Adverbs Frequency Adverbs It is common to use frequency adverbs when we want to say how often something happens,. It is possible to use them when referring to the past, present or future: We often went camping when we were children. I usually go to the gym at lunchtime. I will always love you. The following list shows the most common adverbs of frequency, you will find at the top the one that refers to things that happen most often, and at the bottom the least often: Always Usually Frequently Often Sometimes Occasionally Rarely Seldom Hardly ever Never I always brush my teeth before I go to bed. (=every night) I usually have toast for breakfast. (=happens most days) I frequently watch the news before dinner. (=it's common) I often go to the park with my dog. (=many times) I sometimes see him down at the shops. (=at particular occasions but not all the time) I occasionally visit the capital. (=not happening often or regularly) I rarely smoke cigars. (=it is not common) I seldom have a chance to go to the theatre. (=almost never) I hardly ever travel abroad. (=almost never) I never work on the weekend. (=not at any time or not on any occasion) Adverbs of frequency can occupy different positions in the sentence. With most verbs, the normal position is between the subject and the verb. With the verb "to be", the adverb normally comes after the verb: Pedro occasionally visits us on Sundays. She is often ill in winter
Exercises 1. Rewrite each of the following sentences, placing the adverb of frequency given in brackets in the middle position of the main clause. For example: She is late for work. (rarely) She is rarely late for work. We visit him on Sundays. (sometimes) We sometimes visit him on Sundays. I have read that book before. (never) I have never read that book before. Yes, I do. (usually) Yes, I usually do.
1. I had wanted to see the ocean. (always) 2. They do. (frequently) 3. She is very friendly. (usually) 4. They have the opportunity to travel. (seldom) 5. I am at home in the mornings. (generally) 6. He has. (always) 7. We were given free transportation to the school. (frequently) 8. Birds return to the place where they were born to build their nests. (often) 9. Albatrosses are seen close to shore. (seldom) 10. We would. (never) 11. They follow the news. (rarely) 12. Maple wood is used to make violins. (sometimes) 2. Rewrite each of the following sentences, placing the adverb of frequency given in brackets in the middle position of the main clause. For example: Have you visited New York? (ever) Have you ever visited New York? I do not go to the library on the weekend. (always) I do not always go to the library on the weekend. 1. He did not arrive on time. (ever) 2. Do you visit Boston? (often) 3. Are they surprised at the results? (frequently) 4. The children do not follow our instructions. (always) 5. Do you wonder what will happen next? (sometimes) 6. Did they find the missing information? (ever) 7. We do not stay out after dark. (usually) 8. The facts are not known. (generally) 3. For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with is or are, as appropriate. For example: Here __ one of the computations. Here is one of the computations. There ___ all of the results. There are all of the results. 1. There _______ his brother and sister. 2. Here _______ the news. 3. There _______ several of her classmates. 4. Here _______ both of the disks. 5. There _______ a pair of pliers. 6. Here _______ a few chocolates. 7. Here _______ a box of eggs. 8. There _______ two of the books. 9. Here _______ another of the magazines. 10. Here _______ some of the answers. 11. There _______ one of his brothers. 12. Here _______ the essays. 4. For each of the following sentences, paying attention to whether or not the sentence contains a verb of motion, place the adverbs and adverb phrases given in brackets in the correct order in the end position of the sentence. For example: He lived. (for six years, happily, in Copenhagen) He lived happily in Copenhagen for six years.
They returned. (from Holland, last week, unexpectedly) They returned from Holland unexpectedly last week. 1. They stood. (at the bus stop, for twenty minutes, patiently) 2. We arrived. (here, last night, on foot) 3. The young child walked. (by herself, this morning, to school) 4. They were waiting. (at seven o'clock, eagerly, outside the fairgrounds) 5. She arrived. (in a black limousine, at the hotel) 6. Chickadees build their nests. (in dense evergreens, in the early spring, secretively) 7. The waves crashed. (against the shore, loudly) 8. I walked. (in the rain, to work, yesterday) 9. He sat. (until the announcements were finished, on the edge of his chair, expectantly) 10. We left. (this morning, home, in a hurry) 11. She went. (by bus, downtown, today) 12. They talked. (for an hour, animatedly, on the front lawn)
Conjunctions A conjunction is a word that links words, phrases, or clauses. There are three types of conjunctions: • • •
Coordinating (and, nor, but, for, yet, so, or) Correlative (both/and; either/or; neither/nor; whether/or; not only/but also) Subordinating joins two clauses (subordinate to dependent) together)
Coordinating conjunctions may join single words, or they may join groups of words, but they must always join similar elements: e.g. subject+subject, verb phrase+verb phrase, sentence+sentence. Correlative conjunctions also connect sentence elements of the same kind: however, unlike coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. Subordinating conjunctions, the largest class of conjunctions, connect subordinate clauses to a main clause. These conjunctions are adverbs used as conjunctions.
Examples:
Coordinating Conjunctions: CONJUNCTION WHAT IS LINKED
SAMPLE SENTENCES
and
noun phrase+noun phrase
We have tickets for the symphony and the opera.
but
sentence+sentence
The orchestra rehearses on Tuesday, but the chorus rehearses on Wednesday.
or
verb+verb
Have you seen or heard the opera by Scott Joplin?
so
sentence+sentence
I wanted to sit in the front of the balcony, so I ordered my tickets early.
Correlative conjunctions
CONJUNCTIONS WHAT IS LINKED SAMPLE SENTENCE both...and
subject+subject
Both my sister and my brother play the piano.
either...or
noun+noun
Tonight's program is either Mozart or Beethoven.
neither...nor
subject+subject
Neither the orchestra nor the chorus was able to overcome the terrible acoustics in the church
not only...but also
sentence+sentence Not only does Sue raise money for the symphony, but she also ushers at all of their concerts.
Subordinating conjunctions TIME
CAUSE + EFFECT OPPOSITION CONDITION
after
because
although
if
before since
though
unless
when
now that
even though
only if
while
as
whereas
whether or not
since
in order that
while
even if
until
so
in case (that)
Prepositions The use of prepositions is one of the most difficult areas of English grammar. Different prepositions can have very similar uses (in the morning, on Monday morning, at night). Many nouns, verbs and adjectives are normally used with particular prepositions: we say the reason for, arrive at, angry with somebody, on a bus. It is important for us to learn the expression as a whole. Here is a short list of 70 of the more common one-word prepositions. aboard about above across after against along amid among anti around as at before behind
below beneath beside besides between beyond but by concerning considering despite down during except excepting excluding following for from in inside into like minus near of off on onto opposite outside over past plus regarding round save since than through to toward towards under underneath unlike until up upon versus via with within without
at:
It refers to a “point” ⇒ at my house; at the bus stop; at the door; at the top of the page; at the end of the road; at the entrance. “Specific Time” ⇒ at 10:00 am; at 2:00 pm
in:
It refers to an “enclosed space” ⇒ in the garden; in Mississauga; in Puebla; in France; in a box; in my pocket
on:
“surface” ⇒ on the wall; on the door; on the cover; on the floor; on the carpet; on the menu “day” ⇒ on Sunday; on Friday “date” ⇒ On September 20th, 2006
Please, see other use of prepositions
Transportation Preposition
Nouns
Examples
in
car, truck
I went to Vancouver in my car.
on
bus, train, ship, plane, bicycle
I went downtown on the bus. We travelled to Toronto on the train.
Days, Months, Years
Preposition
Nouns
Examples
in
Months Years Lengths of time
She arrived in February. I was born in 1978. I'll be home in three days.
on
Days of the week Weekend
The party is on Thursday. He left on the weekend.
at
Times of day
I'll call you at 7.30.
Communications
Preposition
Nouns
Examples
on
The telephone
I spoke to him on the telephone yesterday.
TV/television The radio
I heard the news on the radio.
Modal Verbs Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very differently from normal verbs. Here are some important rules when using modal verbs
1. Modal verbs do not take "-s" in the third person. EXAMPLES: He can speak Chinese. She should be here by 9:00. 2. You use "not" to make modal verbs negative, even in Simple Present and Simple Past. EXAMPLES: He should not be late. They might not come to the party. 3. Many modal verbs cannot be used in the past tenses or the future tenses. EXAMPLES: He will can go with us. NOT CORRECT She musted study very hard. NOT CORRECT
Common Modal Verbs
Can Could May Might Must
Ought to Shall Should Will Would
Can
Modal Use
1. Present 2. Past 3. Future
Negative Forms
You can also use:
can general ability
1. I can speak Chinese 2. SHIFTS TO "COULD" I could speak Chinese when I was a kid. 3. SHIFTS TO "BE ABLE TO" I will be able to speak Chinese by the time I finish my course.
1. I can't speak Swahili. 2. SHIFTS TO "COULD" I couldn't speak Swahili. 3. SHIFTS TO "BE ABLE TO" I won't be able to speak Swahili.
can ability during a specific event
1. With a burst of adrenaline, people can pick up cars. 2. SHIFTS TO "BE ABLE TO" With a sudden burst of adrenaline, he was able to lift the car off the child's leg. 3. SHIFTS TO "BE ABLE TO" With a sudden burst of adrenaline, he will be able to lift the car.
1. People can't pick up cars. 2. SHIFTS TO "BE ABLE TO" Even the weight lifter, couldn't lift the car off the child's leg. to be able 3. SHIFTS TO "BE ABLE TO" Even three men working together won't be able to lift the car.
can opportunity
1. I have some free time. I can help her now. 2. SHIFTS TO "BE ABLE TO" I had some free time yesterday. I was able to help her at that time. 3. I'll have some free time tomorrow. I can help her then.
1. I don't have any time. I can't help her now. 2. SHIFTS TO "BE ABLE TO" I didn't have time yesterday. I wasn't able to help her at that time. 3. I won't have any time later. I can't help her then.
can permission
1. I can't drive Susan's car when 1. I can drive Susan's car when she is she is out of town. out of town. 2. SHIFTS TO "BE ALLOWED" 2. SHIFTS TO "BE ALLOWED" I wasn't allowed to drive Susan's I was allowed to drive Susan's car may car while she was out of town last while she was out of town last week. week. 3. I can drive Susan's car while she 3. I can't drive Susan's car while is out of town next week. she is out of town next week.
can request
Can I have a glass of water? Can you give me a lift to school? (Requests usually refer to the near future.)
Can't I have a glass of water? Can't you give me a lift to school? could (Requests usually refer to the may near future.)
can possibility / impossibility
Anyone can become rich and famous if they know the right people. Learning a language can be a real challenge. (This use is usually a generalization or an supposition.)
It can't cost more than a dollar or two. You can't be 45! I thought you could were about 18 years old. (This use is usually a generalization or an supposition.)
to be able
to be able
Could
Modal Use
1. Present 2. Past
Negative Forms
You can also use:
3. Future
could possibility
1. John could be the one who stole the money. 2. John could have been the one who stole the money. 3. John could be charged with the crime when the police finish the investigation.
1. If I had more time, I could travel around the world. could 2. If I had had more time, I could conditional have traveled around the world. (can, could) 3. If I had more time this winter, I could travel around the world.
could suggestion
1. Even if I had more time, I couldn't travel around the world. 2. Even if I had had more time, I couldn't have traveled around the world. 3. Even if I had more time this winter, I could travel around the world.
1. NO PRESENT FORM 2. You could have spent your vacation in Hawaii. NO NEGATIVE FORMS 3. You could spend your vacation in Hawaii.
I could run ten miles in my twenties. could I could speak Chinese when I was a past ability kid. could polite request
1. Mary couldn't be the one who stole the money. 2. Mary couldn't have been the one who might, stole the money. may 3. Mary couldn't possibly be charged with the crime after the police examine the evidence.
Could I have something to drink? Could borrow your stapler? (Requests usually refer to the near future.)
I couldn't run more than a mile in my twenties. I couldn't speak Swahili.
be able to
Couldn't he come with us? Couldn't you help me with this for just can, a second? may, (Requests usually refer to the near might future.)
May
1. Present Modal Use 2. Past 3. Future may
You can Negative Forms
1. Jack may be upset. I can't really tell 1. Jack may not be upset. Perhaps he is
also use: might
if he is annoyed or tired. 2. Jack may have been upset. I couldn't possibility really tell if he was annoyed or tired. 3. Jack may get upset if you don't tell him the truth.
tired. 2. Jack may not have been upset. Perhaps he was tired. 3. Jack may not get upset, even if you tell him the truth
1. You may leave the table now that you're finished with your dinner. 2. SHIFT TO "BE ALLOWED TO" may You were allowed to leave the table permission after you finished your dinner. 3. You may leave the table when you finish your dinner.
1. You may not leave the table. You're not finished with your dinner yet. 2. SHIFT TO "BE ALLOWED TO" You were not allowed to leave the table can because you hadn't finished your dinner. 3. You may not leave the table until you are finished with your dinner.
may requests
May I borrow your eraser. May I make a phone call. (Requests usually refer to the near future.)
NO NEGATIVE FORM
can, might
Might
Modal Use
1. Present 2. Past 3. Future
Negative Forms
might possibility
1. She might be on the bus. I think her car is having problems. 2. She might have taken the bus. I'm not sure how she got to work. 3. She might take the bus to get home. I don't think Bill will be able to give her a ride.
1. She might not be on the bus. She might be walking home. 2. She might not have taken the could, bus. She might have walked home. may 3. She might not take the bus. She might get a ride from Bill.
1. If I entered the contest, I might actually win. might 2. If I had entered the contest, I might conditional actually have won. (may, might) 3. If I entered the contest tomorrow, I might actually win. Unfortunately, I can't enter it.
You can also use:
1. Even if I entered the contest, I might not win. 2. Even if I had entered the contest, I might not have won. 3. Even if I entered the contest tomorrow, I might not win. 1. NO PRESENT FORM 2. PAST FORM UNCOMMON could 3. You might not want to eat the cheese cake. It's very calorific.
might suggestion
1. NO PRESENT FORM 2. You might have tried the cheese cake. 3. You might try the cheesecake.
might request (British form)
Might I have something to drink? NEGATIVE FORMS Might I borrow the stapler? UNCOMMON (Requests usually refer to the near future.)
could, may, can
Must
Modal Use
1. Present 2. Past 3. Future
Negative Forms
must certainty
1. That must be Jerry. They said he was tall with bright red hair. 2. That must have been the right restaurant. There are no other restaurants on this street. 3. NO FUTURE FORM
1. That must not be Jerry. He is supposed to have red hair. 2. That must not have been the right have to restaurant. I guess there is another one around here somewhere. 3. NO FUTURE FORM
must not prohibition
You must not swim in that river. It's full of crocodiles. You must not forget to take your malaria medication while your are in the tropics. (Prohibition usually refer to the near future.)
must strong recommendation (Americans prefer the form "should.")
1. You must take some time off and get some rest. 2. SHIFT TO "SHOULD" You should have taken some time off last week to get some rest. 3. SHIFT TO "SHOULD" You should take some time off next week to get some rest.
1. You mustn't drink so much. It's not good for your health. 2. SHIFT TO "SHOULD" You shouldn't have drunk so much. should That caused the accident. 3. SHIFT TO "SHOULD" You shouldn't drink at the party. You are going to be the designated driver.
must necessity (Americans prefer the form "have to.")
1. You must have a permit to enter the national park. 2. SHIFT TO "HAVE TO" We had to have a permit to enter the park. 3. We must get a permit to enter the park next week.
1. SHIFT TO "HAVE TO" We don't have to get a permit to enter the national park. 2. SHIFT TO "HAVE TO" We didn't have to get a permit to enter the national park. 3. SHIFT TO "HAVE TO" We won't have to get a permit to enter the national park.
You can also use:
have to
Ought to
Modal Use
1. Present 2. Past 3. Future
You can Negative Forms
also use:
ought to recommendation/ advisability
1. Margaret ought to exercise more. 2. Margaret ought to have exercised more so she would be better prepared for the marathon. 3. Margaret ought to come to the fitness center with us tonight.
ought to assumption/ expectation/ probability
1. She ought to have the package by now. 2. She ought to have received the package yesterday. 3. She ought to receive the package tonight.
ought not (Americans prefer "should not".)
Margaret ought not exercise too much. (Notice that there is no "to" in the negative form.)
1. Margaret ought not exercise too much. It might cause injury. 2. Margaret ought not have run the marathon. She wasn't in good shape. should 3. Margaret ought not stay at home in front of the TV. She should go to the fitness center with us.
"Ought not" is used primarily to express negative recommendation.
should
Should
Modal Use
1. Present 2. Past 3. Future
1. People with high cholesterol should eat low fat foods. should 2. Frank should have eaten low fat foods. recommendation That might have prevented his heart advisability attack. 3. You really should start eating better.
should obligation
should assumption/ expectation/ probability
Negative Forms
You can also use:
1. Sarah shouldn't smoke so much. It's not good for her health. 2. Sarah shouldn't have smoked so much. That's what caused her health ought to problems. 3. Sarah shouldn't smoke when she visits Martha next week. Martha hates when people smoke in her house.
I should be at work before 9:00. We should return the video before the video rental store closes. ("Should" can also express something between recommendation and obligation. "Be supposed to" expresses a similar idea and can easily be used in the past or in negative forms.)
NO NEGATIVE FORMS
1. Susan should be in New York by now. 2. Susan should have arrived in New York last week. Let's call her and see what she is up to. 3. Susan should be in New York by next week. Her new job starts on Monday.
1. Susan shouldn't be in New York yet. 2. Susan shouldn't have arrived in New York until yesterday. 3. Susan shouldn't arrive in
be supposed, to
ought to, be supposed to
New York until next week.
Would You can also use:
Modal Use
1. Present 2. Past 3. Future
Negative Forms
would conditional
1. If I were President, I would cut the cost of education. 2. If I had been President, I would have cut the cost of education. 3. If I were elected President next year, I would cut the cost of education.
1. If I were President, I would not raise taxes. 2. If I had been President, I would not have raised taxes. 3. If I were President, I would not sign the tax increase next week.
would past of will
I said I would help you. He told me he would be here before 8:00.
I said I wouldn't help you. He told me he would not be here before 8:00.
would repetition in past
When I was a kid, I would always go to the beach. When he was young, he would always do his homework.
When I was a kid, I wouldn't go into the water by myself. used to When he got older, he would never do his homework.
Pronouns A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. You use pronouns to make your sentences less repetitive. Pronouns are are classifeid into several types including the personal pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun, the interrogative pronoun, the indefinite pronoun, the relative pronoun, the reflexive pronoun and the intensive pronoun
Personal Pronouns Personal Pronouns in English are used to replace nouns that refer to people. Personal Pronouns can be used as the sentences subject or objective. Subjective Personal Pronouns: The pronoun is acting as the subject of the sentence. The pronouns are “I, you, she, he, it, we, you, they�.
Objective Personal Pronouns: Indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a verb or preposiiton. The pronouns are “me, you, her, him, it, us, you, them”. Important: English doesn't have singular and plural forms of "you". "You" is used for both male and female and singular and plural.
Example of Personal Pronouns Subject Personal
Objective Personal Pronouns
I - I went to the store.
Me -Is Mary going to come with me to the doctor.
You - You went to store.
You - Did you and Mary eat all the cookies.
He - He went to the store.
Him - John is going to give him the books soon.
She - She went to the store
Her - Mary is going to give her the books soon.
We - We went to the store.
Us - When is Tom going to give us the books.
The pronouns are used to replace the name of the people or person
They - They went to the Them - Mary went to see them store. this morning. It - It was a good cake
It - I am glad it worked out in the end.
Possessive Personal Pronouns A possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of possession and defines who owns a particular object or person. The possessive personal pronouns are “mine, yours, hers, his, its, ours and theirs”. Important: Note that possessive personal pronouns are very similar to possessive adjectives like “my, your, his, her, its, our, your, and their”
Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns
possessive adjective
possessive pronoun
my
Mine
your
Yours
his
His
her
hers
its
its
our
ours
your
yours
their
theirs
Demonstrative Pronouns It points and identifies a noun or a pronoun. The demonstrative pronouns are "this, that, these and those”.
“This” and “these” refer to things that are nearby either in space or in time, while “that” and “those” refer to things that are farther away in space or time. “This” and “that” are used to refer to singular nouns and “these” and “those” are used to refer to plural nouns.
Interrrogative Pronouns These pronouns are used to ask questions. They are “who, whom, which, what” and the compounds formed with the suffix “ever” : “whoever, whomever, whichever and whatever” = Relative Pronouns You will find “who, whom and which” used to refer to people, and “which and what” used to refer to things and to animals. Examples: Which wants to see the dentist first? Who wrote the novel Rockbound? Whom do you think we should invite? To whom do you wish to speak? Who will meet the delegates at the train station? To whom did you give the paper? What did dhe say?
Relative Pronouns They are formed with the suffix “ever” : “whoever, whomever, whichever and whatever” You can use a relative pronoun to link one phrase to another phrase. Examples: You may invite whomever you like to the party. In a time of crisis, the manager asks the employer whom she believes to be the most efficient to arrive an hour earlier than usual. Whoever broke the window will have to replace it. I will read whichever manuscript arrives first.
Indefinitive Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some. The most common indefinite pronouns are “all, another, any, anybody, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none, one, several, some, somebody and someone”. We donated everything we found in the attic to the woman´s shelter garage sale. Although they looked everywhere for extra copies of the magazine, they found none. Make sure you give everyone a copy of the anebded by laws.
Summary Chart of Verb Tenses Simple Present The world is round. I study every day.
Simple Past I studied last night.
Simple Future I will study tomorrow.
Present Progressive (Present Continuos) I am studying right now.
Past Progressive I was studying when they came. Future Progressive I will be studying when you come.
Present Perfect I have already studied Chapter One.
Past Perfect I had already studied Chapter One before I began to study Chapter Two.
Future Perfect I will already have studied Chapter Four before I study Chapter Five.
Present Perfect Progressive I have been studying for two hours.
Past Perfect Progressive I had been studying for two hours before my friends came.
Future Perfect Progressive
I will have been studying for two hours by the time you arrive.
Conditionals
Conditional 0 – “Always true if something happens” If I am late, my father takes me to school. She does not worry if Jack stays out after work.
Conditional 1 – “Future” If it rains, we will stay at home. Peter will buy a new car, if he gets his raise.
Conditional 2 – “It is used for unreal situations” If he studied more, he would pass the exam. I would lower taxes if I were the President.
Conditional 3 – “Past Situations with hypothetical results” If I had known that, I would have decided differently. Jane would have found a new job if she had stayed in boston.