highlighted the Red Army’s deficiencies and led to the death of over 200,000 of its soldiers. After sending in massive reinforcements, the Soviets ended up signing a lenient peace but was expelled from the League of Nations. The Red Army was poorly prepared for fighting in winter conditions; it was over-confident and it failed to co-ordinate its use of infantry and tanks.

1939 Winter War 200,000 Russian dead

TECHNOLOGY

During the late 1930s, as in other European countries, the soviet forces slowly adopted more modern weaponry. However, the USSR did so more slowly than Nazi Germany. By 1941 the Russians had more tanks than the Germans, but only about 1500 of these were the newer KV and T-34 tanks and, of the older tanks, only about 25% were in working order when the Germans attacked. By the time of the German invasion many of the new recruits in the Soviet forces had very little training (e.g. about one quarter of the Red Army had less than 9 month training and tank crews for the newer Soviet tanks often had only 1-2 hours of driving experience)

25% tanks in working condition newer Soviet tanks often had only 1-2 hours of driving experience

[Political Policy]

POLITICAL POLICY Under Stalin the major change was the shift in power and influence from the Sovnarkom to the Politburo (the leading committee in the party). This let Stalin increase Party power over state institutions and he got greater personal control over party Created a ruthless dictatorship by enlarging secret police (NKVD) and the Purges of 1934 onwards. Prison camps expandedď&#x192; by late 1930, 3 million prisoners The Stalin Constitution, 1936 Largely the work of Buhkarin and Radek (before they were arrested in the Purges) Made the USSR look very democratic on paper. Difference from 1924 constitution: increased the number of republics in the USSR Created a new law-making body called the Supreme Soviet. Elections to the Supreme Soviet were by secret ballot (for all Russians 18 and over). Hardly democratic because only one candidate was nominated for each place, so voters had no choice of who to vote for. The Supreme Soviet was made of two houses: the Soviet of the Union (members elected by electoral districts) and the Soviet of the Nationalities (representing the different republics). The Supreme Soviet only met for a few days per year and had no real power. Just gave approval to measure decided by leaders of the Communist Party. The new Constitution was a public relations exercise designed to convince people that the USSR was a democracy. It was introduced at the height of the Purges and Show Trials and the Party continued to control all state institutions. Previously, the local soviets were both legislative and executive organs (not just extensions of central power). The constitution shattered the unity of the local soviets. Local soviets were reduced to the status of local authorities. Freedom of speech, the press, of assembly and of religious observance was guaranteed by the 1936 constitution. However, the party still remained the key institution and its interest would override any personal or group interest. The USSR appeared to be moving in the right direction and made a refreshing contrast to the rest of Europe where fascism was on the rise.

THE STATE

[Stalin’s Russia]

Lenin had always rejected the bourgeois idea of a parliamentary democracy so he dissolved the Constituent Assembly in Jan 1918. At the end of the civil war Lenin banned all other socialist parties and expelled 150,000 Bolsheviks (many had been former Mensheviks or SRs) In 1917 Lenin created Cheka (secret police), conducted Red Terror in Civil War. Replaced Cheka with OGPU and then NKVD. By 1918, the soviets (elected town councils) met in frequently and became nominated from above (not elected). Reduction of democracy led to Kronstadt Rebellion and other revolts. Key posts were monopolised by Communist Party. Sovnarkom (the Council of People’s Commissars) was the top state institution, but in theory the most powerful was the Central Executive Committee (CEC) – acted in name of Congress of Soviet (when not in session). As the CEC met less often, Sovnarkom increasingly bypassed the CEC when it came to passing laws. All ministers and members of inner council of the CEC were Communist Party members 1924 Constitution: Set up Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) Soviet State was a Federation of four Republics (each with a Republic Government) and 16 autonomous republics (less self-governing powers). The Union (federal) government in Moscow controlled matters for the whole USSR In 1936, Stalin’s Constitution replaced the CEC with the Supreme Soviet

[Political Policy]

THE PARTY

Politburo was the top decision making body of the Communist Party, it grew in size in the 1920s. By 1922 it exercised more power than the Sovnarkom  this suited Stalin since he had unequalled influence in the Party; this helped his RTP. Below the Politburo was the Central Committee (CC) – made of most important party officials - it was elected by Party Congress Until 1921 there was open dissent (criticism of leadersip) within Politburo and CC 2 opposition groups formed: Workers Opposition (wanted trade union power) and the Democratic Centralists (wanted more democracy in Party). Lenin introduced a resolution banning factionalism (no party member could criticise party decisions). Lenin saw this as a temporary measure to protect party from Kronstadt Rebellion and peasant uprisings. The ban was never lifted Stalin used it as a weapon to silence his rival within party.

SOVIET STATE UNDER STALIN

Under Stalin the major change was the shift in power and influence from the Sovnarkom to the Politburo (the leading committee in the party). This let Stalin increase Party power over state institutions and he got greater personal control over party Created a ruthless dictatorship by enlarging secret police (NKVD) and the Purges of 1934 onwards. Prison camps expanded by late 1930, 3 million prisoners

1936 CONSTITUTION

[Stalinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Russia]

Largely the work of Buhkarin and Radek (before they were arrested in the Purges) Made the USSR look very democratic on paper. Difference from 1924 constitution: increased the number of republics in the USSR Created a new law-making body called the Supreme Soviet. Elections to the Supreme Soviet were by secret ballot (for all Russians 18 and over). Hardly democratic because only one candidate was nominated for each place, so voters had no choice of who to vote for. The Supreme Soviet was made of two houses: the Soviet of the Union (members elected by electoral districts) and the Soviet of the Nationalities (representing the different republics). The Supreme Soviet only met for a few days per year and had no real power. Just gave approval to measure decided by leaders of the Communist Party. The new Constitution was a public relations exercise designed to convince people that the USSR was a democracy. It was introduced at the height of the Purges and Show Trials and the Party continued to control all state institutions. Previously, the local soviets were both legislative and executive organs (not just extensions of central power). The constitution shattered the unity of the local soviets. Local soviets were reduced to the status of local authorities. Freedom of speech, the press, of assembly and of religious observance was guaranteed by the 1936 constitution. However, the party still remained the key institution and its interest would override any personal or group interest. The USSR appeared to be moving in the right direction and made a refreshing contrast to the rest of Europe where fascism was on the rise.

[Political Policy]

THE STALINIST GOVERNMENT

STALIN’S CONTROL OVER THE

PARTY

THE PURGES

USSR claimed to be a democracy because of 1936 constitution which provided all citizens over the age of 18 the right to elect the Supreme Soviet. But there was only one party to vote for... and any real power lay within the party itself. There was very strict censorship of the press, and little freedom of speech or freedom of movement. Jews were persecuted, and the Orthodox church was also attacked, with many churches closed and priests purged. In 1941 he set up the State Defence Committee to co-ordinate the war effort, the army was reorganised, with able officers being promoted. Eliminated rivals for leadership of the Party, used his position as General Secretary to promote his supporters to key positions  thus increasing his personal control over the party. He dominated all the key committees. His purges of the Party in the 1930s were designed to eliminated any potential opposition (as criticism of Stalin’s economic policies was circulating in the party) Used the Show Trial’s of 1936-38 to destroy his fellow old Bolsheviks (such as Bukharin and Zinoviev who helped party into party but had been outmanoeuvred by Stalin in the 1920s) In December of 1934, The Leningrad party boss Kirov was assassinated, probably on Stalin’s orders as he was getting very popular Stalin is the chief mourner and being a crafty bastard uses the assassination as a pretext for the purges The army was also extensively purged, beginning in 1937. In June, Tukhachevsky and some fellow generals were shot. The purge of the army was completed by 1939, but it was not in a great state at the time of the outbreak of WW2.

94 1936 constitution

20m deaths 110/139 CC 3/5 marshals all admirals killed 60/67 political commanders, 70% divisional commanders 60% political commanders. 1934 party congress 1108/1996 delegates Trotsky Bukharin (‘38) Kamenev (‘36) Zinoviev (’36) Rykov (‘36) Yezhov (‘38) Tomsky (suicide ‘38)

SHOW TRIALS

[Stalin’s Russia]

In the show trials of 1936, 37 and 38, all of the previous leading Bolsheviks confess to their guilt. Everybody tried confessed to the crime, be it fascism, spying, Trotskyism etc. People genuinely thought that there was a big conspiracy. People who were accused almost began to believe it for themselves. There was never any hard evidence for the convictions, and lots of people implicated other people (Kamenev and Zinoviev implicated Bukharin, bastards. They were on trial charged with involvement with Kirov’s murder and plotting to overthrow the Soviet State. They accepted these charges and read out confessions in court.) Coercion and torture were used if people did not confess, the prosecutor always made a good show speech and the accused was never even given the chance to defend themselves.

Show trials of 1936, 37 and 38 1934 Kirov assassinated Kamenev and Zinoviev (36) implicated Bukharin (38)

HISTORIOGRAPHY OF STALIN’S POLITICAL POLICIES Extent of his Power The orthodox view

Stalin is traditionally portrayed by historians as the creator of the most efficient dictatorship of the 20th century. Unlike in Germany where Hitler did not sweep away existing political institutions, but merely destroyed their democratic nature and added new Nazi ones, Lenin had destroyed Russia’s old political system entirely and created a new set of institutions This allowed for a more totalitarian system which Stalin took further and used to ensure that he could exert more personal control over the gov’t and people than Hitler or Mussolini did.

The revisionist views

Recently historians have challenged the traditional view of Stalin’s power. They still accept that Stalin was the most ruthless dictator of modern times, his personal responsibility for the massive economic changes and the deaths of millions of Soviet citizens. They question the extent to which Stalin’s dictatorship was efficient. Revisionists argue that Stalin may have been responsible for introducing major policy changes such as collectivisation and the Purges but then he lost control over how these policies were put into effect. Due to the vast size of the USSR and the huge number of government/party officials, Stalin could not ensure that local officials carried out his policies as intended. e.g. in 1930 Stalin called a temporary halt to collectivisation because local officials had implemented it too rapidly and brutally and provoked a fierce response from the peasants. Also, the purges went much further than Stalin expected since local party officials and NKVD officers interpreted instructions in the way that suited them and their view of local conditions.

[Political Policy]

Historiography: Why did the Purges happen? No single explanation reached since of the secrecy surrounding the Purges though arrests of leading opponents was reported in Soviet media, no reference to the wider purges was made. No acknowledgement in the USSR that people had been falsely accused until Khrushchev’s “Secret Speech” in 1956 Only in the past decade that Soviet archives have been opened up to historians Historical interpretations a. Stalin used purges to impose his authority even more firmly on the Party and the USSR – suppressing opposition to his economic policies and justifying failures by blaming traitors. Russians had always valued a strong Tsar, so Stalin felt that the population had to be terrorised so no one could feel himself safe. o There were plots against Stalin such as in 1932 Ryutin (a member of the Moscow Communist Party) circulated a document critical of Stalin’s policies and leadership. In 1934 there was an unsuccessful plot by some members to replace Stalin as General Secretary with the young and popular Kirov. o Christopher Read argues that the Terror had a rational explanation- Stalin feared internal enemies. Stalin needed to removing rivals that’s why he eliminated the old Bolsheviks and the army command. Read thinks the fact that most victims were innocent was a result of the crudity of Stalin’s methods, and the belief that it was better than the innocent suffer than the guilty go free. o This perspective (that the Terror had a rational basis) is criticised because of the many innocent victims who fall into no category which threatened Stalin or the revolution. Read counters this by explaining that the purges got out of control (with the introduction of arrest quotas, the demand to implicate others (getting the names of collaborators) and overzealousness by ‘little Stalin’s” lower in the system). b. Lately many historians like RW Thurston argued that much of the drive being the purges came from below the young party members wanted to remove seniors Other party leaders must share the blame like Yezhov of the NKVD. c. It was ideologically driven class conflict was created to destroy class enemies d. It was the result of the Five Year Plans and the need to acquire forced labour for the prison camps (mostly in the Arctic like Kolyma) located near natural resources. By 1938 the terror was not needed since the camps were full. e. Richard Pipes argues that the policies of Stalin were the consequence of the single party dictatorship created by Lenin and the Marxist concept of the dictatorship of the proletariat. f. USSR’s internal isolation and war scares (e.g. Manchurian Crisis of 1931-32) created a climate of fear/suspicion that saw the Party believe in capitalist conspiracies. Stalin wanted to avoid war with Germany, so to make a temporary pact with Hitler, he needed to eliminate the old Bolsheviks and antifascist groups who would have opposed it. g. Khrushchev though it was an outcome of Stalin’s paranoia and brutal personality h. Richard Overy draws attention to the violence that regards as having been intrinsic in Soviet Communism. Based on Lenin’s declaration that the task of Bolshevism was ‘the ruthless destruction of the enemy”. The concept of civil rights were not developed in Russia. Tsardom had taught Russians to obey, and Communism did not change that. i. A form of perverted idealism- the terror would ultimately lead to a socialist paradise

CULT OF STALIN

[Stalin’s Russia]

‘Stalin is the new Lenin’ idea, the cult was legitimised by the Cult of Lenin. Socialism is ‘from each according to his ability, to each according to his need’. Stalinism changes the ‘need’ to ‘work’. Technical jobs are the most profitable, intellectual jobs are downgraded. Emphasis more on hands-on style education, but by 1940 94% of all Russians are literate (probably better than in most of the world today). in 1936 abortion was made illegal, and it was far harder to get a divorce- society became much more permissive. Religion was attacked on all fronts, ‘League of Militant Godless Volunteers’ was set up, and they went around pulling down churches. By 1940, only 1 in 40 churches function. 60,000 priests in 1920 down to 5665 by 1940. Also some growth in popular culture, by 1940 Russia had 28,000 cinemas, and stadiums were built in all the bigger towns as were parks such as Gorky park. Artists were forced to create works which glorified Russian achievement- 'Social Realism’ art, lots of reds and tractors and Stalin in the sky (yes… realism…). Anything else was branded as Bourgeois. Posters with slogans such as ‘For the Greater Cause’ encouraged people to join the army or work harder in their factory or on their collective farm. The media was totally state controlled, and also glorified the state and Stalin, not that anyone cared, since only about 1% of the population owned radios. All of this propaganda was highly successful, despite its brutality. People did genuinely believe much of what they were told, and arguably Stalin’s ‘popularity’ increased as a result of its use. It was also quite effective for recruiting people for the army.

1940; 94% of all Russians are literate 1940; only 1 in 40 churches function. 60,000 priests in 1920 down to 5665 by 1940. 28,000 cinemas

[Political Policy]

THE LAST YEARS OF STALIN

The war had destroyed the centralised planning structure of the five year plans Russian infrastructure also very screwed Between 1941 and 1943, 50% of the Russian population is under German occupation and 60% of the iron production is lost. After 1943 the war turns around, and there is something of a military and economic recovery. By 1945, 20 million Russians have died as result of the war, 5 million from starvation. Stalin and the Russian people are all pretty paranoid, have been invaded before, begin to retreat into ‘fortress’ mentality. Stalin is seen as the man who won the war, and his popularity increases immensely as the ‘saviour of Russia’. Between 1946 and 1950, another 5 year plan is undertaken to catch up with the West, with the emphasis once again on heavy industry and not on the production of consumer goods. Within Russia there were poor living conditions, poor housing and harsh labour laws. Returning POWs were not treated as returning heros but were purged as they had been in contact with Nazis, placing doubts over their loyalty. Russians who fought with the Germans were also purged, as were ethnic groups like Chechens and Cossacks. 400,000 people from the Baltic states were also purged. He is also ‘jealous’ of Leningrad which survived the 1000 day siege during the war and was known as the hero city. In 1949 the Leningrad party leadership was purged, with Marshall Zkukov sent to Siberia (he had defended Leningrad and Moscow during the war). In 1953 Stalin discovered a ‘Doctor’s plot’ and believed that Jewish Kremlin doctors were trying to kill him. He died in March of 1953- lots of official mourning, he is embalmed and then stuck next to Lenin, there is also some genuine grief as people remembered what he did for Russia.

98 By 1945, 20 million Russians have died as result of the war, 5 million from starvation.

[Stalin’s Russia]

FOREIGN POLICY STALIN’S FOREIGN POLICY

In the early years of the USSR, Russian foreign policy had been dictated by the needs of world revolution. 1921 the Spartakist uprising in Germany was violently supressed, (nothing’s gonna happen) This fact means that the USSR is forced to cooperate with non-Communist governments in order to ensure its survival on the diplomatic scene. In 1922, the USSR signed the Treaty of Rapallo with Germany. These two nations were the ‘black sheep’ of Europe (and remained thus until the Nazi/Soviet pact of 1939), and the treaty was a trading agreement- it also allowed German troops to train in the USSR, breaking the Treaty of Versailles. In 1924, the conservative British government withdraws its recognition of the USSR and in 1926 accused the USSR of causing the General Strikethis leads to a breakdown in diplomatic relations. By 1928 Russian foreign policy is most definitely Socialism in one Country. The USSR even chooses to help the nationalist party in China, and was very reserved with its aid to the Spanish Republic. In 1934 Stalin realises that Hitler is a threat and joins the League of Nations as well as signing a Treaty with France. In 1935 Russia signs a mutual assistance pact with Czechoslovakia, but GB and Fr never agree to a full alliance (see Germany notes to recognise the crapness of this decision). 1935 also brought with it the beginning of the Popular Front policy, this is the idea of an alliance between all left-wing parties, Spain and France both had one for a while. In 1936 Italy and Germany sign the anti-Comintern pact, with Japan signing in 1937. (See Germany notes for details of run-up to war.) In 1939, the USSR signs the Molotov/Ribbentrop pact. This is a non-aggression pact, with Germany and USSR publicly agreeing to enjoy peaceful relations but privately agreeing to split Poland, giving Stalin territory and Hitler a one-front war. The USSR regains some territory that it lost at the end of WW1.

1922 Rapallo Helps China Helps Spain 1934 Stalin realizes Hitler is a threat 1935 Pact with Czech 1935 Popular front between leftists in Spain, France 1936 anti-Comintern pact 1939 Molotov/Ribbentrop pact

[The Nazi-Soviet Pact, Aug 1939]

THE NAZI -SOVIET PACT, AUG 1939 1. Why was it signed?

WHY WAS IT SIGNED

The Soviet foreign minister Litvinov (who was Jewish) was replaced by Molotov- now real discussion with Nazi Germany could happen. Germany did not want to fight a war on two fronts. It planned on defeating GB and France, then dealing with the Soviets later. Stalin had no alternative since GB and France were refusing to help Stalin needed to gain valuable time to continue his rearmament programme Stalin hoped Germany would get tied down in war with GB and France To let the USSR expand its territory and influence into Eastern Europe

TERMS

Germany and the USSR pledged to maintain peaceful relations with each other In a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Secret Additional Protocolâ&#x20AC;?, it was agreed that the USSR would take over the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania and that Poland would be later divided between Germany and the USSR. After the German invasion of Poland, a formal agreement was signed that effectively carved up Poland between them

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101

RESULTS

[Stalin’s Russia]

Sept 1939 Germany invades Poland, 3 weeks later the USSR invades eastern Poland. GB and France declare war on Germany. Poland surrenders by late Oct. Winter 1939-40 Baltic States occupied by Red army; USSR demand territory from Finland (which led to war). In the Winter War, the Red Army struggled to defeat the Finns. As a consequence of the invasion, the USSR is expelled from the League of Nations. By 1941, the Soviet Union had regained all the territories it had lost as a result of WWI Stalin was praised at home for his diplomatic master-stroke While Stalin was claiming how he had fulfilled the chief objective Soviet of foreign policy since Lenin’s times (safeguarding against a Western attack), he remained oblivious to the fact that Hitler’s ultimate aim in foreign affairs was the invasion and occupation of Russia. This was even outlined in Mein Kampf, as the German destiny to take Slav land. Stalin ignored intelligence reports of an impending invasion The pact ends when Hitler launches Operation Barbarossa-1941 and invades the USSR Stalin desperately tried to maintain peace with Germany, continuing to supply Hitler with vital war supplies

Summary of Nazi-Soviet Pact

Terms Results

•10-year non-agression agreement •Secret clauses over Baltic states and Poland

•Hailed as diplomatic triumph for Stalin •Lulled him into false send of security •Gave Germany free rein in Western-Europe •Left USSR exposed to German attack

[Essay]

102

ESSAY ACCOUNT FOR THE INEFFECTIVENESS OF INTERNAL OPPOSITION TO TWO RULERS OF SINGLE-PARTY STATES. Lenin was met with intense internal opposition after the November revolution from the Russian nationalists, reactionaries, and the various political parties at the time that objected to the coup d’état (Constitutional Democrats, Social Democrats). After the signing of Brest-Litovsk, all of the opposition was united in disgust for the new Peace. Much of the internal opposition was channeled through Civil War, and this essay will focus on why the internal opposition failed (and not why foreign intervention failed). For Lenin, the ineffectiveness of internal opposition is attributed to their weakness, or ‘white weakness’ and not ‘red strength’. This, as you will see this is different with Stalin, as his internal opposition is moreso attributed to his strength, and NOT the weakness of the opposition. Internal opposition failed likely because the major cities were in the hands of Lenin. This is witnessed even as soon as February revolution when as soon as Petrograd fell, all cities others fell as well. Since the opposition controlled a series of small cities, it could not compete with the manpower in Petrograd/Moscow. However, note that the grain production of Petrograd fell to ¼ of pre WWI capabilities, meaning that the control of major cities did not help as much as it is scripted to help. Therefore, ineffectiveness of internal opposition must fall upon the incompetence of the whites. Stalin was met with intense internal opposition when Lenin died in 1924: the most significant one Trotsky, and others left wing Kamenev and Zinoviev, and right wing Bukharin. Their ineffectiveness may be attributed to their own faults or Stalin’s strong ability. For example, Trotsky was too intellectual: while he was excellent at administration such as putting together the Red Army, he could not be a leader as he was not charismatic enough. Stalin’s strong ability is also used to account the ineffectiveness of the internal opposition: for example, he used Lenin’s legacy to show how his opponents were against Leninism. However, the most important factor was Stalin’s ability, and not the faults of his opponents. Since Lenin did not specify his successor, party leadership was on the line. In his testament, it is actually quite evident that Lenin supported Trotsky the most. However, he could not convert that support to a successful opposition. Instead, Stalin sidelined Trotsky by using his large support group in the party to condemn Trotsky of anti-Leninism. However, note Stalin did this by increasing Party numbers, allowing a lot of ignorant party members in

103

[Paper 1]

PAPER 1 Struggle for Power Lenin Benefits: · Lenin Testament · Lenin enrolment · Patronage · Factionalism · Cult of deceased leader Trotsky · Bureaucratization · NEP · Modernization · Permanent Revolution vs Socialism in One Country Left: Kamenev, Zinoviev Right: Bukharin, Rykov, Tomsky

Nature of Soviet State, Constitution, Extent of Stalin’s Power, Cult of Personality

Collectivization, Agricultural Policies Grain Requisition Russia soil ½ of Germany Tractors-MTS De-kulakization Famine 1932-33 Soukhozes/Kolkhozes

Industrialization, Five Year Plans, Rearmament Threat of War Cultural Revolution Gosplan Shakhty trial 1st: Coal, steel, electrical power Stakhanovism Komsomol Magnitogorsk

Purges, Great Terror

Foreign Policy, Nazi-Soviet Pact

Treaty of Rapallo Locarno China Social Democrats (SPD) were social-fascists Nazis German-Polish Treaty League of Nations Popular Front Anti-Comintern Spanish Civil War Munich Agreement Nazi Soviet Pact

105

[Mussolini’s Italy]

MUSSOLINI’S ITALY Mussolini’s Italy ____________________________________________________________________________ 105

Rise to Power _____________________________________________________________________ 106 Conditions ____________________________________________________________________________ Political _____________________________________________________________________________ Economic ___________________________________________________________________________ WWI _______________________________________________________________________________ Fear of Socialism _____________________________________________________________________ Socialists and Communists ______________________________________________________________ Summary ___________________________________________________________________________ Methods ______________________________________________________________________________ Fascio di Combattimento _______________________________________________________________ Response to Socialism _________________________________________________________________ Opportunist _________________________________________________________________________ Propaganda _________________________________________________________________________ March on Rome ______________________________________________________________________ Normalization __________________________________________________________________________ Acerbo Law __________________________________________________________________________ Lateran Concordat ____________________________________________________________________ Summary ___________________________________________________________________________

106 106 106 106 106 106 107 107 107 107 107 108 108 108 108 109 109

Domestic Policies__________________________________________________________________ 110 Corporate State ______________________________________________________________________ 110 Economic ___________________________________________________________________________ 111 Summary ___________________________________________________________________________ 111

Foreign Policy_____________________________________________________________________ 113 First Period of Aggression ______________________________________________________________ The Period of Peace ___________________________________________________________________ Second Period of Aggression ____________________________________________________________ The Axis ____________________________________________________________________________

113 113 113 114

Fall from Power ___________________________________________________________________ 114 Disenchantment ______________________________________________________________________ 114

[Rise to Power]

106

RISE TO POWER CONDITIONS P OLITICAL

E CONOMIC

WWI

F EAR OF S OCIALISM

S OCIALISTS AND C OMMUNISTS

22 governments between 1871 and 1900 The Roman Catholic church was alienated from the Italian state with the loss of the Papal states in the mid 1800s Universal manhood suffrage only came in 1912 Perception of Italian democracy as being corrupt and inefficient broken promises (land, money, inflation, unemployment). The Italian proportional system meant that political parties had to form coalitions to achieve anything in parliament (The Italian government fell five times in a year after the 1919 elections.) South/North The poor economic situation: debts to the USA, foods shortages, inflation of 50%, difficulty in selling exports, few tourists, unemployed war veterans

22 governments between 1871 and 1900 loss of the Papal states in the mid 1800s Gov’n fell 5 times in 1919

Unsuccessful fighting the war Discontent with the peace treaties; Italy did not receive what it was promised under the Treaty of London (1915) The Italian government’s removal of D’Annuzio (the nationalist poet) and his supporters from Fiume by force was very unpopular with Italians.

Italy lost 600'000 soldier Mutilated Peace Treaty of London (1915)

A wave of strikes shook Italian cities throughout 1919-22. growing membership of the Italian socialist and communist parties explain the very high amount of strikes. There were 361 in the month of May in 1919! The revolution of 1917 stood as a menacing example to everyone. Many Italians feared revolution. Nationalist and Catholic elites demanded strong leadership to establish law and order, end strikes, rescue national honour and protect the Church and King. Mussolini was supported by Fiat and Pirelli (large companies) as well as the police, the army and much of the middle class because they felt that Fascism would protect them from socialism Could not cooperate

361 in May 1919 Fiat/Pirelli Police Church and King Nationalist Catholic

inflation of 50%, it cost Italy 150 b Lira cost of living increased 5X

107

[Mussoliniâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Italy]

S UMMARY In 1925, Mussolini became directly responsible to the king, not parliament In 1926, after an attempted assassination of Mussolini, political parties were abolished Trade unions were banned Press was censored, cinema newsreels were largely government propaganda and the regime controlled radio broadcasting. Ran fascist youth movement . The government provided popular mass leisure activities such as sports, concerts and holidays The political police (OVRA) was established Mussolini feared the rivalry of the Fascists so he emptied the movement of power by ordering the local functionaries to obey the local podesta (landowner or army officer) and purged many of the original blackshirts. 1928, universal suffrage was abolished and voting population reduced from 10m to 3m

METHODS F ASCIO DI C OMBATTIMENTO

R ESPONSE TO S OCIALISM

O PPORTUNIST

He organized his Fascio di Combattimento into antisocialist 'police' that attacked socialists and burnt down socialist headquarters. Made up of discontented war veterans (wished for dignity, excitement and a sense of purpose) and nationalists who wanted to make Italy great adopted the salute of the ancient Roman army and made their symbol the fascinae (a bundle of rods and axe which symbolised the stateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s authority to exercise power) The blackshirts practiced thuggery, breaking up opponent meetings and forcing victims to drink castor oil in public. By 1921, most rural areas of Central Italy were controlled by Fascist squad leaders The general strikes of summer 1922: Mussolini organized his fighting units and he started to terrorize his opponents by beating them up. The Socialist party called for a general strike in July 1922, but this played right into the hands of Mussolini, as he was able to give the government an ultimatum: either the government stop the Socialists, or he would. The strike was a failure in any case, but it enabled Mussolini to pose as the enemy of Communism, and the savior of the country. Fascists, initially declared themselves revolutionaries since they opposed Socialists and the trade unions, capitalists and big business, the monarchy and the church. When the Fascists failed to win one seat in the 1919 election, Mussolini abandoned Republicanism and opposition to the church and created a proper political party, The National Fascist Party (PNF).

Fascio di Combattimento Black shirts castor oil fascinae 1921 controlled Rural areas of Central Italy

Socialist Strike treat for July 1922

one seat in the 1919 election The National Fascist Party (PNF).

[Rise to Power]

P ROPAGANDA

M ARCH ON R OME

108

Mussolini was a master of propaganda- used slogan “believe, obey, fight” Mussolini used his oratory skills to capture the imagination of crowds Mussolini made himself famous across the country and the squads took over more provinces. The March on Rome: by autumn 1922, the fascists felt strong and confident enough to bid for power. Mussolini called for a March on Rome of all fascists. 50'000 fascists took to the countryside around Rome. These fascists were poorly equipped and were told to march into Rome. When Luigi Facts (the PM), was told about this, he asked the King for special powers to resist the invasion, such as control of the army. The King refused to do this, and instead, he telegrammed Mussolini in Milan, asking him to come to Rome to become the new Italian Prime Minister. There are many possible reasons why Victor Emmanuel III decided to do this: · He didn't trust Facta? · He didn't trust the army? · He feared a civil war? · He feared the fascists would take power anyway, and it was useless resisting? · He didn't want to abdicate in favour of his cousin, who was sympathetic to fascists? · He felt he would be better able to control Mussolini inside the government than outside?

“believe, obey, fight”

The Acerbo Law (1923) ensured that the group of parties with the largest vote would reviece and absolute majority in parliament. Liberals joined fascist bloc. Opposition parties remain divided- the socialist split into three rival parties Vatican disowned the Catholic Popular Party in favour of Mussolini. Socialist leader claimed the elections were a sham and was subsequently murdered by Mussolini’s thugs. The press denounced the government and the opposition parties walked out of parliamentMussolini did not allow them to return. By late 1924, Mussolini’s regime seemed in danger his liberal supporters were drifting away and the normalisation had angered fascist extremists. Steps to becoming an authoritarian dictator: o In 1925, Mussolini became directly

Acerbo Law (1923)

The March on Rome: by autumn 1922 50'000 Victor Emmanuel III

NORMALIZATION A CERBO L AW

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[Mussolini’s Italy]

responsible to the king, not parliament In 1926, after an attempted assassination of Mussolini, political parties were abolished o Press was censored, cinema newsreels were largely government propaganda and the regime controlled radio broadcasting. Ran fascist youth movement . o The government provided popular mass leisure activities such as sports, concerts and holidays o The political police (OVRA) was established by the Law for the defence of the State (1926) and a special tribunal was set up to try anti-Fascist “subversives”. 1000s of political prisoners were exiled on islands or were executed. o Mussolini feared the rivalry of the Fascists so he emptied the movement of power by ordering the local functionaries to obey the local podesta (landowner or army officer) and purged many of the original blackshirts. o 1928, universal suffrage was abolished and voting population reduced from 10m to 3m The police and army were responsible for repression while the Fascist regime was run by the traditional elites who were linked to the royal court and landowners. o

L ATERAN C ONCORDAT

Vatican became independent, Italy paid pope for taking over his former lands, church granted many privileges (such as religious schools)

1926 Assassination attempt; political parties abolished

OVRA 1926 1000s of political prisoners exiled

1929 Lateran Concordat

S UMMARY F ASCI D I C OMBATTIMENTO 1919: Discontented war veterans who wore black shirts (for excitement, purpose and nationalism) Roman Symbol Inspired by Fiume Aims: o Replace the senate with strong government o Institute agrarian reforms and confiscate church property o Purge the left and support the demand of war veterans o Achieve Italy’s war aims o opposed Socialists and the trade unions, capitalists and big business, the monarchy and the church. Oratory skills Coersion: castor oil in public. Propaganda- used slogan “believe, obey, fight” Opportunist: Failed to win one seat in the 1919 election-Mussolini abandoned Republicanism and opposition to the church and created a proper political party, The National Fascist Party (PNF).

[Domestic Policies]

110

By 1921, most rural areas of Central Italy were controlled by Fascist squad leaders Support of Fiat and Pirelli (large companies) as well as the police, the army and much of the middle class, church; protection them from socialism

M ARCH ON R OME Fiume unpopular with current government New government formed in 1922 paralysed; general strike. The Fascists burned left-wing printers, helped keep essential services running and in doing so demonstrated the ineffectiveness of the government. Mussolini planned for a “March on Rome” in response to socialist strike King Victor Emmanuel III could have declared martial law but was afraid to of army disloyalty and civil war October 1922: King offered prime minister and asked him to form a government (hoping to tame him by constitutional means). Mussolini accepted putting 4 fascists in cabinet. Mussolini was appointed by the king and headed a coalition government of Nationalists, Liberals and Catholic ministers from the Popular Party Easily been stopped

A CERBO L AW AND 1924 E LECTIONS Any party over 25% gets 2/3 representation 1924 elections rigged with coercion (majority)

M ATTEOTTI C RISIS People reconsidered support for Mussolini

R ISE TO R ULE Before Mussolini tolerated opposition/freedom of press. 1926: Local officials replaced with fascists, Socialist and Catholic trade union abolished, no right to strike, OVRA

DOMESTIC POLICIES C ORPORATE S TATE

Mussolini was able to preside over competing centre of power by imposing Fascism onto existing institutions Use of propaganda control of newspapers, first use of cinema, parades, speeches Industry government subsidies to increase production Agriculture goal of self-sufficiency by increasing grain production (tariffs, high prices, etc) Massive land reclamation (draining marshes, irrigating dry land) Massive public works programmes aimed at improving infrastructure The Fascist syndicates replaced the trade unions, wages fell, but secured shorter work week, higher welfare benefits, public works projects, leisure activities and job protection.

1929 Lateran Concordat.

111

[Mussoliniâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Italy]

In 1934 the Fascists set up corporationsď&#x192; mixed bodies of workers and employers that settle labour and wage disputes. Despite propaganda about the corporate state, they had little impact in practise or on industrial management.

E CONOMIC

The revaluation of the Lira resulted in a fall in exports, unemployment increase, wage freeze and fall in prices. However domestic industries were helped by cheaper raw materials. In response to the Great Depression, the government increased spending on public works and welfare and created leading banks and large industrial companies. A large state-owned industrial sector was created, but the companies were not nationalised and were operated as private companies.

S UMMARY C ORPORATISM System of corporations: private initiative with State intervention when in need Weaknesses: bureaucracy; We are probably moving towards a period when humanity will exist on a lower standard of living.' Elaborate and totally irrelevant

P RODUCTIVISM Vague term desire to boost production: success for iron, steel, artificial silk and hydro-electric power

A UTARKY Battle for wheat: high tariffs; loans for chemical fertilizers; successful; less other crops and higher flour/bread/pasta prices Battle for land: Draining marshes to make cultivation/de-forestation Little attention to consumer industries (low quality of living Lira fixed high for national pride; not economically sound (low imports and exports) Great Depression: banks under government control (suffered less than other European countries) Improved massive public works (bridges, stadiums, apartments, electric railway lines, archaeological sites)

L ATERAN C ONCORDAT 1929 Vatican city Mussolini: man who gave God back to Italy and Italy to god Church subordinate of the state Historiography

[Domestic Policies]

112

A. Mussolini had a sound economic plan The government had two main objectives - to modernize the economy, and to remedy the country's lack of strategic resources. Mussolini pushed the modern capitalistic sector in the service of the state and government crushed fundamental class conflicts in favour of corporatism. B.

Mussolini reacted to changes without forward planning Interpretation A is based on the na誰ve acceptance of Italian propaganda. Mussolini knew close to nothing of economics and did not care greatly Historians have argued that Italian fascism was actually a negative force on the Italian economy holding back modernization

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[Mussolini’s Italy]

FOREIGN POLICY

F IRST P ERIOD OF A GGRESSION

T HE P ERIOD OF P EACE

S ECOND P ERIOD OF A GGRESSION

Mussolini promised a strong foreign policy which would reverse past humiliations (i.e. Versailles) and establish Italy as the dominant power in the Mediterranean. o In 1923 three Italian officers who were trying to settle a boundary dispute between Greece and Albania were shot on the border from the Greek side. Mussolini demanded compensation and then bombarded and occupied Corfu. Greece appealed to the League; Mussolini refused to acknowledge its competence and threatened to withdraw from it. The Powers ordered Greece to pay Mussolini early example of appeasement.

1923 Corfu

(1924) concluded pact of Rome with Yugoslavia over disputed town of Fiume. Italy signed Locarno Treaties and the Kellogg-Briand Pact renouncing war as a policy tool Signed treaties with Albania, Hungary and Austria; royal marriage helped relations with Bulgaria Supported Britain over Mosul claim, received part of Somaliland & non-aggression pact Supported anti-Nazi chancellor of Austria, Dolfuss. Signed Rome Protocols with AUS & HUN, establishing trade and common foreign policy Mussolini called Hitler “that little mad clown” in 1934 After the assassination of Dolfuss, Italy sent troops to Brenner Pass to prevent Hitler from using assassination as a pretext to war. When Hitler announced conscription in 1934, Mussolini joined British and French in the Stresa Front of April 1935, condemning Germany and guaranteeing Austria’s borders Mussolini thought the Allies would not mind if he went invaded Abysinnia which was the last remaining uncolonised part of Africa. Italy needed Abyssinia for its own prestige, its colonies in the Horn of Africa were not rewarding and to divert public attention Used an incident that occurred at the oasis of Walwal as a pretext for invading Abyssinia with modernweapons against the ill-equipped natives. Haile Selassie appealed to the League for help, but Britain and France wanted Mussolini’s help against Hitler and were not military, economically or psychologically prepared to go to war. After using poison gas against the naives, the League imposed sanctions against Italy which were ineffective (since they did not

(1924) Fiume 1925 Locarno 1928 KelloggBriand Stresa Front of April 1935

Abyssinia 1935

[Fall from Power]

include oil, coal, iron, steel) The British and French secretly proposed a solution of giving Italy 2/3 of Abyssinia led to public outrage since Italy had not conquered that much land yet. Had he faced oil sanction, Mussolini said he would have had to pull out within a week. The incident discredited the League and the idea of collective security. Mussolini, who resented the sanctions, began to turn to Hitler. Mussolini sent help to Franco during the Spanish Civil War to threaten France, gain bases in West Mediterranean and assist in creating a right-wing militarist state in Spain. Serving on the Non-Intervention Committee, Mussolini gained experience of western appeasement and cooperation with the Nazis against the democracies. Rome-Berlin Axis (1936) and Japan later joined in the Anti-Comintern Pact against Bolshevism Mussolini accepted the Anschluss without protest, played a role in securing the Munich Agreement. In April 1939, Italians troops invaded Albania (to demonstrate independence from Hitler) and in the Pact of Steel (may 1939) Mussolini promised full support to Hitler in war.

T HE A XIS

· · · · · ·

114

Yugoslavia Rapallo (1920) Ethiopia Adowa –Ethiopia (defeat) Hitler Pact of Steel

FALL FROM POWER D ISENCHANTMENT

The League of Nations sanctions on the Italian economy in 1935-1936 led to devaluation of the lira and a greater drive for autarchy (self-sufficiency). Exports diverted to GER, SWTZ and Africa. Monopolies and cartels were encouraged in the shift to heavy industries and armaments. Italians resented the corruption of the government clique, from whom you needed a permit to do nearly anything Army, civil service, the law and church began to withdraw support from Fascism in the 1930s Medical care improved; decrease in infant mortality rates

1936 Rome-Berlin April 1939 Albania 1939 Pact of Steel

115

[Mussolini’s Italy]

Italy’s close relations with Nazi Germany was resented and feared by Italians and many Fascists. The decision to impose anti-Semitic law was seen as a subjugation to Hitler Economy became more inefficient and the inadequacies of the Fascist gov’t became evident. Even though organised anti-Fascist movements were illegal, they managed to find support and operate underground. Evaluation of Mussolini When he first came to power, Mussolini was hailed as a superman across Europe But his achievements were few: o He reinvigorated a divided and demoralized country o Introduced social reforms o Improved infrastructure o Solved the “Roman Question” Failures: The desire for empire was more of a burden than an advantage. (i.e.: Ethiopia did not bring Italy any economic benefits) He was arrogant and believed to strongly in his own abilities Ignored the fundamental limitations of Italy. The relationship w/ Germany meant that Italian interest were of secondary importance Fascism caused economic stagnation in Italy in the 1930s. Fascist rule was corrupt (e.g. permits) and much needed reforms were not carried out.

[Fall from Power]

116

Examine critically the successes and failures of EITHER Castro OR Mussolini, as a leader of a single party state. Mussolini Domestic Polices = Success Foreign Policies = Failure When Mussolini rose to power in the 1920s, he was hailed by western nations as a miracle man, as he completed reformed Italy as he attempted to have it regain the prestige of the Roman Empire. Therefore, it is fair to assume that his domestic policies were successful. For example, his economic policies were able to achieve autarky during the depression, allowing Italy to fare much better than the rest of the world. However, his downfall and his nation’s downfall can be his failure – caused by not domestic policies but actually his foreign policies. Since Italy’s downfall came during a war that he could have avoided, it is evident that Mussolini’s foreign policy was unsuccessful. For many political leaders, the nature of success must be considered; ie success to party vs. Success for the nation. In the case of Mussolini, it seems like the two complement each other; when the fascists are successful, the country is successful. However, this point is debatable. In fact, in the early 1920s, Mussolini’s economic minister lowered taxes to stimulate the economy – largely successful, if not only because the 1920’s were ‘roaring’. However, Mussolini replaced this minister as he said that success for the country is not success for the party. Mussolini, as his own minister of economics, was largely inexperienced – his entire party was inexperienced. Therefore, it is a wonder how he was able to fare so well during the depression. Mussolini’s economic policies were largely successful: he created public work programs to build highways to create jobs in the depression; he held the ‘battle for wheat’ (making Italians farm more wheat and only buy internally) and the ‘battle for land’ (draining marshes to increase wheat production) in order to achieve autarky (which he was convinced was necessary after seeing Germany lose WWI without enough resources). An important policy of Mussolini’s was corporatism, which was an intricate network of employers, all the way up to the high ranks of the party, designed to decrease conflict between employers and the employees. This was successful for the party because he looked like he was trying to help everyone, but in fact he was simply removing employee rights. Mussolini’s corporatism was to a large extent an elaborate facade. It looked extremely good, thus a success to the party, but did not accomplish anything concrete, thus a failure for the nation. Another one of Mussolini’s successes is with his political handling of the religious question. He was able to sign the latern treaty which granted him power over the churchs, although he did surrender the Vatican. Although some of his leading party members said that they were too nice to the churches, Mussolini argued that the treaty indeed put the church under their command, thus a success for the party. As the church was satisfied, it was a success to the people as well. In a political atmosphere that had had as many governments as years in the past few decades, Mussolini gave the people a strong figure, fixing Italy from an extremely polar left vs. Right atmosphere. On the other hand, Mussolini’s foreign policy was not as desirable. His foreign policy was all about restoration of the Roman Empire, something Margaret Macmillan states he did way too much. Italy wanted the same nationalistic standing as the other powers, and fix itself of its low self esteem, acquired from the ‘mutilated peace’

117

[Hitler’s Germany]

HITLER’S GERMANY Hitler’s Germany .................................................................................................................................................. 117

Germany Timeline ...................................................................................................................... 118 Summary of Hitler’s Rise to Power .............................................................................................. 118 Spartakist Uprising .................................................................................................................................... 119 Munich Putsch .......................................................................................................................................... 119 Streseman Era ........................................................................................................................................... 119 Wall Street Crash ...................................................................................................................................... 120 1930 Elections ........................................................................................................................................... 120 March 1932 Presidential Election .............................................................................................................. 120 1932-33 .................................................................................................................................................... 121

Hitler’s Consolidation Of Power .................................................................................................. 121 The Enabling Act: ...................................................................................................................................... 121 Gleichschaltung......................................................................................................................................... 121 The Sa And The Night Of The Long Knives ................................................................................................. 121

[Germany Timeline]

118

GERMANY TIMELINE 1918 Nov 1919 Jan 1919 Spring 1919 June 1923 Nov 1923 1924 1925 1924-29 1928 May 1929 Oct 1929 1930 March 1930 Sept 1932 Jan 1932 March 1932 May 1932 July 1932 May-Nov 1932 Nov 1932-33 1932 July 1933 Jan 1933 March

Kaiser’s abdication Spartakist uprising Weimar constitution drawn up Treaty of Versailles signed Munich Putsch Ruhr occupation Dawes Plan Ebert Dies, Hindenburg new president Stresseman era Elections (nazi gain 12 seats) Wall Street Crash World depression Muller’s coalition breaks up Bruning calls Election (nazis gain 107 seats) Dusseldorf industrialists meeting Presidential elections Bruning sacked after two years Nazis gain 230 seats Von Papen Era Nazis get 196 votes Shliecher in power Nazi biggest partyin elections Hitler becomes Chancellor Hitler gains a majority

SUMMARY OF HITLER ’S RISE TO POWER Versailles: Sense of being stabbed in the back, November criminals Spartakists: Split up the Socialist party meaning that no-one could establish a strong government Weimar Republic: Proportional representation, problems of fragmentation and then presidential decree Economic Depressions: 1923 hyperinflation, 1929 global depression, middle classes and workers crushed, unemployment Support for Nazis: Dussledorf industrialists, not communist, nationalisation, scapegoating Bad politicians: all the good ones died, Von Papen, Schliecher and Bruning all underestimated Hitler and called elections that played into his hands.

119

S PARTAKIST U PRISING

M UNICH P UTSCH

S TRESEMAN E RA

[Hitlerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Germany]

Jan 1919. Spartakists (group of German Marxists) under leadership of Karl Liebmecht and Rosa Luxembourg want to seize power, as Lenin had done two years earlier in Russia. Armed uprising in Berlin which is crushed by the army. It was absolutely crucial, as this caused a split in the SPD, which now became two parties, the KPDcommunist and the SPD, more moderate, including the president of the soon to be Weimar Republic: Ebert. Had the party not split, it could have formed a stable coalition for longer and kept Hitler out of power. Hitler decided in November 1923 that the time had come to seize power, overestimating the support for the Nazi party. He walked into the Bavarian government in the Beerhall and claimed that the revolution had begun. Marched around the streets of Berlin and absolutely no-one came out to support him. 12 or 13 nazis were shot when they met a police barricade, and Hitler was arrested. In some ways it was a complete failure, but it was also a turning point for the party, as Hitler realised the need for a nation-wide movement, and also that force would not bring him power. He used his trial to raise publicity for his cause. Became a secular religion, explaining why they were less popular in the South which was a strongly Catholic region. April 1924-Dawes plan reduced reparations payments and sets up loans cycle. The passive resistance policy was ended, and a new currency was introduced. The middle classes began to recover. Ebert died in 1925 and was replaced by Hindenburg, a pretty crap politician. Ebert and Streseman were probably the only two men who could have stopped Hitler. The Nazis had almost no support during this period, and were viewed as an obscure fringe party, gaining 2.6% of the vote in the 1928 election. The good years ended in 1929.

Jan 1919. Spartakists SPD became KPDCommunists and SPD

November 1923: Beer hall putsch

April 1924-Dawes plan 2.6% of the vote in the 1928 election

[Summary of Hitlerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Rise to Power]

W ALL S TREET C RASH

1930 E LECTIONS

M ARCH 1932 P RESIDENTIAL E LECTION

120

The economic boom had been fuelled by confidence that evaporated in 1929. In October 1929, there was a crash on Wall Street as prices plummeted. Instantly, all US money was pulled out of Germany and there was a global depression. Before the crash, unemployment in Germany had been at about 1 million, by 1933 it was 6 million. Once again, the middle class were crushed, but the effect on the working class was far greater than it had been six years earlier. In March 1930, the coalition under Chancellor Muller broke down following a disagreement over how to handle the crisis. Hindenburg appointed Bruning as the new leader, but he was no more capable of creating a stable government that could agree, so he was forced to call an election which took place in September 1930. The Nazis gained 107 seats, making them the second largest party. They gained support as people began to lose faith in the republic which had screwed up the economy twice. The Nazis were also better than the communists (who would probably never had come to power because the army would have prevented it), although fear of them coming to power made people vote for the Nazis. Hitler also had very effective propaganda and blamed the problems on scapegoats such as the Jews and the November criminals. He had the support of many influential and powerful people, following the Dussledorf Industrialists conference in Jan 1932. He was seen by capitalists as a favourable alternative to the Communists. In March 1932, Hindenburg was up for re-election. Hitler decided to run against him, to show the greatly increased strength of the Nazi party, despite the fact that he risked alienation from the President if he were to lose. He was a very modern politician, travelling everywhere by air. Hitler did not win, but he ran Hindenburg very close, showing how strong the Nazis had become.

unemployment from 1m to 6m 1933

107 seats November criminals Dussledorf Industrialists

modern politician (airplane)

121

1932-33

[Hitler’s Germany]

In May 1932, it was clear that Bruning had failed, having not sorted out the government or the economy, replaced by Von Papen, an aristocratic member of the centre party who was not a great politician. Yet another election was called, Hitler won 230 seats making them the biggest party. In the run up to the July election, the country began to descend into chaos. the SA intimidated many voters, sense of a growing crisis (Von Papen had cunningly raised the ban on the SA). Police completely lose control of the situation. Von Papen tried to ally himself to Hitler, and failed dismally. Shliecher also had a go at being Chancellor (from dec 1932-Jan 1933), and ambitiously tried to split the Nazi party, hoping to gain the support of the more left wing faction. November election, support for Nazis was fading 196 seats, coming out of recession, army taking control. Nobody was able to establish a government, and the Republic was falling apart. Von Papen believing that they would be able to control In the elections of March 1933, the Nazi party finally gained a majority with 288 seats, and Hitler was able to pass the enabling act, making him the leader of a one-party state. (the DNVP and centre party supported him).

196 seats Nov 3233, coming out of recession

HITLER’S CONSOLIDATION OF POWER Problems Faced: Nazis held few posts in the cabinet, Papen and Hindenburg were trying to limit his power. Nazis did not have a majority in the Reichstag, and vote was declining. The SA, trade unions, lander and Reichswehr were also obstacles. Dealing With These Problems: T HE E NABLING A CT : Of March 1933. The Reichstag fire helped to further downgrade the status of the KPD.

G LEICHSCHALTUNG : Setting up Nazi organisations to work alongside existing gov’t institutions. In January 1934, the Landtage were abolished and federal government ended. In may 1933, all trade unions were banned, and their leaders imprisoned and Nazi work organisations replaced them. Between February and July 1933, all other political parties were banned, and on the 14th July the Nazi party became the only legal party. T HE S A A ND T HE N IGHT OF T HE L ONG K NIVES : The purge of the SA took place on June 30th. 400 members were murdered. The army allied itself behind Hitler and upon the death of Hindenburg on the 2nd August 1934 swore a personal oath of loyalty to him.

123

MAO’S CHINA See Companion: IB History in China

[Mao’s China]

125

[Mao’s China]

TOPIC 5: THE COLD WAR

127

[Cold War]

COLD WAR Cold War _________________________________________________________________________________ 127 Cold War Timeline ______________________________________________________________________ 127

Origins __________________________________________________________________________ 129 John Lewis Gaddis Thesis _________________________________________________________________ Distrust _______________________________________________________________________________ The Grand Alliance ______________________________________________________________________ Deterioration of the Grand Alliance_________________________________________________________ Warsaw Uprising _______________________________________________________________________ Yalta _________________________________________________________________________________ Potsdam ______________________________________________________________________________ Iran __________________________________________________________________________________ Turkey: _______________________________________________________________________________ Greece: _______________________________________________________________________________ Soviet Expansionism _____________________________________________________________________ Superpowers __________________________________________________________________________ Nuclear _______________________________________________________________________________ Two Germanys _________________________________________________________________________ Truman Doctrine / Marshall Aid ___________________________________________________________ Yugoslavia and Albania___________________________________________________________________ Czech. ________________________________________________________________________________ NATO ________________________________________________________________________________ Berlin Wall ____________________________________________________________________________

COLD WAR TIMELINE Date 1946 1946 1946 March 1947 1947 February 1947 March 1947 1947 1948 1948 May 1948 Summer 1949 1949 1949 1949 Summer 1949 1950 June

Event Elections in Romania and Bulgaria-Communist dictatorships set up Problems with economy, in Eastern Germany Iron Curtain speech New currency launched for Western Germany British pull out of Greece Truman Doctrine Marshall aid Poland goes Communist Czechoslovakia goes Communist Berlin Blockade begins Yugoslavia expelled from comintern First successful Soviet detonation Official separation of Korea NATO set up Berlin Blockade ends Germany is formally split N Korea invades the South

129 129 130 130 130 131 132 132 133 133 133 133 133 134 134 134 135 135 136

[Hitler’s Consolidation Of Power] 1950 August 1950 August 1950 Sept 1950 Oct 1951 Spring 1952 1952 1953 1953 Summer 1953 1953 1954 1955 1955 May 1955 1956 April 1956 Feb 1956 October 1956 Oct 1957 1958 1958 New Year’s Eve 1959 New Year’s Day 1960 1961 spring 1961 Oct 1961 1961 1961 1961 1964 1968 Jan 1968 August 1969 Feb 1980 August 1981 1985 1988 1989 1989 Nov 9th 1991 Aug

128

US troops are holding out at Pusan Landing at Inchon Seoul retaken Chinese troops come across the river Stalemate develops First H-bomb Eisenhower become pres of the US First Soviet H-bomb Korean war ends Riots in Berlin Death of Stalin Geneva peace accords re Indo China Geneva summit Austrian state treaty Germany allowed to join NATO Cominform abadonned Khrushchev’s destalinisation speech Polish uprising Hungarian uprising Sputnik launched Mini Berlin crisis Batista flees Cuba Tanks go into Havana US investments in Cuba nationalised, commie state set up Bay of Pigs invasion Cuban missile crisis August Berlin Wall erected Gagarin makes first flight JFK comes to power Kennedy and Khrushchev meet for the first time Brezhnev comes to power Novotny voted out in Cz Russian tanks move into Cz Jan Palack burns himself to death in protest at the Soviet oppression Beginning of Solidarity movement Andropov becomes Russian premier Gorbachev becomes Russian leader Polish communist regime begins to split up Hungarian gov’t adopts peristroika Berlin wall comes down attempted coup, Yeltsin comes to power

129

[Cold War]

ORIGINS JOHN LEWIS GADDIS THESIS

The cold war originated from two nations who wanted peace through different means: USA Lenient treatment of Germany after WWI led only to further aggression, so they had to stop Stalin Politically: maximum opportunity for peoples of the world to determine their own future Economically: to prevent a reoccurrence of 1930s, which allowed dictators to take power International order to replace the league of nations Russia Three devastating invasions in one hundred and thirty years â&#x20AC;&#x201C; create a glacis Xenophobia Satellite states

glacis

DISTRUST

Despite

US recognition 1933 Democratic constitution 1936 Pact with Japan 1941 Katyn Wood Revealed by Germany April 1943, 4500

US recognition of USSR in 1933 Democratic constitution of 1936 Russia USA had intervened in the Russian Civil War against the Bolsheviks Western Allies had appeased Hitler, probably in the hope that they would destroy the Soviet state for them, forcing Stalin to make his own arrangements (the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact) to keep the inevitable Germany invasion of the Soviet Union at bay until he was ready to deal with it USA Bolshevik revolution Nazi-Soviet pact, partition of Poland, invasion of Finland, Katyn Wood Pact with Japan 1941 USSR supplied the Luftwaffe with aircraft fuel

[Origins]

THE GRAND ALLIANCE

United by common enemies Policy of unconditional surrender General Douglas MacArthur wrote in may 1942: “the Russian armies are killing more Axis personnel and destroying more Axis material than all other twentyfive United Nations put together.” Roosevelt 1943: “heaviest fighting today is going on in Russia”. Roosevelt 1944 “We either work with the other great nations or we might someday have to fight time. And I am against that. While Russia = Germany totalitarianism, Kremlin had not sought world conquest through military aggression.

DETERIORATION OF THE GRAND ALLIANCE

July 1941: Russia asked Britain for Baltic States, Finland and Rumania. (former frontiers) May 1942 – promised Russia a second front Second front promised for 1942, did not materialize, Roosevelt could not keep Stalin from taking Eastern Europe. Only delivered mid 1944, Stalin said, “They want to bleed us white in order to dictate their terms to us later” Soviet Union delayed in declaring war on Japan until almost the last moment Allied leaders realized Russia was moving too fast through Europe, so they pushed for Berlin July ’44 when Soviet forces are within 20-30 miles of Warsaw The Polish resistance · Home Army · Communist Polish Resistance The Home Army pro-West and anti-Russian (not much keener on Russia than on Germany since the Katyn Wood massacre) Home Army rises up against the Germans Russians claim to have problems with supplying equipment

WARSAW UPRISING

130 Roosevelt 1943: “heaviest fighting today is going on in Russia”.

Warsaw Uprising July 1944 Home Army Communist Polish Resistance

131

YALTA

[Cold War]

The Yalta Conference, February 1945: defeat of Nazi Germany was only a matter of time Germany: Trials of the leading war criminals were agreed. Zones of Occupation Reparations Moved away from the ‘Morgenthau Plan’ (reducing Germany to an agricultural country but not alternative was found. Eliminate or control "all German industry that could be used for military purposes". Poland: GB and USA had recognized Polish Gov. in exile while Stalin recognized the Lublin Committee (Polish communists). Suggested that the 2 groups co-operate and that ‘free and unfettered elections…on the basis of universal suffrage and secret ballot’ would be held. No decisive conclusion on frontiers but agreed that Soviet frontier would advance westwards and Poland would be compensated from German territory. Japan: USSR agreed to enter war against Japan within ‘2 or 3 months of the ending of hostilities in Europe’ USSR to regain all territory lost to Japan in 1904/05 war and to have the major interest in the railways in Northern China

Yalta February 1945

[Origins]

POTSDAM

132

The Potsdam Conference, July/August 1945: Truman represented the USA / Churchill was replaced by Attlee / Truman informed Stalin of the US atomic bomb. Council of Foreign Ministers formed to draft peace treaties w/ defeated enemy states. Reparations: USSR to begin collecting reparations from its zone / eventually to receive a percentage of reparations from western zones. Arrangements for trial of Nazi leaders went ahead in the American zone. Areas of Disagreement: 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

IRAN

Stalin wanted the districts of Kars and Ardahan in Turkey. Stalin demanded trusteeship of one of the former Italian colonies in Africa. Stalin proposed joint action on Franco (rejected by western powers) Stalin proposed discussion of situation in Syria and Lebanon but GB and FR considered this to be of their concern. USA and Allies not able to access areas of Europe occupied by the Red Army. Stalin moved the frontier of the USSR westwards and handed over to Poland a large area of the Soviet zone of Germany (including land to which the Allies had not agreed)

The breakdown of the alliance followed rapidly as conflicts arose in a number of areas: Northern part of the country to be a Russian sphere of interest / Southern part a British sphere. September 1944: British negotiate an oil concession w/ Iranian Gov. for Anglo-Iranian Oil Company and Standard Oil of USA à Soviet seek a similar concession / Iranians (encouraged by West) refuse. USSR began to give support to groups opposed to monarchy in Iran / refused to withdraw troops in 1945 / established ‘independent’ republic of Azarbaijani. January 1946: Iran complains to UN security council March 1946: USSR agrees to withdraw troops Iranian forces move to restore Gov. control over ‘Azarbaijani’ and Soviet troops move to the border / both GB and USA threaten to support Iran USSR backs down.

Iran September 1944: Anglo-Iranian Oil Company Iranians refuse Soviets USSR refused to withdraw troops in 1945 January 1946: Iran complains to UN security council March 1946: USSR agrees to withdraw troops

133

TURKEY:

GREECE:

SOVIET EXPANSIONISM SUPERPOWERS NUCLEAR

[Cold War]

Teheran Conference (1943): Churchill stated that USSR was entitled to better access to the world’s principal sea routes. March 1945: USSR demands that the treaty concerning the use of the Straits be revised / demand for naval base on the Dardanelles / demand for return of the old Czarist provinces of Kars and Ardahan à Turks refused and are supported by GB August 1946: USA stated that any attack upon Turkey would justify action by Security Council of UN and moved an aircraft carrier force to Istanbul. October 1944: Percentages agreement, Britain of Greece` December 1944: British begin supporting the Greek monarchy against communist forces backed by Yugoslavia and Albania suspicion that Stalin was behind the communist moves, in fact Tito Feb. 1947: USA must steps in Truman Doctrine. 1946 - Fixed elections in Romania (90% USSR) and Bulgaria (75%) 1947 - Poland fixed election 1948 Czechs go communist, betrayed in Munich With the destruction of Britain and France, the USA and USSR were left as rival super-powers In July 1945, first successful detonation New Mexico desert Truman tells Stalin at Potsdam In August, two bombs are dropped on Japan- ending the war 1949 first successful Soviet detonation wiping out the American advantage The speed with which the USSR closed the gap surprised the US brave spies First Hydrogen bomb detonated by US in 1952- based on fusion not fission USSR gets one in 1953Rosenberg case- people suspected of spying were executed

· ·

Teheran Conference (1943) March 1945: Dardanelles Kars and Ardahan

Percentages agreement Britain 90% Greece December 1944 Britain support to monarchy 1947 Truman Doctrine 1946 Romania Bulgaria 1947 Poland 1948 Czech

USA 1945, 1952 USSR 1949, 1953

[Origins]

134

TWO GERMANYS

Russians stripped East Germany, 1946 inflation 1947, the allies, pumping resources into launch a new currency for the Western section (Allied Control Commission) May 1948 the Berlin Blockade starts airlift went on for about a year- saving Berlin but at enormous cost- everything was taken by plane, not just food, and the planes were landing about once every minute even in very risky conditions Summer 1949, Stalin re-opens the frontierspsychological importance of working together with the German people for the West In 1949, the country is formally split. 路 Federal Republic of Germany 路 German Democratic Republic Reflection of cold war tensions, and also helps to heighten them. 1946- March, Churchill makes his iron curtain speech

TRUMAN DOCTRINE / MARSHALL AID

February 1947 the British informed the US that they would no longer be able to continue their role in Greece and Turkey. Britain is in a shit state, for the first time, even bread has been rationed. Truman takes the US into the conflict with the Truman Doctrine in 1947- this is the beginning of US imperialism, and lays the way for Marshall Aid (That was in fact the point of the Doctrine).

YUGOSLAVIA AND ALBANIA

Liberated not thanks to the Red Army No loyalty to Stalin. Tito completely refused to accept the dominance of Moscow Summer of 1948, Yugoslavia was expelled from the Comintern by Stalin- Tito was able to break free because he had a large army The US fund his regime because it was anti-Russian (but communist, so Truman was clearly talking out of his ass with the doctrine) This was a terrible humiliation for Stalin, and prompted a series of purges across Europe.

May 1948-Summer 1949 Berlin Blockade 1949 split 1946- March Iron curtain speech

135

CZECH.

NATO

[Cold War]

History of democracy which had never been ruled by the USSR. betrayal by the West at Munich genuinely free elections of 1946, they received 38% of the vote- a very large proportion In 1947, the US becomes very worried about the impoverished state of Europe, Beginning of Marshall aid which resulted in an economic recovery in Western Europe by the 1950s. It was offered to the Czech people also, but Stalin ordered them not to accept with a further election due in 1948, the CCP was worried that it would lose support over this unpopular decision- this leads to the Communist takeover in February of 1948 CCP force a political crisis, destroying the coalition as the other members storm out. Benes, (old giffer) doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t call an election, so the Communists hold onto power. Gottwald (leader of the Communists) had warned him that the issue could lead to a civil war, so Benes told him to take control of the country. A very repressive Communist regime is hence set up. Nato was set up in 1949 UK, Belgium, Norway, US collective security anti-USSR. West germany joins 1955 begins to re-arm- its becoming a prosperous and important country, although the Russians and the French are NOT happy about the rearming. Russians set up the Warsaw pact in response to this- the rearming argument was also used by the Russians.

Nato 1949 W Germany 1955

[Origins]

BERLIN WALL

Khrushchev claimed West Berlin ‘a springboard for espionage and anti-Soviet acts’ USSR would grant the DDR full sovereign status, which would effectively give it the right to claim all of the land in its capital, Berlin. Khrushchev, faced with the prospect of World War Three, backed down at a summit in 1959 signaling the end of this period of heightened tension. between 1949 and 1957 more than two million refugees had fled across to West Berlin in search of employment or to escape the Soviet regime. When Khrushchev met Kennedy in June 1961 and repeated the warning that the Western powers must be prepared to leave Berlin within six months, the number of defectees increased to almost 1000 a day, skilled intelligent workers, which had an effect on the economy of the city In August 1961, a wall was erected to prevent people from fleeing from East to West · it stopped the loss of essential manpower. On the other hand, it did not please the Western powers, · for the next 28 years Berlin remained a source of tension between the US and USSR.

136