Experimental Architecture thesis by Dhyan Suthar by dhyan suthar

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This work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other Degree or Diploma in any University or other institutions and to the best of my knowledge does not contain any material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in text. I consent to this copy of thesis titled: Experimental Architecture , when in the library of SAL School of Architecture, being available on loan and photocopying.

Student Name: Dhyan Suthar

Enrollment No: 153561050009

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Date: 08/06/2020

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SAL School of Architecture Approved All India India Council Council for Approved by by Council Council of of Architecture Architecture & & All for Technical Technical Education-New Education-New Delhi. Delhi. Affiliated Affiliated to to Gujarat Gujarat Technological Technological University-Ahmedabad, University-Ahmedabad, Gujarat, Gujarat, India. India. Opp. Opp. Science Science City, City, Sola Sola road, road, Ahmedabad-380 Ahmedabad-380 060. 060. Ph.: Ph.: 079-67129000, 079-67129000, Fax: Fax: 079-29700310 079-29700310 Email: Email: saliter@ymail.com saliter@ymail.com || barc@sal.edu.in barc@sal.edu.in || www.sal.edu.in www.sal.edu.in

GRADUATE PROGRAMME IN ARCHITECTURE STUDENT NAME: DHYAN SUTHAR

ENROLLMENT NO. 153561050009

THESIS TITLE: EXPERIMENTAL ARCHITECRURE

APPROVAL The following study is hereby approved as a creditable work on the approved subject carried warrant

out

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presented

the

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its acceptance as a pre-requisite to the degree of Bachelor

Architecture for which it has been submitted. It is to be understood that by this approval, the undersigned does not endorse or approve the statements made, opinions expressed or conclusions drawn therein, but approves the study only for the purpose for which it has been submitted and satisfies him/her to the requirements laid down in the academic programme.

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Dean, School of Architecture

Guide Name: Antara Patel Date:08/06/2020

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The journey of acquiring knowledge to put through these pages has been joyfully satisfying. I am grateful to people who have guided me towards the direction of definitiveness, Antara Patel. I am grateful for the help from her and the dean of sal school of architecture Shrutie Shah. I am thankful to my brother Ambesh Suthar for his navigation, he has been a strong source of inspiration. I am also grateful to my parents Kokila and Naresh Suthar for their support, encouragement, and unique inputs. lastly thanks to all my friends for the memories of five wonderful years.

ABSTRACT

Global forces today have both, directly and indirectly, dominated the process of molding the innovations performed today. Some of the forces are subjective to the native area of experimentation but somehow linked to the larger force that is applicable at an international level. Understanding the evolution of inventory projects and the reason behind the emergence of a sudden change of necessity throughout these years is essential as the context to identify the latest forces stretching the boundaries of architecture today. The avant-garde was the initial term given to the group of people that pushed the traditional boundaries of art. The discipline of Avant-garde during the Great War slowly transitioned into futurism and had spread to various countries where each nation added their essence to the futurism. Architecture, in both avant-garde and futurism, had a massive impact on the young architects which resulted in the writings of several manifestos centering futurism. Although experimental art and architecture share conceptual grounds to a degree with avant-garde and Futurism, during the 1950s architect Lebbues Woods and peter cook published their separate theories centering experimental architecture. Collecting evidence of historical events in regards to experimental architecture provides the knowledge of cultivating revolution. Later elucidated by selective structures from as early as 1880 to 2010 primary linked to either certain movements of events that molded the inventiveness of the project. contemporary architects today are experimenting further on a similar scale today as they are restricted by the risks and the limits of funding. However further innovations with layers of complexity today can not only be done by architects alone thus the research being done in architecture today is gradually inclining towards multidisciplinary collaborations. These collaborative efforts are after finding the solutions to either of the positive and negative global forces.

CONTENT i Acknowledgment ii Abstract iii Aim & Objectives iv Scope & Limitation v Methodology

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION o Experiment in terms of Art

o 1.1 THEORY &CONCEPT o 1.1.1 HISTORY OF AVANT GARDE AS A CONCEPT o 1.1.2 ROMANTICISM AND MODERNISM o 1.1.3 PUBLIC, ART, MUSIC AND FASHION

o 1.2 AGONISM, FASCISM & FUTURISM

o 1.2.1 MARENERRI’S FUTURISM AND FASCISM IN ITALY o 1.2.2 ARCHITECTURE IN FUTURISM o 1.2.3 RUSSIAN MANIFESTO OF FUTURISM

CHAPTER 2 - UNDERSTANDING EXPERIMENTAL ARCHITECTURE o 2.1 EXPERIMENTS IN ARCHITECTURE o 2.1.1 EXPERIMENTS IN ARCHITECTURE

o 2.2 THEORY OF EXPERIMENTAL ARCHITECTURE o 2.2.1 LEBBUS WOODS o 2.2.2 PETER COOK o 2.2.3 ARCHIGRAM

CHAPTER 3 - TIMELINE & ZEITGEIST o 3.1 1880 TO 1980

o 3.1.1 1880 - 1900 o 3.1.2 1900 - 1940 o 3.1.2 1940 - 1980

Experimental Architecture

CONTENT o 3.2 1980 TO 2020

o 3.2.1 1980 - 2000 o 3.2.2 2000- 2010 o 3.2.3 2010 - 2020

CHAPTER 4 - PRACTICES & ORGANIZATIONS o 4.1 GLOBAL PRACTICES o 4.1.1 Thomas Heatherwick o 4.1.2 Snohetta o 4.1.2 Ensemble o 4.1.2 Form [Greg Lynn]

o 4.2 RESEARCHERS & COLLABORATIONS o 4.2.1 Scape o 4.2.2 David Benjamin [The Living] o 4.2.3 Neri Oxman [Mediated Matter Lab] o 4.2.4 Ai Space Factory o 4.2.5 Rachel Armstrong [Black Sky Thinking]

CHAPTER 5- FORCES OF DESIGN CONCLUSION

o 5.1 SPECTRUM OF GLOBAL FORCES o 5.2 FACTORS LEADING TO INNOVATION vi List of Figures vii Bibliography viii Notes

Content

Experimental Architecture

AIM: This thesis aims to identify the forces today, stretching the boundaries for innovation and the exploratory process of experimental architecture today. To assess the historical movements and events that impacted the design of several projects. Establish the fine line between forces of change and experimental thought through the stages of architecture linked to the innovatory art, literature and philosophy and science. The aim is to understand experimental design as an outcome of circumstantial movements and the prevalent zeitgeist. Look at the relationship between experimental design and inflicted global and national demands. Explore and address this range of forces generating the future necessities by attempting to trace the growth and innovate to provide a more functional solution. Analyze current practices and their limitations to experimentation and the scope of collaboration amongst multiple fields to discover the alternative explanation.

OBJECTIVE Distinguish the complete meaning of the very term experimental architecture and how experimental architecture is a style established in the late 1800s, except the term addressing the idea changed regarding epoch and setting. The first occurrence of the concept of Avant-garde and a sense of how it is used today is associated with a series of movements. The years following that the expression shifted referring to a specific concept, considering the situation and the country. The contemporary society experts explored and innovated in every possible field to absorb the new dimension. The journey of Futurism’s swift emergence from avant-garde and its spread toward aesthetic exploration began with multiple fields. It’s different terminologies and multiple disciplines such as constructivism and Cubo Futurism and modernism, associated with the idea of experimentations. 11

One of the most consistent features of the diverse artistic movements that have flourished throughout the twentieth century has been their willingness to experiment. Russians with the desire to experiment, with no social pressure like German artists promoted the exerted capacity to invent. They provided innovative methods to the field of art. Futurism movement led to a new era in architecture. In the 1970s was developed by peter cook recognized as experimental architecture. Later in 1988, Lebbeus Woods devoted his career to this discipline with an intent to invent and promote the experimental practice. Study of the advancement of experimental thinking towards instrumental models that improve creative solutions and investigative aspects. Experimental architecture attempts to identify possible connections and shared terrain between practice and research in architecture. It also proposes the development of a more hybrid explorative approach that supports both the diversity and the specificity of architectural proposals.

Scope & Limitations The thesis limits the research to selective projects, tying the link of actions through the period of the past 100 years. Covering only the emergence of the institutes offering new concepts and not the spread of the same concepts. Timeline of experimental works in architecture with the identification of elemental factors of force. Institutes, cultural schools and movements with the history of impacts, out of experiments were born and their new potential to influence the contemporary design. Modern designs fighting along with the development of materials and technology against the global forces.

Experimental Architecture

Methodology The initial chapter concerns the emergence of the avant-garde concept though the historical institutes and the spread of concept into the bubbles of art, music, fashion, and theatre. The transition from avant-garde to futurism in Italy and broadening of the spectrum with the global involvement in developing the idea of futurism individually. Understanding the inauguration of architecture into futurism, a concept to experiment with design. The next chapter is the study of experimental architecture. Theories of experimental architecture and the theorist, Peter Cook and Lebbues Woods who presented the word with the speculation about an innovative form of architecture. Archigram an avant-garde group of architects presented a magazine of hypothetical experimental projects represented in technical drawings. Followed by the examples of experimental, conceptual projects to projects labeled as a classic under the changing style from futurism, constructivism, metabolism, hi-tech architecture to blob architecture during the time span of hundred years introducing a new idea into the design. The comparison between the projects from the last century and contemporary designs, and the evolution in response to the challenge of forces over the last twenty years. Identifying the practices and organizations promoting the specific idea of experimentality through their work or research, globally and amongst India. Looking towards the near future as well as the distant future with influential global forces pressing to pass beyond the limits of innovation today within the four phases of a building design.

Methodology

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION There are more than one meaning of the term “experiment”, each associated with the different discipline. Experimentality is not limited to science. Many personalities outside of the scientific territory would ask to defer that statement. “Experimental art” the contemporary term used today in any form of art has been matured along with the discipline itself. Certain examples in history were labeled as “inventory” due to the manipulation performed in the procedure of conventional production. It is proven by the association of experimentality with literature, art, cinema, music, fashion, and architecture in history. “Experimentality manifests as a disposition, a drive to question, transgress and reinvent that in turn inflects the particular exploratory processes or “methods” of art making. When we describe art as “experimental”, then, we are often referring not to a formal testing procedure but to the inclination to test social boundaries and conventions; in other words, to contemporary art’s roots in the history of the avant-garde.”[Bennett ,1] “Experimental art today is increasingly concerned with the complex relationships involved in seeing, defining, framing and responding to pressing events. What is clearer today than in previous generations of research is that the aesthetic (in the fullest sense, encompassing the practical study of affect, sensation, perception, behavior, imagination) is fundamental to any understanding of the connections between life-worlds, disciplinary procedures and given problems: the arts, in other words, are at the core of the transdisciplinary experiment.”[Bennett ,1] It appears a branch to any discipline has to be dedicated to experimentation in order to service the constantly changing community. Reaching beyond the limits and modifying or molding certain aspects and to accept the challenge of change. There are teams in every continent working every day to provide solutions to new problems rising every day. This isn’t limited to the field of art, people in various industries are trying to sustain themselves. To understand the condition more effectively we might refer to the example of the mobile phone industry. In the era of the non-existence of smartphones, it seemed like Nokia amongst a few other companies concurred that particular market. Shortly after smartphones were introduced the company, for a long stretch did not release any smart-phone which resulted in the disposition of the company in the market. The idea is to climb along as the constantly changing world evolves. 14

Experimental Architecture

Although experimentation is almost always a conscious attempt, it might not be the result of it. The understanding of the term experiment is very different in art culture than in science or technological innovation. Scientific experiments are divided into three parts-controlled experiments, natural experiments, and field experiments although the field of science has less room for unplanned accidents whereas, in art, accidents can lead to an awareness of abilities, capabilities of the equipment, material, or the artist. Exploration is possible with both tangible and intangible aspects. Of course, tangibles are comparatively easy to explore with, considering the elements are controllable. Adding intangible aspects to the design impacts to psychologically, the result of it is also very subjective. Many experiments with this concept are seen around the world in the past couple of decades. The museum of English Rural Life (MERL) held the exhibition of the intangible which explored the idea of creative thinking towards the future. A workshop designed to train them to think of an inventive agenda exploring the intangible cultural heritage (ICH). Contradicting the experiment above a Malaysian artist has experimented with light named Jun Ong. According to him, light is can fall under both the categories of tangible and intangible. His installations varying from a small sculpture to a massive five-story installation in Butterworth, Penang. The idea behind this effort is to blur the boundaries between luxury and art production. Ong says: “It is something we see and use every day but pay so little attention about. I also love the idea of overlaying technology and interactivity using artificial light as a medium.”[Lau ,10] Global events, positive or negative have always been the greater sources of inspiration for art. Whether it is the joyous response, a document of disagreement, or merely documentation of the events. Experimentation in art has been used to support the community as well as a tool used by the community against the institution or the government. It has been used to insert a new angle of perspective towards art by the artists. French philosopher Denis Diderot described; “There are three principal means of acquiring knowledge… observation of nature, reflection, and experimentation. Observation collects facts; reflection combines them; experimentation verifies the result of that combination.”[Diderot, 2] The world has witnessed inventions as an effort for one’s satisfaction, although the extraordinary language along with tools changed parallel to the distinct era. From cave paintings, oil paintings, self-portrait to photographs, and now video recordings, the method of documenting a memory have changed. Every experiment evolves in stages, each stage defines or indicates a specific period of time if glanced at the valuable and revised resources used to capture the activity. In this case, the timeline can be tracked through identifying the paint, canvas and later the quality of the photograph reveals the advancement of the technology of the camera used. Similarly in architecture, once considered fantasy, has become ordinary today and today’s fantasy is pushing the architects towards the latest experiments.

1. Introduction

THEORY & CONCEPT

AVANT-GARDE AS A CONCEPT Amongst the commercialization and the bourgeois society emerged the new form of linguistics that had experimented with the general idea of literature during the early 1900s in few parts of Europe. This concept of avant-garde impacted the equation between the government and society. The modern era received the emergence of the Avant-garde as an attack on the degeneration of the language during the socio-historical development. Evident impact on the literature had Poggioli to state: “One might claim that the creation of the alienated mentality is a phenomenon at least notably conditioned by the practical, ideological, and spiritual effects of the sudden, relatively recent transformation of the artist’s economic position.”[Poggioli ,3] After a brief interval of euphoria, writers encouraged concentrated planning for the future. Artists seemed to have disconnected themselves from society and the discipline of art was unlinked from the market. Schiller exemplifies this tendency: “they derive their substance from a historical and philosophical tension between present, perceived as negative, and the future, containing hope for change.”The aspect of aestheticism made avant-garde art re-entre the culture. This was the first movement in history to go against the fundamentals of art and was believed to alter the idealization. Walter Benjamin believed that this was the era of technical reproducibility specifically in Europe. The avant-garde was meant to alter the traditional writing techniques although it was decoded as an attack to the initialization by the society. Modernism, in the beginning, got a similar cultural reaction. Importance of avant-garde was highlighted during the progress of modernism, especially the shift from realism to aestheticism had impacted to change perspective amongst the institutionalization and the bourgeois society. Earlier the concept of art was usually derived from societal functions. This concept of autonomous art allowed society to enjoy art merely based on the beauty of its appearance. Buerger emphasizes “How this formal principle necessarily follows from the Avant-Garde attack upon the illustration of art. The autonomous status and the concept of the work of art an operative in the bourgeois institution of art imply separation from social life. This is essential for an art intending to interrupt the word at a distance. For such an aesthetic project, a concept of the work of art. Its concept of art sees a chance to reintegrate art into social praxis if artists would create unclosed, individual segments of art that open themselves to supplementary responses. The aesthetic fragments function very dif16

Experimental Architecture

Heartfield, John, 1930 Whoever Reads Bourgeois Newspapers Becomes Blind and Deaf

Fig. 1. 1

1. Introduction

ferently than the organic whole of romantic artwork, for it challenges its recipient to make it an integrated part of his or her reality and to relate it to its sensuous-material experience.”4 The room for the future had come to a realization. The balance in the acceptance of art has always been uncertain, the positive and the negative response has always maintained the imbalance throughout. Nevertheless, the features of every art piece have left a mark in one way or the other which were preserved for good or bad reasons. According to him, a concept is the hold of the idea of collage and montage. Avant-garde in the single discipline has explored in possible multiple directions to stretch beyond the limits to create the atmosphere or to capture the essential essence. The firm language of avant-garde considered revolutionary, aimed at the connection between the physical self and intense art.

ROMANITISISM AND MODERNISM Three almost parallelly running concepts, romanticism, modernism and avant-gardism had impacted the other two disciplines in one way or the other. Many artists, philosophers were motivated to provide their theories on the similarities between the disciplines or the impact or simply the individual concept of the field. Illustrated examples of Peter Burger’s definition stating the art’s separation were detected, possible to be seen as three separate approaches fetching for the result. Firsts were the modernists, as their individuality changed, changed the descriptions. Craig Owen said “autonomy of the signifier”, Richard Murphy said, “to create any kind of co-option which would limit the works meaning.” The second approach revolved around the utopian concept, taken by Adorno, Hebert Marcuse, etc. The concept more inclined towards aesthetic autonomy and the desire for the social qualities include the third kind, the third kind also had the idea of the cultural revolution, a world intended at distance to please. The social shift in the modern era had eliminated the junction of art to the world, although many claims, the isolation of art was misunderstood in the modern era.

Adorno’s theory: Adorno was concentrating on the flow of capital in the industry for the interrelation between society and social view for modern art. In the large bubble of the society where the relationship holds around the human mentality towards each other, who are modeled to get the maximum use of the commercial needs. Adorno refers: “Under monopoly all masses in culture is identical, and the lines of its artificial framework begin to show through.”[Burger, 4] art was the most innocent tool to resist against the general tendencies, artist usually did not incorporate the social events during the 18

Experimental Architecture

art. Adorno personally kept himself from the events. Whatever society gets offered from art to preserve need not to be revolving around the society. The analysis around the mid-nineteenth century of society helped drawing a line between modernism and the “true” rise of artistic modernism. This progress noted by society according to deconstructivist philosophers must give back an agency. Derrida gave many theories expanding this vision.

Derrida’s theory: Agreeing to Adorno’s theory, Derrida who favors the drama of undoing of the earlier representation considers language as one of the tools to underline the issues. He discusses the criticism of the representation and the acceptance by the system of the piece. He always suggested that language is the foundation for any differantials. It is the substructure for ant artistic idea. . “It is interesting that here a positive ideal takes shape: that of life and no repetition whose realization is in the hands not only of poststructuralism’s deconstructive praxis but equally of the artistic praxis of the avant-garde. The writing practice of artistic modernism has always tended to deconstruct meaning by questioning the author a center who provides meaning to the artistic process of creation and shifts the accent of creative praxis from the chain of the signed to the chain of signifiers.”[Burger, 4] Derrida concentrated his opinion to the Avant-garde or experimental theatre and the enlarging bubble of the theatre. Modernism for him was about the incorporation of life and not the representation of life, he says “theatre of cruelty is the closure of representation.” the representation in theatre has been raw throughout the years up till the point where Derrida had claimed that the language in the art may not be the way to colorize it. Nevertheless holding the logic of the art. This experimental theatre had impacted his mind under the genre of cruelty. Progress of the concept had signs of progress slowly in many countries. Initiated from Europe it had spread to continents. Barrierless Russians were experimenting with the given freedom in their inventive way under their budget. Anglo American countries had tackled the topic distinctively. Apart from politics and literature, the avant-garde had spread to many other disciplines over the years.

PUBLIC, ART, MUSIC AND FASHION The cultural history of avant-garde is filled with contradiction to the otherwise functioning society. The productivity of every titled discipline had been forced towards the edge, almost at a point which was denied by the majority of the culture which now is considered ahead of its time. The new wave of production peaking the stages of creativity, passing the ordinary behind. The art 1. Introduction

had found some infrequent groups retiring from the concept, some permanent appreciators stayed for the journey of revolution. The crowed never entirely accepted the misunderstood ambition. “Although the term avant-garde was originally applied to innovative approaches to art making in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, it is applicable to all art that pushes the boundaries of ideas and creativity, and is still used today to describe art that is radical or reflects originality of vision. The notion of the avant-garde enshrines the idea that art should be judged primarily on the quality and originality of the artist’s vision and ideas.” [Webber, 5] The shockwave created by avant-garde art began in the first half of the 1800s. Although the art evolved during and after the Great War, it sprung across various disciplines over time. Major avant-garde movements included Dadaism, which was the first ‘anti-art’ movement. Heavily influenced by the First World War during 1916 the movement aimed towards the representation of the originality of the times and erode the traditional value of art that eventually will bring a new vantage point towards socio-political issues. Exhibitions were being held and manifestos were being written to fight the public figures. Lastly, the major concept was the idea of anything could be art. Jean Arp, Max Ernst, and Francis Picabia, Jean Arp Marcel Duchamp were the artist promoting the movement. Apart from Dadaism many nations as the time went by were tangled around ongoing institutions or movements to promote the art or to fight against the art. Cubism, Suprematism, constructivism, and futurism were the branches of the avant-garde discipline covered in the next chapter. Italian artist Luigi Russolo in music had composed music with experimental noises of industries and machinery. He built the ‘noise machine’ that “replicated the clatter of the industrial age and the boom of warfare.” John Cage from the United States had a vision when he introduced the world with his latest composition 4’33”. “He also first introduced the concepts of indeterminacy and randomness into performing and created the so-called aleatoric music. Additionally, he created a concept of the prepared piano, the piano that has been altered by inserting various objects into the soundboard or between the strings to affect the sound.” [Widewalls, 6] The photographers began capturing the brutal characteristics of the scenarios with abstract photomontages. Alexander Rodchenko, László Moholy-Nagy, Man Ray, Eugene Atget, Andre Kertesz, Claude Cahun Albert Renger-Patzsch, and El Lissitzky were the artist born out of surrealism.

Experimental Architecture

ART Paul Klee, 1914 Kleinwelt [Fig. 1. 2] The cultural history of avant-garde is filled with contradiction to the otherwise functioning society. The productivity of every titled discipline had been forced towards the edge, almost at a point which was denied by the majority of the culture which now is considered ahead of its time. The new wave of production peaking the stages of creativity, passing the ordinary behind. The art had found some infrequent groups retiring from the concept, some permanent appreciators stayed for the journey of revolution. The crowed never entirely accepted the misunderstood ambition.

SCULPTURE Fountain, 1917 Marcel Duchamp [Fig. 1. 3] Duchamp’s art famously called “the original” of the twentieth century. This sculpture of a urinal was denied by the board of directors of the inaugural exhibition at the Grand central palace. While the exhibition was open at accepting all the entries of art, this “readymade” sculpture, ordinarily manufactured sanitary supply, associated with human discharges could not pass as a piece of art. Considered, further from appropriated especially in front of the female audience in the hall. This followed a discussion on whether or not to keep the sculpture, directors, after a discussion voted to censor the entry from the exhibition.

1. Introduction

PHOTOGRAPHY 3rd Action, 1965 Rudolf Schwazkogler [Fig. 1. 4] Schwazkogler’s 3rd Action was one of a sixty-eight series of photos. A naked man lying uncomfortably on a white sheet next to the wall partially covered in bandages with a tangles cord trapped under him. This photograph is a representation of one of the six actions captured. He found the actual actions distracting thus he wanted to capture them with extreme aesthetic simplicity. The absence of colors in all six actions repeated themes and use of props, and the certain level of undescribed clarity in the images are seen in the art of this artist.

MOVIE Dogville , 2003 Lars von Trier [Fig. 1. 5] The story of Dogville narrated in the sections of nine-chapter is an experimental film released in 2003 written and directed by Lars Von Trier. The unique staging of the movie was tried prior to the production for 15 minutes of the experiment. The movie takes place in a town with minimal scenery. The stage has actual furniture and some partition but the majority of walls on the set is a painted white outline. Almost the entire film is shot on that painted set where the identification of each building or street is seen written inside the boundary lines from an aerial shot. 22

Experimental Architecture

AGONISM, FASCISM & FUTURISM The avant-garde art was famously active in painting, theatre, movie, and sculpture as established. In the late 1910s, a new concept emerged circling the idea of promoting future technologies and the dangerous factor of it. The first article of the futurism manifesto published in 1909 on the front page of the Italian paper shook the nation. The very idea of future celebrated the revolution and the revolutionary technologies, glorified the idea of war, the danger of war, the fury towards it. the manifesto was written Italian by poet and philosopher F.T Marinetti. Many suggested that the idea of futurism was born out of Avant grade, as an external branch of force to promote the concept. Quickly the concept of futurism spread to the neighboring European countries such as France and England. The concept had astonishingly spread in Russia, the impacted progress had been diverted to a spectrum of new experiments and branches of the very discipline. Futurism during the period of four years from 1909 to 1912 had welcomed thirty concrete manifestos by various professionals. The theories were anchored to subjective disciplines ranging from politics to literature to art to science. Italy, suffering from fascism at the time lacked in progress as compared to other European countries due to the scarcity of natural resources. However, leaders from every area had contributed their engagement towards blocking out either political or societal negativity. Growing out of avant-garde seeds, futurism shared a range of ideological ground.

MARENERRI’S FUTURISM AND FASCISM IN ITALY Marinetti had no intention to promote utopian drawings, instead, the begging of futurism was revolving around institutional flaws, new energy, electricity, metropolis, mass production, factory products, and machines, scientific discoveries, generating new, logical and practical realities. The technical progress of was concentrated more on technology, and additionally transportation. Remarkable innovations in the automobile industry and companies such as FIAT in Italy had dominated the business bubble. In a conservative nation with strict traditionalism like Italy had become the epicenter of futurism. In 1905 Marinetti started a magazine of ambitious ideas conveyed by symbolic and geometric forms often appeared hallucinative. Marinetti along with a group of futurists Altomare, Palazzechi, Cavacchioli, Lucini, Buzzi constructed roads through which this movement rising awards and surveys, appealing to every creative intellectual mind to unite, to witness progress. He combined word avant-garde with futurism. Luchini described that time to be “born in privileged class”7. He thought art as a medium would be able to activate progress maintaining ethnic authenticity. “The thoughts he devoted to free verse and to the historical significance of its advent were to lead directly to the Avant-garde spirit.”[Lista ,7 P-28] Parameter of speeding automobile, energy, and dynamism was the point of reference for the new century of art. In January 1909 was the first launch of ‘manifesto of futurism’ guiding towards a cultural revolution in eleven points, with formulas, thoughts against masterpieces and museums which had become the places of worship at the time, libraries painting the minds darker made everyone irresponsive towards the forces of life. The manifesto was a call to “go and set fire to the library shelves, divert the courses of canal to food the cellars of museums!”[Lista ,7] Art exists within life, it should thus become the tool towards 1. Introduction

Marinetti, F T.1909 Futurismo Magazine Cover [Fig. 1. 6] 24

Experimental Architecture

Luigi Russolo, , 1909 Self Portrait with Skulls [Fig. 1. 7]

Umberto Boccioni, 1913

Unique Forms of Continuity in Space.[Top left][Fig. 1. 8]

Development of a Bottle in Space [Fig. 1. 9]

1. Introduction

progress. Marinetti during the political era had drawn his inspiration to break the links with the past from Marx and Engles for his manifesto. He claimed that this was “an imperious desire for struggle and renewal at any cost” Marinetti often described futurism with respective of literature he says “All the powerful, irresistible force of the ‘new’ and who, tired of having all toolong held the past in veneration, are outstretching their arms to the future that they call forth all their lungs.”[Lista ,7 P:29] After the enrolment of artists into the movement, Marinetti thought of spreading the spectrum to the discipline of music. The simultaneous controversy in press and posters spread futurism to theaters. Giovanni Agnelli, founder of FIAT alongside Marinetti had attended shows and launches centering technology. Passing beyond the physical dreams, the aviation department hosted airshows as a public event in the late 1910s. Acts of provocation and many ‘futurist soirees’ propagandas were organized in several Italian cities. Towards 1911 Balla and Severini towards their idea of experiments, introducing a new style of painting connected to Expressionist components named ‘state of mind’ the potential discovery of “cubism” by Carra and Russolo. Boccioni turned around from their trip to France, fascinated and heavily inspired by Picasso’s paintings they prepared for an exhibition, attempting to create ‘rhythmic fragmentation’ and ‘geometrization of volume’ of cubism. He found the ‘post divisionist brushstrokes’ similar to the composition of the futurist paintings. “Both were striving to give a new expression to the imperatives to the futurist pictorial dynamism in accordance with the cubist decomposition of form”[Lista ,7 P:60]

ARCHITECTURE IN FUTURISM Boccioni was still the most celebrated theoretician, but the emerging temperaments of the movements were molding the situation with consent to evolving theories, forms, and even architecture. Antonio sant’elia’s involvement into the futurist movement guided by Carra had turned around the road od thought in architecture. His drawings envisioned the change of humanity, way back in 1913. Joining Marinetti’s movement in 1914 and after declaring his concepts for factories, warehouses, hydro-electric plants described as “architectural dynamism” which according to him was a “moderate vein of Avant-grade research”, Sant’elia published “manifesto of futurist architecture” he claimed that “architecture, henceforth tradition emancipated form of ‘historical styles’ and every tradition, had to adopt exclusively new techniques and new materials, and draw its inspiration from the dynamism of modern life. Its starting point would no longer be the individual building but the context of the large cities centers.”[Lista ,7] His philosophy is seen in his drawings, the city is portrayed in three-dimensional structures. Futurist aesthetics in mind, his new concept of “new city” appearing as the ‘dynamism of the machine’. The same concept had interconnected levels for communication in large buildings, the industrial language of the landscape, tapering facades with elevators running along the sides and power plant like chimneys. Later Chiattone also joined up the movement and presented his slightly contradicting designs to Sant’elia for a ‘constructions for a modern metropolis’ leaning towards the side of utopian architecture. His drawings were focused on the imaginary, poetic but huge and monumental ellipses and planes formatting a dynamic composition, a building 26

Experimental Architecture

Mario Chiattone.1915 House and Apartments VII, Pisa [Fig. 1. 10]

Mario Chiattone.1914 Cathedral VI [Fig. 1. 11] 1. Introduction

shredding their individuality offering a volume such as a skyscraper. “With Chiattone’s designs, apparently in an affinity with form of monumentalism: the vertical thrust accentuated and volumes were given a more compact appearance. What in Sant’elia recalled a leveling of social affiances, in Chiattone was more related to mass society, and his images already introduced the alienating dimensions of industrial cities.” [Cooke, 8]

RUSSIAN MANIFESTO OF FUTURISM ART In October 1912, the exhibition coining “Cubo futurists” immediately traveled to Russia along with all the theories of European futurism. Alexandra Exter after Paris introduced the concept of “Cubo Futurism” for painting in Russia. Russian Futurism, contradicting the European theories has rather different physiognomy. After the October revolution, constructivism was meant to be the new theory of artistic language. Russian constructivists felt destructed and found an urge among themselves during the 1920s to reassess their ideas compared to the western discipline of architecture. After the civil war and Bolshevik revolution, critics claimed to direct the flow of designs toward new objectives and courses. The nature of urgencies forced the nation to override the conflict over monumentality, philosophy, and style.

ARCHITECTURE Golosov in 1921 about architecture wrote, “style is not the essence of architecture and what really matters is to distinguish true artistic spirit from style and material values.”[Cooke, 8]Russian avant-garde and architecture began with constructivism. New briefs for the discipline of architecture emerged after the October revolution of 1917, centered on ‘cooperative and collective ways of living.’ Along with new ‘political consciousness’. The architects due to the lack of manufacturing materials and other resources only dreamt on papers. “Most artists were busy contributing to public celebration and propaganda bout the new regime but the serious innovators among them soon started forming into discussion groups and ‘institutes’ to debate the theoretical underpinning of new art for the new society.” [Cooke, 8] Several exhibitions held in 1915 in Moscow and 1917, concentrating on material and combination of materials. Investigating the use of material, the process resulted in models of inventions and later resulted in structure, conceptual, or built. Russian avant-garde or futurist or constructivist architecture had many names in the frontline laying the foundation for the growth of the nation. Several of the projects dispatched the wave of shock by the design and the concept. Konstantin Melnikov had planned to revisit some of the ideas constrained by cultural restrictions or political pressure. Melnikov had a number of projects such as Soviet Pavilion at the Paris Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes, Bakhmetevsky Bus Garage, and most popular design by him the Rusakov Workers’ Club. Vladimir Tatlin who was a soviet artist had set out a new language of futurism by his piece named Corner Counter-Relief exhibited in the 0,10 - The Last Futurist Exhibition of Painting. Later he designed the structurally monumental design of Tatlin Tower. Nikolai Ladovsky, Kazimir Melvich, Ilya Golosov are several of the few names involved in the movement. 28

Experimental Architecture

Ivan Leonidov, 1927 The Lenin Institute [Fig. 1. 12]

Andrei Burov, 1922 Lighthouse [Fig. 1. 13] 1. Introduction

CHAPTER 2 UNDERSTANDING EXPERIMENTAL ARCHITECTURE “Experiment” is not a recent word in architecture, however, it is difficult to state the origin of experimental architecture. In even one of the many stages of a building, from the point of abstraction of the process or rather concept to design, or even if the stand of an architect for a particular project is associated with unusual or exploratory practice can be labeled as experimental. The possibilities for these approaches at various stages might differ due to variable controls. Whether the stance that a firm or an architect takes shapes the degree of innovative conclusion. Past decades have witnessed collaborations among multiple disciplines such as science, artificial intelligence, and art that have expanded the boundaries of architecture. We are in the custody of increasing degree of complexity and evolving ambiguity, In order to anticipate future conditions, experiments become inevitable. Energy and intelligence spent to discover a new logical solution to the fictional complexity or rather ideas has the urge to emerge beyond ordinary. An experiment does not necessarily have to be massive in scale, even the smallest change in otherwise standard procedure mines up the solution from the grey trajectories. Opting for these non-standard solutions often in an unimaginable journey, accelerate the functionality of the structure. Experimental architecture has always been a discipline catering under extreme circumstances driven by a collective of forces, architecture’s interaction with the environment changed with the timeline and changed the approach of the discipline for that distinctive era. The sight of an exploratory stance can be identified among any of the major design and cnstruction stages of routine resulting into a designed structure. Experimental architecture by its very nature is more prone to the depredations of time and natural elements than buildings made from conventional materials through traditional methods. Avant-garde architects often simply do not know how the products of their imagination will perform when implemented, especially if untested components are involved. martin filler 34 Every ordinary material, every standard construction technique, every standard detail, every joinery used regularly used today was once an experiment. Each cautiously developed and modified over the years appropriate to the era and to fit the vernacular requirements. Association of the latest technology with the term experiment is presumed but it is not the only way to experiment in architecture. The experiment originates as diffusion to the problem, maybe recently emerged or an old issue that has been suppressed by the society over the years that has hit the society back with additional thrust. All the experiments projects covered in the next chapter are designed as an answer to one or more problems of the time. 30

Experimental Architecture

The designs, considered classic and revolutionary presently, were once denied by society. Few failed to cater to the original purpose in time but instead provided the discipline with groundbreaking ideas later were used by a different architect after a handful of changes. Buckminster fuller’s Dymaxion house is the perfect example. The original idea, although brilliant, got prematurely built less than five times for prototypes. William Graham built a prototype house for himself in which he made a modification that disappointed Fuller. He claimed the modified house called “Wichita House” lacked the sophistication of the original prototypes. Futuro House, also a prefabricated structure designed by Matti Suuronen during the 1960s also was a product of post-war in Finland. Another modification was seen in architecture after the Dymaxion house and Futuro house was Shanzi UFO house built in Taipei in 1978 as a resort. Even though these designs did not deliver as much as Fuller’s design to architecture, it fascinated the local community for some period. The innovative aspect of the design varies in every project which majorly can be categorized into three stages of design. One where the material itself is the inventory aspect of the building. For example, the biodegradable material used to construct Hy-fi towers, a temporary pavilion built in the courtyard of MoMA, or the use of bamboo in Nocenco Cafe designed by Vo Trong Nghia architects in Vietnam. New materials are introduced every year. Steel, glass, concrete are not the newest materials in the practice today. Multiple improved branches of concrete now include a type that is self-healing concrete. Transparent sheets of aluminum are available in the market that offers greater strength and benefits than glass. Bricks are now made of carbon dioxide, cigarette butts, and plastic waste. Second is the core idea of a structure or the concept is introduced to the world for the first time with the design. Cenotaph designed by Etienne-Louis Boullée although never intended to be built in the example of this second kind. This kind of experiment is not influenced by the technological innovation however, are usually in favor of society, a cultural concept contributing to the overall image of the city. New York Horizon is a project by the architect Yitan Sun & Jianshi Wu “was conceived to contrast against the city’s densely constructed buildings and towering skyscrapers, as well as, to provide New Yorkers with a natural environment that they could enjoy and use as an escape from their busy urban lives.” [new york horizon, 33] The third kind is where the concept and the materials are already established but the construction technology is teased with the conventional methods. Frank Lloyd Write’s design for textile houses fall under this category another example, covered in the next chapter is the center Pompidou. Toyo Ito’s design for wooden structure can also be considered as an example of this category.

2. Origin Of Experimental Architecture

THEORIES OF EXPERIMENTAL ARCHITECTURE PETER COOK “ it is difficult to define experiment in architectural sense. One has sniped at the problem from a practical or an evaluative standpoint, one has tried to prepare the ground from totally different references. One is now forced to admit that design has so far been tantalizingly imprecise as a science.”[Cook, 12] Peter cook as a leading protagonist of “experimentation”, invested entirely in the field of architecture. He believes, on his shoulders rest a fair percentage of responsibility to acknowledge the layers of values and emerging values, contradicting the ordinary position with the desire to inspire. Experimental work often finds the strength to through every underlying outcome. Often seen the perspective of intelligence weighing greater than the logo of the thing itself. Architecture in the past century has exploded a number of times due to the collision of science, and the human anticipation, experiments have always been difficult to avoid. History periodically proving the point with the examples of projects in an attempt to trace the conditions of the future. The term is associated with dynamic, context problems and efforts the fascination for the daring structure had unexpected results in European countries mainly, France in earlier times, similarly, in Italy, it was driven by the eccentricity of engineering formalism. “In Western Europe, there has been a tradition of craftsmanship that practiculture an attitude to building: at best there are example from which to evolve new kinds of buildings.”[Cook, 11] Multiple engineering details into Swiss, German experimental work continuing from the earliest use of steel through Mies to Konard Wachman. Cook called this “new theory of accaptiv(Nism). “I have generalized on the subjects of expression, technique and presentation because of experimental architecture is closely tied to its understanding by these means. If there are several points of departure in making experiments, there are as many points of comprehension. From that it can be seen that it is frequently necessary for a new idea to be explained in traditional terms. Alongside there is recurrent love-hate attitude between innovators and their national or regional tradition.”[Cook, 11] This information simultaneously gets exposed to many countries. Personal talent is no longer heroically clear, most ideas occur via the interaction of stands, each idea originating from a different 32

Experimental Architecture

Peter Cook, 1963 Montreal Tower. [Fig. 2 1]

Peter Cook, 1997 Medina Circle Towers, Israel. [Fig. 2 2] 2. Origin Of Experimental Architecture

heroically clear, most ideas occur via the interaction of stands, each idea originating from a different individual from a different culture. The new generation has a gradual descending interest in local architecture instead they are interested in developing in a certain attitude. Which then indicated an amount of adaptability that might be helpful concerning the project. “It is expected of the true heroic architect that he should have passed through some apprenticeship to a previous generation or a tradition or, more simply, have worked his way up in the world. In consequence, historians have often indulged in the sleuthing-out of significant personal derails in otherwise third-rate building. In the immediate future this is going to be far more difficult.”[Cook, 11, P-11 to 30] Innovators had been provided with three choices to bring their work out of the mainstream vernacular practice and park it parallel to the international values. The group from the first category was with the greatest advantage to provide designers a new identity. Although they are simultaneously fighting with socio-political question which are linked to the morality of their chosen steps especially in the renewal of urbanism. “In the experimental projects that one can illustrate, there is often an inconsistency of weight or image between the object itself and the underlying idea. This is the problem of form and imagery.”[Cook, 11, P-11 to 30] The second group are consistently evolving via their traditional duty. Their future is limited to the regional committee. These innovators should be capable to discriminate the elements to be involved. Most of the examples from the second group given by Cook are internationalists. The pressure to share ideas had been resulted in shortening the duration of learning. “wars, economics or personal fortune have a curious was of creating a breathing space. Yet some designers still treat experiment as a game to be indulged in so long as it does not prevent the steady flow of marketable work.”[Cook, 11, P-11 to 30] There were six orthodox according to Cook in experimental architecture back in the 1960s, he elaborated the unfamiliar approach in each of the categories. 1. The organic: this has been traditionally associated with the innovator, which include a high proportion of organic work. Frank Lloyd write made a considerable contribution to this branch of exploratory architecture later in his career. In the architectural term, this was the search for a spiritual return to the simple life or nature. This is frequently expressed in the creation of a form that is parallel to organic form. In a word where mass production techniques and economics where dominating the field, many young architects were disclosed to the calculations of organic geometry. One of the examples Cook gave was the designer Paolo Soleri, who created earth architecture while living in the desert.

2. The methodic: less attractive for the designers as it was tangible, symbolism and expres-

sionism were much less appreciated. A response towards this was cooked specially by the educational department. “There have in the past been several attempts at the formulation of a precise design methodology and once again the engineer and the scientist and now the mathematician is being seen as models to be emulated.”11 Critics often hold on to the missing ingredient that is the 34

Experimental Architecture

aesthetic pungency but what if this ingredient is put into the methodic approach? “Several individualistic experiments are now placing their work in the context of methodology, acting on the results of systematic research and including in the elements of their projects which are to be solved by an equation, or by test, or by the research of others.”[Cook, 11, P-23]

3. The opportunistic: opportunism contradicts the directional aspects of methodic. “Op-

portunism is a fundamental of action and therefor is by no means as pejorative a term as it may seem.” Opportunisms often land on moral ground. Rather than worrying about the design being ‘correct’ or ‘consistent’, the discipline is focused on the availability and the initiative, approach, and tactics. Cook says the time had provided the architects with multiple options of approaches through politics, economics, and culture and building techniques. He writes “those involved in this sort of opportunism make a direct attack upon a problem area and solve the problem by direct action. This action may involve the cannibalization of odd materials, the ad-hoc infiltration of the new with old, or may simply consist of strategic advice not manifest in physical terms.”[Cook,11, P-26]

4.The scientific: the two main bifurcations in these methods are symbolically scientific and

ethically scientific. Many architects try and merge the two although according to cook these two should be interdependent. The progress in technology has not gone unnoticed by the architects, the visual impact is prominent after the experience of war. “Many experiments have incorporated the extra vocabulary of science and technical invention into the rag-bag of architectural parts and, in many cases, for good functional reason.”[Cook, 11, P-27] The other tragic use of the method is for aesthetic purposes, borrowing stylistic science. This approach contains parts that are not functional but rather merely aggressive which requires more maintenance. The ethical technique is for functional purposes and thus more relaxed.

5. The utopian: Architects sometimes are restricted by orthodox thinking which restricts their capacity to invent. But a different philosophy states that a new manifesto must rise with a new form. Most times the term ‘utopia’ is over-simplified but the presumption should be denied as the innovation in a project can be limited to fewer areas. “The sinister usefulness of the utopian label is that the timid pragmatists can dismiss any experiment or any new concept as ‘utopian’, and thereby remove it from the discussion of practical issues.”[Cook, 11, P-28] 6. The tasteful: “The final orthodoxy of taste can as easily grasp innovators as it can replace

real thought elsewhere. By apparent superficiality, it can confuse those repetitious qualities of morality and the smooth cycling of tradition.”[Cook, 11, P-29] Modern architecture was associated with a layer of sophistication, the new experimental work has to incorporate those layers and then move to the invention beyond that.

2. Origin Of Experimental Architecture

LEBBUES WOODS “I’ve had occasions to think about architects who have produced the work of various kinds outside mainstream certified by the historians and critics who make up architectural academia or otherwise influence the climate of opinion.”[woods,13, P-2] Architects today are lucky to have many inspiring architects to look up to such as Lewis Mumford, Sigfried Giedion, Manfredo Tafuri. Amongst the field of architecture, the critics are rather different. Getting a social certificate for architects is difficult. As woods said “there is another reason architects are loath to criticize other architects. They don’t want to appear jealous of the work they criticize is more esteemed than their own or mean spirited if it is not.”[woods,13,] often today in between politics and the developers, the client whether or not they are the government want the firm publicized to the level of prestige. Default understanding of an architect today is that they are associated with the built environment, however south to that statement, architects according to woods do not possess the power of elemental materials associated with the built. Their job is to glorify the given land with provided resources of nature and the clients, under budget and within the range of rules concerning the living, working, honesty and construction, vernacular values and the potential changes. According to the art critic Clement Greenberg, the new is always found to be ugly, our ability to perceive things is generally driven by our past, in this constant an arrival of never encountered idea has found to be difficult to adjust. We are not custom to experience the things that are unimaginative, aesthetically or ethically to the human brain. After world war II most American cities expanded rapidly, the newness had none of the natural or historical essences. The scenario swiftly translated into a tragic social struggle. Jackson Pollock’s drip paintings were the prime example of the new ugly exampled by Greenberg. When asked if we have managed to create the “true” and the “ugly”, woods answers positively referring to the chapel at ronchamp by Le Corbusier and Gehry’s Bilbao. Modernism had haunted the minds of people by failing to deliver the promise. Lebbues woods rather had a different approach towards experimentality than other architects promoting experimentality during the late 50s and 60s. He explains “while this word is bandied about in architecture, its meaning is all but dead. There is little architecture, or design, that truly experiments-- that is plays with the unknown. The truly defining characteristic of an experiment is no one knows at the outset how it will turn out. The experimenter is looking for something, has a hypothesis to prove, but has no idea if the experiment will verify the hypothesis, prove it wrong, or result in something entirely unexpected. Experiments are risky. Architecture is today, and generally has been, averse to this kind of risk.”[woods,13,] 36

Experimental Architecture

outer space problems, Woods argues, why are we not solving the issues on the home planet? The majority of his argument was against the government and their nominal funding to the field of art. A large portion of the community is after being able to afford the tickets to the museum in which is displayed the astonishing art that they have stopped the funding to, additionally have built with the taxpayer’s money. The money instead of being used to fund the space mission, pushing education and poverty to secondary issues. The beauty of art is that it has the capacity to shed light on the word problems. Granting the multiple layered complexities, experimental art has a side that allows practical benefits. Few scientists namely Willy Ley and Wernher Von Braun decided to covert the fictional dream of landing on the moon into reality. The serious research resulted into the Apollo program that ultimately got success. The mission was accomplished by them once and several times after that. “While it is hard to argue with critics who say that nothing much was accomplished by the act of landing men on the moon, there is plenty of evidence that the technological spin-offs of the space programs have been significant, impacting society particularly in the development of telecommunications, computers, and serialities.”[woods,13,] “There is a more critical reason for experimental projects of different kinds than the practical benefits that may-or may not- result from them. The truth is that most experiments lead nowhere and, judged from a strict cost benefit viewpoint, are a waste. However, learning and invention are notoriously inefficient, requiring many failed attempts and dead-ended explorations to find one that is fertile enough to open out into a rich new landscape of possibilities. If a society is unwilling to tolerate such waste it will stagnate. In today’s world, which is under tremendous pressure of change, a vital and growing society not only tolerates but also actively supports experimentation as the only way to transform the difficulties created by change into creative opportunities to enhance and deepen human experience.”[woods,13,] Change in architecture is constant which, suffering from the struggle it is enhancing the world. We tend to always define the way we use a box that is built out of walls. For example, in universities, the rooms are labeled as a class to convey to you the importance of the activity happening inside those walls as an indicator for you to guide your behavior. Experiments can be the interpretations built around the central idea of the utilization of space. Woods’s main theme had been dealing with constant change throughout his childhood as his father was in the military. This made him realize the importance of the transitions in one’s life, if not change their houses people are impacted by the changes happening around them. Midway through his work, he designed a house with cities and urban life and the scale of complexity involved in the larger environment. A house is a very general label, other than that it does not have labels on the doors, it was all about creating a space of interior and exterior using objects as woods describe.

2. Origin Of Experimental Architecture

Solo house [Fig. 2 3 / 2.4]

Twenty years, when seen in history, does not seem like a long time but if you try to remember the change in life for that period, it impacts the perspective of the time span. The Solohouse was brought to reality at one-seventh of scale, impossible to habitat but precise as a model for the studies of the construction, the overlapping of material, with contractor Cristopher Otterbine. This was one of the woods’ first creative projects. The house was designed as an atom of architecture, only empowered with essential properties for a single human. Prior to designing large settlements, an architect should always dwelling with the capacity of merely a human. The solohouse was modified multiple times to fit the cultural, geographical context but the core idea remained intact. Built with steel, wood does not reflect modernism, the materials were permitted to age. Promoting the idea of Freespace., woods believed that everyone should get a chance to invent or modify their habitat and that it should not be predetermined. The variations of space and form changing over time as the human condition grow overtime. The past guiding through to create for future.

Experimental Architecture

The Einstein Tomb

[Fig. 2 5 / 2. 6]

Similar to Boullee’s Cenotaph to Isaac Newton, the Einstein Tomb was a project created by Woods as a memorial to the life and life-long works of Albert Einstein. The tomb was to be sent in space, circling on a beam of light as Einstein clearly stated that he wanted no such memorial site. Woods describes “owing to the gravity-warped structure of space (which Einstein ‘s greatest works-his theory of gravitation-described) it would return to earth in sidereal time, an infinite number of times, or at least until the end of time and space at the death of the universe.”14 The unlit corridors suggesting the infinite will then obstruct the beginning of the vessel that is the tomb. It is a sign, it is a symbol of new religions and new philosophies. “ It echoes the form of Earth, whose four quarters are known as Dawn, Day Dusk and Night; as Spring, Summer Autumn and winter, the second and fourth quarters being transition, fulcrum points between two pure states of light and darkness, birth , death, ascent and descent. Yet these two pure states, the first and the third, are but fusions of these former two transitions.”[woods,14]

2. Origin Of Experimental Architecture

City of Fire, 1981 [Fig. 2 7 / 2. 8]

Mines working 3000 feet below the ground line suffer from earth’s heat measured at 130 degrees Fahrenheit from earth metals. To provide the miners from protection, geothermal walls were drilled down to the ground to resist from the ground heat. Although the updraft to the warm air gave a sense of the heat. As one takes about the descent below the strata of volcanic rocks, he saw the potential dwelling spaces, cave-like, dark, hollow, geometric composition resembled the mountainous volumes above the ground.

Experimental Architecture

ARCHIGRAM In late the 1960s, Peter Cook, David Greene, and Micheal Webb used to meet in regularly to express their boredom with the architecture being built in that era in London and discussed the ongoing issues. Once the group, after several meetings across the flats and cafes of London decided to publish their neo-Avant-garde ideas with the help of some prize money, the initial group thought of inviting more people to the group. They came to a concluding name of the publication, Archigram “like a TELE-GRAM or an AERO-GRAMME”. Finally, the group of six including Dennis Crompton, Ron Herron, Warren Chalk, Michael Webb, David Greene, and Peter cook Founded Archigram, with “the theme of EXPENDABILITY throw-away architecture and the full inspiration of BUCKMINSTER FULLER seemed to underlay several items in archigram 2.”[Archigram, 31] They were also inspired by Italian architect Antonio Sant’Elia and Yona Friedmen, a Hungarian-French architect. Reyner Banham, an architecture critic was one of the firsts to notice the publications and the work of this experimental group. Although the design of the projects was hypothetical with extraordinary mechanical details involved but the society that the projects were imagined in a liberal non-hypothetical culture. The projects according to Cook were never too extreme, some portions of the project were always optimistically touched to reality. The motive was to bring change into the monotonous discipline architecture was becoming in the 60s. They tried to introduce novel concepts of merging technology with the structures, new aesthetic definitions, the buildings or structures that are adaptive itself with interchangeable connections, elements that could be clipped on, designs for buildings that could move. The group consciously raised question through their design about the fundamental language of architecture, is our approach towards building is incorrect? They responded with a new scheme, mobile and technologically rich. One of the first projects to attract attention was the walking city, Ron Herron. Inspired by insects and machinery, a structure that would be connected with other hubs resulting in a city. Robots that could walk on water or land to move to the desired location. The vision for the future that is damaged by nuclear attack. “Traversing the ocean, the units of Herron’s Walking City represent a kind of technological utopianism-military submarines are combined with insectlike exoskeletons and periscoping legs. Each unit of the city contains a comprehensive set of urban resources. Linked by a superstructure of retractable corridors, they form an instant and itinerant metropolis. Here collage is used both to circulate an idea and to propose a new architecture of circulation: Herron’s work was disseminated through small magazines as image-based virtual architecture; the surreal elements of collage-simultaneous viewpoints, depth, and flatness-are instrumental to proposing a city that not only walks but adapts to endless change.” [MoMA, 32] 2. Origin Of Experimental Architecture

Walking city, Ron Herron, [Fig. 2 9] 42

Experimental Architecture

Plug-In_City, 1963 Archigram Peter Cook [Fig. 2 10/ 2. 11]

2. Origin Of Experimental Architecture

Plug in city _ peter cook “yes it was a system, yes it was mechanical idea, yes it was an idea about replicability and expandability and the way consumer choice of a kind but it was also a search for a picturesque.” “there is nothing more deadly than precast panels for houses and I thought the idea of a standardized parking can then be exchanged, that could lead to interesting formulation though some of the parts of it were orders and perhaps classic” the dissolution of the city was not just mechanical thing but it could be an essence of the piece of the culture that could be brought back on the trunk of the trucks like a circus, the city could come to town. All the intensity of the city would be there.” “The plug in city for me was not so much about technology, it was about romanticism for me, it was about romanticizing the idea of prefabricated object.”[cook,12]

Among 900 drawings that Archigram published plug-in city was one of them by Peter Cook. It was a growing megastructure where the residential modules could ‘plug in’. The city had transportation and other movable services in the urban environment where the additivity to the change was rapid and valued. “Another important feature of the city is that it can continually build and re-build itself. This is allowed by a monorail that runs along the top of the grid. The monorail, besides carrying passengers, also carries cranes which can, in their turn, carry sections of the grid in vertical, horizontal, and oblique directions.” [Archigram, 31] The formed grid defines the spaces where cranes can plug in the units of various functions from parking to living spaces. “However, Archigram not only noticed the speed of technological change but identified in it a kind of hierarchy. According to it, the elements that were more responsive to the speed and rhythm of a rapidly changing city would be located at the top of the structure-city. Respectively, the more stable, long lasting elements would find their way towards the bottom of the city. All this would be done with the help of a clip-on appliance wall that would replace each function with another one, still keeping the same location.” It was easily built and easily destroyable system thus the scheme would satisfy the constantly changing desire of people, resulting in an economically sustainable city for the future.

Experimental Architecture

CHAPTER 3 TIMELINE & ZEITGEIST Human society has always borrowed ideas, nothing we have invented has been entirely pure. The safari taken by experimenters to hunt for the unknown has been diverted periodically by a strange form of inspiration. We have been audience to these strange inspirations develop to be a new invention over the period of history, whether intentional or accidental and the society has always been demanding, hours of our lives are invested in accomplishing those demands in hope for an added layer of comfort. Although history has given us more than one example of new innovations brought to life for reasons apart from the aspiration for personal delight. Innovation always has one or more intentions behind it. The force-driven praxis regardless of the varying scale is very subjective to the environment, location, and resources. Not only in architecture but any innovation in any field is a product of dissatisfaction with the situation and the added desire for better. The first and common force of innovation is a need for improvement in a sense, modification to fit the contemporary lifestyle. The enlarged vision for reality, which has rare chances to be served with the available resources. This desire to possess the modified situation accelerates innovation. This patterned behavior to achieve more by architects over the years has been gifted the current generation with captivating structures as an example to analyze. Every project here built or unbuilt had specific reasons from various compartments of the scenario of the time behind it to be commissioned. These were essentially three primary motives for each of the projects that urged for an experimental solution for the scenario by the architect, one was an improvement, the second was disaster either natural or manmade and the third was survival, another scenario to include experiments was dedicated after achieving the fictional fantasies.

3. Timeline & Zeitgeist

1910-1980

Antonio Sant’eila The Industrial Building, 1914 1. European Industrial Revolution _1840 2. European Railnetwork Increase _1830-1870 3. Italian Industrial Revolution _1897-1913 4. Giovanni Agnell founded FIAT works _1899 5. Introduction to Futurism_1909 6. Milan Air-show International_1910 7. Futurism dealing with Italian Fasicm 8. Great Steel Industry Milan 9. Antonio Sant’Elia on Futurism_1913

Experimental Architecture

[Fig. 3.1 -3.9]

Historical Forces The industrial revolution from the 18th century till the mid 19th century remodeled the idea of development in Europe. It encouraged a new mode of transportation, the railroad network increased exceptionally as the iron rails replaced the wooden rails. Almost a century of progress impacted the socio-economical culture in the countries of Europe. Followed by the industrial revolution, Italy was faced with a shortage of natural resources which acted as an obstacle in the race of industrial development. During the efforts of the Italian industrial revolution, Giovanni Agnell accelerated the progress by establishing a motor company named FIAT works in 1899. Immediately after, theorist Filippo Tommaso Marinetti introduced the world to the concept of futurism in 1909. Marinetti with his keen interest in motorized vehicles soon associated himself and the concept of futurism with technological advancements. The success was celebrated via the grand event of International Airshow held in the city of Milan in 1910.

Antonio Sant’eila, 1914 The Power Plant, [Fig. 3.10]

Experiment Sant’elia didn’t want to design a regular factory structure popular in the context of the time he was never in an attempt of developing a new theory of urbanism. He wanted to express the massiveness of the industry and the machines by the building’s monumental scale. Although most of his drawings lacked human scale, the expressive buttresses, giant chimneys, and massive warehouses were establishing a new style for the industrial infrastructure. La Citta Nuova was another project, featured in the Futurist manifesto that was designed to be built with the choice of material at the time, steel, and concrete. A center for communication designed with a powerful play of lines. The building was shaped aligned to the technology like the wireless telegraph and the elevators Antonio Sant’eila, 1914 La citta nuova Air and Train Station [Fig. 3.11] 3. Timeline & Zeitgeist

Impact Industrial building along with many of Sant’elia projects, has been formed mainly by the new changes in Italy, and Europe. Earlier in most cases, innovation was a result of a crisis and during 1910s Italy was lacking behind in the line and speed of growth, amongst European countries, and the nation had to gather the resources, to save it from drowning. Many artists and activists rowed through the issue, with their respective creations. Sant’elia was one of the many soldiers in this army, contributing to society through the medium of architecture. The idea of building, able to satisfy the purpose of a manufacturing unit to any product from steel to energy was essential to the nation in that specific period in history. The country had been waiting for enhanced infrastructure. Antonio Sant’elia provided the drawings with the ideas, ultimately to improve the convenience of the citizens. Apart from his idea of factories and power plants, his structures were enormous and monumental in scale compared to other existing structures in Italy. His ideas for buildings acted as a tunnel for the city, through which the lens of vision changed and the economic and social factors of the city passed through the mountain of Italian fascism. Following the Eiffel tower, this industrial buildings, factories, power plants although unbuilt, planted a seed for a tree full of fresh ideas, A branch of this was in Russian constructivism guided by this Italian architect. Sant’elia’s drawings are a marker of change in futurism and the discipline of architecture till this day.

Antonio Sant’eila, 1914 The Power Plant, [Fig. 3.12]

Experimental Architecture

Vladimir Tatlin Tatlin tower, 1919-1920 1. Bolshevik Revolution 2. Russian Futurism Menifesto_1912 3. Faktura_1914 4. 0,10 Exhibition_1915 5. Influence on Cinema 6. Military revolution committee

[Fig. 3.13 -3.18]

3. Timeline & Zeitgeist

Historical Forces Bolshevik revolution also named as Russian revolution, post world war resulted in the collapse of the Russian empire. At the same time, Russia was introduced to futurism in 1909. Unlike the Italian futurism struggling against fascism, Russian artists were not restricted by any barrier. Many artists seemed to have developed the idea further and branched themselves to a new discipline, “Kubo-Futurizm”(Cubo futurism). Amongst the artists were emerging new terms and definitions of art, From constructivism came “Faktura” mainly concerning the materiality and experimentality. Russian architect Vladimir Tatlin who was initially a painter and sculptor, post his trip to Germany and Paris was influenced by Picasso and exhibited his artwork exploring futurism during 1911-1913. From December 1915 to December 1916 “the last futurist exhibition of paintings” called “0 ,10 Exhibition” was held in Moscow. After the October Revolution under Lenin’s “Monumental Propaganda” Tatlin received an opportunity to propose a structure catering to multiple communities.

[Fig. 3.19]

Experiment Tatlin tower, if built would serve to multiple functional requirements. “Monument to the third international” was to be constructed as a headquarter for the Comintern. The tower from the modern materials at the time such as iron, glass, and steel was imagined to outpace Eiffel tower. Russia post-revolution could not afford to provide the amount of resources needed to construct this monumental design. The helical form of the structure was 400 meters in height acting as a framework for four suspended geometrical forms, at the bottom was a cube designed as a lecture hall, on the top of the cube was a pyramid housing executive activities. On the top was designed as an information station in a cylindrical shape. All three structures would rotate at a different speed, the cube for lecture would take a year as compared to the pyramid hosing completing in a 50

Experimental Architecture

[Fig. 3. 20]

month whereas the top structure providing bulletins would spin every day. One diagonal truss was inserted. Visitors were to transported from around the iron helix with mechanized gear.

Impact The concept of futurism in Russia came from Cubo futurism in Paris. Similar to the situation in Italy, Russia after the revolution and the war, unable to provide the resources. The ambitious constructivists, in a hope to build back the soviet nation better and advanced, designed many buildings. Tatlin tower, a new concept of a multicultural tower with revolving elements within the structures. Expected to be constructed with already discovered material but with a new unique structural technique put the concept under the experimental category in 1919. Many architects were inspired by not only the tower but the sole idea of the style and the complexity of the structure. Tatlin tower had broadened the perspective of architects that later could help the soviet nation in developing the infrastructure in the cities. The manifesto of architecture also had spread through the discipline of art which eventually lead to the institutionalization. Lastly, the slightly different and apparently fictional design ultimately diverted the generation to the inventory path.

Vladimir Tatlin, 1919 The Russian Experiment

[Fig. 3. 21]

3. Timeline & Zeitgeist

Buckminister Fuller Dymaxion House, 1930-1933 1. World War I 2. Extreme Weather condition for soldiers 3. Transportation during WWI

[Fig. 3.22 -3.24]

Experimental Architecture

Historical Forces After world war one, having witnessed the struggle of the soldiers and their families, fuller believed that the world was in need of mass-produced structures to survive in the condition. Aside from the factor of transportation, the assembly of the structures was considered beneficial accounting for the obstacle of extreme weather conditions and other environmental issues. Affordability at the point was low and thus Buckminster fuller incorporating all the key points had designed a dwelling which was considered a futuristic design. The house was named dymaxion combining three words “dynamic”, “maximum”, and “tension”. A house made of lightweight aluminum sheets, concentrating all the utilities in the central pole. The entire house was designed earthquake and storm-resistant which could heat or cool on its own. The round shape of it was chosen carefully with the wind turbine on the roof and intricate system designed to collect rainwater. A house that wouldn’t require any maintenance, no coloring once it is built. Although one could change the floor plan.

Experiment

Fuller explained: “That is the Dymaxion principle of doing ever more with ever less weight, time, and ergs per each given level of functional performance. With an average recycling rate for all metals of 22 years, and with comparable design improvements in performance per pound, ephemeralization means that ever more people are being served at ever higher standards with the same old materials”[Fuller,15] “In 1946, Bucky actually built a later design of the Dymaxion House (also known as the Wichita House). I had the honor to lead a bunch of volunteers that took it apart in 1992. It was mostly intact despite being abandoned (except for the incumbent herd of insolent, astoundingly filthy raccoons) for several decades. The 747 First-Class ambiance was faded and smelly, but you could still sense the elegance of a living room with a 33-foot window”[Baldwin,16] [Fig. 3.25 -3.28]

3. Timeline & Zeitgeist

Impact The manmade disaster of World War II lead to the idea of mass production in architecture. Construction prior to that was done on the site, usually with heavy materials through a very lengthy process. The traditional techniques could not have helped the soldiers and their families without any shelter to live under after the Great War. To solve this problem fuller thought the idea of assembling the building that can resist all environmental conditions. Fuller had used a list of pre found materials and combined them in an extraordinary method using his principle of “dymaxion” to stand against the challenges, within the given the limitations of time. Fuller also proved his uncompromised futuristic vision is not limited to structures as he introduced a car later in his career on the designed based on the same concept. The dymaxion house except for the prototype model was never constructed but the design was adapted by many architects right after the war and later it was improvised over the course of time by many architects to suit the subjective conditions.

Experimental Architecture

[Fig. 3. 29]

Jørn Utzon Sydney Opera House, 1956 1. Expanding Australian Economy 2. Great European Migration 3. Minister of Public Works , Joseph Colin 4. Vision to provide a monumental building to the city 5. Site with a Rich history 6. Competition Guidelines

[Fig. 3.30 -3.35]

3. Timeline & Zeitgeist

Historical Forces The Australian economy was rapidly expanding after the world war. The nation had seen many world leaders visit their island. Australia also became the welcoming victim of the great migration, with increasing immigrants from Europe. Joseph Colin minister for public works at the time had the vision to provide a city with a monumental building, a building that could mold a better and more enlightened community. After the rupture of war, citizens were found ways to define themselves and the cities. Australians had already seen a town hall constructed in 1889, but after that, the society required a promoted venue catering to their performing ability. During 1950 with gained political popularity, post fraction Joseph Colin had convinced the government to launch a competition for an opera house, provided with auditoriums and halls for the newly appreciated Australian talent of performing arts at the historically celebrated piece of land. After reviewing multiple entries for the competition, the jury decided to opt for John Utzon’s design.

Experiment The site survey initially was not precise due to which the estimation of the structures became the first obstacle towards the massive structure. The stage one construction had 49-meter long concrete beams that support the steps and the podium. Instead of columns to support such long and heavy structure the building has “concourse beams”. After the podium, began the construction of the shell-shaped roof structure for which the firm after many alterations chose parabolic, ellipsoid, and spherical geometry. Each shell of the structure is derived from a sphere. Then the shells had to be mathematically solved for construction. After three years the Utzon came up with a solution that would attempt the concept of reputation allowing prefabricated construction. The special wooden beams were designed to support the ceiling and the glass walls. More than four thousand 56

Experimental Architecture

[Fig. 3.36 -3.39]

chevrons were required to cover the shells and more precisely 10,56,006 tiles each 112 mm, specially made in Sweden were used to cover up the vaults.

Impact The idea of a center for public interest was not new to people of Sydney but an idea only to cater to the community of performing arts was a pleasant surprise by Cahill to the city. The location of the project also favored the building an iconic structure. Apart from the experimentality of an astonishing architecture of the building, it impacted the city in several ways first famously being the department of tourism. It is improved the level of urban sculptures and provided the city with a modern waterscape. The significance added to the identity of the city. The design also is packed with innovative ideas as solutions to the problems that arose during construction. Multiple new techniques that were discovered by the architect and the engineer to use concrete as the material, the idea of prefabricated ribs to solve the calculations of the shells, and to construct extremely heavy vaults shocked the world.

[Fig. 3.40 -3.41]

3. Timeline & Zeitgeist

Frei Otto Munich Olympic Stadium, 1968 1. Depression caused by WWI 2. WWII destroyed the idea of a Stadium 3. grunwalder stadion destroyed in war 4. Postwar “Goldenage for Football” in Germany 5. Munich with two bundesliga teams 6. Bombing sites during 1968-1972 taken as pit for foundation 7. Lack of urban areas in the city 8. Competition announced for the stadium 9. Orders to avoid monumentality

Experimental Architecture

[Fig. 3.42 -3.50]

Historical Forces The great depression had impacted almost every country involved in the world war one. The economy in Germany had shattered to the point where new infrastructure in the nation seemed unattainable. World war II added grief to that situation rather more disturbing for their football fans at the time as the great war destroyed the country’s most famous grunwalder stadium and the idea of a new stadium could not be funded. But postwar can be considered as the golden age for football in Germany, Munich itself had two teams to compete in the Bundesliga premier league. The progressive teams were left with no great stadium of their own that had the capacity of 45000 spectators. The people in the city were also left without any quality urban areas after the war. The idea of the stadium was to be proposed for the Olympic games of 1972 in Munich accommodating both the factors of urban areas and the capacity of spectators. The site chosen for the stadium was the pit created by the bombings in the world war II. The competition was announced to design the Olympic stadium with specific instructions from the government to avoid monumentality to promote a peaceful event. In the second round of the competition, the project was given to Frei Otto.

Experiment The competition was announced to design the Olympic stadium with specific instructions from the government to avoid monumentality to promote a peaceful event. In the second round of the competition, the project was given to Frei Otto. The main motto was ‘happy games’ by building a non-monumental, peaceful stadium the nation wanted to present a new Germany. Architects Günther Behnisch and Frei Otto designed a lightweight tensile structure in a continuous flow. The artificial floating landscape-like structure assembled with pipes and cables according to the computational mathematical calculations to identify the shape and the behavior of [Fig. 3.51 -3.54]

3. Timeline & Zeitgeist

the members and joints. Ahead of his time, Otto introduced several new concepts with this design such as biomimicry and sustainability even before the term was coined in architecture. “The roof of the main stadium is a polyester fabric coated with PVC suspended independently in each of the cells formed by a network of prestressing cables. The masts support the main cables maintained in tension by providing the necessary hanging roof surfaces support. The masts are responsible structural elements transmit loads to the strong hand, and do so in an inclined manner. The junction between the various cables that make up the structural mesh is materialized by a knot of steel casting with a system using bolted anchors and tensioned.”16

Impact Otto often collaborated for his projects, the Olympic stadium is one of the earlier examples of his multidisciplinary design. Although Otto’s experimentation with tensile structure began when he tried making lightweight structures for prisoners in World War II. Initially, the intention was to supply advanced prefabrication of membranes during the war. However the idea evolved over the years and his fascination to pass beyond the discipline of architecture led him to explore the physical, biological processes. Otto continued to collaborate for his projects such as his contribution to the Japanese pavilion of expo 2000 along with Shigeru ban. The techniques and methods Frei Otto developed are used by a number of experimental architects like Greg Lynn even today.

Experimental Architecture

[Fig. 3.55]

Kisho Kurokawa Nagasaki Capsule Tower, 1970 1. World Design conference_1960 2. Material man/Floating City/Tokyo Bay 3. C.I.A.M & Tests by Kenzo Tange at MIT 4. Expo ‘70 Osaka 5. Spread of Metabolism 6. Linked to Archigram

[Fig. 3.56 -3.61]

3. Timeline & Zeitgeist

Historical Forces

Kenzo Tange was the first architect to combine traditional Japanese architecture with modernism. In 1960 during world design conference in Tokyo, the new concept of metabolism was introduced, prior to that in ‘59 Tange in the C.I.A.M (Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne) conference had mentioned the same concept, group of architects present in that meeting and the world design conference naming Kiyonori Kikutake, Kisho Kurokawa, Fumihiko Maki were to present more than one futuristic ideas inspired by Marxist’s theory, projects such as oceans city, space city, material and man floating city. Megastructure on its way to becoming a new cultural identity while the idea of metabolism was being tested by Kenzo Tange with the help of students in the M.I.T campus as the C.I.A.M resigned. These ambitious architects were served the opportunity to design the master plan for the pavilion, a team of 12 architects lead by Kenzo Tange and Uzo Nishiyama. Perfecting the motto “progress and harmony for mankind”, Kiyonori Kikutake designed the first pure example of metabolism structures witnessed by the world. Post expo was seen the spread of the metabolism as a concept amongst Japanese and international architects, many critics linked it to the American magazine Archigram for its unique use of imaginative megastructures. The concept improved the social culture of the society by its biologically inspired design.

Experiment The Nagasaki capsule tower situated in the Ginza district of Tokyo, a combination of two residential units was born out of the same metabolism movement. The construction was completed in 1972 within thirty days with a theoretically clear concept of recycling, aspiring it to last 200 years with a cycle of renewal of the capsules every twenty-five to thirty-five years. The first capsule tower designed with businessmen in mind working in central Tokyo during the week. Each capsule is bolted to one of the two concrete cores of the towers. All hundred and forty capsules, some rotated at an angle measuring 4 x 2.5 [Fig. 3.62-3.65]

Experimental Architecture

meters, each sufficient for one person to comfortably live. The interior space is could be manipulated with storage cabinets, desk, and tables due to its multipurpose design. The preassembled capsules were fitted with double-layered windows, bathrooms, and other furniture such as a television unit, radio, built-in bed, and an alarm clock.

Impact Two major events lead to this extremely innovative structure in japan, The first was the world design conference held in Tokyo in 1960 and the other is the expo’70 in Osaka. Hidaka once stated that the Metabolist ideas of the 1960s “were very new, the saw cities as ‘moving’ and dynamic, that concept is real. Metabolism wanted to collaborate with engineers, they invited scientists, designers, and industrial designers. They wanted transcultural collaborations. It’s still relevant because of the ‘dynamic city’ and trans-cultural aspects.”[Hidaka 34] japan was recovering fast from the wounds of war, economic development filled the city of Tokyo with a population of working-class individuals. Kurokawa designed the perfect solution for increasing prices of apartment buildings for an individual accounting the factor of land scarcity and the affordability of those businessmen. A capsule provided with all basic amenities for a standardized living. Hong Kong, facing the crisis of land scarcity today and they have adapted and modified their idea of capsules into hotels, with a provision of a common lounge and dining, and capsule is only large enough to fit a bed.

[Fig. 3.66]

3. Timeline & Zeitgeist

Renzo Piano, Richard Rogers The Centre Pompidou, 1971 1. Expo’67, Montreal 2. May ‘68, Student Riots 3. Charles De Gaulle’s Retirement 4. City’s Demand of multicultural buildings 5. City Landmark 6. Competetion won amongst 681 entries

[Fig. 3.67 -3.72]

Experimental Architecture

Historical Forces France in 1968 was a paralyzed nation due to violence, strike, and riots. Students from every city, every class, every community got involved in the riots to gain the freedom they aspired. People of the country demanding for a better social situation, better services while the cities were filled with chaos, desperate to solve multiple issues at the same time. The government finally failed, Charles de Gaulle, president at the time having been to the 67th expo was hoping to bring change to this situation instead, due to great pressure he resigned soon after from his position. Meanwhile the situation had grown silent, Georges Pompidou was appointed a new president soon after the empire of France had collapsed yet cities were demanding new multicultural buildings, central city landmarks. As a result of all this was launched a new competition to design a new facility offering a gallery, free exhibition space, and a center for music located at a previously vacant parking lot in search of a unique concept.

Experiment The building designed by Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers using only half the site area divided by functions into six floors. The unique structure of the building was specially and thoughtfully designed to provide a column-free floor space. The structure of the building consisted of two steel columns on either façade on which are placed pivoting elements at the height of a floor, specially designed for the structure inspired from the old bridge called the “gerberette”. The columns than are connected with a cross beam, the floor plates are placed above the trusses. The force of the truss would lift the other end of the gerberette upwards. A tie rod is placed through the gerberette to hold it in place. Chevrons are placed on the shorter façade connected to the trusses to transfer the load. The longer facades are tied with “x” bracings. Each floor is provided with a corridor placed between the column and the outermost bracing above [Fig. 3.73 -3.76]

3. Timeline & Zeitgeist

the gerberettes, all the services color-coded, blue for air conditioning, red for circulation, green for circulating water, and yellow for electricity are placed between the column and the tie rod. The only element placed outside the front façade is the escalator transporting the visitors to the fifth floor.

Impact The building immediately after finishing was disapproved by the critics, it got the same reactions why Eiffel tower criticized, critics claiming it to be an alien structure. The projects suffered to the extreme of the insults resulting in a court case. This was the iconic Hi-Tech architecture building. There were some similarities behind the forces between two multicultural buildings, Centre Pompidou and Sydney Opera House. Construction with steel was not a new idea at the time although the technique both the architects used along with the engineers to provide a column free plan was innovative. Later Pompidou Centre’s influence can be seen in many structures ranging from programmatic resemblance, mechanical detailing, joinery, the idea of separating services area and functional spaces or the core idea of spanning the structure based on the shear strength of the material. Another example of steel used to transfer the structural load is the HSBC building headquarters in Hong Kong designed by Norman Foster.

Experimental Architecture

[Fig. 3.77]

Foster + Partners HSBC Building, 1983 1. First building_1865-1882 2. Second building_1883-1935 3. Third building_1935-1978 4. Philosophy of Feng Shui 5. Tourism promotion 6. Competition for contemporary building

[Fig. 3.78 -3.83]

3. Timeline & Zeitgeist

Historical Forces There were three buildings for the headquarters in the country, the first was on the main street from 1865 to 1882. The construction for the second building began in 1882, the architecture for that building featured the use of colonnades, verandah, and dome. This was demolished in 1935 for a new structure. The third building, also designed modern in the context of time. From 1934 to 1978 the third building was the tallest structure in Hong Kong at the time. The country under was under Japanese rule. The structure had a hint of art deco style. All three towers had maintained the latest style, new context, and adapted new technology of the time, the same requirements were included in the design brief for the new headquarters building as well. The country had found new income via the tourism industry. Although they had beautiful vernacular structures, the government wanted to promote modern architecture as well. A competition was launched to design the headquarters that would represent monumentality. Many other concepts are taken into account while designing, one of them is philosophies of Feng Shui meaning the direct view of the body of river as the north of the site faces towards the harbor.

Experiment Three separate stepped towers of twenty-nine, thirty-six, and forty-four stories high with hong kong harbor on the north, south façade facing Victoria and east-west elevations containing services. “The requirements to build in excess of one million square feet in a short timescale suggested a high degree of prefabrication, including factory-finished modules, while the need to build downwards and upwards in tandem led to the adoption of a suspension structure, with pairs of steel masts arranged in three bays.” [Brian ,17] The suspended structure allowed the floor plans to be free and a ten-story deep atrium.

Experimental Architecture

[Fig. 3.84 -3.87]

Impact The effects of war had faded by the time of the new proposal of the HSBC building. Along with the intention of expansion of the bank headquarters, the building also had to maintain or rather continue the legacy of having a modern structure according to the era. Another wider purpose was to attract tourism. The government had hoped to build up the portion of economic income by promoting modern architecture along with the vernacular landmarks. The style of Hi-tech architecture began with the shock of Centre Pompidou to the architecture world in France. Nearly twenty years after Pompidou’s fight against cultural critics, Hi-tech architecture had been accepted by the socio-political society but the design for the headquarters building brought in different challenges due to its massive scale. Foster along with with the engineers, in order to accommodate, then contemporary amenities with the measured threat of height presented with an enhanced and elaborated version of Hi-tech design. Intending to create an architectural landmark for Hong Kong and the Hong Kong tourism, the building constructed with a well-established material but a newfound way or the experimental way of the structural system was possible with the collaborative team of architect Norman foster.

[Fig. 3.88]

3. Timeline & Zeitgeist

Nicholas Grimshaw The Eden Project, 2001 1. Restoration of the Lost Gardens of Heligan 2. China pit serving throughout the history 3. To house thousands of species 4. James baldwin’s pillow dome 5. Sustainability and charity 6. Concept of waterloo international

[Fig. 3.89 -3.94]

Experimental Architecture

Historical Forces After the successful restoration of The Lost Gardens of Heligan, the idea of a more ambitious project came about. The China pit prior to this was used for multiple purposes, mainly it was serving as the site for BBC TV shows and a few movies. However, the site then was decided to house most of the world-famous species under the roof. Special plants were imported from around the globe. The goal was to construct a better future, a sustainable future accommodating various facilities for every group of society. Starting from gardens, horticulture, geothermal stations to the occasional concerts, exhibitions, and events. The birth of concept for the was inspired by the Waterloo international, after undergoing a series of corrections in design according to the geographical requirements, the final design was the consolidation of the Waterloo station and the pillow dome famously experimented by James Baldwin, having worked on the projects such as dymaxion house, Baldwin has attempted a few variations of the dome. The Eden project had borrowed the underlying concept of the pillow dome. The project had more than one factors introduced new to the society, first was the very concept of building a sustainable botanical garden and promoting the idea of a green future and the second was the materiality of the structure. Eden project was one of the first projects to introduce the Ethylene tetrafluoride ethylene (ETFE) as a building material.

Experiment Covering fifteen hectors of the ground the Eden Project is the biggest botanical garden. Inspired by the glass roof of Waterloo station the project includes the representation of more than five thousand plants of a variety of species. The project has eight geodesic dome strategically placed in the quarry. The structure of domes if formed by galvanized steel pipes with each pipe individually produced. The lightweight yet strong structures of hexagon, pentagon and triangle are covered with EFTE panel. “The panels are created from thin layers of film Efte UV-transparent,

[Fig. 3.95 -3.98]

3. Timeline & Zeitgeist

sealed on its perimeter and creating an inflated inner tube. We used this material as being very livia, with a weight equivalent to 1% by weight of the glass. In addition, Efte is recyclable, antistatic, self and easily reparable and that in case of a puncture can be arranged with tape Efte. The panels are cameras in the hot air being pumped. Once inflated, they provide more insulation than glass, acting as a thermal blanket to the structure.”18

Impact Global concerns by the year had been shifted to sustainability and global warming. Architects were considering the environmental factor in their designs and the chosen materials. Since the Eden garden was dedicated to botany, the requirements for the building were different from any other buildings. Following the steps of Buckminster Fuller, the ideal structure that could cater to the needs of a greenhouse was a geodesic dome but the main concern was the covering material where the idea of Efte as building material emerged. The center offers education on the planetary crisis and educating the community about the threats. Working to reduce energy and carbon, geothermal energy, waste reduction. “The Eden Project, an educational charity, connects us with each other and the living world, exploring how we can work towards a better future.”19 The idea for the building along with the construction material was fresh at the time to alert the world about a potential global crisis.

Experimental Architecture

[Fig. 3.99]

ELEMENTAL, Alejando Arevana City Redevelopment Project, 2010 1. Tsunami, Earthquake in chile_2010 2. Public voting for the Development Plan 3. Public Vs Private Limited Funding 4. Lack of Urban spaces in the city 5. Blocked connection to the river by infrastructure 6. Issue of Flooding every year

[Fig. 3.100 -3.105]

3. Timeline & Zeitgeist

Historical Forces Chile suffered an earthquake magnitude of 8.8 in 2010 that destroyed the city infrastructure. The earthquake also triggered a tsunami that impacted their ports and coastal areas. In collaboration with the government, the project to rebuild the infrastructure was given to the firm Elemental. The principal architect Alejandro Aravena considered public voting regarding the reconstruction and the projects were funded public and private money. The city apart from the tsunami and earthquake suffers from flood damage each year. Plus urban places in the city are were rarely found prior to the disaster. People felt that the city had been losing its identity over the years. They had also lost access to the river over the years in order to build structural infrastructure. After the natural disaster city of Constitución was handed to the firm Elemental for the reconstruction. The big question after a disaster hit about rebuilding is whether to build better or to build faster as the resources such as money which id loaned by the government, private organizations and civilians, and the materials that are difficult to gather during the time of a crisis. The situation also adds the socio-political pressure on the firm, Aravena’s response to this was to solve each emergency every day and not risk the future of the city by prioritizing.

Experiment The first step towards the rebuilding was to tackle geographical threats was to eliminate the energy of tsunami waves hitting the city by planting a forest to the flood-prone shore areas. Evacuate those areas and plan the historical preservation of the city by designing public spaces like harbor theatre, pools, cycling paths, and civic hall. The first barrier against was the riverside forest park although few other projects were proposed simultaneously to promote tourism and enhance public recreational areas. However the most crucial among all was the construction of four hundred and eighty-four dwelling named Villa Verde. The firm already had experi74

Experimental Architecture

[Fig. 3.106 -3.109]

ence in constructing houses for less fortunate under budget restrictions since 2003. The firm found a statistical study stating a middle-class family can live comfortably in eighty square meters but only forty square meters can be provided by the government money. Elemental designed the half the house for the families which they could not have built on their own due to issues like cost of the land and construction. The second half of the house which is usually an extension of facilities is built by the families themselves according to their convenience.

Impact The concept of half house has been implemented in many locations across the country. The approach regarding the housing stays the same, the method of construction or the materials differ according to the geographical location and the local issues. The experimentality in these projects isn’t intervened with the technique of construction or the material but is in the concept. The thought of rebuilding the city has a positive impact on as big as urban scale projects as small as a housing unit. The projects are designed to improve the economy, tourism, and living standards that are ultimately engaged in favor of the country.

[Fig. 3.110]

3. Timeline & Zeitgeist

PROJECTS

POLITICAL MOVEMENTS ART MOVEMENTS

PHASE OF DESIGN

INNOVATION

The Industrial Building, Antonio Sant’elia ITALIAN FASCISM

FUTURISM

CONCEPT [UNBUILT]

SCALE

CONSTRUCTION FICTION_ CONCEPT [UNBUILT]

ROTATING ELEMENTS

CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTION MATERIAL

ALUMINUM TENSION STRUCTURE

CONCEPT DESIGN CONSTRUCTION

POST TENSIONED REPETITIVE ARCHES

CONCEPT CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

TENSILESTRUCTURE

CONCEPT CONSTRICTION

CAPSULE LIVING

Tatlin Tower, Vladmir Tatlin RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR

CONSTRUCTIVISM

Dymaxion House, Buckminster Fuller WORLD WAR II

DYMAXION

Sydney Opera Hose, John Utzon WORLD WAR II GREAT MIGRATION

POST MODERNISM

Munich Olympic Stadium, Frei Otto PEACE, POST WORLD WAR II

BIOMIMICRY

Nagasaki Capsule Tower, Kisho Kurokawa POST HIROSHIMA/ NAGASAKI BOMBING

METABOLISM

The Centre Pompidou, Renzo Piano, Richard Rogers CIVIL UNREST MAY ‘68

HI-TECH ARCHITECTURE

CONSTRUCTION

GERBERETTE

MATERIAL CONCEPT

EFTE PLASTIC FIBER

CONSTRUCTION

SUSPENDED STEEL STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

CONCEPT

HALF HOUSE

The Eden Project, Nicholas Grimshaw NEW SUSTAINABLE APPROACH

BLOB ARCHITECTURE

HSBC Headquaters, Norman Foster DEVELOPMENT

HI-TECH ARCHITECTURE

Redevelopment Plan , Elemental TSUNAMI EARTHQUAKE

Experimental Architecture

AFFORDABLE HOUSING

CHAPTER 4 PRACTICES & ORGANIZATIONS Architects have witnessed a decade process of some of the master architect’s process originating from the concept, process, construction technique and merely the ability to answer to the questions such as political issue, economical issue, and cultural issue along with the architectural concerns such as geographical location, natural threats, and the environment, specific to that period. We have learned from both the mistakes and their successes, we have learned their techniques, witnessed their position against ascending issues, and understood their concepts. The authenticity lying under the layers of the designs and the desire to contribute to society and enlighten the next generation with fresh ideas has been documented. Although the world today is faced with extreme conditions, both positive and negative. Every area touching the grounds of architecture seems committed to discovering new solutions to these rising global problems. The language of experimental structures designed by practices in contemporary times has considerably changed in the past two decades. Technological advancement in past decades has progressed faster than ever, due to which the discipline has been gifted with multiple technologies to enhance structural strengths of the building, faster construction with 3D printing and digital fabrication and computational design. Simultaneously the forces shaping the projects have shifted from manmade forces such as wars and riots to environmental issues such as global warming and land scarcity, along with a few then uncommon issues like globalization. Although the innovations done by these architects are dealing with the issues that already exist or may appear in the near future unlike the researchers trying to prevent the issue even before they are born. These firms while maintaining the balance between exploratory and innovative concepts and creating that experiment successfully under the limited budget.

4.Practices & Organizations

Thomas Heatherwick [Heatherwick Studio] Ideology

Heatherwick studio is dedicated to solve problems by creating buildings, spaces, objects and infrastructure. Focusing more on the large scale projects that are linked to the city at any layer, which leaves the city with a positive impact. “Positive and pragmatic, the studio’s team are collaborators whose role is to listen, question, then lead the conception and construction of special and unusual places. Ingenuity and inspiration are used to make projects that are affordable and buildable. And our client is vital, who comes on the journey and challenges our thinking; together we look for the opportunities that might traditionally be overlooked.”[Heatherwick studio, 20]

Collaboration & Innovation

The firm has consciously taken an inventive approach to its design ranging from the concept level to the final design. According to the project requirements the firm tends to involve the experts from the field other than architecture to expand the possible

Experimental Architecture

[Fig. 4.1.1]

[Fig. 4.1.2]

[Fig. 4.1.3]

[Fig. 4.1.4]

boundaries on the capacity of the project. Many of the government projects are driven by the same idea of exploring the range of elements involved in the projects, for example, the rolling bridge which, during pedestrian traffic acts a bridge, otherwise seen as a sculpture rolled into an octagonal shape. A second similar example is the Paperhouse which transformed the idea of the traditional British stalls for newspapers. Studio spans their projects from a small sculpture-like scale to urban structures. British pavilion for shanghai expo 2010 called seed cathedral was the experimental approach in the area of technicality of the material. The play of acrylic seven meter long hair, each with a unique seed in it were the only source of light into the structure called ‘Seed Cathedral’. Another slightly bigger project in terms of scale is planned as a burial place for ‘Parsi’ community’s rituals in Mumbai. ‘The tower of silence’ was a requirement of the community due to the migration. Millions of people from all around India looking for jobs or opportunities, move to Mumbai, thus the density of humans became the barrier for vultures to consume the bodies. The studio had dealt with the same issue in London where the river has separated the city into two parts, to create a link between the two areas, Heatherwick proposed a pedestrian bridge lush with greenery.

[Fig. 4.1.5]

[Fig. 4.1.7]

[Fig. 4.1.6]

[Fig. 4.1.8]

4.Practices & Organizations

Ensamble Studio Ideology As the name suggests, studio ensemble is collaborative firm, their approach towards design rather stands different than the contemporary architectural firms. In their manifesto they explain “We go to the origin of the processes, to the raw materials, we try to arrive to the essence of the elements and construction systems. And this scientific understanding enables an extreme freedom to operate outside the preconceived processes. We use industry at the service of architecture but not vice versa.” The studio is expanded for their research into two other departments, Fabrica and POPLab. They add “We dream spaces and design their construction using an explosive mixture of imagination and reality, aiming to excite places and people, to create strong bonds that will improve the quality of life in and around them.”[Ensamble Studio, 21]

Collaboration & Innovation

The Hemeroscopium house was to be constructed in an area that was constructed in an anti-urban area. The concept was to create the world inside the property as opposed to a dense concrete structure. The hose had to be extroverted to celebrate the landscape around it. The forces surrounding the site were used to organize the spaces, structure, and landscape. The use of precast concrete was an approach towards using left-over material. The beams put aside to demolish due to a slight defect triggered the architects to reuse them. Apart from the fascinating use of precast concrete the house showcases the incredible act of balancing and some extra elements such as trusses and glass walls to enclose the building for thermal protection. “Flying Carpets imagine how growth could happen in excessively dense and use intensive environments,working with the conditions given by the place. As a reaction to the lack of public services and the dispirited character of “rehabilitation strategies” that indifferently erode many neighborhoods in Mumbai, though this research, the air appears as a new territory to conquer in creative ways, to reclaim even growth. These three-dimensional urban infrastructures: touch the ground punctually connecting to other networks and servicing old and new residents, build “flying carpet” levels -plots in the air- for the city to expand and liberate the pressure on the ground.”21

Experimental Architecture

[Fig. 4.1.9]

[Fig. 4.1.10]

Structures of Landscape

[Fig. 4.1.11 -4.1.19]

4.Practices & Organizations

Snøhetta Ideology

“Snøhetta began as a collaborative architectural and landscape workshop, and has remained true to its trans-disciplinary way of thinking since its inception. Our work strives to enhance our sense of surroundings, identity and relationship to others and the spaces we inhabit. A definite relationship between multiple disciplines is a driving force in all of Snøhetta’s work. This is demonstrated through the company’s long history, where landscape and architecture work together without division, from the earliest stage possible.”[Snøhetta, 21]

Collaboration & Innovation

The firm believes in the process in architecture is equally important and interesting as the end result. Their idea of innovation might not reflect on the exterior of their projects but to understand their stand on experiment one must learn the idea behind the structure. The valid example of this the arc project located in the Arctic Circle which is a visitor center for arctic preservation. Designed as the largest archive seed vault with a visitor center to provide the insight into ‘Svalbard Archipelago’s unique geology has transformed over millions of years.’ Fighting against the natural environment of extreme wind and cold. The design has anticipated all the factors to clad the building from the environment. The rising dominance of the internet and digitalization over the world has branched a category of structures in the past two decades. Another partially research-based project the firm has completed was named ‘plast’, supported by the DIP (Driven Innovation Program) The challenge was to use recycled plastic which is a major concerns today. Although plastic is a durable, lightweight and waterproof material, the false presumption states that it exhausts the values after a single use. “The Snøhetta Plastic Lab is a tool to demonstrate different innovative ways of handling plastics. Re-granulated plastic stemming from fish nets, foil from bales of hay, plastic pipes, office supplies and Styrofoam parlors are studied and tested in the container.”

Experimental Architecture

[Fig. 4.1.20]

[Fig. 4.1.121

Greg Lynn [FORM] Ideology

“Greg Lynn is an innovator in redefining the medium of design with digital technology as well as pioneering the fabrication and manufacture of complex functional and ergonomic forms using Computer Numerically Controlled machinery. The buildings, projects, publications, teachings and writings associated with his office have been influential in the acceptance and use of advanced materials and technologies for design and fabrication. As design opportunities today extend across multiple scales and media, his studio Greg Lynn FORM continues to define the cutting edge of design in a variety of fields. His early studies in philosophy and architecture he has been involved in combining the realities of design and construction with the speculative, theoretical and experimental potentials of writing and teaching”. He is “designing consumer products utilizing new materials and manufacturing technologies with companies like Vitra, Alessi, Nike and Swarovski. He is a Studio Professor at UCLA’s school of Architecture and Urban Design where he is currently spearheading the development of an experimental research robotics lab.”[Form, 23]

Collaboration & Innovation

The part of innovation in architecture has changed along with the definition of things that might fall under the category of innovation, about two decades ago the architects have occupied the idea of moving buildings. If the animation software is used in creating the design then the building must be live in some way. In reaction to this Lynn believed the ides of motion most definitely lead to ‘tectonic maximalism’. The complexity of details became easy using certain tools. In many of Greg Lynn’s early project this obsession over the mechanical complexity of joint is present. For example the Korean Presbyterian church has used unique connections for the primary still structure of the entire building. After a journey of searching the alternative opportunities to capture the rhythm in tectonics for nearly five years, he was brought back to the idea of motion with the new concept of digital automation. The use of automation was not intended to construct but to improve the dynamism of the space. “the translation of curves and vectors into sequenced facets in rhythm led me into plastic.”24 In 2011 he was asked to

[Fig. 4.1.22]

[Fig. 4.1.123

4.Practices & Organizations

design Index pavilions for a preeminent sustainability award where the condition was to build with sustainable material. Though there was an economical problem in shipping these pavilions from six to eight places a year, which would take approximately twelve containers around the world. In order to reduce the number of shipping containers and bring back the project under budget Lynn decided to use carbon fiber reinforced plastic which brought multiple benefits. Fewer people were required to put the pavilion together, all nine pavilions could fit in one container and it was entirely indestructible. “And composites if thought about in terms of logistics become the most sustainable thing you can use.”24 Lynn adds “carbon fiber plastic ends up being a better material than brick which you fire, have to truck around with all that weight but even better than wood you have to fill with chemicals to keep it from rotting and keep the bugs off. So plastic became my green material.”24 After that, he invented a plastic brick out used toys via a very laborious process. The first design was a blob wall out of this plastic bricks which later developed into an incredibility light fountain with a character of a rustic stone. This led to the maximization of the complexity of components. His opinion on the complex dialogue between components changed when he was given the chance to design a chair for Vitra because according to him, unlike architects, designers always opt for simplification of a component. When he presented with his two proposals for a chair that was made out of two pieces and ten thousand pieces which was not well received by the designers as the innovation for them is to deduct parts and fit together in a massive produced piece. This lesion reflected in the monolithic interiors of the Stockholm showroom made out

Experimental Architecture

[Fig. 4.1.24]

[Fig. 4.1.125]

[Fig. 4.1.26]

[Fig. 4.1.127]

of plastic for prettygoodlife and Alessi tea towers. The tea tower design was also a onepiece, which could be grip-able from any angle as it was designed from a hand with thermal insulation and the holder all in one piece to remove the handle. Same idea went to Vitra chair to have the legs, arms and the back with one hard surface and the top with a 3d knitted cloth. The same technology that has been used in making shoes that later Lynn collaborated with considering the benefits of the material and the technology to invent further with zero-waste produced. The ergonomics in both the projects worked in the extreme delivering high performing material. Around the 1990s according to him such as Renzo piano started using forms and structures disparate and integrated at fiber scale. Because it served the look of a microscopic structure. Where Lynn learned the principle of rigid fiber construction. Taking this principle further into depth with Happold who had worked with Frei Otto. They were the only firm capable of calculating fabric structures but every time they produced a shape it seemed only hanging and sad to Lynn. In order to change the shape, opted by the structure, he thought to use the basic principle of Antoni Gaudi and turned the structure upside down as he didn’t want to be finding form and he wanted to design it or rather define it at a furniture scale. The design for the art exhibition in Chicago designed a tensile chair made out of tapes, the lightest and the strongest material. Ten to twelve layers of extremely thin tapes were bound with a laminate. Afterward, the mold of that is put under a vacuum bag and is cooked in an oven for the stability of the form. The chair is ultimately a shell under compression which after the weight of a human converts into a tensile fabric. The evolution of Lynn’s design is transparent in the growth of his projects of any scale. Starting with his uncertain attitude towards live building to his inspiration from Frei Otto and Renzo Piano and developing an innovative technique. The technology of CNC, digital knitting and designing a shape through the ergonomics and calculus architecture. The constant urge to explore the material or innovate in the field of technology is driven by global forces subjective to each project. Index pavilion was the result of the larger force of globalization. Also, the project needed elemental sustainability which resulted in the innovative use of carbon fiber plastic. As a byproduct of the use of that specific material was cost reduction. The project was the initial acceleration for many other inventive materials and technologies such as the Vitra chair, Room Vehicle project or Korean Presbyterian Church or the curbside pavilion, where he was required to collaborate with the curbside company to stretch the functionality of the project.

[Fig. 4.1.28]

[Fig. 4.1.129]

4.Practices & Organizations

CHAPTER 4.2 RESEARCHERS & COLLABORATIONS Research in architecture shares intellectual grounds with multidisciplinary experts. Several institutes and firms that are funded by private or government organizations have their efforts concentrated on preventing the issues concerning the future. This kind of innovative research does not share plenty of similarities with practicing architects due to their different motives along with the resources and the environment. Architects, institutes, or practices dedicated to researching shares intellectual grounds with multidisciplinary experts. “I am more interested in the processes that go toward creating that object. Architecture is thus discussed as an agency. The introduction of dependency as a defining feature of architectural practice, and in particular the introduction of others into the processes and products of that practice, brings with it political and ethical dimensions. This, in turn, suggests a reformulation of aspects of practice: a move from the idea of the architect as an expert problem- solver to that of the architect as citizen sense- maker; a move from a reliance on the impulsive imagination of the lone genius to that of the collaborative ethical imagination.”[till, P-151]

Experimental Architecture

This research can be compartmentalized within two primary alternatives, one working with nature and the other working with technology. The first category is building their experiments via the help of nature and the other is working towards creating artificial nature however the transaction from the first category to the other is gradual. Bioscience is the approach dependent on natural resources. Working with the assets of earth, inauguration to culmination almost every element supporting the experiment revolves around the organic things or beings. The second kind is working with material metabolism and artificial colonization involving artificial intelligence and countless technological tools. There are also practices operating in the transactional area where they combine the resources from both the departments to achieve the ideal result. Research in architecture shares intellectual grounds with multidisciplinary experts. Collaboration with other fields becomes almost mandatory as the bases of research require details at the micro-level in order to be rewarded with success. .

Kate Orff [SCAPE]

Living Breakwaters Staten island, NY Collaborators Parsons Brinckerhoff Arcadis

Management consulting company

Forces Natural disaster: Tsunami, Earthquake Improved Urban area: Shore Eco-materials Marine Life Extinction

[Fig. 4.2.1]

[Fig. 4.2.3]

Ocean and Coastal Consultants SeArc Ecological Marine Consulting The New York Harbor Foundation LOT-EK Architecture MFS Consulting Engineers Civil engineering Company Prudent Engineering

[Fig. 4.2.2]

[Fig. 4.2.4]

4.Practices & Organizations

The relationship between water and the cities is one of the major concerns for coastal infrastructure. Maintaining the ecological chain along with the development needs a balanced technique to deal with the upcoming progress of the city. The infrastructure has to be layered in a manner that would benefit at its maximum capacity but also is protective of the ecological system and also the species. Scape has been developing the project by winning the Rebuild by Design competition around the neighborhood of Tottenville. The initiative, taken by the U.S department of housing and urban development to recover from the damage caused by Hurricane Sandy. “The project links in-water infrastructure with on-shore education and outreach, to help increase awareness of risk, enhance ecologies, and bring local school curriculum to the waterfront. SCAPE was commissioned by the GOSR to lead the schematic design process with a strong coalition of ecological and engineering partners, iteratively testing and designing scenarios for breakwater height, width, and location along the Tottenville shoreline. The team has worked closely with members of the community to create a design that benefits the community while positively affecting regional ecosystems and resiliency efforts.”[Armstrong,25] The project proposes key elements consisting of the breakwater system with a portion of it would be underwater. The living breakwater system is aimed to provide habitat enhancements with the use of specialized materials and forms. A section of the project will also provide oyster nursery cultivating oysters. Along with reducing the risk from the waves the project also focuses on restoring the shoreline, historically important elements of the urbanity of the city. Both the ends of the shoreline are to be provided with the public facility eligible to conduct educational programs. Combined all these facilities provide with multiple benefits such as the reduction in the energy of waves, erosion control, notable enhancement in ecosystems and improved urban quality. A large quantity of data was collected in order to understand the existing condition of the site for which a team of experts was sent to survey the site and gathered the data regarding geotechnical sediments, bathymetric mapping and the physical samples of the existing rocky surface to document the biological activities. The historic shoreline has experienced accelerated erosion at the rate of 3 feet per year since 1978. The design proposal consists of ten breakwater segments providing protection at a ranging distance of seven hundred feet to twelve hundred feet. Each segment is constructed with rubble mount with internally filled stone and the outer layers of armor stones, specially designed with bio-enhancing concrete. These underwater sections of the breakwaters will provide a structural habitat for a wide range of species.

Experimental Architecture

[Fig. 4.2.5]

[Fig. 4.2.6]

[Fig. 4.2.7]

4.Practices & Organizations

David Benjamin [The Living]

Living Breakwaters Staten island, NY

Forces

Collaborators

Urban Events venue Pollution from construction of temporary structures Low Energy consumption Sustainable building materials

National Science Foundation biologist Fernan Federici Autodesk Research

Experimental Architecture

Ecovative

[Fig. 4.2.8]

[Fig. 4.2.9]

[Fig. 4.2.10]

[Fig. 4.2.11]

[Fig. 4.2.12]

[Fig. 4.2.13]

[Fig. 4.2.14]

4.Practices & Organizations

Bio-Processing & Bio Fabrication Xylem cells that are living biological cells are used as the computers to generate 3D complex forms. “The biological algorithm” is run on these cells by the inventive method of putting the cells into the glass plate. “The resulting forms are striking, efficient in their structure and distribution of material, and potentially useful in designing the new architecture. More generally, this new form of “cooperation” 26 between a human designer and a plant cell allows us to produce designs that a human alone or even a human and a computer could never create.” 26 This experiment is labeled “Bio-Processing” by the team of The Living. Similar experiment labeled “Bio-fabrication” share the concept of using biomaterials to manufacture anew sustainable building material. First, they create synthetic bacteria by combining the characteristic of natural bacteria. Post the process bacteria produces, with new properties the composite sheets “reducing carbon emissions and improving global flows of energy and raw materials.”[The Living,26]

Hy-Fi Towers After refining these biomaterials with utilizing advance technology and computing, the firm designed a compostable design in the courtyards of Museum of Modern arts. A structure using zero energy and producing zero waste. The low-value crops are harvested as the first steps. Which then is chopped and combined with mycelium and mushroom root material and poured into the molds. The molds develop the strength into the shape of bricks that are used to construct the pavilion. The hy-fi tower has proven to be a successful experiment. Construction consists of ten thousand compostable bricks in three, thirteen-meter tall towers, ideal to host public events for the span of three months. The structure is deconstructed after those three months, with bricks aimed to turn into soil. The resulting soil is returned to the community gardens.

Experimental Architecture

Neri Oxman [Mediated Matter Lab]

Silk Pavilion Material Ecology

Forces

Collaborators

Alternative Materials_Ecological building Materials Technological advancement with organic materials

MIT dr. james weaver (WYSS institute, harvard university) prof. fiorenzo omenetto (TUFTS university)

[Fig. 4.2.15-4.2.23]

4.Practices & Organizations

Silk pavilion Architecture innovations have come a long way, from Buckminster fuller’s geodesic dome design to Neri Oxman’s Silk pavilion. The geodesic dome, made of thousands of steel elements whereas the silk pavilion, made of single silk thread. “One is synthetic, the other is organic. One is imposed on the environment, the other creates it. One is designed for nature, the other is designed by nature.” 27 The homogeneous assemblies have been dominating the field since the industrial revolution. If designed through the guidance of nature, we might witness the examples such as human skin where the facial skin is thin and the skin at the back is thicker. Architects now are working with two major aspects for design, one being machines and the other being organisms. The silkworm creates architecture to metamorphosize. By combing two different proteins, a structure and a binder or the glue it creates a sophisticated home for itself. Manifesting tension and compression in the same material, the warms start spinning in a cocoon. For a better understanding of the process. Oxman and the team placed a magnet to the head of a silkworm inside a box with magnetic sensors. This technique could track the point cloud and help visualize the complex architecture created by the warm. Experimenting with the nature of the surface, Oxman realized the structure created by worms is directly impacted by the environment. The silk is often used in the textile industry but the team by placing the worm on a flat surface realized that they are able to mold the shape of raw silk. Later the thought was brought to an architectural scale. The silkworms migrate towards darker and colder areas thus the sun path diagram was used to distribute the light and heat on the structure and then was created the punctures into the structure which would keep the heat inside the pavilion. The templates created by robots were left to be decorated by six thousand five hundred silkworms for approximately two to three weeks

Material Ecology The primary question for the next design was: “what would design be like if the objects were made of a single part, would we return for a better stage of creation?”[Oxman,27] in search of the answer for that question they went on a search for a biblical material. They found the material created by shrimps, crabs, scorpions, and butterflies called chitin which is a biopolymer. The lab created the material by grinding hundreds of shrimps and produced chitosan paste. Altering the chemical concentration a wide range of materialistic properties were archived such as dark, light, stiff, soft, opaque and transparent. A 3D printing machine was created with the ability to print twelve feet long structures using an entirely recyclable single material. Printed structures then are left to dry. The main argument of the material is to replace plastic. “We embedded bacteria that were genetically engineered to rapidly capture carbon from the atmosphere and convert it into sugar. For the first time, we were able to generate structures that would seamlessly transition from beam to mesh, and if scaled even larger, to windows.” “Working with ancient material, one of the first life forms on the planet, plenty of water and a little bit of synthetic biology, we were able to transform a structure made of shrimp shells into an architecture that behaves like a tree.”[Oxman,27] 94

Experimental Architecture

[Fig. 4.2.24-4.2.32]

4.Practices & Organizations

AI Space Factory Marsha Forces

Collaborators

Population Global warming Martian exploration advancement Machine depended construction

Techmer PM NASA

NASA announced an On-site habitat competition to design for habitat of astronauts dedicated in mars exploration program. Shelter on mars required answers to issues such as transporting the material, the environmental challenges, and the construction on the Martian surface. “Architecture on Earth plays a critical role in the way we live. On Mars, this reaches a higher level of importance since buildings are also machines we depend on to keep us alive and well. In Space architecture, every design decision is of great consequence to the success of a mission. Structures must be resilient and interior layouts must be tuned to mission demands. And yet, since sustained social and mental health are also mission-critical, Space habitats must be designed to be rich, useful and interesting worlds onto themselves. Marsha, AI SpaceFactory’s Mars habitat design, illustrates that the result can be both visionary and credible with an alien yet familiar beauty.”[Ai Space factory, 28]

Exploration on the planet will be based on the materials found on mars. “This is enabled by in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) technologies. ISRU circumvents the hard limits of the rocket equation wherein every 10 pounds of rocket needs roughly 90 pounds of propellant. Without ISRU the cost of importing materials from Earth renders the project of extraterrestrial futures impossible.” 28 Space agencies are planning to send machine before humans to harvest and test the materials found on the surface which later can be experimented by humans on earth before the construction on mars. The aim is to construct the shelters before the human arrival. “In collaboration with Techmer PM, we’ve formulated an innovative mixture of basalt fiber extracted from Martian rock and renewable bioplastic (polylactic acid, or PLA) processed from plants grown on Mars. This recyclable polymer composite outperformed concrete in NASA’s strength, durability, and crush testing. ASTM lab tested and certified to be two to three times stronger than concrete in compression, our space-grade material is also five times more durable than concrete in freeze-thaw conditions.” [Ai Space factory, 28]

Experimental Architecture

Every structure for martian surface is faced with initial task of maintaining earth-like atmosphere. Factors of special and material efficiency direct the architects towards a cylinder like structure. The cylindrical forms act as pressure vessels provide the highest ratio of floor area to surface area. Surface area and volume reduction means the material and the energy consumption also decreases. Reduction in structural stress can be achieved by the smaller diameter. Considering the range of diameter of the 3D printing machine along with the compartmentalization of the function with less unusable space the cylindrical vessels were chosen. To be able to sustain against the thermal swings, the outer skin of structure was made to expand and contract fixed on a bearing at the base as opposed to the habitable inner shell free to be lightweight and fitted with function divided onto floors. The layout is divided in two parts on dedicated to the mission and other are literal rooms considering the mental health and sociality.

[Fig. 4.2.33]

[Fig. 4.2.35]

[Fig. 4.2.34]

[Fig. 4.2.36]

4.Practices & Organizations

[Fig. 4.2.36]

[Fig. 4.2.37]

Experimental Architecture

[Fig. 4.2.38]

Rachel Armstrong [Black Sky Thinking] Forces

Global warming Extinction Metabolic Materials Artificial Nature

Collaborators Philip Beesley Rob Gorbet

“As our planetary system becomes more chaotic and more extreme we are asking really complex questions about our long time survivability. So what does a city look like that is design according to questions that address to third millennial challenges involved with sustainability and survival? This is where experimental architecture comes into its own.” “It is a discipline that arose out of the height of the modern era when a group of avant-garde architects decided to liberate population with the top down atomic-scale control of modern science.” [Dezeen,29]

[Fig. 4.2.39]

[Fig. 4.2.41]

[Fig. 4.2.40]

[Fig. 4.2.42]

4.Practices & Organizations

Hylozoic Ground by Philip Beesley The sculpture was a joint effort by architect Philip Beesley and engineer Rob Gorbet of dynamic chemistry in soil displayed in Venice 2010. “The title refers to hylozoism, an ancient philosophical view that matter has life, and proposes a future city that would operate as a living being.”[Etherington, 30] Several microprocessors, sensors, filters, and mechanical joints allow the installation to move. The yellow spheres are activated chemistry tied with the cybernetic matrix together molds a structure similar to soil. The sculpture as a whole acts as a human nose that can identify human presence by taste and smell via the carbon dioxide generated on the breath that is transformed into a crystal-like structure. The fragility of the artificial interactive environment constructed out of multiple components that are digitally fabricated in meshwork links. Architecture that is responsive to its surrounding movements.

Future Venice Using similar protocol as the installation, the concept design for Future Venice is also dedicated to the idea of surviving against natural uncertainty as the foundation of the entire city’s foundation has been constructed using wood. A new, much broader artificial limestone-like base to cover the entire sinking city of Venice via synthetic biology and protocell technology. Material metabolism made possible by mixing the combination of non-living chemicals.” The photophobic metabolism of the protocells works by light breaking chemical bonds, which propels the body forward, these protocells would move into the foundations and gradually mineral shells would accrete.”29 “It’s a different way that we could use technology one that confers inert materials with some of the properties of living things. [Venice] could engage itself in a struggle for survival against the destructive impact of the elements in which it is situated.” [Armstrong, 29]

100 Experimental Architecture

[Fig. 4.2.43]

[Fig. 4.2.44]

Growing a city from the bottom up “A laboratory-like space project that conducts experiments that ask questions about how international collaborators can come together to build gargantuan ecosystems that started from scratch and can support their population indefinitely.”[Armstrong, 29] A Laboratory in a starship located in the hull as it is aimed to travel across the universe beating like a heart able to nurture life inside it. Persephone is centered around human development. The architecture in the “worldship” is grown from zero as the time spends inside the ship has to provide the essentials to the people for the duration of the journey. The soils are the primary material for the architecture of the ship. To maintain the liveliness amongst the people and the atmosphere the living structure, unlike bricks, will be shaped as organic structures such as caves. The sole idea is to grow a dynamic city in space from bottom up and toward space colonization.

[Fig. 4.2.45]

[Fig. 4.2.47]

[Fig. 4.2.46]

[Fig. 4.2.48]

4.Practices & Organizations

101

Research is to invent an alternative to contemporary material, data, and technique. Research architect working with multi-disciplinary experts is a phase ahead of the firms and architects attempting to design experimental structures. The researchers are provided with the necessary budget, equipment, and liberty to fail whereas practices do cannot afford the failure, slightest inadequacy may lead to multiple significant problems from the loss of material and time to losing lives. Thus the research firms are continuously inventing and testing the foundation of the exploratory idea that eventually can be used by the architects to experiment which previously verified. Machines have become a mandatory part today. Every architect in this list is after the ultimate issue of global warming. Even if their primary goal of the research is based on another subject such as inventing a new material. Oxman is experimenting biomaterial intending to replace the use of plastic and using that comes with a beneficial and versatile byproduct. Scape trying to implement similar research at a city scale to save the coastal line of a city from unpredictable disaster, along with that are tangled additional positive results such as saving specific species from extinction, educational opportunities. The living also using biodegradable material for their design of temporary structures to avoid material waste. The approach of these three among five seem hopeful towards the future of our planet as opposed to the remaining two names who, in a similar timeframe, are presenting their contradictory approach centering the issue of global warming. Where, instead of making an effort to improve the global condition, are opting to find for alternatives. Ai Factory’s project Marsha is supporting NASA’s program of mars colonization and Rachel Armstrong’s vision to grow artificial nature. Her organization, Black Sky Thinking, has projects distributed into three separate designs looking hundred years into the future.

102

Experimental Architecture

CHAPTER 5

An experiment is always a product of one’s dissatisfaction with the scenario she or he is put in. Another possibility that forces to experiment is born out of urgency. Where the idea is never as evolved as it is in the case of dissatisfaction. Once the curiosity of the outcome of the experiment is at a subtle level almost always, the next step is led by the emotion of curiosity down the road of improvement. The greedy nature of humankind pushes the boundaries of that specific experiment. The concept of shoes was invented because humans were unhappy with their feet getting dirty. The radio, apart from the controversy about who invented it, was the ideal solution from discomfort with the wired telegraphs. This tool run by electromagnetic waves is considered the greatest invention of all time, which made to make communication a less complicated process. Looking back at the initial design today does not impress the younger generation, although the design of radio has gone through severe changes over the years and as an outcome of constant innovation, the radio today has matured to remain relevant. Similar to snow axes, the first invention was with the natural materials available, wood and stone, however as time went by the humans understood the sport more delicately and kept improving the equipment with newfound durable materials and the evolved sense of mountain climbing resolving unique emerging issues. Now in unexpected circumstances, unprepared humankind is forced to invent in order to survive the consequence. One has to create the extension to snowshoes out of rope and branches and built temporary shelter out of leaves. In this scenario, the concept of snow boots or shelter is well established. Still, the technique or the resources used to fulfill the requirements to pass the ensemble of the materials as snow boots or shelter is what is considered to be inventory.

5. Forces Of Design

103

Spectrum of global forces

Interlinks

Global warming Air / water / noise pollution

+ Natural disasters

+ Extinction

+ Transit

+ Land scarcity

+ Pollution

+ Natural Resources

Sustainability Industrial waste Recycled materials Eco-friendly materials Extinction

Population/ Density Land scarcity / economical affordability + Unemployment Adaptive reuse

+ War with vernacular

War with vernacular

+ Riots

Migrants / limited resources

+ Unemployment

+ Healthcare

Inequality

+ Riots

+ Unemployment

Greater global connection [digital] Web security Digitalization

+ Riots

+ Digitalization + Urbanization

+ Collaboration

Unemployment Artificial intelligence Greater global connection Fast/ urban lifestyle Urbanization

+ Fast/ urban lifestyle + Digitalization + economical affordability

Transit [ road/ rail / air/ water] Economic instability Collaboration

+ Eco-friendly materials

Healthcare

+ Epidemic/ pandemic

+ Digitalization

Disasters [manmade] Riots [religious / student] War/ refuge Epidemic/ pandemic

+Unemployment

+ Resources economic instability

+ Extensive use of natural resources

+ Economic instability

Accidents [gas /oil leak / nuclear] Disaster [natural] Tsunami / Flood / Cyclone Earthquake Volcano 104 Experimental Architecture

+ Healthcare + Migration + Healthcare

Collaboration

SPECTRUM OF GLOBAL FORCES These global forces are affecting the people around the world, from governments to organizations, to institutions and residents. If not directly they are interlinked with the regional factor of forces, which, combined are impacting the activities in the city, in the scenario where society is already battling with some of the existing forces from the list every day, for example, Mumbai at a city scale is dealing with multiple of these forces at a time, with migrants coming in every day searching for opportunities, resulting in overpopulation and land scarcity. These two together have caused an accelerating rise in the prices of land affecting economic affordability. Now, these issues combined affect several other factors of the city that creates an opportunity in the form of an issue that needs to be solved in order to break the loop for further development of the city. Others are unpleasant accidental guests in the news like natural disasters or manmade disasters which unsettles the situation for every element of the city, state, or the country, whether it the economy, infrastructure, resources, or the residents. These forces, positive or negative are molding the design of our lifestyle, and architects are determined to encounter these factors for a greater good. Each example of the previous chapter declared a unique scenario under which the architect along with the multi-disciplinary experts had to come up with a design, a solution to the issue created by one of the forces. There are primary global forces that trigger the experiment in the discipline, but the secondary forces provide the project with character. The availability of the kind of material, labor along with the environmental factors, temperature, weather, geographical location. The design in the form of a solution would be different in every region due to the local qualities and the resources. Vernacular conditions are equally important in shaping the structure. This is why the projects in the previous chapters by practicing architects are relevant in the current scenario of the world as opposed to the designs proposed by the researchers because their designs aim to solve the issues that might arise in the future. Their designs are based on the current interpretation of the future, where the imagination of secondary forces is usually challenging.

5. Forces Of Design

105

no 1

firm/ organisation

Project

Scale

timespan

Thomas Heatherwick paper House

City Urban

2002

rolling bridge

City Urban

2004

seed cathedral

Temporary global

2010 [demolished]

garden bridge

City Urban

2017

Tower of Silence

Community

2010

villa

Residential

2008

uneven Growth

City urban

2014-2030

arc

Private Institution

2019-2022 [Ongoing]

plast

Global Reseach

2017-2019 [Ongoing]

Index Pavilion

Temporary Global

2011

Blobwall

Personal Research

2005

Vitra chair

Private Organisation 2005

RV room

Private Organisation 2012

ensamble

Snohetta

Greg Lynn

Scape

Living Breakwaters

National

2013 - n

The Living

Bio-processing / bio Fabrication hy-fi Towers

Global Reseach

N/A

Temporary Urban

2007 [Demolished]

Silk Pavalion

Global Reseach

Material Ecology

Global Reseach

[Material] 5000 years N/A

Mediated Matter Lab

Ai Space Factory

Marsha

Global Reseach

5-n Years in Future

Rachel Armstong

Future Venice

National Research

star Ark

Global Reseach

20-50 Years in Future 100 Years in Future

106 Experimental Architecture

Field of collaboration Government Engineer

Primary force Traditional Values Urban furniture

secondary force category of Technological/ force Organic Inconvinience/ Improvement Improvement Tech

Government

Curiosity

Government/ Structure Eng. Local community N/A

Linking the City Land Scarcity Population Industrial Waste MOma Land Scarcity Population Arctic Preser- Digitalisation

Green urban spaces Religios Values

Urban Spaces

vation Storage

DIP DOGA Partner City

Use of Plastic Waste Sustanability Afordability N/A Sustainable material:plastic Private Digital organisation Fabrication Furniture Mobility Experts Government Natural disaster Physicist/ Biologist Ecovative [Firm] MIT glass lab Ecologist MIT glass lab Ecologist NASA Biologists N/A

Alternative Materials

N/A

Design Concept/

Construction

Inconvinience/ N/A Improvement Inconvinience N/A

Concept

Improvement

N/A

concept /

Survival

Tech

Improvement

design/ concept Concept

Inconvinience N/A

Material

Shipment value Improvement Easy Assembly Use of Plastic Curiosity Waste CNC Improvement

Tech

Digital Curiosity Contruction [AI] Improved Urban area: Shore

Category of Innovation Design

Concept

Construction

Tech

Design/ Material Material

Tech

Construction

Tech

Concept

Natural disaster Tech + Bioscience Survival

Computational Improvement Development Bio-Degradable Industrial Waste Improvement materials Technological advance- Improvement Alternative ment with organic

Organic

Design material

Organic: biodegradable materials Organic: bioscience Materials + CNC materials Alternative Digital Inconvinience/ Organic: bioscience + Materials Contruction [AI] Improvement 3D printing Martian exploration Survival Population Technology: 3D Global warming advancement printing Global warming survival Metabolic Tech: Artificial nature/ Materials material metabolism Global warming Artificial Nature Survival Tech: artificial nature

Material Material Material Concept Material Concept

5. Forces Of Design

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FACTORS LEADING TO INNOVATION Extended or rather narrowed down categories of experimentation can be distributed in three categories for architecture. All the projects that are an example of experimental architecture at any scale fall under one of these three criteria. First survival, second, inconvenience, and third curiosity.

1 survival The first kind in this category is where the community or society is at risk, and the invention is the only key to survive that crisis. Rachel Armstrong’s work in the previous chapter is based on the same concept when she is proposing the idea of Starship. Growing nature from bottom up in a gigantic ship in space seems like preparation for a backup plan to save humanity in a scenario where planet earth is no longer habitable due to the accelerating effects of global warming in the coming hundred years. Marsha, a similar example designed by Ai factory in efforts to colonize Mars. The idea many space agencies are working on including NASA and SpaceX. These organizations are aiming to convert the Martian atmosphere into a habitable environment as an alternative. Another kind is where the architects are dealing against a crisis to save the lives, infrastructure with limited resources under a restricted budget. For example, the design by Shigeru Ban for community housing Bhuj, Kutch, after the earthquake hit the city in 2001. His proposal used cheap and locally available materials during the crisis like paper rolls and crates. The most recent example, how architects are pushed to experiment during a disaster like COVID-19. From 3D printing face shields to designing mobile, temporary intensive care units. Italian architects Italo Rota and Carlo Ratti have designed a unit in a shipping container as a unit for intensive care in Milan.

2. Inconvenience or Improvement These experiments are usually not very large on the scale of impact. The experiment is additional detail into an otherwise conventional style of architecture. An introduction of new material to construct a typical design. A new concept or program to be constructed with regular techniques and materials or an exploratory technique to build the ordinary design with discovered materials. Bio-degradable material used by David Benjamin for Hy-fi Towers or use of silk warms to construct silk pavilion by Neri Oxman. The concept of constructing a pedestrian bridge to connect the old city and the new city divided by a river with a garden bridge by Thomas Heatherwick. Or the design of Pompidou center, a slightly new concept of a multicultural center but the groundbreaking technique of construction to provide a column-free structure or the construction process of landscape sculpture designed by studio Ensemble. A design by Sean Ahlquist of Social Sensory Architectures which in fact is an ongoing research project and a great example of how the idea of inventing is not triggered by necessity but a pure inconvenience. The world has many objects helping humans in their everyday life, that one could undoubtedly survive without, nevertheless they are there helping one with the routine, probably making it faster, easier, better and ultimately making the one dependent. Mobile phones for 108 Experimental Architecture

generation Z, the invention, indeed is remarkable and its evolution into what mobile phones have become. An invention responsible for shutting down many businesses, it is not merely a tool for communication anymore. Yet, a child raised in a lower-class family unable to afford a smartphone can function the same without it putting aside his extreme urge to have one. However, These inventions are more criticized as compared to the inventions aiming to help handicaps, Which is the case of Social Sensory Architectures. Sean conceptualized the idea for his daughter, along with the children suffering from autism spectrum disorder. A disorder that impairs the ability to communicate through words. The project revolves around developing the multi-sensory experience for children As a task to build up their skills to interact socially via “the use of advanced textile design, sensing technology and bespoke software, complex textile landscapes are transformed into physically, visually and sonically interactive environments.”[social sensory, 34]

3. Curiosity This category is most detached from the idea of an external force shaping an experiment. The outcome of the experiment may come as a blessing for a problem, but the intention behind the exploratory design is not directed towards solving an issue. The utopian ideas are appreciated by the creators and developed further to satisfy their own curiosity. exploratory design is not directed towards solving an issue. The utopian ideas are appreciated by the creators and developed further to satisfy their own curiosity. The margin for experimentation varies with the project, based on the critical nature of the project’s functionality, along with the scope of architects to be given liberty to deconstruct the orthodox idea of the concept. Even the most disastrous forces have gifted the world with inspiring innovations for future, inspirational ideas that continued to develop until it was constructed with the advanced technology, to its maximum potential. An idea in the form of seed is planted by the triggering force, which after undergoing years of rigorous attention and scarification, serves its fruit in the form of a matured experiment.

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Bibliography chapter 1 1. Bennett, Jill. “materialthinking.” May 2012. document . 7 02 2020. 2.Burger, Peter, and Jochen Schulte-Sasse. Theory of the Avant-Garde. University of Minnesota Press, 1994. 3.Poggioli, Renato. The Theory of the Avant-Garde. The Belknap Press, 1968. 4. Thomas, Jean Jacques, and Melodia E. Jones Chair. “Avant-Garde.” The Concept of “Avant-Garde” [Vanguard] Is Quintessentially French for Three Reasons 5. Webber, Andrew. The European Avant-Garde 1900-1940. Polity Press, 2004. 6. White, Anthony. Italian Modern Art in the Age of Fascism. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, New York, 2019. Copyright. Routledge Research in Art and Politics., 2020. 7. Tate. “‘Yellow Islands’, Jackson Pollock, 1952.” Tate, 1 Jan. 1970, www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/pollock-yellow-islands-t00436. 8. Tate. “‘Fountain’, Marcel Duchamp, 1917, Replica 1964.” Tate, www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/duchamp-fountain-t07573. 9. Tate. “‘3rd Action’, Rudolf Schwarzkogler, 1965, Printed Early 1970s.” Tate, www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/ schwarzkogler-3rd-action-t11848. 10.Lista, Giovanni. Futurism. Universe Books, 1986. 11. Conrad, Sydney Kellen. “Futurism and Propaganda: Manifestos, Theatres, and Magazines.” FUTURISM AND PROPAGANDA, Thesis / Dissertation ETD, 2016, cdr.lib.unc.edu. 12. Pare, and Cohen. The Lost Vanguard: Russian Modernist Architecture 1922-1932. Monacelli Press, 2007. 13.“Russian Avant-Garde Art and Architecture.” Russian Avant-Garde Art and Architecture, by Catherine Cooke, Academy Editions and Architectural Design, 1983 14. Cohen, Ester, et al. Futurism. 5 Continents Editions; First Edition, 2009.

chapter 2 1. Dupain, Max. “Museum of Applied Arts & Sciences.” Museum of Applied Arts & Sciences, collection.maas.museum/object/352010. 2. merl. “MUSEUM OF THE INTANGIBLE.” The MERL, merl.reading.ac.uk/merl-collections/research-projects/ museum-intangible/. 3. Cook, Peter. Experimental Architecture 1970. Universe Books, 1970. 4. Cook, Peter. Architecture: Action and Plan. Studio Vista, 1969. 5. Woods, Lebbeus, and Clare Jacobson. Slow Manifesto Lebbeus Woods Blog. Princeton Architectural Press, 2015. 6. Myers, Tracy, et al. Lebbeus Woods: Experimental Architecture. Carnegie Museum of Art, The Heinz Architectural Center, 2004. 7. Becker, Joseph, and Jennifer Dunlop Fletcher. Lebbeus Woods: Architect. New York, NY, 2014. 8. “THE VAGRANT LIGHT OF STARS.” LEBBEUS WOODS, 27 Sept. 2009, lebbeuswoods.wordpress. com/2009/09/27/the-vagrant-light-of-stars/. 9. Cook, Peter. Archigram. Princeton Architectural Press, 1999.

chapter 3 1. Caramel, Luciano, et al. Antonio Sant’Elia: the Complete Works. Rizzoli, 1988. 2.Enger, Reed. “The Power Plant,1914.” Obelisk, arthistoryproject.com/artists/antonio-santelia/. 3. Cramer , Dr Charles, and Dr Kim Grant . “Tatlin and an Assistant Withthe Monument to the Third International in Moscow, 1920.” Smarthistory, 28 Sept. 2019, smarthistory.org/tatlin-tower/. 4.Tatlin, Vladimir. “The Monument to the Third International.” Smarthistory, 28 Sept. 2019, smarthistory.org/ tatlin-tower/.

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5.Fuller , Buckminister. “The Dymaxion House.” Archdaily, www.archdaily.com/401528/ad-classics-the-dymaxion-house-buckminster-fuller/51f0500ee8e44e94e500013a-ad-classics-the-dymaxion-house-buckminsterfuller-image. 6. Fuller, R. Buckminster. “R. Buckminster Fuller. Dymaxion House Project (Plan). c. 1927: MoMA.” The Museum of Modern Art, www.moma.org/collection/works/805. 7. “About Fuller.” Dymaxion House | The Buckminster Fuller Institute, 1 Jan. 1970, www.bfi.org/about-fuller/bigideas/dymaxion-world/dymaxion-house. 8.“History.” Sydney Opera House, www.sydneyoperahouse.com/our-story/sydney-opera-house-history.html. 9. Andersen, Michael Asgaard. Jørn Utzon: Drawings and Buildings. Princeton Architectural Press, 2014. 10. “Frei Otto. Casabella 301 1966: 35.” SIXTEN SASON IN WONDERLAND, RNDRD.COM, 11AD, sixtensason.tumblr.com/post/113297401623/frei-otto-casabella-301-1966-35. 11. “✅ Munich Olympic Stadium - Data, Photos & Plans.” WikiArquitectura, en.wikiarquitectura.com/building/ munich-olympic-stadium/#. 12. “✅ Nagakin Capsule Tower - Data, Photos & Plans.” WikiArquitectura, en.wikiarquitectura.com/building/nagakin-capsule-tower/#. 13. Sveiven, Megan. “AD Classics: Nakagin Capsule Tower / Kisho Kurokawa.” ArchDaily, ArchDaily, 9 Feb. 2011, www.archdaily.com/110745/ad-classics-nakagin-capsule-tower-kisho-kurokawa. 14. “Home.” The Building – Centre Pompidou, www.centrepompidou.fr/en/The-Centre-Pompidou/The-Building. 15. “Centre Georges Pompidou.” Fondazione, 29 Nov. 2019, www.fondazionerenzopiano.org/it/project/centre-georges-pompidou/. 16. “✅ Eden Project - Data, Photos & Plans.” WikiArquitectura, en.wikiarquitectura.com/building/eden-project/#. 17. “Timeline.” Eden Project, www.edenproject.com/eden-story/eden-timeline. 18. “George Pompidou Interview | Common Market | French Elections | This Week | 1969.” YouTube, 2018, www.youtube.com/watch?v=I17Ut9ZBNGM&t=297s. 19. “Frei Paul Otto and the Munich Olympic Stadium, Tensile Structures, Architecture in the 20th Century.” YouTube, May 2016, www.youtube.com/watch?v=gcHFwu_rDtw. 20. Dirksen, Kirsten, Nakagin: 140 Plug n’ Play Capsules Float in Metabolist Tower. YouTube, 2015, www.youtube. com/watch?v=sXRJE2caPNY&t=550s. 21. “BibliOdyssey.” BibliOdyssey, 16 Aug. 2010, bibliodyssey.blogspot.com/2010/08/nuns-scrum.html?m=1. 22. “CATHEDRA PEDEMONTE.” CATHEDRA PEDEMONTE, 2008, gonzalezpedemonte3.blogspot.com/2011/09/ de-cascaras-y-estructuras.html?m=1. 23. Chowdhury, Ruru. “The Munich Olympic Stadium: A Glittering Slice of History.” Sports News, Sportskeeda, 16 May 2014, www.sportskeeda.com/sports/munich-olympic-stadium.

chapter 4.1 1. “Heatherwick Studio: Design & Architecture.” Heatherwick Studio | Design & Architecture, www.heatherwick. com/. 2. Heatherwick , Thomas, director. Designing the Extraordinary with Heatherwick Studio. YouTube, 2019, www. youtube.com/watch?v=07qHWV4VsMM. 3. “Ensamble Studio News.” Ensamble, www.ensamble.info/. 4. Mesa, Débora, director. Ensamble Studio: On/Site – Off/Site. YouTube, Apr. 2018, www.youtube.com/ watch?v=9OBpaUoxmsw&t=5023s. 5.“Ensamble Studio Uneven Growth.” Ensamble, 2014, www.ensamble.info/unevengrowth. 6. “Snøhetta.” Snøhetta, snohetta.com/. 7. Snøhetta, director. 2016 Architecture Innovator. YouTube, 2016, www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf6bt5G4DFE. 8.Snøhetta, director. Learn to Approach Design with Empathy. YouTube, 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-4USfCirF8&t=705s. 9.GREG LYNN FORM, glform.com/.

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10. “How Calculus Is Changing Architecture.” Performance by Greg Lynn, YouTube, 2009, www.youtube.com/ watch?v=DeyzUysMLy0&t=1015s. 11. “Carbon Dating.” Performance by Greg Lynn, YouTube, 2014, www.youtube.com/watchfRQq8WtWk&t=2214s.

chapter 4.2 1. SCAPE. “Living Breakwaters: Design and Implementation.” SCAPE, www.scapestudio.com/projects/living-breakwaters-design-implementation/. 2.SCAPE. “NY: Living Breakwaters.” Rebuild by Design, www.rebuildbydesign.org/our-work/all-proposals/winning-projects/ny-living-breakwaters. 3. “Hy-Fi Towers.” The Living, www.thelivingnewyork.com/. 4. Rosenfield, Karissa. “The Living Wins P.S.1 with Compostable Brick Tower.” ArchDaily, ArchDaily, 5 Feb. 2014, www.archdaily.com/473947/the-living-wins-p-s-1-with-compostable-brick-tower?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_all. 5. Oxman, Neri. “Neri Oxman.” Neri Oxman, neri.media.mit.edu/. 6. Cogley, Bridget. “Neri Oxman’s Body of Work Displayed in MoMA Exhibition Material Ecology.” Dezeen, 24 Mar. 2020, www.dezeen.com/2020/03/04/neri-oxman-material-ecology-moma-exhibit/. 7. AI SpaceFactory. “MARSHA AI SpaceFactory.” AI SpaceFactory, www.aispacefactory.com/marsha. 8. Hitti, Natashah. “NASA Announces Winning Designs of 3D-Printed Habitat for Mars.” Dezeen, 27 July 2018, www.dezeen.com/2018/07/27/nasa-announces-winners-3d-habitat-centennial-challenge-competition-printed-habitat-mars/. 9. Etherington, Rose. “Hylozoic Ground by Philip Beesley.” Dezeen, 4 Nov. 2016, www.dezeen.com/2010/08/27/ hylozoic-ground-by-philip-beesley/. 10. Armstrong, Rachel. “The Home for Black Sky Thinking.” The Home for Black Sky Thinking, www.blackskythinking.org/.

chapter 5 1. Ahlquist, Sean. “Social Sensory.” Lab for Material Architectures, Squarespace, www.materialarchitectures.com/ social-sensory. 2. Harrouk, Christele. “Alternative Healthcare Facilities: Architects Mobilize Their Creativity in Fight against COVID-19.” ArchDaily, ArchDaily, 28 May 2020, www.archdaily.com/937840/alternative-healthcare-facilities-architects-mobilize-their-creativity-in-fight-against-covid-19.

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List of figures chapter 1 1.1 Whoever Reads Bourgeois Newspapers Becomes Blind and Deaf 1930, John Heartfield, Heartfield, John. Whoever Reads Bourgeois Newspapers Becomes Blind and Deaf. Artists Rights Society, 1930, New York, www.getty.edu/art/exhibitions/heartfield/whoever_reads_zm.html. 1. 2 Kleinwelt, 1914. Paul Klee Klee, Paul. “ Kleinwelt .” MoMA, Verlag Gustav Kiepenheuer, Weimar, 1914, www.moma.org/collection/works/68495. 1.3 Jackson Pollock Tate. “Avant-Garde – Art Term.” Tate, www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/a/avant-garde. 1. 4 3rd Action, Rudolf Schwarzkogler Schwarzkogler, Rudolf. “3rd Action.” Tate, www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/schwarzkogler-3rd-action-t11848. 1. 5 Dogville,2003. Daniel Portilla Portilla, Daniel. “Dogville.” Archdaily , 2013, www.archdaily.com/375095/films-and-architecture-dogville.

1. 6 Futurismo Cover, 1909. Marinetti, F T

Marinetti, F T. “Futurismo Cover .” MoMA, 1909, www.moma.org/interactives/exhibitions/2009/futurism/.

1. 7 Self Portrait with Skulls, 1909. Luigi Russolo

Russolo, Luigi. “Self Portrait with Skulls.” ArtWiki, 1909, www.wikiart.org/en/luigi-russolo

1.8/1.9 Unique Forms of Continuity in Space, 1913. Boccioni, Umberto

Boccioni, Umberto. “Unique Forms of Continuity in Space.” The Met , 1913, www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/ search/485540.

1. 10 House and Apartments VII, Pisa. 1915. Mario Chiattone

Chiattone, Mario. House and Apartments VII, Pisa. 1915, 1995-2015.undo.net/it/magazines/1072116029.

1. 11 Cathedral VI. 1914. Mario Chiattone

Chiattone, Mario. Cathedral VI. 1914, 1995-2015.undo.net/it/magazines/1072116029.

1. 12. The Lenin Institute,1927. Ivan Leonidov

Leonidov, Ivan. “The Lenin Institute,1927.” The Charnel-House, thecharnelhouse.org/2014/03/21/ivan-leonidovs-proposal-for-the-lenin-institute-in-moscow-1927/. 1. 13. Lighthouse,1922. Andrei Burov Burov, Andrei. “Lighthouse, .” Interior Design, 1922, www.interiordesign.net/slideshows/detail/8416-revolution-by-design/.

chapter 2 Peter Cook 2.1 Montreal Tower, 1963. Peter Cook Cook, Peter. “Montreal Tower.” EKA, 1963, www.artun.ee/en/calendar/open-lecture-on-architecture-sir-peter-cook/. 2.2 Medina Circle Towers, Tel Aviv, Israel. 1997. Peter Cook Cook, Peter, and Prudene Cuming Associates Limited. Medina Circle Towers, Tel Aviv, Israel. 1997, Royal Academy of Arts , London, www.bmiaa.com/peter-cook-retrospective-drawings/.

chapter 2 Lebbues Woods 2.3/2.4.Solohouse. Lebbues Woods Woods, Lebbeus. “SOLOHOUSE @ 20.” LEBBEUS WOODS, lebbeuswoods.wordpress.com/2008/12/01/solohouse-20/. 2.5/2.6. The Vagrant Light Of Stars, Lebbues Woods Woods, Lebbeus. “The Vagrant Light Of Stars.” Wordpress, 1980, lebbeuswoods.wordpress.com/2009/09/27/thevagrant-light-of-stars/. 2.7/2.8 City of Fire. Lebbues Woods Woods, Lebbeus. “City of Fire.” Wordpress, lebbeuswoods.wordpress.com/2009/09/27/the-vagrant-light-of-stars/.

chapter 2 Archigram 2.9 The Walking City. Ron Herron. Herron, Ron. “The Walking City.” MoMA, 2013, www.moma.org/collection/works/814. 2.10. Plug-In_City, Peter Cook Archigram. “Plug-In_City.” Archigram , 2013, www.archigram.net/portfolio.html.

chapter 3 3.1 European Industrial Revolution _1840 Rebecca Beatrice Brooks () Lancashire cotton mill, steam powered weaving shed, British History, circa 1914, /historyofmassachusetts.org/where-industrial-revolution-take-place/ (Accessed: 10th september 2020).

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List of figures 3.2 European Railnetwork Increase _1830-1870 (2020) Festival of Calais (1848) – Priests Bless the Railway Engine, europeanrailroads.blogs.wm.edu/briefhistory-of-railroads-in-europe/ (Accessed: 10th september 2020). 3.3Italian Industrial Revolution _1897-1913 (2011) The Industrial Revolution:,sarapanisuks.blogspot.com/2010/10/interchangeable-parts-industrial.html (Accessed: 10th september 2020). 3.4 Giovanni Agnell founded FIAT works _1899 Valerio Castronovo () Giovanni Agnelli - La Fiat dal 1899 al 1945, Available at: https://www.amazon.com/Giovanni-Agnelli-Fiat-1899-1945/dp/B005WKQXNG (Accessed: 10th september 2020). 3.5 Introduction to Futurism_1909 () Filippo Tommaso Marinetti (1876-1944), Available at: http://www.magnoliabox.com/art/339295/the-writer-filippo-tommaso-marinetti, Public Domain, (Accessed: 10th september 2020). 3.6 Milan Air-show International_1910 (2020) Milan 1910 International Air Show Aviation Airplane Flight over Cathedral Italy, Available at: https://www.etsy. com/listing/713621233/milan-1910-international-air-show (Accessed: 10th september 2020). 3.7 Futurism dealing with Italian Fasicm Central panel of triptych Fascist Synthesis by Alessandro Bruschetti. hiddencause.wordpress.com/2014/08/02/italian-futurism-from-cubism-in-motion-to-fascisms-official-style/ (Accessed: 10th september 2020). 3.8 Great Steel Industry Milan Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University () Monza Cemetery. 1912,cccarchitecture.org/antonio-santelia (Accessed: 10th september 2020). 3.9 Antonio Sant’Elia on Futurism_1913 “The Early 20th Century.” You Are Being Redirected..., www.schenckprocess.com/company/history/the-early-20th-century. 3.10/3.12 The Power Plant,1914. Antonio Sant’eila Enger, Reed. “The Power Plant,1914.” Obelisk, arthistoryproject.com/artists/antonio-santelia/. 3.11 La citta nuova Air and Train Station. Antonio Sant’eila Enger, Reed. “Air and Train Station with Funiculars, 1914.” Obelisk, arthistoryproject.com/artists/antonio-santelia/.

chapter 3 :Tatlin tower 3.13 Bolshevik Revolution Communism’, Nikolskaya street, Moscow, wikimedia commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=73535252 (Accessed: 7th february 2020). 3.14 Russian Futurism Menifesto_1912 El Lissitzky (2020) Victory Over the Sun, Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=46015431 (Accessed: 7th february 2020). 3.15 Faktura_1914 Henryk Berlewi () Mechano-Faktura, 1924, Available at: https://moniquelacey.wordpress.com/2016/11/09/on-faktura/ (Accessed: 7th february 2020). 3.16 0,10 Exhibition_1915 van (Jean) Albertovich Puni (2020) The last futurist exhibition of paintings 0,10, Available at: https://arthive.com/ artists/444~Ivan_Jean_Albertovich_Puni/works/406340~The_last_futurist_exhibition_of_paintings_010 (Accessed: 7th february 2020). 3.17 Influence on Cinema Nikolai Prusakov and Grigori Borisov () Puteshestvie na Mars (Journey to Mars), Available at: https://www.rbth.com/ arts/327386-soviet-avant-garde-film-posters (Accessed: 7th february 2020). 3.18 Military revolution committee Marx Memorial Library (MML) () SOVIET_UNION_1917_REVOLUTION+CIVIL_WAR_PERIOD, Available at: http://russianrevolution.marx-memorial-library.org.uk/mml-petrograd-military-rev-committee/ (Accessed: 7th february 2020). 3.1/Tatlin tower, 1920. vladimir Tatlin Cramer , Dr Charles, and Dr Kim Grant . “Tatlin and an Assistant Withthe Monument to the Third International in Moscow, 1920.” Smarthistory, 28 Sept. 2019, smarthistory.org/tatlin-tower/. 3.20 Tatlin tower, 1920. vladimir Tatlin Tatlin, Vladimir. “The Monument to the Third International.” Smarthistory, Sept. 2019, smarthistory.org/tatlin-tower/. 3.21 The Russian Experiment, 1919. vladimir Tatlin Tatlin,Vladimir ,Grey, Camilla (1986). The Russian Experiment in Art. London: Thames & Hudson.

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List of figures chapter 3 :Dymaxion House 3.22 World War I Samantha Glass (2020) , Available at: http://tyglobalist.org/in-the-magazine/theme/trench-art/ (Accessed: 11th september 2020). 3.23 Extreme Weather condition for soldiers Erik sass () November 27-30, 1915: Huge Storm Lashes Gallipoli, Available at: https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/71794/wwi-centennial-huge-storm-lashes-gallipoli (Accessed: 11th september 2020). 3.24 Transportation during WWI Mark Whitmore (2020) , Available at: https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/transport-and-supply-during-the-first- worldwar (Accessed: 11th september 2020). 3.25-3.28 The Dymaxion House. Buckminister fuller Fuller , Buckminister. “The Dymaxion House.” Archdaily, www.archdaily.com/401528/ad-classics-the-dymaxionhouse-buckminster-fuller/51f0500ee8e44e94e500013a-ad-classics-the-dymaxion-house-buckminster-fuller-image. 3.29 The Dymaxion House. Buckminister fuller Baldwin, j. “About Fuller.” Dymaxion House | The Buckminster Fuller Institute, 1 Jan. 1970, www.bfi.org/about-fuller/ big-ideas/dymaxion-world/dymaxion-house.

chapter 3 :Sydney Opera House 3.30 Australia after the Great War unknown, Available at: http://www.naa.gov.au/whats-on/online/showcases/memory/queen-inspecting-sheep.aspx (Accessed: 4th February 2020). 3.31 European Immigrants in Australia National Archives of Australia () Commonwealth of Australia, Available at: http://naa12.naa.gov.au/scripts/PhotoSearchItemDetail.asp?M=0&B=8318052&SE=1 (Accessed: 4th February 2020). 3.32 Portrait of Mr. Cahil J. ( 2017) Mr J J Cahill, Premier of New South Wales., Available at: https://images.findagrave.com/photos/2016/252/169643879_1473436210.jpg (Accessed: 4th February 2020). 3.33/3.34/3.35 Site/ Competition announcement Sydney opera house, Available at: https://www.sydneyoperahouse.com/ (Accessed: 4th February 2020). 3.36 Construction of Sydney Opera House “History.” Sydney Opera House, www.sydneyoperahouse.com/our-story/sydney-opera-house-history.html. 3.37 Construction of Sydney Opera House Dupain, Max. “Museum of Applied Arts & Sciences.” Museum of Applied Arts & Sciences, collection.maas. museum/object/352010. 3.38 Construction of Sydney Opera House “BibliOdyssey.” BibliOdyssey, 16 Aug. 2010, bibliodyssey.blogspot.com/2010/08/nuns-scrum.html?m=1. 3.39 Construction of Sydney Opera House “CATHEDRA PEDEMONTE.” CATHEDRA PEDEMONTE, 2008, gonzalezpedemonte3.blogspot.com/2011/09/de-cascaras-y-estructuras.html?m=1. 3.40/3.41 The yello book, Sydney Opera House drawings Sydney opera house, Available at: https://www.sydneyoperahouse.com/ (Accessed: 4th February 2020).

chapter 3 : Munich Olympic Stadium 3.42 Depression caused by WWI Adam Augustyn ( 2020) Nazi parade in Munich, c. 1930s., Available at: https://www.britannica.com/event/Nazism (Accessed: 5th February 2020). 3.43 WWII destroyed the idea of a Stadium Nara ( 2011) Raising a flag over the Reichstag by Yevgeny Khaldei, Available at: https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2011/10/world-war-ii-the-fall-of-nazi-germany/100166/ (Accessed: 5th February 2020). 3.44 Grunwalder stadion destroyed in war (2020) The Grünwald stadium, Available at: https://fcbayern.com/de/club/historie/spielstatten/das-grunwalder-stadion (Accessed: 5th February 2020). 3.45 Postwar “Goldenage for Football” in Germany Matthew evans ( 2018) , Available at: https://thesefootballtimes.co/2018/03/15/fritz-walter-the-icon-who-unitedgermany-after-world-war-two/ (Accessed: 5th February 2020)

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List of figures 3.46 Munich with two bundesliga teams ( ) Bayern Munich v Argentine Racing Club, December 1966, Available at: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/History_of_ FC_Bayern_Munich (Accessed: 5th February 2020). 3.47 Bombing sites during 1968-1972 taken as pit for foundation Alamy Stock Photo (2020) Germany, Munich, Olympic area, Olympic Stadium, construction site, February 1970, Available at: https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-geography-travel-germany-munich-olympic-area-olympic-stadium-construction-48321216.html (Accessed: 5th February 2020). 3.48 Lack of urban areas in the city BMIAA (2018) Frei Otto’s Olympia Stadion Munich model, Available at: https://www.bmiaa.com/arches-shells-domesroofs-and-their-engineers-at-the-fifth-view-exhibition/8c415154a00951064930edc24a84e496/ (Accessed: 5th February 2020). 3.49 Competition announced for the stadium The Aleppo Project (2015) , Available at: https://www.thealeppoproject.com/how-did-germany-rebuild-after-worldwar-ii/ (Accessed: 5th February 2020). 3.50 Orders to avoid monumentality Evonik Industries AG, Konzernarchiv Hanau (2019) , Available at: https://www.world-of-plexiglas.com/en/olympic-stadium-munich-plexiglas-tent-roof/ (Accessed: 5th February 2020). 3.51 Casabella, Frei Otto Frei Otto. Casabella 301 1966: 35.” SIXTEN SASON IN WONDERLAND, RNDRD.COM, 11AD, sixtensason.tumblr.com/ post/113297401623/frei-otto-casabella-301-1966-35. 3.52/3.53/3.54 Details of Munich Olympic Stadium “✅ Munich Olympic Stadium - Data, Photos & Plans.” WikiArquitectura, en.wikiarquitectura.com/building/munich-olympic-stadium/#. 3.55 Casabella, Frei Otto “Frei Otto.” Cassiopeia, wiki.ead.pucv.cl/Archivo:Otto-09.jpg.

chapter 3 :Nagasaki Capsule tower 3.56 World Design conference_1960 () World design conference in Tokyo 1960, Available at: https://i.pinimg.com/originals/1a/22/00/1a22005d99c1153f04b4d07c15ebbc26.png (Accessed: 7th february 2020). 3.57 Material man/Floating City/Tokyo Bay Meike Schalk (2020) Tokyo Bay (1960), Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Kenzo-Tange-Tokyo-Bay1960-with-Kisho-Kurokawa-and-Arata-Isozaki-reproduced-from_fig2_269514880 (Accessed: 7th february 2020). 3.58 C.I.A.M & Tests by Kenzo Tange at MIT Peter L. Laurence (2020) The Death of CIAM, Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Death-of-CIAMat-the-last-CIAM-meeting-Otterlo-Holland-1959-Peter-Smithson_fig1_292055251 (Accessed: 7th february 2020). 3.59 Expo ‘70 Osaka Richards, Sir James Maude, Architectural Press Archive / RIBA Collections (2020) Toshiba IHI Pavilion, Expo’70, Osaka, Available at: https://www.architecture.com/image-library/ribapix/image-information/poster/toshiba-ihi-pavilion-expo%C3%A2%E2%84%A270-osaka/posterid/RIBA24128.html (Accessed: 7th february 2020). 3.60 Spread of Metabolism María Francisca González (2020) The City in the Air by Arata Isozaki, Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/912738/ the-city-in-the-air-by-arata-isozaki (Accessed: 7th february 2020). 3.61 Linked to Archigram Marx Memorial Library (MML) () SOVIET_UNION_1917_REVOLUTION+CIVIL_WAR_PERIOD, Available at: http://russianrevolution.marx-memorial-library.org.uk/mml-petrograd-military-rev-committee/ (Accessed: 7th february 2020). 3.62-3.64 Construction Photos Kurokawa, Kisho. “Nagakin Capsule Tower.” Wikiarquitectura, en.wikiarquitectura.com/building/nagakin-capsule-tower/#. 3.65/ 3.66 Drawings of Nagasaki capsule towers, Kisho Kurokawa Kurokawa, Kisho. “Nagakin Capsule Tower.” Wikiarquitectura, en.wikiarquitectura.com/building/nagakin-capsule-tower/#.

chapter 3 : The Centre Pompidou 3.67 Expo 67 Posokhin, M., et al. “Expo 67 USSR Pavilion.” Hidden Architecture, 28 May 2019, hiddenarchitecture.net/expo-67-ussr-pavilion/.

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List of figures 3.68 May ‘68, Student Riots Getty Images (2018) night of barricades, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/05/world/europe/france-may-1968-revolution.html (Accessed: 5th february 2020). 3.69 May 1968 Rubin, Alissa J., et al. “May 1968: A Month of Revolution Pushed France Into the Modern World.” The New York Times , May 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/05/05/world/europe/france-may-1968-revolution.html. 3.70 Charles De Gaulle’s Retirement Ad Absurdum (2015) January 1943, Available at: https://es.paperblog.com/duros-de-matar-3-charles-degaulle-3124653/ (Accessed: 5th february 2020). 3.71 Parking in Downtown Vancouver Gordon Price (2013) Parking in Downtown Vancouver – 1966, Available at: https://pricetags.ca/2013/03/26/parking-in-downtown-vancouver-1966/ (Accessed: 5th february 2020). 3.72 Competition jury JASSIN / SIPA (2020) Parking in Downtown Vancouver – 1966, Available at: https://1001infos.net/france/journees-de-larchitecture-pourquoi-le-centre-pompidou-incarne-toujours-le-batiment-contemporain-par-excellence/ (Accessed: 5th february 2020). 3.73-3.76 Construction photos Centre Georges Pompidou.” Fondazione Renzo Piano, www.fondazionerenzopiano.org/it/project/centre-georges-pompidou/#section-images. 3.77 Centre Pompidou, Section Piano, Renzo, and Richard Rogers . “Centre Pompidou.” Curbed , 2017, www.curbed.com/2017/1/23/14365014/centre-pompidou-paris-museum-renzo-piano-richard-rogers.

chapter 3 : HSBC Building 3.78 First building_1865-1882 1st Generation Hong Kong HSBC Building. wikipedia. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSBC_Building_(Hong_Kong)#/media/ File:1st_Generation_Hong_Kong_HSBC_Building. 3.79 Second building_1883-1935 Rue, Henry. The Second Design of the HSBC Headquarters Building. wikipedia 17 July 2013, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ HSBC_Building_(Hong_Kong)#/media/File:HSBC_HQ_1901.jpg. 3.80 Third building_1935-1978 Clithering. The Third Design of the HSBC Headquarters, wikipedia. 29 July 2010, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSBC_Building_(Hong_Kong)#/media/File:HSBC_1936.jpg. 3.81 The Feng Shui Compass, Philosophy of Feng Shui “The Feng Shui Compass.” Best Pin , 6 July 2019, bestpin.martimm.com/2019/07/06/the-feng-shui-compass/. 3.82 Tourism promotion Alecse. “Panorama Hong Kong .” My Retro Poster , myretroposter.com/products/panorama-hong-kong. 3.83 Competition entry for contemporary building “HSBC Building.” Foster+Partners , www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/hongkong-and-shanghai-bank-headquarters/#drawings. 3.84-3.88 Hongkong and Shanghai Bank Headquarters Foster+Partners. “Hongkong and Shanghai Bank Headquarters.” Foster+Partners , 1979, www.fosterandpartners.com/ projects/hongkong-and-shanghai-bank-headquarters/#construction

chapter 3 : The Eden Project 3.89 Restoration of the Lost Gardens of Heligan “Jungle Gardens.” The Lost Gardens of Heligan, www.heligan.com/explore/gardens. 3.90/3.91/3.93/3.94 Sustainability and charity and house thousands of species, The Eden Project “Geothermal Power Plant.” Eden Project , www.edenproject.com/eden-story/behind-the-scenes/eden-deep-geothermal-energy-project. 3.92 James baldwin’s pillow dome Baldwin, James, and Alastair Gordon . “Pillow Dome.” The Architect’s Newspaper , 12 Apr. 2018, archpaper. com/2018/04/remembering-jay-baldwin/. 3.95-3.98 Drawinds of The Eden Project Grimshaw, Nicholas. “Eden Project.” Wikiarquitectura, en.wikiarquitectura.com/building/eden-project/#.4. Baldwin, James, and Alastair Gordon . “Pillow Dome.” The Architect’s Newspaper , 12 Apr. 2018, archpaper. com/2018/04/remembering-jay-baldwin/.

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List of figures 3.99 The Eden Project Grimshaw, Nicholas. “Eden Project.” Wikiarquitectura, en.wikiarquitectura.com/building/eden-project/#.4. Baldwin, James, and Alastair Gordon . “Pillow Dome.” The Architect’s Newspaper , 12 Apr. 2018, archpaper. com/2018/04/remembering-jay-baldwin/.

chapter 3 : Alejando Arevana 3.100 Earthquake and Tsunami hit Chile Servicio Hidrográfico y Oceanográfico de la Armada de Chile. “Damage Assessment Being Conducted.” National Centers for Environmental Information, 2016, www.ngdc.noaa.gov/ngdc.html. 3.101 Public Voting IANS. “Chileans to Vote.” The Statesman, Dec. 2019, www.thestatesman.com/world/chileans-vote-april-drafting-new-constitution-1502838290.html. 3.102 Rebuilding After Earthquake Garcias, Daniel, and AFP/Getty Images. “Chile Earthquake; Concepción.” ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, www.britannica.com/event/Chile-earthquake-of-2010/Reconstruction. 3.103 Streets in and around the City Rodas, Rafael L. Valladares. “Streets in and around the City.” The City Fix, June 2019, thecityfix.com/blog/hondurasjoins-global-movement-make-public-space-work-better-people-anna-marie-walter-pineda/. 3.104 Victims of the Tsunami Radio Duna. “Victims of the Tsunami.” Duna, 2017, www.duna.cl/noticias/2017/01/18/corte-confirma-que-el-estado-debera-indemnizar-a-familiares-de-victimas-del-27-f/. 3.105 Post-Tsunami Sustainable Reconstruction Plan of Constitución Elemental. “Post-Tsunami Sustainable Reconstruction Plan of Constitución.” Architect Magazine, 13 Jan. 2016, www. architectmagazine.com/project-gallery/post-tsunami-sustainable-reconstruction-plan-of-constitucion_o. 3.106 -3.109Sustainable Post-Tsunami Reconstruction Master Plan Aravena, Alejandro, and Víctor Oddó. “Sustainable Post-Tsunami Reconstruction Master Plan.” Lafarge Holcim Foundation, 2011, www.lafargeholcim-foundation.org/projects/sustainable-post-tsunami-reconstruction-master-plan.

chapter 4.1 : Studio Heatherwick 4.1.1/4.1.3 Paper House Studio Heatherwick. “Paper House .” Heatherwick, www.heatherwick.com/projects/buildings/. 4.1.2/4.1.4 Rolling Bridge Studio Heatherwick. “Rolling Bridge .” Heatherwick, www.heatherwick.com/projects/buildings/. 4.1.5 Seed Cathedral, Shanghai Expo 2010 Studio Heatherwick. “Seed Cathedral.” Heatherwick, www.heatherwick.com/projects/buildings/. 4.1.6. Seed Cathedral, Shanghai Expo 2010 Studio Heatherwick, and Daniele Mattioli. “Seed Cathedral .” Archdaily , www.archdaily.com/58591/uk-pavilion-forshanghai-world-expo-2010-heatherwick-studio/ukpavilionsh0068. 4.1.7 Garden Bridge, London Studio Heatherwick. “Garden Bridge.” Heatherwick, www.heatherwick.com/projects/buildings/. 4.1.8 Tower of Silence, Mumbai Studio Heatherwick. “Tower of Silence.” Heatherwick, www.heatherwick.com/projects/buildings/.

chapter 4.1 : ENSAMBLE STUDIO 4.1.9 Uneven Growth Studio Ensemble. “Uneven Growth .” Ensamble, 2014, www.ensamble.info/unevengrowth. 4.1.10 Hemeroscopium House ENSAMBLE STUDIO. “Hemeroscopium House .” Archdaily , 2008, www.archdaily.com/16598/hemeroscopium-house-ensamble-studio?ad_medium=gallery. 4.1.11-4.1.19 Sculpture of Landscape ENSAMBLE STUDIO, director. ENSAMBLE STUDIO STRUCTURES OF LANDSCAPE TIPPET RISE 05 2016. YouTube, 2016, www.youtube.com/watch?v=HfnXmmVitDk.

chapter 4.1 : Snøhetta 4.1.20 The Arc Snøhetta. “The Arc ,2019-2022.” Snøhetta, snohetta.com/projects/469-the-arc-a-visitor-center-for-arctic-preservation-storage-in-svalbard.

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List of figures 4.1.20 Plast “Plast 2017-2019.” Snohetta, snohetta.com/project/403-plast.

chapter 4.1 : FORM 4.1.21 Index Pavallion Lynn, Greg. “INDEX AWARD PAVILIONS:.” GREG LYNN FORM, 2011, glform.com/environments/. 4.1.22 Blobwall Lynn, Greg. “BLOBWALL:.” GREG LYNN FORM, 2005, glform.com/environments/. 4.1.24 Fountain number 2 Lynn, Greg. “FOUNTAIN NO.2, 2011.” GREG LYNN FORM, 2011, glform.com/environments/fountain-no-2/. 4.1.25 Vitra Chair Lynn, Greg, and Vitra. “Ravioli.” Bonluxat, www.bonluxat.com/a/greg_lynn_ravioli_chair.htm 4.1.26 Alessi tea towers/4.1.27 tensile Chair/4.1.28 Chair By FORM/4.1.29 RV Room FORM. GREG LYNN FORM, glform.com/.

chapter 4.2 : SCAPE 4.2.1 - 4.2.7 Living Breakwaters: Design and Implementation SCAPE. “Living Breakwaters: Design and Implementation.” SCAPE , 2014, Staten Island, NY, scapestudio.wpengine. com/projects/living-breakwaters-design-implementation/.

chapter 4.2 : THE LIVING 4.2.8/4.2.9 Bio-Processing. The Living. “Bio-Processing.” The Living , www.thelivingnewyork.com/. 4.2.10/4.2.11 Bio Fabrication The Living. “ Bio Fabrication.” The Living , www.thelivingnewyork.com/. 4.2.12 -4.2.14 Hy-Fi Towers The Living. “Hy-Fi.” The Living , www.thelivingnewyork.com/.

chapter 4.2 : Neri Oxman 4.2.15-4.2.23 Silk Pavilion Oxman, Neri. Silk Pavilion. Dezeen, 26 Aug. 2015, www.dezeen.com/2013/06/03/silkworms-and-robot-work-together-to-weave-silk-pavilion/. 4.2.24-4.2.32 Material Ecology Oxman, Neri. Silk Pavilion. Dezeen, 26 Aug. 2015, www.dezeen.com/2013/06/03/silkworms-and-robot-work-together-to-weave-silk-pavilion/.

chapter 4.2 : AI Space Factory 4.2.33-4.2.38 Marsha AI Spacefactory. “Marsha.” Deezen , July 2018, www.dezeen.com/2018/07/27/nasa-announces-winners-3d-habitat-centennial-challenge-competition-printed-habitat-mars/.

chapter 4.2 : Rachel Armstrong 4.2.39-4.2.42 Hylozoic Ground Etherington, Rose. Beesley., “Hylozoic Ground by Philip Beesley.” Dezeen, 4 Nov. 2016, www.dezeen. com/2010/08/27/hylozoic-ground-by-philip-beesley/. 4.2.43/4.2.44 Future Venice Armstrong, Rachel. “Future Venice.” Deezen , 2014, www.dezeen.com/2014/05/30/movie-rachel-armstrong-future-venice-growing-giant-artificial-reef/. 4.2.45-4.2.48 Starship Tassell, Dan. “Visualisation of Living Architecture.” Deezen , 2014, www.dezeen.com/2014/05/25/movie-rachel-armstrong-living-architecture-project-persephone/.

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Notes 1. Bennett, Jill. “materialthinking.” May 2012. document . 7 02 2020. 2. Diderot, Denis. “Denis Diderot Quotes.” Art Quotes Categories, www.art-quotes.com/auth_search.php?authid=1482#.XqwAIKgzZPY. 3. “The Concept of Avant Garde .” The Theory of the Avant-Garde, by Renato Poggioli, The Belknap Press, 1968, pp. 5–9. 4. “B. Derrida and Modernism.” Theory of the Avant-Garde, by Bürger Peter and Michael Shaw, University of Minnesota Press, 1984. 5.Tate. “Avant-Garde – Art Term.” Tate, www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/a/avant-garde. 6. “Understanding the Significance of Avant-Garde.” Widewalls, 2016, www.widewalls.ch/avant-garde-movement-theater-music-photography-contemporary-art/. 7.Lista, Giovanni. “Dream of Italy .” Futurism, St Martins Pr, 1986, pp. 28–83. 8. “Russian Avant-Garde Art and Architecture.” Russian Avant-Garde Art and Architecture, by Catherine Cooke, Academy Editions and Architectural Design, 1983, pp. 6–14. 9. “Making, Using and Enjoying: Museum of the Intangible.” Making, Using and Enjoying: Museum of the Intangible. | Arts Council England, www.artscouncil.org.uk/case-studies/making-using-and-enjoying-museum-intangible. 10. Lau, Yunyi. “Making the Intangible Tangible: Exploring Jun Ong’s Light Art.” The Artling, 23 Mar. 2018, theartling.com/en/artzine/making-the-intangible-tangible-exploring-jun-ongs-light-art/. 11. “Contexts for Experiment .” Experimental Architecture, by Peter Cook, Universe Books, 1970, pp. 11–29. 12. Cook, Peter. “Peter Cook.” YouTube. 24 Mar. 2020, columbia , Columbia , www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ZQ75XuEyGc&t=3731s. 13. Woods, Lebbeus, and Clare Jacobson. Slow Manifesto Lebbeus Woods Blog. Princeton Architectural Press, 2015. 14. “THE VAGRANT LIGHT OF STARS.” LEBBEUS WOODS, 27 Sept. 2009, lebbeuswoods.wordpress.com/2009/09/27/ the-vagrant-light-of-stars/. 15. Merin, Gili. “AD Classics: The Dymaxion House / Buckminster Fuller.” ArchDaily, 9 Feb. 2019, www.archdaily. com/401528/ad-classics-the-dymaxion-house-buckminster-fuller. 16. Baldwin, J. “About Fuller.” Dymaxion House | The Buckminster Fuller Institute, 1 Jan. 1970, www.bfi.org/ about-fuller/big-ideas/dymaxion-world/dymaxion-house. 16.“ Munich Olympic Stadium - Data, Photos & Plans.” WikiArquitectura, en.wikiarquitectura.com/building/munich-olympic-stadium/. 17. Pagnotta, Brian. “AD Classics: Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank / Foster + Partners.” ArchDaily, ArchDaily, 2 Aug. 2011, www.archdaily.com/152495/ad-classics-hong-kong-and-shanghai-bank-foster-partners. 18.“ Eden Project - Data, Photos & Plans.” WikiArquitectura, en.wikiarquitectura.com/building/eden-project/#. 19. “Make the Change.” Eden Project, 10 July 2019, www.edenproject.com/make-the-change. 20. Heatherwick Studio. “Heatherwick Studio: Design & Architecture: About.” Heatherwick Studio | Design & Architecture, www.heatherwick.com/studio/about/. 21. ENSAMBLE STUDIO. “Ensamble Studio About.” Ensamble, www.ensamble.info/about. 22. Snøhetta. “About.” Snøhetta, snohetta.com/about. 23. FORM. “Bio.” GREG LYNN FORM, glform.com/bio-2/. 24. Lynn, Greg, director. “Carbon Dating” with Greg Lynn. Carbon Dating, 2014, www.youtube.com/watch?v=m-

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Notes 25. scapestudio. “Living Breakwaters: Design and Implementation.” SCAPE, www.scapestudio.com/projects/living-breakwaters-design-implementation/. 26. “The Living.” The Living, www.thelivingnewyork.com/. 27. Oxman , Neri, director. Design at the Intersection of Technology and Biology . YouTube, 2015, www.youtube. com/watch?v=CVa_IZVzUoc&t=549s. 28. “MARSHA by AI SpaceFactory.” AI SpaceFactory, www.aispacefactory.com/marsha. 29. Armstrong, Rachel, director. Third Millennium Questions for a Sustainable World. YouTube, 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=LX8aT-Hb5FE&t=476s. 30. Etherington, Rose. “Hylozoic Ground by Philip Beesley.” Dezeen, 4 Nov. 2016, www.dezeen.com/2010/08/27/ hylozoic-ground-by-philip-beesley/. 31 Archigram, and Peter Cook. “The Story of Archigram .” Archigram, www.archigram.net/story.html. 32 Herron, Ron. “Ron Herron. Walking City on the Ocean, Project (Exterior Perspective). 1966: MoMA.” The Museum of Modern Art, www.moma.org/collection/works/814. 33. Sun, Yitan, and Jianshi Wu. “New York Horizon- EVolo: Architecture Magazine.” EVolo Architecture Magazine RSS, 2016, www.evolo.us/new-york-horizon/. 34. Ahlquist, Sean. “Social Sensory.” Lab for Material Architectures, Squarespace, www.materialarchitectures. com/social-sensory.

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