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1. Religious notions about women during Medieval Times
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Adjunct Lecturer of Department of Theology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
Corespondence: e-mail: lithis21@hotmail.com
Abstract
The present abstract is based on four thematic pivots. The first one is primarily associated with the theological issues that Anthony of Padova (1195-1231) dealt with. We pointed out the main characteristic of his preaching, which was nothing other than the position of mulier (woman) in the teachings of Anthony of Padua. In the second thematic pivot, we studied the stages of spirituality according to his teachings. In the third chapter, we translated and grouped together the excerpts of Sermones that are associated with women. Besides, one of his favourite topics had to do with him admonishing people in order to cultivate virtues that oppose the dangers of passion. Finally, in the fourth thematic chapter we presented teachings as viewed by the medieval tradition. The Middle Ages is a historical period full of conflict and tension. During this period, social transformation gradually “gave birth” to the anarchists of religious life. In Anthony of Padova’ s preaching, the people are embodying the Sequela Christi (following Christ) and striving to live their lives with the gospel morality which was inspired by the Order of Friars Minor movement founded by Francis of Assisi. As a monk with a university education - an oxymoron for the fraternity - he wrote the Sermones to capture the roadmaps of the Christian life that illuminate the historical time period. His education bears the stamp of the Bible and the earlier Latin Patrology Doctrine. This is made clear in the symbolic way that women are included in his work which became either an example to be followed or to be avoided. In some parts of his writings, women are identified with passionate situations and elsewhere praised for their virtues. The relevant teaching of Anthony, in regards to women, is a key conduit for the exercise of his pastoral care. Anthony does not invent a system or a solid pattern. Instead, he adapts to his audience and draws his instructions using images and symbolism that people can comprehend. In conclusion, we could mention that, if there is one woman that stands out in his work, that would be the Virgin Mary. The four sermons which he composed for Her feast, are adorned with a multitude of metaphors and images and are an anthem for her mission, her decency and her virtues. Citation:
Lithiropoulos K. Religious notions about women during Medieval Times: The position of woman in Anthony of Padua’s teaching (11951231).Theology & Culture. 2021; 3: 9-16. Doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.18991.05283
The period he lived (late 12th century-early 13th century) is called “Middle Ages” (D. Nicholas, 1999, 15) or “Era of the Middle Ages” by contemporary historians. Geographically, it is included in the wider Western World because he was born in Portugal and more specifically in Lisbon, while he spent the greatest part of his life in Italy, where he was laid to rest. He is one of the most popular saints of Roman Catholic Church and the patron of the Italian city of Padua. Some of the names he has been given are: “sweet walking stick of the poor”, “patron of children”, “patron of grain”, “saint of miracles” etc. All these names, which have been given to him by the faith community over the years, are relevant to related miracles that bear the seal of his hagiological memory. The hagiologic impact Anthony had during his life and mainly after his dormition, is documented in synaxarion recompositions of his life, which had been composed a few years after his death to inform the faithful of new miracles or unknown aspects of his life which survived in oral or written records. So, in time, the early important sources were the following: a) Vita prima di St. Antonio or “Assidua (year 1232)” (Vergilio Gamboso, 2012, 6), b) by Giuliano da Spira, Officio ritmico and Vita Secunda (1235 and 1240), Vita del “Dialogus” and “Benignitas” (1246 and 1280), Vite “Raymundina” and “Rigaldina” (1300), “Liber miraculorum” (1369 and 1374), More recent records about St. Anthony (13th-14th century). These works started to be widely published from Latin to Italian and other modern European languages since 1981 (Ernesto Caroli, Padova, 2002, XVII).
2. His written work
From the many writings attributed to Anthony a few are falsified. Definitely, authentic writings of his are Sermones domenicales and Sermones in solemnitatibus which are verified by thirteen codes (of 13th and 14th century, among which, the famous code with the name “del Tesoro”, where the relics of the Saint (Pontificia Università lateranense, 1961, 156 - 188) are mentioned for the first time). From the twelve publications or reprints- complete or fragmented-, the one by monk Antonio Locatelli and his collaborators (Padua 18951913) is surely a review, even though there are mistakes (Pontificia Università lateranense, 1961, 163). He starts writing his Speeches in 1224, more likely in Bologna and he continues until the end of 1227. He completed writing them in Padua when he returned there from France. Sermones dominicales include
53 speeches, 4 for the feasts of Virgin Mary; to them they were later added (the ancient biographies place them in the last year of his life) and 20 Sermones festivi- which is a corpus of 77 Speeches (Ernesto Caroli, 2002, XXI). The Opus Evangeliorum, as he named it, is the fruit of a double work of Anthony: detailed and shepherding at the same time. The Sermones are not just a collection of sermons preached by Anthony, but also compose a compilation of indices to use by preachers, who he influenced, either with the meticulous material of theological lessons to colleagues or with the fundamental matters of sermons to the public. According to the Saint’s own words, he wanted to introduce “a spiritual chariot” by piecing together those elements of Messale/ Summary of Divine Liturgy (introits, letters and gospels) and the Biblical Reads of Breviario / Missal which correspond to the various Sundays and feasts of the liturgical year (Ernesto Caroli, 2002, XXI).
3. Delineating women’s profile in the Middle Ages
Studying the etymology of the Latin word mulier–woman (Κουμανούδης, 1854, 510) we can draw an extremely interesting conclusion: it has the same root with the noun mollities (Κουμανούδης, 1854, 503) which means softness and fragility. In contrast, the man is being determined by the word vir (Κουμανούδης, 1854, 953) which refers to virtue and bravery-virtus (Ernesto Caroli, 2002, 169). Beyond the etymology of the words which indicates man’s superiority in comparison with the woman, the scholars of medieval history have concluded that, οn social but also in financial level, in a militant and male-dominated society, woman’s role was narrowed to the reproduction and satisfaction of sexual desires (J. LeGoff, 1991, 396). The status quo limited her active participation, mainly on financial level. In rural class as well as the upper social classes, her role was equally important with that of a man (J. LeGoff, 1991, 396). Her inclusion in the labour force was linked with textile industry, mainly by spinning wool. Also, it needs to be noted that she was getting paid less compared to her male colleagues (D. Nicholas, 1999, 249). On the level of theology and spiritual anthropology, woman constitutes a controversial symbol, as she is identified with the women of the biblical texts: i) praised, like the virtuous wife of Book of Proverbs, as a symbol of faith and devotion. ii) promoted as symbol of love, like the wife in the Song of Songs. iii) but accused of being frivolous and a prostitute, bearing the responsibility of introducing evil into the world, through lust (Jean Leclercq, Milano, 92-95). The ownership and her guilt for the original sin, is restored by the projection of worship
of Virgin Mary, mainly during 12th and 13th century, as new Eve, stressing the fundamental role she played in the Divine Dispensation plan (J. LeGoff, 1991, 396). The responsibility of the guilt that accompanies her, on theological level, “is cured” in a way by the legislation system which provides for freedom when it comes to the choice of husband. From her complete manipulation, as roman inheritance law defined, through patria potestas (Richard Saller, 1986, 7-22) and manus, she could now choose her husband or devote to monastic life. Finally, as French medievalist, George Duby, so aptly pointed out, about the literature of the time: “If we mix violence with courtly love and add a pinch of romance from 19th century, then we will have multitude of pleasant stories” (George Duby, 2003, 123). Woman, in these narratives, personifies and incarnates the symbol of idealised love (Ernesto Caroli, 2002, 169).
4. The position of woman in Sermones of Anthony of Padua
4.1 The conceptual framework
Studying the Sermones of Anthony we notice the lexical wealth when it comes to identifying the female gender. The numerous references to woman are based on diverse conceptual areas. When Anthony speaks about female gender he makes: sexual differentiation (muler / vir), physiological differentiation (nterus, vulva, vasculum mulieris), psychological differentiation (mulier fortis, pulchra, odiosa), age differentiation (puella mulier, veterana), differentiation as to marital or social status (nubilitis, desponsata, mater, filia, soror, adultera, domina / ancilla, victim of physical violence), as to religious beliefs (virgo consacrata, monialis religiosa). His vocabulary follows a specific pattern which reflects the stereotypes of medieval society. Pregnant woman conceives, carries, gives birth and breastfeeds. The mother will be tender. The wife honours her husband, supports him and praises him. The widow is abandoned. The young lady is very beautiful. The prostitute is provocative (Ernesto Caroli, 2002, 204).
4.2 The symbolisms of the woman in Sermones
In the Introduction of the Speeches he has composed, he highlights images from the Bible, symbolisms from the unreasoning nature and from the etymology of names, he determines the codex of Christian ethics and deals with the “signposts” indicating the direction of the angelic happiness (Antonio di
Padova, 2005, 19). For example, the senseless woman in the Proverbs (Αγία Γραφή Παρ: 9, 13-18) symbolises the simony that was afflicting the clergy. The prostitute from the Revelation (Αγία Γραφή Αποκ: 17, 1 – 18) symbolises greed and self-indulgence. On the other hand, Elisabeth symbolises the joy of faithful soul and Rebecca the happiness. Portraying the profile of woman, Anthony, sometimes promotes positive role models, as patterns of imitation, and other times to criticise ecclesiastical and social events. Initially we are surprised that, when making the etymology of the word mulier, he identifies it with femininity, as the particular lifestyle is similar to Eve (Antonio di Padova, 2005, 269), meaning sinful. Anthony refers to vir, to highlight virtue. As he clearly states: “All women always attend church, that is feminine and otiose. But, unfortunately, very few true men (viri), thus virtuous. Women, therefore, otiose and feminine chief priests, “plunder my people” (Is. 3,12)” (Antonio di Padova, 2005, 513). Elsewhere in Sermones, wanting to stress the superiority of the spirit over the flesh he analyses the terms anima and animus. He states that: “the soul is an incorporeal entity, capable of rational thought and it can shape the animal instincts of humans, who are enslaved to carnal desires”. If it starts to become completely sensible, it pushes away all those feminine characteristics and transforms into a spirit that participates in the wisdom […]. While it is anima, it is weak, unable to resist to carnal desires. However, animo, which is the mind, examines and seeks only what, is masculine and spiritual” (Antonio di Padova, 2005, 319). Following the symbolisms related to carnal desires, when he refers to female sexuality and at the same time he wants to promote the virtue of modesty, the expressions he uses give off a sense of contempt and belittlement. Sometimes he identifies it with the mire and other times he likens it to a vicious cavity or a dirty fabric (Antonio di Padova, 2005, 880). Anthony uses female role models in a positive way, when he wants to emphasise their role within the family. He speaks positively about the daughter, the mother and the wife. He describes favourably the habits related with beautification and female psychology: the clothing: “Christ beautified his own Esther, Virgin Mary so richly, that it cannot be compared with any other item of feminine adornment” (Antonio di Padova, 2005, 1112) the fragrances: “Woe to the man who soes not feed [within the ecclesiastical flock] and has turned his ears to sweet talk and does not feel the bewailing of the poor. He puts the perfume container on his nostrils, like a woman but doesn’t smell the heavenly fragrance” (Antonio di Padova, 2005, 1213), the looking in the mirror: “if someone listens to the divine Word without applying it […] he resembles a person observing himself in the mirror. It is called a mirror because it reflects the glow, like women, observe
him, admiring the beauty of their face”(Antonio di Padova, 2005, 313), the care of their health, the beauty: [he praises the outer and inner beauty of Virgin Mary and other women of the Bible; Esther “of outstanding beauty, dear and charming in everyone’s eyes” (Antonio di Padova, 2005, 1112); Rebbeca “virgin and exceptionally beautiful” (Αγία Γραφή Γεν: 24, 16); Rachel] (Antonio di Padova, 2005, 831), the courage, the care and the housekeeping, the kindness and the piety. Women, as he points out, sympathise and empathise with their fellow humans more compared to men. They shed tears easier and their memory is stronger. These three characteristics, which distinguish them, symbolise the compassion to the neighbour, the godly devotion and the remembrance of the Lord’s Passion (Antonio di Padova, 2005, 1138). He highlights the women who received, cared and guided Christ’s body to the grave. He considers that faith and reverence are translated in practice with the immediate smearing of Christ’s body with myrrh and perfumes. Among the myrrh bearers he singles out Mary Magdalene who lay awake and was waking up the others, as “the warmth of the love, pushed the others to carry out the necessary preparations for the caring of His body too”, while Virgin Mary remained there, crying, until she sees him resurrected (Antonio di Padova, 2005, 202-203).
4.3 The wife according to Anthony of Padua
The wife, with the use of the Latin word uxor, defines the role of the wife, which is the other half of the man. The phrase uxorem ducere, is also found, which means “the two in one flesh” (Αγία Γραφή Μτ: 19, 7). The marital connection depicts the union of the Holy Spirit and the soul, as it makes it heir to eternal life (Antonio di Padova, 2005, 406). Placing the biblical and Christian perspective in the context of the historical space-time that he lived, he underlines the importance of marriage. Having a deep consciousness of his pastoral care he admonishes men to be a “walking stick” for their wives, to help them and to not take advantage of them. He particularly mentions: “you have to remember that you should get married for three reasons: firstly, to create off springs, secondly to have a prop, and for self-control reasons […]” Woe to the man who gets married for some other reason” (Antonio di Padova, 2005, 420). According to Anthony, marriage is the place of harmony, reconciliation and mildness. “in weddings, as you know, man and woman are united in one flesh. Usually if the two families are in conflict, they are reconciled, through the marital connection. Like it happened with Jezebel. There was a woman, she didn’t approve of the marital connection if there was not unity, she even introduced her husband in the worship of idols” (Antonio di Padova, 2005, 1150). Closing
this subsection, we should not overlook his particular sensitivity, about motherhood. Mother’s figure inspires him deeply, as he presents her as symbol of affectionate love. He mentions specifically: “our own master presented us the example of the woman who gave birth in the middle of pains, to admonish us to repent of our transgressions, giving birth to good works” (Antonio di Padova, 2005, 268). In another passage birth is being associated with salvation, as “Holy Spirit gives birth to the soul, moulds the pattern of good choice and the spirit of salvation”.
Conclusions
The Middle Ages is a period of history full of conflicts and tensions. Social balances are broken and the times give birth to the anarchists of the religious life. Anthony too, embraces the sequel Christi, inspired by the Minor Brothers movement founded by Francis of Assisi. Being a monk with university education-an oxymoron for the brotherhood- he composes Sermones to reflect the guideposts of Christian life which illuminate the historic time-space. His education bears the seal of the Bible and of earlier Paternal Latin literature, which is made clear by the way the woman is included in his work and who is an example, sometimes to follow and other times to avoid. At some points woman is identified with passionate situations and elsewhere she is praised for the virtues she bears. The scholar monk does not invent a system or a solid pattern. On the contrary, he adapts to the situation of the audience and he draws his admonitions from images and symbolisms which the faithful can perceive. In conclusion, we could mention that, if there is a woman that stands out in his work, is Virgin Mary. The four speeches he composed for her celebrations compose a hymn for her mission, her decency and her virtues, while at the same time they are embellished with a multitude of metaphors and images.
Κουμανούδη, Στ. (Ed.). 1854 Λεξικόν Λατινοελληνικόν. Αθήνα: Χιωτέλλης. Antonio di Padova (2005), I Sermoni, (G. Tollardo, Μετ. στα ιταλικά). Padova: Edizioni Messaggero. Caroli, Ern. (Ed.). (2002). Dizionario Antoniano. Padova: Edizioni Messaggero. Duby, G. (2003), Μεσαιωνική Δύση: Κοινωνία και Ιδεολογία (Ό. Βάρων και Ρ. Μπενβενίστε, Μετ.). Αθήνα: Εκδόσεις Εταιρεία Μελέτης Νέου Ελληνισμού. Gamboso, V. (Ed.). (2012). La vita del Santo, raccontata dai contemporanei Assidua-Rigaldina. Padova: Edizioni Messaggero. Le Goff, J. (1993), Ο Πολιτισμός της Μεσαιωνικής Δύσης (Ρίκα Μπενβενίστε, Μετ.). Θεσσαλονίκη: Βάνιας. Leclercq, J. (1994), La figura della donna nel medioevo. Milano: Jaca Book. Nicholas, D. (1999), Η εξέλιξη του μεσαιωνικού κόσμου. Κοινωνία, διακυβέρνηση και σκέψη στην Ευρώπη 312-1500 (Μαριάννα Τζιαντζή, Μετ.). Αθήνα: Μορφωτικό Ίδρυμα Εθνικής Τραπέζης. Pontificia Università lateranense. (1961). Bibliotheca sanctorum. Roma: Istituto Giovanni XXIII nella Pontificia Università lateranense.
Saller, R. (1986). Patria Potestas and the Stereotype of the Roman Family, Continuity and Change, 1986 (1), 7-22.
2
Lecturer of Liturgy, Department of Theology & Culture, Univerity College Logos, Tirana
Corespondence:
e-mail: gkeselop@gmail.com
Abstract
In modern Greek Orthodox theology of the 20th and 21st century, theologians, clergymen and preachers frequently express the opinion that Orthodoxy is not a religion. This phrase maybe somewhat perplexing, especially to western theologians. The current paper, entitled ‘Homo religiosus or homo ecclesiasticus’, attempts to shed light on this theological position. Man’s innate need to believe in something is related to the term religion. But often the god that man believes in is ultimately his own construction. In contrast, according to Orthodox theology, genuine Christian faith does not come from man, but is the product of divine revelation. God is revealed to man in different ways through the various epiphanies in human history. Thus, there is always the phenomenon of divine condescensionto man. While in western scholastic thoughtman attempts an intellectual ascent to God, the eastern Orthodox tradition believes in God’s descent into the world and His encounter, relationship and finally communion with man. So man comes to know God ontologically, when he freely opens his existence and comes into communion with the person of the Lord Jesus Christ.Thus, the encounter with God is a personal meeting and acquaintance. However,this relationship cannot be separated from the Church, since the Church is, according to the Orthodox tradition whichfollows the theology of the Apostle Paul, the body of Christ. Εcclesiastical man is the person who has met Christ and tried to have a personal communication with Him and at the same time has been united with all the members of the Church. However, this relationship does not mean that he rejects people who are outsidethe Church, since for homo ecclesiasticus every human being is an image of God, whom he is calledto love.Ultimately, according to this point of view, homo religiosus is the person who creates his own god, in whom he believes ideologically, while homo ecclesiasticus is the person who has truly (ontologically) known Christ, as He is revealed in the Church.
Citation:
Keselopoulos G. Christ, Homo religiosus or homo ecclesiasticus: a contemporary interpretation of modern orthodox theologians. Theology & Culture. 2021; 3: 17-25. Doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.15635.60965
In 2018, on the side-lines of a lecture at a conference in Assisi, I was talking to a Franciscan hierarch and university professor, and the Under-Secretary of the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity, Monsignor Andrea Palmieri. There, as we were talking, I expressed the position that Orthodoxy is not a religion. The Catholic hierarch was surprised to hear that. Monsignor, Andrea Palmieri tried to reassure him, telling him that this perception exists in modern orthodox theological thought. So, a small effort will be made here, to explain this thought content, in order to be able to communicate in the end, since one will indeed find out that in modern Greek orthodox theology of 20th and 21st century, often both theologians and ecclesiastical pastoral persons and preachers of God’s word, express the position that Orthodoxy is not a religion. This phrase sounds really strange especially to western theologians. So, with this article which is entitled: Homus religiosus or homus ecclesiasticus, we will initially see some thoughts from the Blessed Metropolitan of Sisani and Siatista Pavlos’ speeches, which are related to our subject and then we will analyse all the parameters more systematically.
1. The thoughts of Metropolitan Pavlos of Sisanion and Siatista
Blessed Metropolitan of Sisani and Siatista Pavlos, a charismatic preacher of God’s word, very often refers to this matter in his sermons. He asks the following question: “How can two people who believe in the same God, have such different lives and to not embrace the same things in practice?” And then he replies: “I see that, even in our Church. And I come to the conclusion that everyone bears and adjusts religion to their own standards. Therefore, in religions, essentially, well intentioned people adopt a teaching to their standards. It is strange that even people who belong to the same religion have different views. Ultimately it appears that everyone makes the religion that suits them. Often, I end up saying that it is best that people keeps their distance from religion. Their mind stays more open. Such people interest me more. When you talk to someone religious, and in fact fanatic, I think the conversation has ended before it has even begun. These people seem to have a somewhat unhealthy dependency. It is, as if they refuse to try and live without what they believe even for a little while. They resemble slaves of their fears…” He later continues: “Crimes have been committed in the name of God, it is however
our responsibility to personally research religions and ideologies and to not form an impression from the actions of fanatics and deceivers, who take advantage of people’s need for something better “Further to his answers in an interview he stresses: “The fact that there are so many religions demonstrates a basic truth; that man was never able to live without God. God is one of the materials which man was made of. And the existence of a multitude of religions shows this truth. Of course, on the other hand, it is very important to understand that, if you do not know the true God, you are bound to create a substitute; because, God is the one who comes to liberate man. And when man is not freed and does not love, then he has a mistaken religiosity. This is evident in religions, but also in the differences and differentiations which exist in the same religious space. Essentially it happens, that we sometimes make ourselves god or put our selves in God’s place and this is why we judge everything. The need for criticism and fanaticism shows people who are captive. A man, who has truly been freed by the presence of God in his life, is not and cannot be fanatic. Because a fanatic is same one who feels anxious, who is afraid to be challenged by others and who insists on trying to defend his point of view. A person who is free, is not afraid of being questioned by others, does not feel the need to be fanatic, does not need to be fanatic. He accepts others, because he believes that God, who is love, always has something for every one of us. Therefore, fanaticism shows our own inadequacy, our own doubt, our own fear. And on the other hand, the diversity of the various religious shades can help us reflect on the phenomenon of religion, which is old as man himself” (Pavlos Ioannis, 2019a, 56-60).
In his speech entitled “Can religion give birth to violence” Metropolitan Pavlos says the following: “Personally, I do not believe in any religion, not even in Christianity! I do not believe in any ideology. I love life and that is what led me to the Church. The question of God is a universal question. Religion on its part is something human but at the same time something very important and of course, not at all contemptible. The multitude of religions confirms a great truth. The truth that man is constantly seeking God and cannot live without Him, because God is a structural element of his existence. The religious quest is as old as humanity. The Church is not something human, but a theanthropic reality. It is an invitation to man for communion whit a personal God, a call for participation and interpenetration. The content of this communion, the essence of this communion is love… The greatest sin of Christians is turning the Church into a religion.”
The choice of these extensive excerpts from Metropolitan Pavlos’ interviews and speeches was deliberate. He is an orthodox theologian and preacher of God’s words, whose sermons are broadcast on the radio, and after his death have become viral on social media in Greece. In this way, I wanted to provide a framework and provide an introduction to the topic from the point of view of modern Orthodox theology. I could refer to many similar texts by other modern orthodox theologians, but the time constraints of this lecture does not allow it. (I will try, however, to do so, in a future edition of this article). In the second part of my presentation, I will try in a more systematic way to analyse the position: Church rather than religion (Pavlos Ioannis, 2019b, 207-208).
2. Parameters that separate homo religiosus from homo ecclesiasticus. God manifests himself and is revealed to man (divine descent)
The late professor of Dogmatics Nikolaos Matsoukas writes the following about the controversy between scholastic theologians of the 14th century and the Orthodox Hesychast theologians, whose main representative was St Gregory Palamas: “The scholastic wisemen of that time, of the 14th century, for example Barlaam, Akindynos, Gregoras and others, claimed that the knowledge of God, through biblical texts and philosophical lessons, is nothing other than man’s ascent to God. The enlightenment that man receives is moral, created, and educational and so on. Followers off Gregory Palamas questioned this moral relationship between God and the world, and stressed the energetic, which is purely biblical; God is present and acts in creation and in history; He gives enlightenment, energy, grace, abundance and so on to man who is created and corruptible. And after man is enlightened, he can always, through the body of the Church, ascend to God”. Matsoukas ends by stating that: “Scholastics identify the knowledge of God as an act of ascension, whereas Palamists view it as an act of descent, which is completely historic and continuous” (N. Matsoukas, 1997, 112-113).
The whole Bible, Old and New Testament, is a continuous revelation of God to the world. In this holy book the term religion always has a negative connotation and is opposite to the term Church, which is always positive1. The rea-
1 For the terms religion (θρησκεία) and Church (Εκκλησία) in the Old and New Testaments see the article: Ανθίμου Μητροπολίτη Αλεξανδρουπόλεως, “Έχουμε περισσότερη θρησκεία από όση χρειαζόμαστε” https://www.exapsalmos.gr/2017/05/07/alexandroupo-
son the world was created is the Church, that is the communion of God and man, and the ultimate destination is again the Church, that is the Kingdom of Heavens, where man and God live this communion in its fullness (N. Matsoukas, 1997, 258-261). God through his Epiphanyis constantly reveales to man in history, from the creation of the world (Protology), the period of the Old Testament (prophecy, prefiguration), the period of the New Testament (symbolic-ecclesiology) to the Kingdom of Heaven in the coming century (eschatology) (N. Matsoukas, 1997, 118-132). And ultimately, everything is present, as God who governs everything is beyond and outside any time limitation. This phenomenon of Epiphany can also be characterised as the process by which the world becomes Church (εκκλησίασμός του κόσμου). After all, mystery, as defined by orthodox theology, is every meeting-or communion between the created and uncreated, that is between the world and God (N. Matsoukas, 1997, 263-275). Very clearly Christ is the centre through which the whole mystery of the Holy Trinity is understood. So, par excellence “The unincarnal Word (άσαρκος Λόγος) which then becomes incarnate (ένσαρκος), revealing the Holy Trinity with Ηιs revelation, realises through epiphanies the history of divine economy or the history of salvation, which is what it is called in the circles of biblical theologians” (N. Matsoukas, 1997, 119). As St. Maximus the Confessor, following the Apostle Paul and John the Evangelist, argues the unincarnal Word resides in the patriarchs and prophets of the Old Testament, whereas after the incarnation the Word is united with the perfects (N. Matsoukas, 1997, 120). In the end, the whole creation is a perpetual epiphany, in which the charismatic bodies of the ecclesiastical community participate, and they transmit it to the whole body (N. Matsoukas, 1997, 121).
If we had to summarise everything mentioned above we could come to the following conclusions: 1) The relationship with God is real. 2) God is a specific person, and therefore his relationship with man is a personal acquaintance. 3) Christ is the person one must come to know and with whom one muste be united, in order to know the true God. 4) This acquaintance takes place within the body of Christ that is the Church.
5) Christ (as unincarnate Word) from the beginning of the history of the
world, that is its creation, and especially through the incarnation, crucifixion and resurrection is he who condescends, that is descends to encounter man. The opposite does not happen; man cannot find God through his own powers alone. If man tries by himself to ascend to God, then he will most likely create a false God, according to his wishes and his weaknesses, adapted to what serves him depending on his situation.
3. Christ and the Church (the holy sacraments)
It follows that personal acquaintance with Christ has as a consequence to lead man to what Christ himself created that is the Church. The Church is par excellence the place and the way in which Christ manifests him. According to the apostle Paul the Church is the body of Christ, where the Lord is the head and the faithful the members (1Cor. 12:27 “Now you are the body of Christ, and members individually”. Col. 1:18: “and he is the head of the body of the Church”). In the Church the faithful must become one with the whole body. This unity is achieved because of the person of Christ in the Holy Spirit. A man, who is united with the real God, is united with His body. The participation in the sacraments of the Church and especially in the common cup, the Holy Communion, that is the partaking of the body and blood of Christ, is the greatest proof of this communion. Christ performs all the sacraments and through all the sacraments the faithful united with Christ. However, even in the Orthodox Church there are religious people who are not true members of the Church.
4. The example of the Pharisee of the parable as a religious man, Homo religiosus, rather that a man of the Church, homo ecclesiasticus homus
Christ sawed special love to sinners. In fact, he was criticized many times because of that. On the other hand, the only occasion that He reacted to a human mentality was that of the Pharisees. For the education of the faithful he even said the well-known parable of the tax collector and the Pharisee (Luk. 18,10-14). In this parable the Pharisee stands before God with arrogance, enumerating his good works, while in the end he does not fail to judge the tax collector. In contrast, the sinful tax collector stands humbly and repentantly before God, asking for his mercy. The attitude of the Pharisee is rejected by God, while the tax collector’s repentance is accepted. From this parable we can
see the characteristics of the religious man. So: • The religious man relies on his personal virtue to be saved, on the basis of a list of commandments he keeps (moralism), rather than on the mercy and the personal relationship with Christ. • He justifies himself and does not let God judge him. • He goes so far as to judge and reject his fellow man that is the tax collector, making himself -rather than the God of love and forgiveness- the judge of others.
• In the end he completely disregards the first and basic commandment of Christ, that is the commandment of love. However, the commandment of love cannot exist in him, since the person who has been introduced as love is absent from him, that is, God. God did not say: “I have love”, but: “I am love”. So, the absence of Christ from the life of the person who is religious Homo religiosus but not of the Church homo ecclesiasticus, has as a result the lack of love.
• For the religious man salvation is a matter of individual achievement, which is based on the ideological perception of the obedience of certain commandments rather than a fact is based on a personal relationship with the true God and His body, that is, the Church.
On the contrary, the true member of the Church (homo ecclesiasticus): • Is someone has known God personally. • His relationship and union with God inevitably lead him to the body of the Church.
• There he repents for his own mistakes, always asking for the mercy of God, while at the same time he loves everyone and wishes for their salvation, following the example of Christ, whom he is united. • His virtues are in the service of the body of Church, and they are not means of self justification. • In the end the commandment of love, is not an ideological slogan, but reveals his unity with God.
Conclusions
Man’s innate need to believe in something is related to the term religion. But often the god that man believes in is ultimately his own creation. On the
contrary, according to Orthodox theology, genuine Christian faith does not come from man, but is the product of divine revelation. God is revealed to man in different ways through the various epiphanies in human history. Thus, there is always the phenomenon of divine condescension to man. While western scholastic thought attempts an intellectual ascent to God, the eastern Orthodox tradition believes in God’s descent into the world and His encounter, relationship and finally communion with man. So, man comes to know God ontologically, when he freely opens his existence and comes into communion with the Lord Jesus Christ. Thus, the encounter with God is a personal encounter and acquaintance. However, this relationship cannot be separated from the Church, since the Church is, according to the Orthodox tradition, which follows the theology of the Apostle Paul, the body of Christ. Α true member of the Church (homo ecclesiasticus) is the person who has encountered Christ and tried to have a personal communication with Him and at the same time has been united with all the members of the Church. However, this relationship does not mean that he rejects people who are outside the Church, since for homo ecclesiasticus every human being is an image of God, whom he is called to love. Ultimately, according to this point of view, homo religiosus is the person who creates his own god, in whom he believes ideologically, while homo ecclesiasticus is the person who has truly (ontologically) known Christ, as He is revealed in the Church.
By way of an epilogue
Instead of any other epilogue, I would like to close with the words of one of my teachers, Fr Ireneos Delidimos professor of Ecclesiastical History at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, and a theologian with unique insights. So, he says in one of his interviews: “A Religious person is not a Christian. A Christian is something else. Maybe I should say something about Christianity, about the difference between Christianity and religion. I will say this… At first, Christianity in the New Testament, is not called religion, it is called the Kingdom of Heavens and so on. It is essentially a reversal of religions. Because religions have a god or a lot of gods at the top, and below them they have clergy and at the bottom they have people, who offer sacrifices to appease and attract the god’s goodwill. In Christianity we see the precise opposite. God sacrifices His only begotten Son and through this sacrifice calls the people to be reconciled with Him… It is God who descends to the people… and condescends to every person who is sinful and despised2 .
Anthimos (Koukouridis), Metropolitan of Alexandroupolis. (2017). “Έχουμε περισσότερη θρησκεία από όση χρειαζόμαστε”. https://www.exapsalmos. gr/2017/05/07/alexandroupoleos-echoume-perissoteri-thriskia-apo-osichriazomaste/ (retrieved on 10/8/2021). Matsoukas, N. (1997). Δογματικὴ καὶ Συμβολικὴ Θεολογία Γ, Ἀνακεφαλαίωση καὶ Ἀγαθοτοπία, Ἔκθεση τοῦ οἰκουμενικοῦ χαρακτήρα τῆς χριστιανικῆς διδασκαλίας, Thessaloniki. Maximus the Confessor. Περὶ θεολογίας καὶ τῆς ἐνσάρκου οἰκονομίας τοῦ Υἱοῦ τοῦ Θεοῦ, PG 90. Pavlos Ioannis, Metropolitan of Sisanis and Siatistis. (2019a). Άκουσε καλό μου παιδί, απαντήσεις σε νέους από έναν επίσκοπο αγάπης. Συνεντεύξεις στον Ηλία Λιαμή. Athens. _______ (2019b). Δεν έχουμε άλλο δρόμο από την Αγάπη. Athens.
και Ορθοδοξίας”, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iHXz-tdIPYo&t=1957s from 23:53 to 27:30 18/7/2021.
3
Adjunct Lecturer of Department of Theology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
Corespondence:
e-mail: nzarotiadis@yahoo.com
Abstract
St. Augustine examines thoroughly the nature of the demons wishing to reveal their deceitful and fallacious character in books VIII and IX of the work De civitate Dei. The aim of the current lecture is to give prominence to the teaching of St. Augustine with respect to the deceptive works of the demons. St. Augustine contends that the demons lie behind any magical art and that they are responsible for the organising of the drama contests in Rome, where every lewd, impious and disgraceful act is unravelled at the theatres. He talks about the abilities of the demons and argues that they can deceive the naive and credulous people, especially those who are not under the protection of the God, due to the skills their airy body offer them. The demons, being supported by the magical wiles and illusions, take advantage of the weakness of the human senses, namely the limited capabilities of the human body, and lead men to fallacy and misbelief. Furthermore, the lecture will be about the ways the demons use to illude people through magical and oracular practices. More specifically, we will examine how demons instigate every magical act and how they render humans their victims. Following, we will compare the demonology of the saint, as it unfolds in his work De civitate Dei, with his other marvellous work, De divinatione daemonum.
Keywords:
Demonology, St. Augustine, Church Father, passions, fallacy. Citation:
Zarotiadis N. Religious conflict with the demons according to St Augustine. Theology & Culture. 2021; 3: 27-34. Doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.29057.38246
The nature, activity and role of demons particularly concerned St. Augustine. In many of his works, he refers to the deceptions and tricks which demons resort to, in order to deceive man. However, in De civitate Dei and in his short treatise, De divination daemonum, he reveals in detail his demonology.
1. De civitate Dei
The Platonic demonology of Apuleius attracted St. Augustine’s interest. St Augustine, like many other Church Fathers and saints of the West, had a profound knowledge and was a scholar of the Classical texts. In De Civitate Dei he seems to have studied the work of Apuleius. This makes sense since both writers came from the same area, Africa, and both had Roman Education1 . Additionally, Apuleius came from Madura. It is worth noting that Augustine attended the school of Madura (366-370), where he, as he himself says, received Classical Education (St. Augustine, Confessiones, 1.13.21). The work that particularly attracted his attention was De Deo Socratis (Zarotiadis, 2016, p.175).
Specifically, in the eighth and ninth book of De civitate Dei he will start unfolding the sly role of demons, after firstly condemning the Platonic demonology of Apuleius (Guy, 1961,pp.66-70; Moreschini, 1966, p.34; Siniscalco, 1990, p.283). Like earlier Christian apologists, he will identify the gods of gentiles with demons2 .
Augustine, in the eighth book of De civitate Dei, claims that the habitat of God is sky, humans’ is earth, and demons’ is air3. He wonders why Apuleius chose De Deo Socratis as a title for his book. The philosopher from Madura had to title his work De daemone Socratis, because, as he argues, the voice
1 “Αpuleius enim, ait ut de illo potissimum loquamur, qui nobis Afris Afer est notior”. (St. Augustine, Epistula, 138.19). 2 “Sed maligni spiritus, quos isti deos putant, etiam flagitia, quae non admiserunt, de se dici uolunt, dum tamen humanas mentes his opinionibus uelut retibus induant et ad praedestinatum supplicium secum trahant, siue homines ista commiserint, quos deos haberi gaudent, qui humanis erroribus gaudent, pro quibus se etiam colendos mille nocendi fallendique artibus interponunt”. (St. Augustine, De civitate Dei 2.10). 3 “Omnium, inquiunt, animalium, in quibus est anima rationalis, tripertita diuisio est, in deos, homines, daemones. Dii excelsissimum locum tenent, homines infimum, daemones medium. Nam deorum sedes in caelo est, hominum in terra, in aere daemonum”. (St. Augustine, De civitate Dei 8.14).
which spoke and advised Socrates belonged to a demon. Augustine believes that, if Apuleius had adopted the daimone, people would be scared of the title of the work, fact that shows humans’ fear of demons4 .
Augustine will start unfolding the identity and the true role of demons. Initially, reference will be made to their bodies and their substance. Indeed, demons have aerial bodies which allow them to move in space freely and flexibly. However, this fact should not scare people or make them feel inferior to demons. After all, there are many animals that are physically superior to humans.
The saint cites the example of the dog, whose sense of smell is superior to that of man, as well as that of the vulture and eagle, whose vision is clearly better. Also, hare is faster, and elephant is stronger, however, these physical abilities do not make them superior beings to man5. According to St Augustine, people should and must feel happy, since they are those who will have immortatitatem corporum (immortality of the bodies); on the other hand, eternal torment awaits demons6 .
Then the saint will deal with the home of demons. He recognises that the habitat of demons is the air, however, this does not make them superior to humans, because in that sense, humans should have been inferior to birds7. We should not, therefore, display any respect to demons because of their home, as birds fly high too, but submit to us because of the soul which resides in our body. In fact, they live in the air and they are condemned to stay in this kind of prison which looks like their body8. Humans are therefore, superior to demons, because within man nests the hope of the pious, whereas in demons
4 “quem secundum suam disputationem, qua deos a daemonibus tam diligenter copioseque discernit, non appellare de deo, sed de daemone Socratis debuit. Maluit autem hoc in ipsa disputatione quam in titulo libri ponere. Itaenim per sanam doctrinam, quae humanis rebus inluxit, omnes uel paene omnes daemonum nomen exhorrent”. (St. Augustine, De civitate Dei 8.14). 5 “Alioquin multas sibi et bestias praelaturus est, quae nos et acrimonia sensuum et motu facillimo atque celerrimo et ualentia uirium et annosissima firmitate corporum uincunt. Quis hominum uidendo aequabitur aquilis et uulturibus? quis odorando canibus? quis uelocitate leporibus, ceruis, omnibus auibus? quis multum ualendo leonibus et elephantis?”. (St. Augustine, De civitate Dei 8.15). 6 “habituri et nos inmortalitatem corporum, non quam suppliciorum aeternitas torqueat, sed quam puritas praecedat animorum”. (St. Augustine, De civitate Dei 8.15). 7 “Iam uero de loci altitudine, quod daemones in aere, nos autem habitamus in terra, ita permoueri, ut hinc eos nobis esse praeponendos existimemus, omnino ridiculum est. Hoc enim pacto nobis et omnia uolatilia praeponimus”. (St. Augustine, De civitate Dei 8.15). 8 “qui in hoc quidem aere habitant, quia de caeli superioris sublimitate deiecti merito inregressibilis transgressionis in hoc sibi congruo uelut carcere praedamnati sunt”. (St. Augustine, De civitate Dei 8.22).
darkness and despair dominate9. In order to appreciate souls, completes the saint, we shouldn’t take into consideration the order, which is presented in the hierarchy of the bodies, because it can happen to a superior soul to inhabit an inferior body and an imperfect soul a more perfect body10. After all, the soul, whichever her nature might be, is superior to all bodies11 .
Augustine will continue his demonology referring to the passions of demons. He agrees with Apuleius, that demons are subject to the same passions as humans12. They are outraged by insults, they love honours, they are pleased with sacrifices and they resent indifference. In fact, demons belong to the animate beings, however, this doesn’t constitute a privilege for those, as animals are animate too. For the saint, demons are not superior to humans, even though they are eternal. Besides, their eternity, does not guarantee them the happy eternity. Temporary happiness is of greater value than a wretched eternity13. Augustine criticises Apuleius’ demonology and argues that demons don’t have any virtue to show, as they are full of hate and evilness. In fact, the Platonic philosopher, makes no reference of any moral value of the demons, except for their physical strengths. Demons are seduced by gifts and succumb to hate and envy. According to the saint, virtuous Christian should love, soothe his inner world and restrain themental disturbances and the rushing waves of hate. He condemns the Platonic demonology and considers it impossible for demons to be able to play the role of the mediator between gods and people, as demons are vicious and vile. With this argument he wishes to show the vanity of the Gentiles for their gods. God prefers to communicate with great pleasure with religious people rather than with deceitful demons. In fact, demons, the pioneers of magic arts, could never mediate to God for the remission of the sins of people, as those are the ones who try to deceive man and push him to sin14. Demons are nothing but evil spirits which only think of harm. They are
9 “sed ideo eis hominess praeferendi sint, quoniam spei piorum hominum nequaquam illorum desperation comparanda est”. (St. Augustine, De civitate Dei 8.15). 10 “ut intellegamus non eundem ordinem tenendum, cum agitur de meritis animarum, qui uidetur esse ordo in gradibus corporum; sed fieri posse, ut inferius corpus anima melio rinhabitet deteriorque superius”. (St. Augustine, De civitate Dei 8.15). 11 “Quod corpora aeria, quanti aestimandum est, cum omni corpora praeferatur animae qualiscumque natura”. (St. Augustine, De civitate Dei 8.16). 12 “Quapropter, ut omittam cetera et hoc solum pertractem, quod nobiscum daemones dixit habere commune, id est animi passions”. (St. Augustine, De civitate Dei 8.17). 13 “quod tempore aeterna, quid boni est, si non beata? Melior est enim temporalis felicitas quam misera aeternitas”. (St. Augustine, De civitate Dei 8.16). 14 “Si autem peccator paenitens preces fundit, maxime si aliquid magicum admisit: itane tandem illis intercedentibus accipit ueniam, quibus inpellentibus aut fauentibus se cecidisse plangit in culpam? an et ipsi daemones, ut possint paenitentibus mereri indulgentiam, priores
foreign to all justice, arrogant, supercilious, full of envy and capable of deception15 .
St Augustine, in the ninth book of De civitate Dei, will conflict with the Platonic demonology, which argues the existence of good and evil demons, and for this reason he explicitly clarifies that good demons don’t exist. It will be a disastrous mistake for a human to believe that he can rely on demons, as such an attitude will alienate him from the true God16. If there were good demons, argues the saint, Apuleius should have mentioned their moral assets, not only their physical strengths17. Therefore, demons are prisoners of their violent passions and the disturbances of their spirit (Parnell, 2009, p.34). Their spirit submits to greed, fear, rage and every passion18 . 2. De divinatione daemonum
The treatise De divination daemonum was written between 406 – 410 (Borelli, 1993, p.26 ; Fick, 1995, 195 ; Kühn, 1997, 293). Dialogue starts in the secretarium of the saint. The heart of the dialogue is to what extend were the priests of god Sarapis able to predict the destruction of his temple, temple of Serapis. Augustine tries, with arguments that spring from passages of the Bible, to prove that the demons, who live in the temples of idolaters, are not able to prophesy nothing but what the Lord allows them. The tone of the work is didactic and paraenetic (Evans, 1990, 87; Zarotiadis, 2021, 15). Augustine tries to prove the existence of demons in the sanctuaries of the pagans. He unfolds his demonology describing the nature, the strengths and the ability of demons to predict the future and stresses that the deceptions of demons are nothing before Lord’s grace.
According to the saint, demons do not possess the prophetic power and, therefore, are totally powerless to predict the future. The agility of their bodies allows them to move fast in space, to observe events and convey them
agunt, quod eos deceperint, paenitentiam?”. (St. Augustine, De civitate Dei 8.19). 15 “sed esse spiritus nocendi cupidissimos, a iustitia penitus alienos, superbia tumidos, inuidentia, liuidos, fallacia callidos”. (St. Augustine, De civitate Dei 8.22). 16 “ne quisquam uelut daemones bonos sequendos sibi esse arbitretur, per quos tamquam medios diis, quos omnes bonos credit, dum conciliari adfectat et studet, ut quasi cum eis posit esse post mortem, inretitus malignorum spirituum deceptusque fallacia longe aberret a uero Deo”. (St. Augustine, De civitate Dei 9.2). 17 “Quando quidem Platonicus Apuleius de his uniuersaliter disserens et tam multa loquens de aeriis eorum corporibus de uirtutibus tacuit animorum, quibus essent praediti, si essent boni”. (St. Augustine, De civitate Dei 9.3). 18 “Subiecta est ergo mens daemonum passionibus libidinum formidinu mirarum atque huius modi ceteris”. (St. Augustine, De civitate Dei 9.6).
to people. Demons have tremendous agility and with their speed, are able to overtake, not only humans but even the birds themselves. Gifted with aerial bodies signify or announce many events that have happened, which people are unaware of because of the slowness of their senses19. Demons, at the same time, due to the longevity of their bodies, have great experience and capability which doesn’t exist in humans as the shortness of their lives deprives them from it20. Thanks to these properties, which the nature of their aerial body drew, not only do they predict many future things, but also do wonders21 . Consequently, over the years and with the acquisition of many years of experience, they can presume possible future events like illnesses, storms, earthquakes, disasters and many other natural phenomena.
Demons have the ability to infect the air with illnesses, to persuade the corrupted lovers of earthly things to commit heinous acts22. At the same time, they can penetrate in the bodies of humans, either they are awake or asleep and stir their thoughts with various imaginary visions. Additionally, demons recognise, thanks to their sharp sense of smell, the moods of humans, which deceive people and pushes them to believe that demons have the power to predict the future23 .
Augustine, in the continuation of his work, will praise the real power of the prophecy of God that is offered through his angels to his Prophets24. Demons like deceiving people, but they are themselves deceived by God’s will. This happens, as when they prophesy, without expecting it, an order comes from high, which disturbs their plans25 .
19 “multa ante cognita praenuntiant vel nuntiant, quae homines pro sensus terreni tarditate mirentur”. (St. Augustine, De divinatione daemonum 3.7). 20 “Accessit etiam daemonibus per tam longum tempus quo eorum vita protenditur, rerum longe maior experientia, quam potest hominibus propter brevitatem vitae provenire”. (St. Augustine, De divinatione daemonum 3.7). 21 “Per has efficacias quas aerii corporis natura sortita est, non solum multa future praedicunt daemones, verum etiam multa mira faciunt”. (St. Augustine, De divinatione daemonum 3.7). 22 “Accipiunt enim saepe potestatem et morbos immittere, et ipsum aerem vitiando morbidum reddere; et perversis atque amatoribus terrenorum commodorum malefacta suadere;”. (St. Augustine, De divinatione daemonum 5.9). 23 “Suadent autem miris et invisibilibus modis, per illam subtilitatem suorum corporum corpora hominum non sentientium penetrando, seseque cogitationibus eorum per quaedam imaginaria visa miscendo, sive vigilantium sive dormientium. ;”. (St. Augustine, De divinatione daemonum 5.9). 24 “cum tamen ab eis longe sit altitude illius prophetiae, quam Deus per sanctos Angelos suos et Prophetas operator”. (St. Augustine, De divinatione daemonum 6.10). 25 “Falluntur quidem, quia cum suas dispositions praenuntiant, ex improvise desuper aliquid iubetur, quod eorum consilia cuncta perturbed”. (St. Augustine, De divinatione daemo-
Typically, the saint argues that angels, servants of the Lord, disturb and change unexpectedly the malicious plans of the demons, as those aren’t in the position to know the will of the Lord26. The Lord is He, the only, who knows the future and demons tremble at the will of the Lord. Therefore, Christians must be guarded from the vicious appetites of the demons27 .
The saint’s sermon regarding the nature and activity of the demons will influence the thinking and the work of many Christian writers, like Isidore of Seville, Rabanus Maurus and others.
num 6.10). 26 “quia et haec ab Angelis Deo summo pie servientibus alia dispositione ignota daemonibus ex improviso ac repente mutantur”. (St. Augustine, De divinatione daemonum 6.10). 27 “a quibus sunt ista conscripta, et prudentibus daretur intellegi quam vigilanter esset daemonum cavenda fallacia cultusque fugiendus”. (St. Augustine, De divinatione daemonum 7.11).
