IMPACT FUND | Hidden Emissions of the Cloud by Introba

IMPACT FUND

Hidden Emissions of the Cloud Examining Embodied Carbon and Cost Impacts of Data Center Cooling Technologies KANIKA ARORA SHARMA

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

Acknowledgments Examining Scope 3 emissions is a pivotal stride forward in our pursuit of decarbonizing buildings. Embodied carbon emissions, though ever-present, have long eluded our focused attention, hiding in plain sight. This research calls to attention the importance of acknowledging and addressing embodied carbon emissions head-on. I want to thank Introba for sponsoring this research through the Impact Fund. The Impact Fund is an internal program at Introba to support thought leadership initiatives around sustainability and digital innovations for the built environment. It runs annually and funds projects, studies, essays, and advisory pieces that provide new insights into how we perceive, design, and build our human environment. It is an opportunity to reflect, question, think big, and offer solutions to make our world more resilient, just, and regenerative. Additionally, this research would not have been possible without the robust partnership between Introba, Dar Al Handasah, Currie & Brown, and Silman (a TYLin Company). The collaboration between the various Dar Group companies fortified the foundations of this work, providing vital insights, resources, and expertise. Lastly, I extend my profound gratitude to the contributing authors. Your contributions have been instrumental, and I offer my deepest thanks to each of you: Introba: Mark Schaefer, Anika Jang, Richard Palmer, Marissa Clark, Tracy Wong Currie & Brown: Mark Wartenberg, Hayley Carroll Dar Al Handasah: Omar Alkayed, Mohammad Chebaro Silman: Ian Schmellick, David Pineda THE IMPACT FUND: OUR COMMITMENT TO THINKING AHEAD Running on an annual basis, Impact Fund specifically supports thought leadership and transformational initiatives around sustainability and digital innovation, and encourages collaboration with external partners. The aim of this work is to share our findings and insights to the whole industry to create collective knowledge and action to create a positive impact on the built environment.

I also want to thank Hyline Sales and Armstrong Fluid Technology for providing the embodied carbon information for their product.

KANIKA ARORA SHARMA Associate Principal, Sustainability Los Angeles, California, USA Kanika.sharma@introba.com

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

Contents Executive Summary

Introduction

Key Questions

Approach

Building Structure and Enclosure Design

Building Mechanical & Electrical System Design

System 1: Air Cooled Chillers

System 2: Evaporative Cooling System

System 3: Immersion Cooling

Key Findings

Embodied Carbon Reduction Strategies

Call to Action

Supply Chain and Efficient Procurement Practices

Sector Insights

Opportunities for Future Research

Appendix

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Methodology

Embodied Carbon Data Sources

Inventory – LCA Quantities

Sankey Diagrams

Scenario Inputs

Executive Summary The surge in data centers, driven by the exponential growth in digital data and cloud services, has sparked concerns about their environmental footprint.

THE CHALLENGE Data centers are large consumers of energy due to the high amount of computing power required to operate servers and networking equipment. Additionally, significant cooling is needed to maintain optimal indoor temperatures to keep these servers and networking equipment operational. With the megawatts of power required to operate these data centers, a significant focus of the industry within the last decade has been to improve energy efficiency, thereby reducing operational carbon. This has led to innovations in cooling technologies such as immersion cooling. However, traditional cooling techniques such as evaporative cooling and air-cooled chillers remain popular mechanical design options. While the operational carbon impacts of these technologies are widely studied, there is still a lack of knowledge on their embodied carbon impacts.

THE STUDY This study proposes a holistic approach to data center sustainability, one that conscientiously addresses both operational and embodied carbon emissions. It delves into a crucial yet often overlooked aspect — embodied carbon emissions associated with data center MEP (mechanical, electrical, plumbing) equipment over their life cycle.

To understand this aspect, the study centers around a hypothetical 18,580 m2 (200,000 ft 2) data center in Portland, Oregon, evaluating three distinct mechanical cooling technologies and their associated embodied carbon emissions: •

AIR COOLED CHILLERS

•

EVAPORATIVE COOLING

•

IMMERSION COOLING

The study highlights the critical role of MEP equipment in shaping embodied carbon emissions throughout a data center’s 60-year life cycle. KEY FINDINGS Our research showed that during a data center’s 60-year life cycle, over 90% of the cumulative embodied carbon emissions can be attributed to MEP equipment, of which more than 95% comes from just ten pieces of mechanical and electrical equipment.

While upfront embodied carbon emissions are significant, the majority of these emissions are attributed to the maintenance, repair, and replacement of the equipment over the building’s lifetime. We hope the research findings from this study spark conversations about the critical importance of scrutinizing design considerations and material choices, especially regarding MEP system design. The roadmap toward achieving Net Zero Carbon data centers necessitates a commitment to data transparency from suppliers and manufacturers, thus enabling informed strategic design decisions. Furthermore, owners, designers, and consultants are responsible for championing data transparency by mandating that manufacturers provide comprehensive information regarding the embodied carbon of their products. The data center market is poised for rapid growth in the forthcoming years, driven by the inexorable march of digital transformation and the adoption of innovative technologies. Digital technology underpins a myriad of industries worldwide, making the reduction of carbon impacts in tech infrastructure a matter of global significance. The data center industry can spearhead the transition toward a more environmentally responsible and resilient digital infrastructure ecosystem by systematically addressing embodied carbon concerns within MEP systems. In doing so, we not only mitigate the environmental footprint of data centers but also set in motion positive ripple effects across all sectors that rely on digital infrastructure for their services.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

Introduction “People don’t realize that ‘the cloud’ is real, that it is part of an ecosystem that consumes many resources.” Aurora Gómez Spokesperson for Tu Nube Seca Mi Río, Spain

Owing to the exponential growth of digital data, advancements in computing technologies, and the need to support more cloud services, the last few decades have seen an unprecedented rise in the growth and construction of data centers across the globe. According to a report published in 2021, the number of data centers has more than doubled since 2015, with hundreds more in the pipeline. These sprawling facilities that house countless servers pose severe energy and environmental concerns. The International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that the global data center consumption in 2022 was around 1-1.3% of the global electricity demand. As a result, most of the research on data center sustainability has focused on operational energy and carbon, looking at power usage effectiveness (PUE) management, on-site power generation, and use of renewable energy sources. However, the environmental impact of data centers extends beyond their operational carbon emissions, encompassing water use, ecology, land use, and embodied carbon emissions. While operational carbon and energy savings are realized in the future, most embodied carbon emissions get locked in from day one. Moreover, the selection and design of systems determine the number of replacements leading to repeated embodied carbon impacts throughout the project life cycle.

This study focuses on the embodied carbon emissions and capital costs associated with the structure, enclosure, and MEP equipment for data centers over 60 years, specifically focusing on three mechanical cooling technologies. The Circular Data Centre Initiative (CeDaCi) and Sustainable Digital Infrastructure Alliance (SDIA) have both performed life cycle assessments of data centers, with CeDaCi specifically focusing on end-of-life and circularity considerations. However, the impacts of MEP systems are still significant unknowns. The iMasons Climate Accord, with support from the biggest tech companies like Google, Meta, Amazon and Microsoft, has also highlighted the need for a standardized methodology to assess the data center carbon footprint, including MEP. Through our project experience and research, we have found that MEP equipment can account for more than 75% of the whole-life carbon emissions over the life of the building. Additionally, reducing the embodied carbon of a few critical pieces of equipment can have a significant impact. This study will address the knowledge gap that exists within the design and construction of data centers and provide guidance on streamlining the whole building life cycle assessment of data center MEP equipment. This research aims to highlight the embodied carbon emissions associated with data center cooling technologies and find optimization strategies to reduce those emissions. By making this research available publicly, we aim to enable the move towards knowledge transparency within the digital infrastructure industry, which is much needed for a sustainable transition.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

Key Questions Q1

Q2 How much embodied carbon emissions are associated with a typical data center over its 60-year life?

San Francisco International Airport Consolidated Administration Campus, CA, United States Photo Credit: ©Henrik Kam 2018

What percentage of the embodied carbon emissions are associated with MEP and nonMEP building components?

Q3 What are the capital costs associated with mechanical cooling technologies?

Telus Garden Office Tower, BC Canada. Photo Credit:© Joe Quad

Approach

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

Approach Data centers are big, expansive structures constructed from high concrete, and steel. Additionally, they have significant cooling and power needs for the servers, networking equipment, and the associated infrastructure required to support digital services, which is the primary driver for high energy consumption for this building typology. Located in Portland, Oregon, we conceptualized a hypothetical modular building design for a 18,580 m2 (200,000 ft 2) (Gross Square Feet/Foot) data center building. Additionally, we reviewed various mechanical cooling technologies from the list and selected three distinct technologies from each of the three categories for the embodied carbon assessment in this report.

TRADITIONAL

ADVANCED

EMERGING

Technologies used in data centers for many years and include more conventional methods of heat removal.

Technologies that have evolved to improve energy efficiency and cooling effectiveness in data centers.

Technologies that are relatively new and may still be in the experimental or early adoption stages in data centers.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) As we explored various cooling technologies for data centers, we discovered that the choice and use of these technologies varied widely depending on factors such as data center size, location, budget, and specific IT equipment requirements.

B1 - Use (Refrigerant)

A5 - Construction & installation

B2 - Maintenance B3 - Repair

A4 - Transport to Site

B4 - Replacement

(kgCO2e)

B5 - Refurbishment B6 - Energy use

Production stage (A1-A3)

B7 - Water use

Construction stage (A4-A5) In-Use stage (B1-B5)

A3 - Manufacturing

Operation stage (B6-B7) End of life stage (C1-C4) Reuse, Recover, Recycle stage (D)

A2 - Transport to Factory

C1 - Deconstruction

C2 - Transport to Waste Processing Facility A1 - Material Extraction C4 - Disposal

Embodied Carbon

C3 - Waste Processing

Operational Carbon

Greenhouse gas emissions, measured in CO2 equivalent, associated with different life cycle stages to evaluate Global Warming Potential.

Throughout a project’s lifespan, the operational carbon emissions associated with these technologies can fluctuate based on system efficiency in design and operation, and energy sources/providers, and these can be quantified using utility bills, among other metrics. However, a significant knowledge gap exists concerning the embodied carbon emissions of these systems, particularly in the context of whole-life carbon emissions.

To pave the way for designing highly efficient net-zero carbon data centers of the future, it is imperative that we comprehensively address carbon emissions throughout the entire building life cycle. This encompasses both operational and embodied carbon emissions. Only by considering the full spectrum of emissions can we make informed decisions when selecting technologies that offer low-carbon solutions in both the short and long term. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted a life cycle assessment (LCA) focusing on three mechanical systems: air-cooled chillers, evaporative cooling, and immersion cooling. Additionally, we performed an embodied carbon analysis encompassing critical electrical, plumbing, structural, and enclosure components. This comprehensive approach offers a holistic view of embodied carbon considerations within a typical data center building.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

Building Structure and Enclosure Design The superstructure module, illustrated by the adjacent drawings, comprises an open web joist and truss girder roof framing system that maximizes clear span distances while minimizing the structural steel tonnage required. This roof framing supports conventional galvanized roof decking that delivers gravity loads to the open web joists while also acting as the roof diaphragm that delivers lateral load demands to the discreet braced frames. This roof system is supported by hollow structural steel tube columns that similarly allow for a lighter overall crosssection while supporting the necessary vertical loads.

LOCATION Oregon, USA

Roof Framing Plan

GROSS BUILDING AREA 18,580 m2 (200,000 ft 2) DATA HALL AREA 9,290 m2 (100,000 ft 2) (50% of gross area) STORIES One HEIGHT 6.1 m (20 ft) BUILDING SERVICE LIFE 60 years

The superstructure is founded on conventional reinforced concrete spread footings and a perimeter reinforced concrete foundation wall with continuous strip footing. This study assumes that neither ground improvement nor deep foundations would be required to support the structure. The exterior apron slab is a thicker mat foundation to support the necessary adjacent exterior equipment, primarily comprised of emergency generators. The interior floor slab is a 125 mm (5 in) slab on grade with localized concrete housekeeping pads for electrical and mechanical equipment where required.

One typical module of 3,510 m2 (37,800 ft2) = A little over 5 modules for 18,580 m2 (200,000 ft2) 10

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

Typical Building Sections

One typical module of 3,510 m2 (37,800 ft2) = A little over 5 modules for 18,580 m2 (200,000 ft2)

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Building Mechanical & Electrical System Design This study is focused on analyzing the embodied carbon impacts of three cooling system technologies. •

System 1 – Air Cooled Chillers

•

System 2 – Evaporative Cooling

•

System 3 – Immersion Cooling

These systems are explained in more detail on the subsequent pages. Other assumptions made for the analysis are listed below.

POWER USAGE EFFECTIVENESS (PUE) 1.2 to 1.4 RACK WATTAGE 10 kW/rack IMMERSION TANK WATTAGE 150W/tank INDOOR CONDITIONS ASHRAE Standard TC 9.9 SERVER LOAD (MEGAWATTS) 25 MW (250 W/SF) TIER: 3 (n+1 redundancy) WEATHER DATA Oregon, USA

DATA CENTER COOLING LOAD MW BTUH TONS

For more detailed system design assumptions, refer to the Appendix Section: Inventory – LCA quantities

COMPUTER LOAD PLUS RDU

88,738,000

7,400

UPS COOLING LOAD

2.5

8,532,500

711

ENVELOPE LOAD

2.6

9,007,876

750

AVERAGE DATA HALL TEMP

29.4 °C

85 °F

DESIGN WET-BULB TEMP

21.1 °C

70 °F

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

BUILDING MECHANICAL & ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DESIGN

System 1: Air Cooled Chillers •

Air-cooled chillers in data centers absorb heat from the facility’s warm air and dissipate it into the external environment.

•

Warm air from the data center is drawn into air handlers containing chilled water coils.

•

As the air passes over these coils, it transfers heat to the chilled water.

•

The heated water is pumped to the chiller unit, where a refrigeration cycle extracts the heat.

•

Fans blow air over the chiller’s condenser coils, releasing the heat into the atmosphere.

•

Chilled water is then recirculated to air handlers, and the process repeats in a closed loop, maintaining a controlled temperature in the data center with negligible water usage.

•

Air-cooled chiller systems reject heat into the surrounding environment, potentially contributing to urban heat islands in densely populated areas.

•

Air-cooled chillers also use refrigerants, which, if not appropriately managed, can lead to leakage, causing further global warming.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

BUILDING MECHANICAL & ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DESIGN

System 2: Evaporative Cooling System •

Evaporative cooling systems use the principle of evaporative heat exchange to cool the air. Warm air from the data center is drawn through moistened pads or surfaces, causing water to evaporate and absorb heat from the air.

•

This process significantly lowers the air temperature. The cooled air is distributed within the data center to maintain the desired temperature. Evaporative cooling is particularly efficient in dry climates with low humidity levels. Data centers in areas with high humidity may not benefit as much from this cooling method.

•

Additionally, this type of system may consume a considerable amount of water, especially during peak usage periods, and is not ideal for water-stressed regions. However, these systems are easy and quick to install compared to other technologies and can benefit data centers that need rapid deployment or expansion.

•

Overall, this technology provides an energy-efficient cooling solution by utilizing water evaporation to lower temperatures without the need for energy-intensive refrigeration.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

BUILDING MECHANICAL & ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DESIGN

System 3: Immersion Cooling •

An immersion cooling system in data centers is designed to submerge servers or IT equipment in a non-conductive liquid coolant, such as dielectric fluid. This coolant absorbs heat directly from the components, eliminating the need for traditional air-based cooling methods.

•

The heat generated by the servers is transferred to the coolant, which then circulates through a closed-loop system to an external heat exchanger in a Cooling Distribution Unit (CDU). The CDU heat exchanger is connected to a chilled water system using an adiabatic heat rejection unit. Here, the heat is dissipated into the environment or captured for other purposes. The immersion tanks can absorb much more heat than air-based cooling with server racks, allowing for a much smaller footprint for the same computing power. This technology is relatively new and has been adopted by a few companies, such as Microsoft, as pilot projects. Additionally, this system can be expensive to implement requiring specialized coolant and equipment designed for immersion.

•

However, when adopted and deployed widely, this system can provide a highly environmentally friendly option for data center cooling due to its reduced energy consumption and small footprint. Immersion cooling can provide efficient thermal management for high-density computing environments, not only reducing energy consumption but enabling servers to operate at lower temperatures, improving their longevity and performance. It should be noted that the reduced footprint benefits of immersion cooling tanks have not been included in this study.

Key Findings

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

KEY FINDINGS #1

The embodied carbon of data center buildings is much higher than a typical commercial office building.

How much embodied carbon emissions are associated with a typical data center over its 60-year life? TOTAL LIFETIME EMBODIED CARBON METRIC TONS OF CARBON DIOXIDE EQUIVALENT (mtCO₂e)

System 3 has the lowest embodied carbon of the three options, while System 2 has the highest. On a per square meter basis, the embodied carbon values range from 4,489 kgCO2e/m2 for System 3 to 7,018

kgCO2e/m2 for System 2. System 1 falls in the middle at 6,547 kgCO2e/m2. To put this in perspective, ILFI Zero Carbon certification only allows projects that have less than or equal to 500 kgCO2e/

m2 project embodied carbon emissions from their primary materials of foundation, structure, and enclosure to be eligible for certification. Previous internal projects show average values of about 265 kgCO2e/m2 for the MEP embodied carbon of offices.

EMBODIED CARBON (mtCO₂e)

The embodied carbon associated with structure, enclosure, interiors, and MEP systems for each of the three options is extremely high when compared to a typical commercial office building.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

KEY FINDINGS #2

Over 90% of the embodied carbon emissions are associated with MEP equipment.

What percentage of the embodied carbon emissions are associated with MEP and non-MEP building components? TOTAL LIFETIME EMBODIED CARBON METRIC TONS OF CARBON DIOXIDE EQUIVALENT (mtCO₂e)

EMBODIED CARBON (mtCO₂e)

During the 60-year life of the building, over 90% of the overall embodied carbon emissions are associated with MEP equipment, while non-MEP components contribute roughly 7%-10%.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

KEY FINDINGS #3

System 3 Immersion Cooling has the lowest embodied carbon but the highest capital cost per megawatt (MW).

What are the capital costs associated with mechanical cooling technologies?

TOTAL COST PER MW (USD)

While System 3 has the lowest embodied carbon, it has the highest capital and maintenance costs at roughly $7.8MM* per MW. The worst performing is System 2, with the highest embodied carbon and medium to high capital costs.

*Please note that these costs are estimated based on prior project experience and online secondary research. This study did not involve direct communication with vendors or manufacturers to validate these estimates. It is acknowledged that real-world project cost estimates may exhibit a potential fluctuation of up to +/-15% or more.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

DETAILED FINDINGS

Optimizing structure, mechanical systems design, and selecting low-carbon materials with verified Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) are crucial for reducing upfront embodied carbon in projects.

STAGES A1-A5 PERCENTAGE EMBODIED CARBON EMISSIONS

Stages A1-A5 are attributed to the upfront embodied carbon emissions that get locked in at the time of initial project construction. These include carbon emissions associated with raw materials extraction, transportation of the materials and the final product, manufacturing of the product, as well as construction and installation of the product. For all three systems, the percentage distribution between MEP and non-MEP embodied carbon impact for Stage A is roughly 2/3rd to 1/3rd. The majority of emissions for MEP components come from mechanical equipment. For the non-MEP components, a substantial portion of the emissions are attributed to the structural concrete and steel. Therefore, design decisions made at the beginning of the project to optimize the structure and mechanical system design, as well as sourcing low-carbon materials supported by third-party verified EPDs are the key to reducing upfront embodied carbon.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

DETAILED FINDINGS

Over the building’s lifetime, the emissions gap between MEP and nonMEP components widens, primarily in Stage B due to maintenance, repair, and replacement, emphasizing the need for durable equipment and repairability-focused manufacturers.

STAGES A1-C4 PERCENTAGE EMBODIED CARBON EMISSIONS

Over the building’s lifetime, the percentage disparity between the emissions from MEP and non-MEP components becomes even more pronounced. Most of these emissions are attributed to Stage B, which includes emissions associated with maintenance, repair, and replacement of the equipment. This study does not include emissions from operational energy (B6) and water use (B7) which can also be significant over the life of the building. For all three systems, this widening gap between emissions from MEP and non-MEP components can be attributed to the higher replacement rates of all MEP equipment over its 60-year life. Therefore, it is crucial to install high-quality equipment that requires fewer replacements and less maintenance when specifying the equipment for the project. Additionally, working with manufacturers that prioritize equipment repairability rather than replacement should also be given preference during the bid process. Designing the systems with the flexibility to switch to equipment with lower Stage A emissions when replacement is required will also contribute to reduced Stage B emissions.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

DETAILED FINDINGS EMBODIED CARBON BREAKDOWN OF NON-MEP COMPONENTS

Over 85% of the non-MEP emissions come from structural and enclosure components.

493 kgCO2e/sqm

This study uses the same structure and enclosure details for all three system design options. As highlighted previously, the embodied carbon emissions associated with the non-MEP building components range from 7-10% of overall lifetime emissions. Of those emissions, over 84% emissions are attributed to the building’s structural and enclosure components such as concrete slabs and foundations.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

DETAILED FINDINGS EMBODIED CARBON BREAKDOWN OF NON-MEP COMPONENTS

Over 99% of the MEP emissions come from mechanical and electrical components. System 1: 6,547 kgCO2e/sqm Mechanical and electrical equipment dominate the MEP emissions. In all three design scenarios, mechanical and electrical alone contribute more than 99% of the emissions. Both plumbing and fire protection equipment emissions contribute less than 1%.

System 2: 7,018 kgCO2e/sqm System 3: 4,489 kgCO2e/sqm

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

DETAILED FINDINGS TOTAL LIFETIME EMBODIED CARBON OF MEP SYSTEMS (mtCO₂e)

In all three options, mechanical system equipment accounts for more than 55% of the overall embodied carbon. Notably, System 2, utilizing Evaporative Cooling has the greatest split between mechanical and electrical owing to the large numbers of Computer Room Air Handling (CRAH) units and high replacement of the air filters.

SYSTEM 1: AIR-

SYSTEM 2:

SYSTEM 3:

COOLED CHILLERS

EVAPORATIVE COOLING

IMMERSION COOLING

The global warming impact of refrigerants is often overlooked when designing mechanical systems. However, as seen from the results in the figure on the right, the impact of refrigerants can be substantial. This impact is due to the large number of chillers that use R-134a refrigerant. In this system, refrigerants primarily contribute to embodied carbon emissions due to annual leakage and inadequate end-of-life recovery practices. Refrigerant leakage can occur at all stages of the project but is most notable during the In-Use Phase (Stage B). For more comprehensive insights into the impact of refrigerants, refer to Introba’s Refrigerant Best Practice Guide.

Of the three systems, System 2 has the highest embodied carbon over its life. These emissions are primarily attributed to the large number of Computer Room Air Handling (CRAH) units required to cool the servers. These CRAH units are complex equipment containing several high embodied carbon electronic components and rare earth elements that are neither recyclable nor salvageable, resulting in their disposal in landfills. The system is also designed with a significant number of air filters that need to be replaced annually to maintain the system’s operational efficiency. While individual air filters may not have high embodied carbon, their cumulative effect is substantial due to their sheer quantity and frequent replacements.

An immersion cooling system is designed with pods or tanks that are used to submerge servers in a non-conductive liquid coolant to maintain optimal operating conditions for the servers. Consequently, the data center can be designed with minimal mechanical equipment to cool the building. Furthermore, these tanks are much smaller in size than a typical server-rack configuration. They also require less electrical equipment due to the higher cooling efficiency and the tanks not requiring separate PDUs. The overall embodied carbon of this system is the lowest of all three options. It should be noted that this study does not include the embodied carbon associated with the liquid coolant used in the tanks.

TOP 5 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT EMBODIED CARBON (mtCO₂e)

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

DETAILED FINDINGS

Over 97% of the MEP emissions come from ten pieces of MEP equipment

97% Embodied Carbon Contributors for the 3 Systems are:

For all three systems, the majority of the MEP emissions are attributed to the top 10 MEP equipment. Therefore, focusing on reduction strategies for these equipment can lead to significant reductions in embodied carbon of MEP systems.

SYSTEM 1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Refrigerants Mechanical Piping VRLA Battery Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) Power Distribution Unit (PDU)

6. Cooling Distribution Unit (CDU) 7. Air Cooled Chiller 8. Server Rack 9. Switchgear 10. Generator

SYSTEM 2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

CRAH Units VRLA Battery UPS PDU Mechanical Piping

6. Refrigerants 7. Air Filters 8. Switchgear 9. Generator 10. Server Rack

SYSTEM 1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Mechanical Piping VRLA Battery UPS Refrigerants CDU

6. Immersion Tanks 7. Hybrid Cooling Tower 8. Switchgear 9. Generator 10. Air Cooled Chiller

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KEY FINDINGS DETAILED FINDINGS

The graphs on the right show the comparison between embodied carbon and costs for the top five mechanical components of each system.

SYSTEM 1: AIR-COOLED CHILLERS

SYSTEM 2: EVAPORATIVE COOLING

SYSTEM 3: IMMERSION COOLING

There is no clear correlation between embodied carbon and capital costs. A component with the lowest embodied carbon can also have a high first cost, for example, in System 1 and 2 for Server Racks. While immersion tanks have low embodied carbon but extremely high capital costs.

Total Carbon (kgCO2e)

Cost ($ USD)

Total Carbon (kgCO2e)

Cost ($ USD)

Total Carbon (kgCO2e)

Cost ($ USD)

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

DETAILED FINDINGS

The majority of the emissions get locked in at Year zero during project construction. Subsequently, ongoing maintenance, repair, or replacement of building components and MEP systems are necessary every few years. The embodied carbon emissions generated from these repairs and replacements result in sudden jump in emissions, as represented by the spikes on the graph. The study assumes varying service or operational lifespans for the different MEP components.

EMBODIED CARBON EMISSIONS OVER 60-YEAR BUILDING LIFE CYCLE (mtCO₂e)

Total Lifetime Embodied Carbon (mtCO2e)

The graph on the right illustrates the cumulative embodied carbon emissions for each system over its 60year project life.

For additional information, please refer to Appendix Section: Scenario Inputs

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

DETAILED FINDINGS

System 1: Air-Cooled Chillers

System 2: Evaporative Cooling

System 3: Immersion Cooling

This bubble graph offers an at-a-glance comparison of embodied carbon emissions across the three systems. Across all system designs, mechanical and electrical components emerge as the primary contributors to embodied carbon, surpassing structure and enclosure by a significant margin. This study underscores that solely targeting embodied carbon reduction in the structure is insufficient to achieve net-zero carbon goals. Instead, optimizing MEP system design is the key to achieving significant reductions in overall embodied carbon emissions.

Embodied Carbon Reduction Strategies

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

EMBODIED CARBON REDUCTION STRATEGIES

Project Phase

Responsible Party

Cost Premium

Emissions Reduction Impact

Medium

High

ADAPTIVE REUSE: Consider building on previously developed sites or repurposing existing infrastructure to reduce the environmental impact and embodied carbon compared to constructing a new facility in an undeveloped area.

Low

High

CONDUCT LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA) EARLY: Collaborate with designers, engineers, and LCA consultants during the early design phase. Initiate LCA modeling early in design to inform key design decisions, focusing on the most significant contributors to embodied carbon.

Low

Medium

Strategy

Owner

Architect

MEP Engineer

High

Medium

Contractor

Facilities

SITE SELECTION: Strategic site selection is crucial for data centers to minimize embodied carbon emissions effectively. 1.

Opt for locations with a grid powered by a low-carbon intensity mix, primarily derived from renewable and low-carbon sources. This choice significantly reduces the carbon footprint linked to electricity consumption.

Prioritize areas with ample access to renewable energy sources like wind, solar, or hydropower. This ensures cleaner energy use, further lowering operational emissions.

When selecting a site, consider its long-term resilience to climate-related risks. Ensuring the data center remains operational during extreme weather events minimizes potential disruptions and associated embodied carbon losses.

Building Design

Design

Pre-Design

LOW-CARBON CONCRETE: Structure and enclosure dominate the emissions from non-MEP components. 1.

Reduce concrete quantities by avoiding unnecessary structural over-design. Avoid suspended or rooftop-mounted equipment to lessen the demand on structural steel.

Prioritize low-carbon concrete mix designs emphasizing reducing Global Warming Potential (GWP). Use concrete mixes that have greater than 50% cementitious replacement. Consider using Portland Limestone Cement (PLC) instead of Type I Portland Cement or consider other carbon mineralization technologies.

Procure concrete from suppliers with region-specific Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) to validate its embodied carbon impacts.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

EMBODIED CARBON REDUCTION STRATEGIES

Project Phase

Strategy

Cost Premium

Emissions Reduction Impact

HIGH-RECYCLED STEEL: 1.

Source steel from domestic electric-arc furnaces facilities that operate on clean grids and boast a recycled content of over 95%.

Procure steel with region-specific EPDs to validate embodied carbon impacts.

Medium

High

Medium

High

Responsible Party Owner

Architect

MEP Engineer

Contractor

Facilities

Design

Building Design

By selecting and installing low-carbon materials, embodied carbon reductions of up to 26-30% can be achieved for non-MEP building components.

EXPLORE WASTE HEAT UTILIZATION OPPORTUNITIES: In data center operations, a significant amount of heat is generated as a byproduct of the computing equipment. Explore opportunities to harness and repurpose this waste heat. 1.

Collaborate with local communities or neighboring buildings to establish district heating and cooling networks to provide low-grade heating.

Explore partnerships with nearby agricultural or greenhouse operations to supply surplus heat for optimal growing conditions.

Implement thermal energy storage systems to store excess heat generated during peak data center operations. This stored heat can be used during off-peak hours or when there is increased heating demand, ensuring maximum waste heat utilization.

Mechanical Design

LOW GWP REFRIGERANT SELECTION: Refrigerant selection plays a crucial role in reducing embodied carbon emissions in data center cooling systems, as refrigerant leakage can have a significant environmental impact. 1. Prioritize refrigerants with low Global Warming Potential, such as R-513-XP10 and R-1234yf, as potential replacements for high GWP refrigerants such as R-134a. 2. Keep detailed records of refrigerant installation in equipment. Tracking installation dates and quantities allows for better monitoring of potential leakage and facilitates timely maintenance and repairs. 3. Implement efficient refrigerant management practices. Install leak detection infrastructure to identify equipment failures and refrigerant leaks promptly. Early detection can prevent significant emissions and reduce the environmental impact.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

EMBODIED CARBON REDUCTION STRATEGIES

Project Phase

Strategy

Cost Premium

Emissions Reduction Impact

High

Medium

High

Low

Medium

Responsible Party Owner

Architect

MEP Engineer

Contractor

Facilities

LOW-EMBODIED CARBON EQUIPMENT SELECTION: Efficiently choosing data center equipment with low embodied carbon is vital for sustainability efforts. Focus on the top 10 contributors, such as CRAH, Air-Cooled Chillers, Immersion Tanks, etc. 1.

Require third-party verified EPDs from manufacturers for all major products to evaluate embodied carbon.

Choose manufacturers that prioritize low-carbon products and high durability. Collaborate with suppliers committed to reducing the environmental impact of their equipment throughout its life cycle, from production to disposal.

WASHABLE FILTERS: Implementing washable filters in data center HVAC systems can enhance sustainability and reduce operational costs.

Mechanical Design

Design

Swap out traditional disposable filters, which typically require annual replacement, with washable filters. These washable filters can be cleaned through pressure washing, significantly extending their lifespan. This reduces the frequency of filter replacement, saving on filter procurement costs and minimizing waste generation.

Whenever possible, use fewer filters without compromising air quality. Properly designed data center HVAC systems can be engineered to maintain effective air filtration with fewer washable filters, reducing the embodied carbon associated with filter production and disposal.

RIGHT-SIZE EQUIPMENT: Avoid over-design and equipment redundancies when feasible. Explore opportunities to incorporate passive design strategies such as the “stack effect” to reduce reliance on energy-intensive mechanical cooling methods. Explore opportunities to implement a modular design approach for MEP equipment. Instead of oversizing from the outset, design them to be scalable and expandable as the data center’s needs grow.

DESIGN FOR OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY: Incorporate design strategies that enhance the overall operational performance of data center systems. 1.

Strategies may include optimizing airflow management, reducing hotspots, and minimizing energy wastage. Employ advanced monitoring and management systems to fine-tune operations for efficiency continuously.

Explore the integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and machine-learning algorithms to optimize server functions and resource allocation dynamically.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

EMBODIED CARBON REDUCTION STRATEGIES

Project Phase

Responsible Party

Cost Premium

Emissions Reduction Impact

Low

Medium

Low

Medium

ADOPT A CIRCULAR MINDSET: Establish partnerships with equipment manufacturers to explore and implement environmentally responsible end-of-life strategies. Plan for proper disposal or recycling of equipment at the end of its useful life.

Low

PROCUREMENT: Prioritize manufacturers offering extended repair warranties for equipment. These warranties ensure durability and reduce the need for premature replacements, lowering embodied carbon emissions. Collaborate with manufacturers that have robust end-of-life recycling programs. These programs facilitate the responsible disposal and recycling of equipment, reducing electronic waste and supporting a circular economy.

Low

Strategy

Owner

Architect

MEP Engineer

Contractor

Facilities

Mechanical Design

Design

DESIGN FOR EFFICIENT PIPING DISTRIBUTION: Due to their sheer quantity, pipework and ductwork can contribute up to 15%-20% embodied carbon. 1.

Implement efficient design principles that reduce the quantity of piping and ductwork needed. Minimize bends, use appropriate sizing, and optimize layouts to reduce material requirements.

Evaluate a range of materials and manufacturers to identify lower-carbon options. Choose materials that are sustainably sourced or have a high recycled content.

3. When selecting materials, consider their recyclability and end-of-life disposal. Opt for materials that can be easily recycled or repurposed, reducing waste and environmental impact during decommissioning or renovations.

DESIGN WITH AN ECONOMIZER: Incorporate economizers in mechanical system design to use free cooling from outdoor air to cool the facility during favorable weather conditions.

Construction

CONDUCT COMMISSIONING: Conduct commissioning after construction and before occupancy to ensure the systems are operating as intended.

ENSURE REGULAR PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE: Train facilities staff to

Operations

Supply Chain Management

perform regular preventive maintenance tasks on MEP equipment to ensure long-term durability, reducing the need for frequent replacements.

Call to Action

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

CALL TO ACTION

Supply Chain and Efficient Procurement Practices

From Invisibility to Accountability: We must confront Scope 3 emissions head-on!

We urge suppliers and manufacturers to embrace transparency regarding the environmental impact of their products, enabling professionals, designers and consultants like us to conduct more comprehensive research and empowering companies to take proactive steps towards Scope 3 emissions reduction. Additionally, designers, engineers, consultants, and owners should advocate for data transparency by requiring product specific EPDs during design, bidding, and procurement.

Reach out to the Introba team if you are a supplier, manufacturer, or an organization interested in partnering with us on future research or projects. hello@introba.com

Effective action is only possible through collaborative and strategic leadership.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

Sector Insights Indirect Emissions Scope 3 emissions for data centers refer to indirect greenhouse gas emissions associated with the activities and processes related to data center operation that occur outside of its direct control or ownership but are influenced by its activities.

These indirect emissions are broadly categorized as follows: UPSTREAM EMISSIONS This category encompasses emissions originating during the manufacturing, transportation, and disposal of equipment and materials used in data centers, such as servers, networking gear, and cooling systems. It also includes emissions tied to the extraction and production of raw materials required for manufacturing these products.

DOWNSTREAM EMISSIONS These emissions encompass the data center’s services’ energy and resource use by customers and end-users. It accounts for the electricity consumed by servers and infrastructure owned by customers who host their applications or data in the data center. It may also involve the emissions generated by end-users when they use the services or products delivered by applications hosted in the data center.

BUSINESS TRAVEL AND COMMUTING EMISSIONS This category covers emissions from employee travel and commuting to and from the data center’s location. It includes activities such as employee travel for meetings, site visits, or other business-related activities associated with the data center’s operations.

With advancements in data center operational efficiency, supply chain emissions often surpass those from direct operations. Notably, environmental reports published by Google, Meta, and Microsoft have unveiled the staggering impact of Scope 3 emissions. While Scope 1 and 2 emissions together may constitute 1-25% of overall emissions, Scope 3 emissions loom significantly larger, accounting for 75-99% of the total carbon footprint. Even though it can be challenging to accurately account for and report on Scope 3 cloud emissions, organizations are very quickly realizing that it is imperative to address this often-overlooked facet of their carbon footprint. Despite the emergence of methodologies and studies to quantify these far-reaching impacts, a substantial gap persists, necessitating reliance on assumptions that compromise accuracy. The challenge lies in the formidable task of collecting transparent and precise data across a multitude of suppliers and manufacturers, further complicated by the intricacies of current value chain data collection methodologies. Throughout our study, we actively engaged with numerous manufacturers and suppliers to get embodied carbon information of their products. While some provided the information requested, quite a few were not prepared or equipped to share the information transparently. Through this report, we aim to highlight the importance of optimizing embodied carbon emissions of mechanical and electrical equipment. However, the output of any study is only as good as the data input. We are committed to continue working with suppliers and manufacturers to refine our assumptions and inputs, thereby enhancing the accuracy of our findings.

Opportunities for Future Research

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

Through this research, we uncovered the critical importance of addressing embodied carbon emissions of mechanical and electrical systems for data centers. However, it also sparked additional questions we hope to uncover through future research:

• What are the whole-life carbon emissions of these three systems considering operational energy and operational water usage? • How does the operational efficiency of these systems affect decision-making? • What is the waste heat utilization potential of these systems and how does that affect the whole-life carbon emissions over the project’s lifetime? • How do end-of-life and circularity of electrical and mechanical systems impact embodied carbon emissions?

Appendix

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

APPENDIX

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Methodology Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a multi-step procedure to quantify global warming potential (GWP) and other environmental impacts through the life stages of a building, a product, or system.

In the absence of third-party verified EPDs, CIBSE TM65 provides a conservative and comprehensive approach to calculating embodied carbon for MEP products. As a part of this approach, Introba has created custom calculations and data tracking tools to conduct this embodied carbon analysis.

Life cycle modules categorize building emissions through each portion of its life cycle stages. The study utilized the OneClickLCA software to conduct the LCA for the building’s structure, enclosure, civil, and interior elements. However, no available software in the market currently provides a comprehensive database of MEP systems to conduct a comprehensive and reliable MEP LCA. Therefore, for this study, we utilized the CIBSE TM65 calculation methodology and custom calculation tools for all MEP-related equipment.

There are three key steps in this calculation methodology guidance. 1.

Data collection phase - where product data is collected through a manufacturer form

Calculations phase - with two calculation methods possible: a basic and a mid-level, depending on the level of information received from the manufacturer

CIBSE TM65 is a publication by the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) that provides guidance on calculating

Reporting phase

the embodied carbon of MEP equipment to be used when no Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) are available. In 2020, Introba (formerly Integral Group/Elementa Consulting) was appointed by CIBSE to develop this methodology, which was officially published in January 2021 as a Technical Memorandum: CIBSE TM65 – Embodied carbon in building services: a calculation methodology.

Compared to an EPD, the two calculation methods offer a more conservative estimate when calculating embodied carbon. The two methods have been created to be useful with relatively little manufacturer involvement. “Mid-level” calculation requires more involvement from the manufacturer as compared to the “Basic” calculation and can be about 20% more accurate.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

APPENDIX

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Methodology ‘Basic’ Calculation Method There are four steps in the basic calculation method once the data is received from the manufacturer:

Calculation of A1 emissions linked with material extraction based on material composition breakdown for at least 95% of the product weight (excluding refrigerant charge)

Calculation of B3 emissions for emissions associated with repair. A 10% standard assumption can be made.

Multiplication by a scale-up factor to the value, depending on the product complexity for the remaining Stages A, B, and C. This multiplication factor changes depending on the product complexity (longer supply chain).

4. Multiplication by a 1.3 buffer factor is added to be more conservative. Finally, the impact of refrigerant leakage is added for equipment with refrigerants.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

APPENDIX

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Methodology ‘Mid-Level’ Calculation Method

The mid-level calculation method is based on the same information from the manufacturer as for the basic calculation method, plus the additional following information: • •

Assumed proportion of factory energy use associated with the product (kWh) Final assembly location (country or region).

Wherever possible, the ‘mid-level’ calculation method should be used over the basic as it provides more robust calculations. The different calculation steps are as follows: 1.

Calculation of the emissions for each different life cycle stage.

Multiplication by a buffer factor as it meant to be a conservative estimation

Calculation of the emissions resulting from refrigerant leakage during the system use and at the end of life of the equipment when decommissioning.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

APPENDIX

Embodied Carbon Data Sources The following embodied carbon data sources were used for the study:

•

PRODUCT-SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENTAL PRODUCT DECLARATION (EPD): Product-Specific EPD is a standardized and independently verified document that provides transparent and comprehensive information about the environmental impact of a specific product. It typically includes data related to the product’s life cycle, such as raw material extraction, manufacturing processes, transportation, use, and end-of-life considerations. Product-Specific EPDs are used to assess and compare the environmental performance of different products in a specific category, helping consumers and businesses make informed choices. INDUSTRY-WIDE EPD: An Industry-Wide EPD is a type of EPD that aggregates environmental data for an entire industry or product category rather than a specific product. It provides average or representative values for the environmental impacts associated with a particular industry’s products. Industry-wide EPDs are useful for establishing benchmarks and assessing the overall environmental performance of an industry sector.

•

TM65 MANUFACTURER FORM: CIBSE TM65 Manufacturer Form is a standardized form used to collect and report data required to assess a product or service’s life cycle greenhouse gas emissions.

•

GENERIC DATA: Generic data refers to standardized or average environmental data used in life cycle assessments (LCAs) when specific data for a particular product or process is unavailable. It provides a rough estimate of the environmental impacts of a product based on typical industry values or regional averages. While not as accurate as product-specific data, it can be valuable for preliminary assessments or when specific data is scarce.

•

WEIGHT-BASED CALCULATION: Weight-based calculation is a method used in life cycle assessments to determine the environmental impacts of a product or process by considering the weight or mass of materials, components, or substances used at various stages of the product’s life cycle.

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

APPENDIX

Inventory – LCA Quantities STRUCTURE: Foundations and Ground-Level Structure

MECHANICAL

ELEMENT

QUANTITY UNIT

QUANTITY/SQUARE FOOT

EQUIPMENT

QUANTITY UNIT

QUANTITY

CAPACITY

5" Slab on Grade

Cubic Yard

0.0154

Air Cooled Chiller

Number

24 (23 acting and 1 standby nominal)

400 TON

5" SOG reinforcing

Pounds

0.29

Primary Chiller Pump

Number

24 (23 acting and 1 standby)

535 GPM

3" Housekeeping pads for Equip.

Cubic Yard

0.0023

Secondary Chiller Pump

Number

10 (9 acting and 1 standby)

1,400 GPM

Housekeeping pad reinf.

Pounds

0.29

Computer Distribution Units (CDU)

Number

1,600 MBTU

12" Generator Mat Slab

Cubic Yard

0.0103

Number

Pounds

12+1 for Data Hall 14+1 for UPS

188 kW

Generator Mat reinf.

Computer Room Air Handling (CRAH) Units

Spread Footings

Cubic Yard

0.0025

Fan Air Handling Unit (FAHU)

Number

5200 L/s, 139 kW

Spread Footing reinf.

Pounds

1.0053

Perimeter Foundation wall

Cubic Yard

0.0034

SYSTEM 2: EVAPORATIVE COOLING

Perimeter wall reinf.

Pounds

0.0899

EQUIPMENT

QUANTITY UNIT

QUANTITY

CAPACITY

Perimeter wall Footing

Cubic Yard

0.0030

Air Handling Units (AHU) with evaporative cooling plus supplemental chilled water coil for data hall

Number

68 (67 acting and 1 standby)

40,000 CFM 1,325 MBH

Number

12 (11 acting and 1 standby)

40,000 CFM 785 MBH

STEEL SUPERSTRUCTURE ELEMENT

QUANTITY UNIT

QUANTITY/SQUARE FOOT

AHU with chilled water coil for UPS/electrical rooms

Galvanized Roof Deck

Pounds

Air-cooled Chillers

Number

13 (12 acting and 1 standby)

520-Ton

Open Web Joists and Joist Girders

Pounds

2.18

Pump

Number

10 (9 acting and 1 standby)

700 GPM

Perimeter Wide Flange Beams

Pounds

0.86

Intake Louvers

Square Feet

20,000

Interior HSS columns

Pounds

0.2328

Discharge Louvers

Square Feet

20,000

Lateral System Bracing Channels

Pounds

0.0847

Ductwork

Pounds

120,000

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

APPENDIX

Inventory – LCA Quantities SYSTEM 3: IMMERSION COOLING

ELECTRICAL SERVING MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT (SYSTEM 1 AND SYSTEM 2)

EQUIPMENT

QUANTITY UNIT

QUANTITY

CAPACITY

EQUIPMENT

QUANTITY UNIT

QUANTITY

CAPACITY

Adiabatic Cooler

Number

22 (21 acting and 1 standby)

1,180 kW

Generators

Number

3 MVA, Medium Voltage

Condenser Pump

Number

5 (4 acting and 1 standby)

100 L/s

Ring Main Unit

Number

630A, 1 in + 2 out

Makeup Pump

Number

2 (1 acting and 1 standby)

21 L/s

Switchgear

Number

630A, 6 tons each

Air Cooled Chiller

Number

6 (5 acting and 1 standby)

420 ton

Medium Voltage Switchgear

Number

13 cubicles/MVSG

Primary Chiller Water Pump

Number

6 (5 acting and 1 standby)

39 L/s

Transformer

Number

2 MVA

Secondary Pump

Number

3 (2 acting and 1 standby)

100 L/s

FAHU

Number

5200 L/s, 139 kW

CDU

Number

1,600 MBTU

ELECTRICAL SERVING MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT (SYSTEM 3) EQUIPMENT

QUANTITY UNIT

QUANTITY

CAPACITY

Generators

Number

2 MVA, Medium Voltage

Ring Main Unit

Number

630A, 1 in + 2 out

Switchgear

Number

630 A, 4.5 Tons each

Medium Voltage Switchgear

Number

9 cubicles/MVSG

Transformer

Number

2 MVA

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

APPENDIX

Sankey Diagrams SYSTEM 1: AIR COOLED CHILLERS

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

APPENDIX

Sankey Diagrams SYSTEM 2 – EVAPORATIVE COOLING

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

APPENDIX

Sankey Diagrams SYSTEM 3 – IMMERSION COOLING

IMPACT FUND: HIDDEN EMISSIONS OF THE CLOUD

APPENDIX

Scenario Inputs GENERAL 1.

SERVICE LIFE OF MEP EQUIPMENT (IN YEARS) MECHANICAL

This research is focused on the embodied carbon impacts of mechanical cooling systems. The research does not cover operational carbon emissions (Module B6 and B7).

The analysis does not include the embodied carbon emissions associated with the server equipment.

The emissions associated with Module A5: Construction and Installation Processes and C1: Deconstruction and Demolition are assumed to be roughly 4% of A and C Stages combined. Additionally, the emissions associated with decommissioning the refrigerant is calculated separately.

4. Any operational efficiencies associated with the system operations are not accounted for in the costs. The reported costs only include capital investment to install the systems. 5. The hypothetical system designed for this research includes the top 99% of the equipment that contributes to embodied carbon. Assumptions have been made on the remaining 1% of equipment from previous project experience. 6. Structure and enclosure design is assumed to be the same in all scenarios. However, it should be noted that the manufacturers of immersion cooling tanks or pods claim that the gross square footage of the building designed for System 3 can be up to 32% smaller in footprint compared to System 1 and System 2. This is attributed to the reduced number and footprint of immersion tanks required to provide the same power requirements compared to the number and footprint of server racks required for Systems 1 and 2. The cost savings resulting from reduced building footprint are not included in the overall cost calculations. 7.

Cost estimates for the building and the MEP equipment assume a -10% to +30% range.

8. Regional assumptions from ASHRAE 90.1-2016 are used for envelope details. 9. The embodied carbon impacts for liquid coolant used in the immersion tanks is not included in the study.

ELECTRICAL

FIRE PROTECTION

Chillers

PDU

Cooling Tower

Generator, Switchgear, Main Ring Unit, UPS

Transformers

VRLA Battery

CRAH

Server Racks

Immersion Tanks

CDUs

Pumps

PLUMBING

AHUs

Pipework

Air terminals

Water heater

Ductwork

Toilet

Pre Filter

Sinks

Main Filter

Sump

VFDs

Pipe insulation

Mechanical Pipework

Pipe Support

Valves

Sprinkler Heads

Sprinkler Pipework

Sprinkler Valves

REFRIGERANTS •

R-134a is assumed as the refrigerant for chillers in all three options. The GWP of the refrigerants is assumed as 1,430.

•

Refrigerant annual leakage rate is assumed as 4%.

•

Refrigerant end-of-life leakage rate is assumed a 2%.

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