Caitlin Tan and Nikki Pesengco
History of Gender Equality
DEAR GLOBAL GIRLS
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Feminism in Latin America Thaiana Zandoná
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A Brief History of Sexual Assault
Anaís Fernández
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The Twisted Perspective of Periods By Rithvika Payala
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Colonization and Gender Equality Dominique de Castro
CONTENTS.
CONTENTS 12 15
Book Review By Rithvika Payala
Word Search
14 16
Back to School Guide By Sandra Cheah
Brazilian Portuguese Basics By Talia Caskey
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Feminism in Latin America. by Thaiana Zandoná
Feminism has boomed in popularity and discussion in Latina America. The debate around it has become more public and eloquent due to more mainstream media access.
This political movement is even more significant precisely because of Latina America's history with political civil war and military regimes in the 20th century. Thus, it can give the impression of a late surge in feminism in the region because the most popular names in feminist Latin America are from the past century, and the genealogy of this philosophy is quite hard to track. Latina America itself, however, is diverse and has an immense history of colonies of exploration, slavery, native erasement, and controversial interventions from western countries even after democratization. So when we talk about the history behind feminism in Latina America, we have to think plural, considering the diversity in culture and problems in each country. For example, racism in each country works differently because of the way they were colonized, and sometimes Brazil is not even much considered part of Latina America for its inhabitants speaking Portuguese and was the last country to abolish slavery. More importantly, most of the first Latina feminists didn’t make it to the books due to sexism, race, and ethnic struggles, and that most of their resistances for women’s rights and freedom started with collective perspectives.
To name a few, Sor Juana Inés de La Cruz (1665), also known as “The Mexican Phoenix,” was a girl passionate about learning in a time when women couldn’t think about anything but marriage. She resiliently pursued her thirst for knowledge. She even became a nun, so she could continue her studies. As it is well put, Sor Juana was a feminist even before the word existed. She fiercely defended girl’s rights to education which later inspired many women during their own pursuit to freedom and learning.
Page 4 Another name in history would be Maria Firmina dos Reis, a Black Brazillian woman, who was recognized as the first female writer in the country. She made a revolution when in 1860 she published a romanticist book, a genre not ever wrote before, about slavery in Brazil. Most of the works during this time period lacked a track record but were revived during the consolidation of Latina America Feminisms in the 20th century. As for talking about this century, it is a complex work. For a better understanding, we can divide the timeline in half. The first part of this period laid out the foundation for feminism in Latina America, especially when associated and inactivated by the political awareness regarding education, human rights, labor rights, and rising civil participation. But the last half of the century was met with civil war, the Cold War, and militarization in Latina America. Most countries experienced a decay on all fronts when it came to freedom. And for feminism, it was a period of silence; most of its work was through literature and art, as shown in the iconic Frida Kahlo’s self-portraits and arguable questions of women’s place in society and Lelia Gonzalez’s essays on intersectional feminism and how it was like to be a Black woman in Latina America. Thus, we arrive in the 21st century, the culmination of all its history and the vibrant breath for freedom after the last dark decades. The feminist is restructuring itself into its true meaning, leaving behind liberal ideas and taking into account race, sexuality, ethnicity, and identity. While there is still a long way to go especially when we consider a sustainable development to all Latina America, we can still celebrate our victories like Argentina’s abortion legalization, the rising of Black and trans-women in Brazil 2020’s election all over the country, and Chile’s new constitution that could set a game- changing moment for gender equality.
"As a Latina girl, I’m proud of how far we have come and hopeful for the future ahead." - Thaiana Zandoná
A BRIEF HISTORY OF SEXUAL ASSAULT
#METOO #METOO #METOO #METOO
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by Anaís Fernandez The hashtag reached nearly eight million tweets by January 2018, following multiple sexual misconduct allegations against Harvey Weinstein in October of 2017 (George Washington University). The Me Too movement encouraged survivors to speak out about their experiences and bring attention to sexual assault and harassment in the workplace. The movement feels revolutionary, and in many ways, it is. Sexual violence has existed in human society for as long as gender roles have, and real attention has only been called to the issue in the last fifty years. By understanding the historical factors contributing to the legacy of rape, we can more efficiently combat sexual misconduct and violence as it exists today The oldest document of written law, the Code of Hammurabi (1754 BCE), identifies rape as a property crime. In most societies prior to the thirteenth century, sexual assault was not considered a crime in and of itself. Women were property, and rape was a means of attaining property.
Accordingly, rape was especially common in warfare, whether it be the Nanjing Massacre of 1937 or the countless enslaved African women raped by white plantation owners in the American South. In war, the rape of innocent women ties into the narrative of expansion and colonization. Established in the late thirteenth century, English Common Law was the first time rape against all women was officially illegal. Despite this significant landmark, the law was rarely enforced. As society and culture shifted with industrialization and the emergence of distinct classes, rape as a crime became increasingly nuanced. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the birth of the middle class caused a change in ideology about women’s sexuality. In an effort to distinguish themselves from the working class, the middle class developed a narrative concerning the preservation of women’s chastity, initiating a departure from the previously held ideology, libertinism, which revolved around the uncontrolled expression of male sexuality.
This shift in ideology caused the blame in rape cases to fall on women instead of men according to this narrative, women had allowed themselves to be dirtied and unpurified. These ideas made it incredibly difficult for women to speak about the sexual violence they endured and even harder to report them in a legal setting.
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When rape cases did make it to court, a man’s status was valued above all else. High-status men were almost always acquitted. Those who were not acquitted lost only their respectability, depending on the punishment they endured. The violated woman lost all respectability the moment she had been raped. Also, courts often questioned the credibility of a woman. If the woman was perceived to be sexually voracious (this applied especially to prostitutes at the time), courts immediately wrote off the possibility of rape. The prevailing notion at the time was that a woman became sexually awakened upon male aggression. This assumption immediately invalidated a more sexually passive woman’s allegations of rape. In both cases, consent was disregarded.
Page 6 In fact, consent only became a major conversation recently; up to the late-19th century, the age of consent in the U.S. was about 10 years of age. The issue of rape exists at a point of the intersectionality of gender, sex, and race. Missouri v. Celia is a landmark case in which an enslaved black woman, Celia, was tried for murdering her owner after he raped her. Similar to women in the Middle Ages, enslaved people in the U.S. in 1855 were considered property. Celia, faced by a jury of twelve white men, was quickly convicted and sentenced to death a harsh punishment for anyone other than a black enslaved person. A similar incident occurred in 1866, a year after the end of the Civil War, during the Memphis Riots. A group of five black women testified in front of a congressional committee about being gangraped by a group of white men.
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The rapists were neither identified nor punished for their actions. Celia, faced by a jury of twelve white men, was quickly convicted and sentenced to death a harsh punishment for anyone other than a black enslaved person. A similar incident occurred in 1866, a year after the end of the Civil War, during the Memphis Riots. A group of five black women testified in front of a congressional committee about being gangraped by a group of white men.
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The rapists were neither identified nor punished for their actions. The second wave of feminism rode in with the changing roles of women in the workplace; they were now employed, some even holding the same positions as men. Women became more aware of the opportunities still out of reach, from equal pay to reproductive rights. A greater focus on the issue of rape defined the second wave, vocalized by Susan Brownmiller and her book, Against Our Will. Brownmiller describes rape and sexual violence as a tool men use to keep women in fear and submission. Her words sparked the Anti-Rape Movement of the 1960s and 70s. The Anti-Rape Movement looked a lot like the Me Too Movement today women’s voices were lifted and amplified at various conventions across the country, spreading a new message longsuppressed:
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Rapists were not always monsters existing in the dark. They were boyfriends, family members, celebrities. As survivors continued to speak out, multiple outreach and resource groups were created, such as the National Coalition Against Sexual Abuse. These national and regional associations built rape crisis centers designed to break down the stereotypes of survivors and to provide healing practices specific to the tragedy of sexual assault.
Other forward steps resulting from the Anti-Rape Movement include the national recognition and outlawing of marital rape by 1993. The Rape Shield Laws of the late 1970s and 1980s protected a woman’s sexual history from the courts to reduce the bias that had been rampant in the previous centuries. In 1974, a prison guard raped a black woman named Joan Little at the Beaufort County Jail in North Carolina. She killed her rapist with an ice pick and escaped from prison. When she was caught and charged for murder, Angela Davis led the country-wide push for justice. Joan Little was acquitted. The verdict of her case altered the narrative that Celia and countless other black women before her had been victim to. The Anti-Rape Movement continues today, spurred by social media and greater accessibility to the invaluable and brave voices of survivors throughout the world. Looking back, we see how far we’ve come and how much farther we still have to go.
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Protestors in Hollywood rally against sexual assault in November of 2017.
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By Rithvika Payala
Page 8 dorned in fluorescent shades of tangerine and pink, 26-year-old drummer Kiran Gandhi strides across the finish line of the 2016 London Marathon. Pictures were taken of her accomplishing such a momentous feat, but, the public’s feedback resembled that of a cold dagger. Unladylike and disgusting were the responses to the runner freely bleeding during the marathon. These jiving comments, however, didn’t phase Gandhi as she says in the People’s interview, “If we don’t own the narrative of our own bodies, somebody else will use it against us.” Gandhi’s story calls attention to the everpresent stigma of periods that permeates our society.
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Stigma is complicated. What we see as a superficial problem has deep roots that intertwine within the pages of history. Even in Biblical times, menstruation has had negative connotations. Women on their periods became synonymous with impurity: any ritual objects or even people she touches becomes adulterated. The Hebrew term for menstruation itself, “niddatah,” is comprised of the root ndh meaning “separation” as a result of impurity. The term further developed a shameful tone as a result of its use to describe reprehensible acts (Ezekiel 7:19–20) and even sexual sins (Leviticus 20:21). Using the term as an antonym of holiness has influenced the emotional and legal understandings of menstruation for generations beyond. Misinformation has not only saturated the early eras, but also has seeped into the 1920s. During this time, a prime debate topic amongst the medical community was on the topic of “menotoxin”. This substance was believed to have existed in menstrual blood and to which had the metaphysical capabilities of spoiling foods, blighting plants, and killing insects by simply walking through a field. At the time, professionals even made claims that these “poisonous
Kiran Gandhi (left) running in the London Marathon 2016 | Credit: Kiran Gandhi
vapors” are attributed to women’s unhinged emotions and dysphoria. These claims added another layer of misogyny atop the already skewed view of menstruation when discussing something as normal as behavioral variation. The twisted yet sturdy foundation of falsity, credited to history, still has effects in today’s contemporary society. Women across the world are physically shunned, silenced, and shamed from sharing their experiences. Being suppressed from discussing such a prominent part of human experience can not only cause unjustifiable shame, but also physical harm due to a lack of education. In other words, speaking freely about menstruation is how we can take back power and dismantle the secrecy and embarrassment associated with periods. As Gandhi says,“ speaking about an issue is the only way to combat its silence, and dialogue is the only way for innovative solutions to occur”. The twisted yet sturdy foundation of falsity, credited to history, still has effects in today’s contemporary society. Women across the world are physically shunned, silenced, and shamed from sharing their
experiences. Being suppressed from discussing such a prominent part of human experience can not only cause unjustifiable shame, but also physical harm due to a lack of education. In other words, speaking freely about menstruation is how we can take back power and dismantle the secrecy and embarrassment associated with periods. As Gandhi says,“ speaking about an issue is the only way to combat its silence, and dialogue is the only way for innovative solutions to occur."
"Women across the world are physically shunned, silenced, and shamed from sharing their experiences."
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THE CURRENT STATE OF AFFAIRS
"GENDER IS A COLONIAL OBJECT." by Dominique de Castro
Unless you’ve been living under a rock, you’re aware of how many countries across the world struggle with gender inequality. More specifically, women and girls are likely to not have access to the same resources, education, and rights as men and boys are. According to the UN, women are over two thirds of the world’s illiterate population. Additionally, men have higher wages than women globally regardless of if they live in rural or urban areas(1). But, how did we get here? How did gender inequality become such a global issue despite the vast amount of unique and different cultures all over the world? And how did it become so uniform?
COLONIZATION: THE ROOT OF THE ISSUE Europeans often had different views on sexuality and gender than the cultures they were trying to colonize. They lived in patriarchal societies with hierarchies of gender, class, and race: Men were viewed as superior to women; the wealthy were superior to the poor, enslaved, and indentured people; white men were seen as superior to black men, Moors, and men of other races (2). As a result, when Europeans colonized, they often changed the cultures and the laws of the places they colonized to fit their own cultural understandings of gender and sexuality. For example, the prevalence of ‘honor killings’ in India are caused by the British drafting India’s Penal Code in 1860 where they made it legal for men to kill their wives if they so much as suspected that their wife had been unfaithful. Honor killings had existed for centuries prior to British colonization, but they were treated as murders and were punished. Additionally, the British government introduced laws that banned homosexuality. As a result, more than half of former British colonies (and areas that were affected by British soft power) criminalize homosexuality today(2).
Lucas Ballestin argues that gender is a colonial object, which is an object that is “embedded, reproduced, and circulated within a concrete colonial practice” (3). He takes inspiration from the work of Maria Lugones, who argues that our current understanding of gender was imposed on cultures across the world through European colonization. Prior to colonization, many of these cultures had their own conceptions of gender. For example, Oyeronke Oyewomi notes in their account of the colonization of the land of the Yoruba (modern day Nigeria, Togo, and Benin) that they had diverse gender categories before colonization and that people could move between these categories. Their understanding of gender was neither hierarchical nor binary. Additionally, women were able to participate in public, religious, and economic activities. However, once the British imposed their own culture and gender norms, Yoruba men were given more power in society. Only Yoruba men were allowed to participate (to a degree) in public affairs and men were placed in charge of property ownership when property had previously been held by the community through lineage. Another example comes from indigenous
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populations of the Americas where pre colonial gender systems often included a variety of gender roles and categories. Additionally, in many (though not all) indigenous cultures, there was the concept of a “third gender” which typically denoted a space between or in addition to the gender binary (3). Imposition of the European gender system did not always come from direct colonization, but rather was established through soft power (when cultural influence from one culture dominates another culture). In Persia, for example, Persian culture was influenced through British soft power. As a result, homoeroticism and homosexuality became less acceptable when it was previously accepted (3).
The modern gender system being colonial does not equate to there being no gender social structure before colonization and it also does not mean that there was no gender inequality before colonization. However, in most cases, colonization made gender inequality worse through the policies the British and other European powers put in place. For example, pre-colonial Borana women of modern day Kenya were not viewed as completely equal to Borana men, however, they were active in herding small livestock as well as economic processes such as processing and distributing milk, meat, and animal hides(4). They were also, albeit often indirectly, involved in political practices. Once the British decided to impose indirect rule however, that system was changed. They gave men more powerful positions and privileges over women which increased the gender inequality (4).
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WHAT NOW?
G
ender inequality today is most often conceptualized in the West through a colonial lens that completely ignores how colonization aided these inequalities. This is partially due to the fact that the study of International Relations (IR) is inherently colonialist with Euro and US-centric colonialism founded and is built into the structure of IR (5). Many international organizations, such as the UN, that are meant to maintain global peace were created, and are dominated, by West European countries, the US, and Canada. Therefore these colonial power houses still monopolize the conversation on gender inequality, silencing the very people most affected by colonialism and gender inequality (I even used some of the UN’s statistics in this article). However, that does not mean that there are no feminist ideologies grounded in decolonization. For example, many Indigenous feminists from the Americas seek to deconstruct settler colonial ideas while also revitalizing and drawing from Indigenous ideas about thinking, connecting and being (5). It is important to center colonialism in feminism, especially global feminism, so as to avoid gender washing, the process through which colonialism is furthered under the guise of women’s rights. Instead, centering the voices of those who have been affected by colonization is important to practicing more ethical feminist politics (5).
"Instead, centering the voices of those who have been affected by colonization is important to practicing more ethical feminist politics."
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by Talia Caskey Book review:
The Seven Husbands of Evelyn Hugo by Taylor Jenkins Reid
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T
he mind-boggling and precious tale of the fictional Evelyn Hugo probably
appeared on your Tik Tok for you page. And trust me, #booktok has got it right. While taking the reader along Evelyn Hugo's seven marriages, Reid explores the toxic environment Hollywood perpetuates. One of Hollywood's biggest stars, Evelyn Hugo, known for her infamous blonde hair, tan skin, and slim yet plump figure, is much more than screens reveal. Her "fans" don't know much about her life before fame, or much of it at all. A tale about romance and Hollywood quickly shifts and begins to detail the gruesome societal expectations forcefully placed on actresses. Let me just say that once I picked up this book, I had read over 200 pages in one day, my eyes were glued to the end. The book has countless plot twists that I just couldn't lay the book down. I'm that type of reader that takes a long time to complete a book unless there is something engaging happening often, and this book is perfect for readers like that. The story is divided into seven different sections detailing each of Evelyn's marriages, which may seem confusing at first, but at the end each section seem to seamlessly work and connect together.
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Back to school advice from a high school junior
Hi! My name is Sandra, a junior in high school from New York. Getting back into the "normalcy" of things can be tough, so I am here to give you some advice on how to start fresh and have a great school year!
Making Friends: Trust me, there will be at least one person in your school who shares a similar interest. Be open, and be you! A great way to meet new people are joining clubs/ sports and attending school events. Not only do you meet new people, but will be part of a close-knit community.
“JUST BE YOURSELF, THERE IS NO ONE BETTER.” -FROM THE QUEEN HERSELF, MISS TAYLOR SWIFT
“THE GREATEST WEAPON AGAINST STRESS IS OUR ABILITY TO CHOOSE ONE THOUGHT OVER ANOTHER.” -WILLIAM JAMES
Stress: School can be toughespecially with balancing, extracurriculars, chores, and spending time with friends. One tip is to make to-do lists or get a planner. Use your time wisely and understand your priorities. If you're at a lowpoint, talk to someone or take a break to do an activity you enjoy.
Be Present: Time goes by quickly, and soon you'll catch yourself graduating high school. So, enjoy every second of it. Live during your middle or high school years with no regrets. Live in the moment. :)
“The first day of school: The day when the countdown to the last day of the school begins.” – Unknown
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GAMES
HITE MEN.
Word Bank: ABORTION FRIDA IDENTITY
Answer key is at the end of the magazine!
MARIA MENSTRUATION METOO
MISINFORMATION STIGMA SUFFRAGE
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Learning Brazilian Portuguese Language series part 1 by Talia Caskey
Greetings and goodbyes Hello - Oi (informal) Olá (formal) Aló (when you’re calling someone Bye - Tchau (informal)
Introducing yourself My name is - Meu nome é
I am - Eu só
I am x years old - Eu tenho x anos.
I am from x - Eu só de x.
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Common phrases
Tudo bem? - Everything good?
Até amanha! - See you tomorrow!
Bom dia!/ Boa tarde/ Boa noite - Good morning/ Good afternoon/ Good night
Como foi seu dia? - How was your day?
Vamos! - Let’s go!
Eu estou com fome - I’m hungry
Onde você que ir? - Where do you want to go?
Bonus words
mulheres - women
feminismo - feminism
igualdade - equality Dominique de Castro
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Answer key!
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Works Cited Ballestín, Lucas, et al. “Gender as Colonial Object.” Public Seminar, 12 Feb. 2021, publicseminar.org/2018/07/gender-as-colonial-object/. Accessed 22 July 2021. “Facts & Figures.” UN Women, www.unwomen.org/en/news/infocus/commission-on-the-status-of-women-2012/facts-and-figures. Accessed 22 July 2021. Guyo, Fatuma B. “Colonial and Post-Colonial Changes and Impact on Pastoral Women's Roles and Status.” Pastoralism, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2 June 2017, pastoralismjournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s13570-017-0076-2. Accessed 22 July 2021. Guyo, Fatuma B. “Colonial and Post-Colonial Changes and Impact on Pastoral Women's Roles and Status.” Pastoralism, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2 June 2017, pastoralismjournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s13570-017-00762#citeas. Accessed 22 July 2021. Hill, Layla-Roxanne. “How Colonialism Has Shaped the Way We View Sex and Our Own Sexual Identities.” The National, The National, 9 June 2019, www.thenational.scot/news/17693770.colonialism-shaped-way-view-sexsexual-identities/Accessed 22 July 2021.
Dominique de Castro
Anaís Fernandez
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Works Cited Bishop. “A Reflection on the History of Sexual Assault Laws in the United States - the Arkansas Journal of Social Change and Public Service.” The Arkansas Journal of Social Change and Public Service, 20 Apr. 2019, ualr.edu/socialchange/2018/04/15/reflection-history-sexual-assault-laws-unitedstates/. D’Cruze, Shani. “Approaching the History of Rape and Sexual Violence: Notes towards Research.” Women’s History Review, vol. 1, no. 3, Sept. 1992, pp. 377–397, 10.1080/09612029300200016. History Engine Contributors. “Not Even Past: Social Vulnerability and the Legacy of Redlining.” Dsl.richmond.edu, historyengine.richmond.edu/episodes/view/5295. Accessed 31 July 2021. Keire, Mara. “Women and Sexual Assault in the United States, 1900–1940.” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History, 26 Mar. 2019, 10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.495. Accessed 31 July 2021. Management. “History of the Movement.” Wcsap.org, 2000, www.wcsap.org/advocacy/program-management/new-directors/history/historymovement. Ohlheiser, Abby. “How #MeToo Really Was Different, according to Data.” The Washington Post, 22 Jan. 2018, www.washingtonpost.com/news/theintersect/wp/2018/01/22/how-metoo-really-was-different-according-to-data/. Poskin, Polly. “A Brief History of the Anti-Rape Movement | Resource Sharing Project.” Www.resourcesharingproject.org, Oct. 2006, www.resourcesharingproject.org/briefhistory-anti-rape-movement. Wikipedia Contributors. “Ages of Consent in the United States.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 14 Dec. 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ages_of_consent_in_the_United_States. Accessed 16 Dec. 2019. “History of Rape.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 22 Sept. 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_rape.
MEET THE TEAM
Lauren Byun Sandra Cheah
Dominique de Castro
Anaís Fernandez
Thaiana Zandoná
Nikki Pesengco
Talia Caskey
Rithvika Payala
Caitlin Tan
