Test Bank ABOUT PHILOSOPHY Eleventh Edition New International Edition. By Robert Paul Wolff by digitaldownload87

Test Bank

ABOUT PHILOSOPHY Eleventh Edition New International Edition

By Robert Paul Wolff

CHAPTER ONE WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? Multiple Choice 1. Socrates discussed his philosophical ideas in: A. his school, the Academy. B. the public marketplace. C. the city of Miletus. D. Both A and B E. Both B and C Answer: B 2. The Socratic Dialogues were written by whom? A. By Socrates, in the last years before his death B. the first few by Socrates, the rest by Plato after his death C. By Socrates, with Plato's help D. By Plato, with Socrates’ help E. By Plato, after the death of Socrates Answer: E 3. The intent of the Athenian rulers in prosecuting Socrates was to A. discourage him from writing more dialogues. B. have him put to death for his offenses. C. punish him for worshipping false gods. D. keep him from further threatening the political establishment by his teachings. E. embarrass and discredit him in a lengthy trial. Answer: D 4. In his trial, Socrates chose to be executed rather than to cease practicing philosophy because: A. he held the examination of human nature, thought, and belief to be more important than mere survival. B. at the age of 70, he had nothing left to write. C. he preferred death to life in a society that had rejected him. D. he wanted to show the injustice of the Athenian judicial system. E. he mistakenly believed his jailers wouldn't actually carry out the sentence. Answer: A 5. Our word for "philosophy" comes from a Greek expression meaning: A. wise fool. B. search for wisdom. C. love of wisdom. D. examined life. E. self-examination.

Answer: C 6. In Socrates’ view, true happiness: A. is impossible in life, but may be achieved in the afterlife. B. is, sadly, incompatible with the practice of philosophy. C. can only be achieved in a democracy. D. lies in having the wisdom to accept one's fate without question. E. may be achieved through a process of self-examination. Answer: E 7. According to Socrates: A. the principles of right thought and action vary from society to society. B. the principles of right thought and action vary from generation to generation. C. the principles of right thought and action are the same for all people at all times. D. there are no universal principles of thought and action--each of us is an individual. E. if there are universally valid principles of thought and action, it is impossible for mortals to know what they are. Answer: C 8. Socrates believes the role of a teacher is to: A. pass on the truth to students. B. ask probing questions. C. demonstrate the true principles of thought and action. D. discover students' strengths and weaknesses. E. All of the above Answer: B 9. When Socrates says he's ignorant of the nature of justice, he is: A. employing double-consciousness. B. lying. C. being ironic. D. trying to develop his interlocutor's "second-sight." E. Both A and D Answer: C 10. Socrates was the first philosopher: A. to study cosmology. B. to write a dialogue. C. to found a school. D. in the western tradition. E. to develop the idea that there is a parallel between language and the world. Answer: E 11. Thrasymachus claims that what is just is:

A. whatever is in the interest of the most powerful members of society. B. possible only in a democracy. C. often different from what is "right." D. to give each citizen what he deserves. E. a matter of law, not philosophy. Answer: A 12. The first western philosopher is traditionally thought to be: A. Socrates. B. Plato. C. Thales. D. Descartes. E. a Milesian thinker whose name is lost to history. Answer: C 13. The ancient Milesian philosophers were primarily concerned with: A. the study of the nature of man. B. the pursuit of "the good life." C. the nature of ethical behavior. D. learning the order and composition of the universe. E. the relationship between man and the gods. Answer: D 14. Which of the following was not one of the Milesian philosophers? A. Lucretius B. Thales C. Anaximander D. Anaximenes E. All of the above were Milesians. Answer: A 15. One of Thales' philosophical positions was that everything is made of: A. fire. B. water. C. air. D. earth. E. energy. Answer: B 16. A surprisingly modern belief of Lucretius is that the: A. proper study of philosophy is the nature of man. B. diversity of species can be explained by natural selection. C. earth revolves around the sun. D. world is made up of tiny, unseen bodies. E. stars are actually other suns at a great distance.

Answer: D 17. Lucretius cites the fact that a ring worn on the finger grows thinner over the years as evidence for his claim that: A. all things grow smaller over time. B. material objects are only temporary, not eternal. C. the universe is composed of what we would call atoms. D. physical reality is really an illusion. E. not everything can be explained by an appeal to natural processes. Answer: C 18. According to the author: A. there is a philosophical component to virtually everything we do. B. philosophy is primarily conceptual analysis. C. philosophy is a sort of science that can be carried on without the use of precise instruments. D. philosophy is really a "handmaiden" of hard science. E. science is just philosophy being carried out by other means. Answer: A 19. Logos, according to the Stoics, is: A. the power of words. B. the rational part of the soul. C. the rational power that organizes the universe. D. an ethical principle. E. an ideal state we may reach only through the study of philosophy. Answer: C 20. Socrates believed the proper study for philosophers to be: A. the fundamental nature of the universe. B. the nature of man. C. the "good life." D. the four elements: earth, air, fire, and water. E. politics. Answer: B 21. The philosophical notion of "natural law" has its origins in: A. the atomist ideas of Lucretius. B. Anaximander's cosmological theories. C. the Socratic Dialogues. D. Christian theological writings. E. the Stoic doctrine of logos. Answer: E 22. According to Marcus Aurelius, a Roman Stoic:

A. the universe should be regarded as an intelligent, living being. B. all things are fundamentally composed of atoms. C. there are four fundamental substances: earth, air, fire, and water. D. philosophers should study cosmology, rather than the nature of man. E. philosophers should study the nature of man, rather than cosmology. Answer: A 23. Locke, Berkeley, and Hume were all: A. Stoics. B. atomists. C. Milesian Cosmologists. D. British Empiricists. E. Continental Rationalists. Answer: D 24. Descartes, Leibniz, and Kant were all: A. Stoics. B. metaphysical idealists. C. Milesian Cosmologists. D. British Empiricists. E. Continental Rationalists. Answer: E 25. According to empiricism: A. all knowledge is gained by the exercise of reason. B. all knowledge is obtained through the senses. C. we are born with innate knowledge. D. sensory perceptions cannot be trusted. E. learning is really a process of remembering what we already know. Answer: B 26. According to rationalism: A. at least some knowledge is obtained by the exercise of reason. B. when we are born, our minds are "blank slates." C. nothing can ever be known with certainty. D. we cannot know things that the senses do not reveal to us. E. we ought to ignore the influence of emotion. Answer: A 27. David Hume writes that logic: A. is the sole source of human knowledge. B. is never to be trusted. C. can only explain the principles and operations of reason. D. is the proper study of all philosophers.

E. is the foundation of ethical theory. Answer: C 28. Epistemology is the study of: A. the human mind. B. sense perception. C. knowledge and belief. D. logic and mathematics. E. the nature and organization of the universe. Answer: C 29. When the author states that philosophy ought to be rational, he means that: A. the British Empiricists were wrong. B. philosophers should be able to give reasons, evidence, and arguments for their beliefs. C. philosophical principles ought to apply to everyone everywhere. D. philosophers ought not be influenced by their non-philosophical views. E. philosophy ought to be treated like another branch of science. Answer: B 30. His experiences with the "double-consciousness" of black South Africans has led the author to question whether philosophy is really: A. rational. B. objective. C. empirical. D. universal. E. logical. Answer: D 31. The author suggests that an authentic African-American philosophy would have to be: A. founded upon the writings of African philosophers. B. an exploration of the philosophical implications of the African-American experience. C. written and read only by African-Americans. D. written in American universities. E. written from an objective point of view. Answer: B 32. The "double-consciousness" referred to by Du Bois is: A. intended only as a metaphor. B. simultaneously seeing oneself both as an individual and as a member of one's race. C. experienced only by the educated elite. D. an idea founded upon Stoic philosophy. E. an idea founded upon the views of the British Empiricists. Answer: B 33. Richard Rorty attributes the “anti-democratic” strain in Heidegger to his:

A. doctrine of Man. B. concept of Reason. C. idea of History. D. taking Philosophy too seriously. E. contempt for Christianity. Answer: D 34. According to Rorty, if we look for the “essence” of Heidegger’s works too avidly we will: A. overlook the delights of his prose. B. read him as he did not wish to be read. C. fall into a kind of “fundamentalism.” D. be forced to deny his similarities with Hitler. E. None of the above Answer: C 35. Heidegger’s experiences with Nazism and anti-Semitism did not include: A. deleting references to Husserl from later editions of his books. B. defending his views on grounds of academic freedom. C. addressing a Nazi rally. D. enforcing anti-Jewish regulations at the university. E. praising Hitler in public forums. Answer: B 36. What is the Socratic Method? A. A technique of probing questions B. The study of the order of the world C. A norm in accordance with which the universe has been created D. The theory that human knowledge comes from the five senses E. The constant repetition of negative judgments by white people Answer: A 37. What is cosmology? A. A theory of natural beauty B. The study of the order of the world C. A norm in accordance with which the universe has been created D. The theory that human knowledge comes from reason E. The discipline that investigates the correct principles of formal reasoning Answer: B

CHAPTER ONE WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? True/False 38. Socrates carried out his discussions in a school that survived for centuries afterward. False. 39. Plato was sentenced to death by a jury of Athenian citizens. False. 40. Socrates was interested in the scientific views of his time. True. 41. Plato founded the Academy, a school in Athens where philosophy, science, and mathematics were studied. True. 42. Socrates lived to the ripe old age of 70 before his execution. True. 43. Socrates believes there are principles of thought and action that ought to be followed by all people everywhere. True. 44. Socrates holds that no one can teach anyone else the real truth. True. 45. According to Thales, the first act of true wisdom is to admit that you are ignorant. False. 46. The Socratic Method requires that everyone involved be willing to admit his ignorance. False. 47. Socrates’ idea that the structure of language mirrors the structure of reality is still important in modern philosophy. True. 48. Thrasymachus claims that justice can exist even under a despot, or absolute ruler. True. 49. In the passage from the Republic, Socrates uses the Socratic Method to provide us with a correct definition of "justice." False. 50. The Milesians believed that natural events ought to be explained by appeal to natural forces, rather than the actions of the gods. True. 51. The Milesians founded some of their views upon the Socratic Dialogues. False. 52. Marcus Aurelius believed that the human soul (and everything else in the universe) was composed of atoms. False. 53. The two great themes of western philosophy are the study of the cosmos and the study of the human condition. True. 54. The Stoics claim that the natural order of the world can be explained by the existence of a power of reason called logos. True.

55. According to the Stoics, everything in creation contains a spark of logos. False. 56. Stoic philosophers held that the same principle governs the organization of the universe, and the organization of human society. True. 57. The British Empiricists thought philosophers ought to study the way in which we know things, rather than what we know. True. 58. Socrates realized we learn a great deal about the natural sciences by simply studying ourselves. False. 59. The British Empiricists and Continental Rationalists thought philosophers could combine the study of human nature and the study of cosmology into a single philosophical project. True. 60. Rationalists claim all human knowledge is derived from reason. False. 61. Empiricism is the theory that all human knowledge comes from the senses. True. 62. Like psychology, epistemology is primarily a descriptive discipline. False. 63. When we say a philosophical view is "rational," we mean it is not founded upon untested assumptions. True. 64. When a philosopher says a view is "universal," he or she means that it is true for everyone, everywhere and always. True.

65. The author questions whether objectivity is a requirement of good philosophy. False. 66. W.E.B. Du Bois believed that the chief problem of the 20th century was the problem of the colorline. True. 67. According to the author, an authentic African-American philosophy cannot exist in American universities. False. 68. The German philosopher Hegel infamously described Africa as a "land of childhood." True. 69. The author urges us to develop "second-sight." True. 70. Heidegger appears to argue that the Holocaust and mechanized agriculture are on the same moral plane. True. 71. Heidegger mourns the loss of “roots,” which he attributed to both Christianity and modern science. True. 72. Heidegger apologized late in life for joining the Nazi Party. False. 73. Richard Rorty considers Heidegger “an egomaniacal, anti-Semitic redneck.” True. 74. Logic investigates correct principles of formal reasoning, True.

75. Natural Law is not rational. False 76. Marcus Aurelius introduced and defended an early version of chaos theory. False

CHAPTER TWO THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE Multiple Choice 1. The philosopher usually cited as the originator of the new theory of knowledge is: A. Hume. B. Kant. C. Descartes. D. Leibniz. E. Rousseau. Answer: C 2. In the author's view, since the beginning of the 17th century, the most important field of philosophy has been the study of: A. human nature. B. cosmology. C. psychology. D. epistemology. E. logic and reasoning. Answer: D 3. Which of the following was not one of Descartes’ rules for conducting an inquiry? A. Difficult problems should be divided into as many parts as possible. B. Review your reasoning to make sure nothing has been omitted. C. Reasoning should proceed from simple concepts to complicated ones. D. Ensure that your subject is a philosophical or mathematical matter, rather than a religious or poetic one. E. Accept nothing as true that you do not clearly recognize as being so. Answer: D 4. The epistemological thought of the 17th century has influenced: A. poetry. B. art. C. economic views. D. Both A and B E. All of the above Answer: E 5. The book whose publication marks the beginning of modern philosophy is: A. The Epistemological Turn. B. Meditations on First Philosophy. C. The Method of Doubt. D. Critique of Pure Reason.

E. The Monadology. Answer: B 6. Descartes’ most important contribution to philosophy was his: A. analysis of dreams. B. rejection of received opinion. C. work in analytic geometry. D. method of examining problems. E. ability to make daring inferences. Answer: D 7. Descartes’ method is: A. both a method of doubt and a method of inquiry. B. a method of discovery. C. both a method of discovery and a method of verification. D. a way of setting forth one's knowledge in a systematic way. E. a way to prove with certainty things one already knows. Answer: A 8. According to Descartes, which of the following is beyond doubt? A. God exists. B. 2 + 3 = 5. C. Washington, D.C. is the capital of the U.S. D. I am awake, and not just dreaming. E. None of the above Answer: E 9. A proposition that should not be doubted, according to Descartes, is one that: A. is more likely to be true than false. B. has never turned out to be wrong in the past. C. everyone agrees is true. D. doesn't contradict anything we already know. E. is absolutely 100% certain. Answer: E 10. The basic indubitable truth upon which Descartes sought to found all his knowledge was that: A. he, himself, exists. B. an all-powerful God exists. C. mathematical truths cannot be doubted. D. the facts of experience cannot be doubted. E. the senses do not lie. Answer: A 11. The "epistemological turn" began with:

A. Plato, and ended with Descartes. B. Descartes, and ended with Leibniz. C. Descartes, and ended with Kant. D. Kant, and is still continuing. E. Descartes, and is still continuing. Answer: C 12. The heart of the "epistemological turn" was: A. Descartes’ method of inquiry. B. making questions of epistemology logically prior to questions of metaphysics. C. realizing that questions of being take precedence over questions of knowing. D. Leibniz's criteria of truth and certainty. E. Cartesian doubt. Answer: B 13. Epistemological skepticism is the view that: A. what's true for you may not be true for someone else. B. the "epistemological turn" was a mistake. C. we should study what we know, not how we know. D. we can never adequately justify any of our beliefs. E. we can never know more than basic facts, such as that the physical world exists. Answer: D 14. Descartes’ method of inquiry tells us to: A. make the standard of proof absolute certainty. B. adopt the point of view of someone who knows something and is trying to explain it. C. adopt the point of view of someone who is ignorant but is trying to learn. D. deal with questions of being before questions of knowing. E. doubt everything except truths of arithmetic and logic. Answer: C 15. "We should stipulate nothing," is a good paraphrase of: A. the epistemological turn. B. epistemological skepticism. C. Descartes’ method of inquiry. D. Descartes’ method of doubt. E. the Law of the Excluded Middle. Answer: C 16. Descartes’ method of doubt tells us to: A. doubt everything except truths of arithmetic and logic. B. accept nothing that is not beyond a reasonable doubt. C. accept only those beliefs that don't contradict what we already know.

D. accept only those beliefs that can be deduced from things we already know. E. accept only what can be known with absolute certainty. Answer: E 17. In his Meditations, Descartes says that the motivation for his project was a desire to: A. share his large store of knowledge with posterity. B. rid himself of his many false beliefs. C. set the sciences on a firm foundation. D. Both A and C E. Both B and C Answer: E 18. Descartes starts the application of his method of doubt by: A. making an inventory of all his beliefs. B. positing the existence of an "evil genius." C. considering the certainty of each of his beliefs, one by one. D. attacking the foundations of all of his current beliefs. E. inferring his existence as a thinking thing. Answer: D 19. Descartes argues that he might be dreaming without being aware of it in order to demonstrate that: A. he cannot be sure of his sanity. B. he might be deceived by an "evil genius." C. even the clearest sense perceptions may be false. D. even the simplest arithmetic calculations, such as that 2+3=5, might be wrong. E. even the simplest logical inferences might be invalid. Answer: C 20. Descartes raises the possibility of the existence of an "evil genius" in order to demonstrate that: A. a non-deceiving God exists. B. he might be deceived even when he reasons that 2+3=5, or that a square has four sides. C. he can infer his existence from the fact that he is thinking. D. not every "genius" is morally good. E. beliefs obtained from the senses are uncertain. Answer: B 21. The first indubitable truth Descartes discovers in the Meditations is that: A. he exists, though he's not sure what he is. B. he exists, and is identical with his body. C. an all-powerful God exists. D. it's false that 2+3=5. E. an evil, deceiving "genius" exists. Answer: A 22. The Cogito Argument proves to Descartes that:

A. he and all other people exist, though we don't know exactly what they are. B. he exists, and is identical with his body. C. his soul exists. D. a non-deceiving God exists. E. None of the above Answer: E 23. Solipsism is the belief that: A. nothing exists. B. no belief can ever be adequately justified. C. I exist, but nothing else can be proven to exist. D. beliefs gained through the senses cannot be justified. E. None of the above Answer: C 24. Solipsism is an extreme form of: A. epistemological skepticism. B. epistemological relativism. C. rationalism. D. empiricism. E. None of the above Answer: A 25. The criteria of truth offered by Descartes in the second Meditation are: A. certainty and reliability. B. clearness and distinctness. C. skepticism and solipsism. D. rationalism and empiricism. E. reason and sense perception. Answer: B 26. The purpose of Descartes’ "thought experiment" with the lump of wax was to show that: A. the senses, in fact, do not lie. B. the evidence of the senses sometimes agrees with the insights of reason. C. the wax has no permanent properties. D. the wax has infinite properties. E. knowledge must be founded on reason rather than sense perception. Answer: E 27. The "thought experiment" with the lump of wax shows that Descartes was: A. a rationalist. B. an empiricist. C. an epistemological skepticist. D. a solipsist.

E. None of the above Answer: A 28. According to rationalists: A. God does not exist. B. the Cogito Argument was unsound. C. knowledge can never be certain. D. logic is the model for all true knowledge. E. all knowledge is based on sense perceptions. Answer: D 29. According to the empiricists: A. logic and mathematics are the models for true knowledge. B. Descartes’ views are correct. C. nothing can ever meet Descartes’ criteria for certainty. D. all valid knowledge claims must be justified by reason. E. None of the above Answer: C 30. Which of the following are rationalists? A. David Hume B. G.W. Leibniz C. René Descartes D. Both B and C E. All of the above Answer: D 31. Which of the following are empiricists? A. David Hume B. René Descartes C. G.W. Leibniz D. Both A and C E. None of the above Answer: A 32. In place of the psychological tests of certainty used by Descartes, Leibniz used: A. emotional criteria. B. logical criteria. C. mathematical criteria. D. empiricist criteria. E. None of the above Answer: B 33. According to the Law of Contradiction:

A. either a statement or its contradictory must be true. B. a statement and its contradictory might both be true. C. a statement and its contradictory can't both be true. D. either a statement or its contradictory must be false. E. All of the above. Answer: C 34. According to the Law of the Excluded Middle: A. either a statement or its contradictory must be true. B. a statement and its contradictory might both be true. C. a statement and its contradictory can't both be true. D. either a statement or its contradictory must be false. E. All of the above Answer: A 35. The contradictory of "Parmita is a vegetarian" is: A. “Parmita always eats meat.” B. “Parmita sometimes eat meat.” C. “Parmita isn't a vegetarian.” D. “Parmita wasn't always a vegetarian.” E. All of the above Answer: C 36. Leibniz calls truths that cannot be justified by the laws of logic: A. contraries. B. truths of reasoning. C. truths of fact. D. truths of principle. E. truths of faith. Answer: C 37. Leibniz divides truths into two types: A. truths of reason and truths of contradiction. B. truths of reason and truths of fact. C. truths of knowledge and truths of belief. D. truths of fact and truths of belief. E. None of the above Answer: B 38. Truths of fact are justified by appeal to: A. the laws of logic. B. the law of contradiction. C. clear and distinct perceptions. D. the Principle of Sufficient Reason. E. the Law of the Excluded Middle.

Answer: D 39. When Leibniz says a truth of fact is contingent, he means: A. it would be possible for its contradictory to be true. B. its contradictory is also true. C. it wasn't always a fact. D. it's also a truth of reason. E. None of the above Answer: A 40. Leibniz says the sufficient reason for the world is: A. God. B. the laws of logic. C. a necessary substance. D. a contingent substance. E. Both A and C Answer: E 41. To say that an argument is valid means: A. its conclusion is true. B. it's widely accepted. C. its premises are plausible. D. its conclusion follows from its premises. E. Both A and D Answer: D 42. The idea that the mind enters the world as a tabula rasa was first put forward by: A. the empiricist John Locke. B. the rationalist René Descartes. C. Plato. D. modern psychologists, such as Sigmund Freud. E. None of the above Answer: A 43. According to John Locke, all knowledge is founded on: A. reason. B. logic. C. experience. D. imagination. E. Both A and B Answer: C 44. If Locke's theory is correct, then:

A. God's existence is known from experience. B. we have no idea of God. C. God is necessarily omnipotent. D. Both A and C E. None of the above Answer: B 45. Hume divides the content of the mind into: A. impressions and ideas. B. necessary and contingent propositions. C. reason and imagination. D. knowledge and belief. E. the empirical and the rational. Answer: A 46. The taste of an apple is an example of a: A. complex impression. B. simple impression. C. perception that can be distinguished into parts. D. Both A and C E. Both B and C Answer: B 47. Hume argued that: A. everything that exists must have a reason for existence. B. every event must have a cause. C. everything that exists has a cause. D. it would be conceivable for something to exist without a cause. E. None of the above Answer: D 48. The two basic epistemological problems raised by Descartes were: A. the Cogito Argument and the tabula rasa. B. the problem of knowledge and the problem of belief. C. the problem of certainty and the problem of the sources of knowledge. D. empirical problems and rational problems. E. justification and reason. Answer: C 49. Hume did not believe that: A. an uncaused event was conceivable. B. it is psychologically possible to suspend one's belief in causation. C. we could possess an idea of a unicorn. D. the contents of the mind could be divided into atomic units. E. whatever is different is distinguishable.

Answer: B 50. Kant invented the "unity of consciousness" to solve the epistemological problem of: A. skepticism. B. nihilism. C. solipsism. D. Both A and C E. None of the above Answer: D 51. Who formulated the idea of the "unity of consciousness"? A. Descartes B. Kant C. Hume D. Leibniz E. Freud Answer: B 52. According to Kant, the categories are: A. individual thoughts and impressions. B. types of thoughts. C. brute facts of consciousness. D. rules for unifying thoughts in the mind. E. barriers to be eliminated in order to achieve unity of consciousness. Answer: D 53. Anna Leach argues that plagiarism isn’t wrong: A. because it is a form of collaboration. B. in countries where it isn’t illegal. C. as long as no one finds out. D. if you didn’t realize you were doing it. E. unless you make money from it. Answer: A 54. Jonathan H. Adler contends that plagiarism is on the rise because: A. standards are too strict. B. students are not taught that standards matter. C. no one has time to write their own work. D. the Internet is redefining how students understand the concept of authorship. E there is nothing wrong with it. Answer B 55. Stanley Fish compares the rules of plagiarism to the rules of: A. hockey B. baseball C. golf D. football E. basketball Answer: C

CHAPTER TWO THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE True/False 56. Descartes’ project was to justify established doctrine and the authority of the ancients. False. 57. Descartes’ major contribution to philosophy lies more in the method he developed than the results he achieved. True. 58. The first rule of Descartes’ method was to consider everything false that wasn't certainly true. False. 59. Descartes’ method urges us to consolidate simple propositions into more complex ones. False. 60. Descartes’ method suggests we should work on the simplest parts of a problem first. True. 61. Descartes’ method is both a method of doubt and a method of inquiry. True. 62. The "epistemological turn" began with Descartes. True. 63. Descartes’ method can be used for proving what you already know. False. 64. Descartes’ method is to be used for actual discovery of new knowledge. True. 65. Descartes uses his method to systematically set forth the things he knew. False. 66. Descartes thought we should believe only what is beyond reasonable doubt. False. 67. To doubt something, in Descartes’ sense, is to believe it is false. False. 68. To doubt something, in Descartes’ sense, is to withhold judgment whether it is true or false. True. 69. Descartes says we must doubt something if there is one chance in a billion that it's false. True. 70. Descartes begins by doubting everything but the existence of God. False. 71. The "epistemological turn" was completed when Hume published his Essay Concerning the Human Understanding. False. 72. Before Descartes, philosophers didn't study epistemology. False. 73. After Descartes, philosophers considered questions of how we know to be more important than questions of what we know. True. 74. Prior to Descartes, epistemology took precedence over metaphysics. False. 75. Epistemological skepticism is the view that nothing is true. False.

76. Epistemological skepticism is the view that knowledge can never be adequately justified. True. 77. The aim of epistemological skepticism is to get us to stop believing things are true. False. 78. According to Descartes’ method of doubt, we can't be certain that the moon isn't made of cheese. True. 79. Together, Descartes' methods of inquiry and doubt drive us to epistemological skepticism. True. 80. Descartes’ intent in the Meditations was to provide a foundation of certain knowledge on which the sciences could build. True. 81. In Meditation I, Descartes believed that he would have to evaluate each of his beliefs, one by one. False. 82. Descartes believes that if his senses have deceived him once, he ought not to believe anything he has learned through his senses is true. True. 83. In the first Meditation, Descartes thinks he's probably asleep and dreaming. False. 84. By the end of the first Meditation, Descartes no longer doubts the existence of an all-powerful God. False. 85. Descartes, in the first Meditation, believes that he might be mistaken when he thinks a square has four sides. True. 86. Descartes knows, by the end of the second Meditation, that he exists as a human with a body and soul. False. 87. If the Cogito Argument is sound, Descartes has proven he exists, but he doesn't know what he is. True. 88. A key assumption of the Cogito Argument is that, when a proposition is asserted, someone must exist to make this assertion. True. 89. If I'm a solipsist, I can't be sure of the existence of my body. True. 90. Descartes’ criteria of certainty were clarity and consistency. False. 91. Most philosophers are still convinced that Descartes’ solution to the problem of certainty was correct. False. 92. Descartes intended the experiment with the lump of wax to provide scientific evidence in support of rationalism. False. 93. The empiricists rejected Descartes’ claim that a proposition had to be known with certainty to count as knowledge. False. 94. Descartes’ criteria of certainty--clarity and distinctness--tell us important things about the structure

of knowledge. False. 95. "Either 7 is odd, or 7 is not odd," is an example of the Law of Contradiction. False. 96. According to the Law of Contradiction, it's impossible for a statement and its contradictory to both be true. True. 97. According to Leibniz, a truth of fact is contingent, which means its contradictory could have been true instead. True. 98. An invalid argument will always have a false conclusion. False. 99. Locke believed that we are born with certain ideas already present in our minds. False. 100.

According to Locke, words that don't correspond to ideas in our minds are meaningless. True.

101.

What we think of as sense perceptions, Hume would call "impressions." True.

102.

Your visual image of this page would be considered by Hume to be a complex idea. False.

103.

Hume believes the mind contains indivisible "atomic" bits of sensation. True.

104.

Hume holds that whatever exists must have had something that caused it to exist. False.

105.

Hume believes there could be events that have no causes. True.

106. Hume thought we could eventually be trained to give up our irrational belief in causal judgments. False. 107.

Kant held that the central fact of our existence was consciousness. True.

108.

Kant believed that the categories are innate in the human mind. True.

109.

Kant believes that the categories allow us to know the world as it really is. False.

110. Kant suggests that we derive our individuality from the unique collection of categories each of our minds contains. False. 111. Russell Hunt thinks it is a good thing that the rise in plagiarism is challenging the validity of the traditional grading system. True. 112. Stanley Fish did not mind that his work was plagiarized. FALSE110. According to Stanley Fish, plagiarism is not a philosophical issue. True.

CHAPTER THREE METAPHYSICS AND PHILOSOPHY OF MIND Multiple Choice 1. Metaphysics, in modern philosophy, refers to: A. things that are beyond physics. B. the study of the principles of physical motion. C. the study of the most fundamental principles of the nature of things. D. the study of phenomena which are beyond nature. E. the study of the unknowable. Answer: C 2. A philosopher who believes in the existence of physical matter: A. might be an idealist. B. must be a materialist. C. might be either a dualist or a materialist. D. must be a dualist. E. can't be a dualist. Answer: C 3. Which of the following were materialists? A. Descartes B. Hobbes C. The Greek atomists D. Kant E. Both B and C Answer: E 4. In Leviathan, Hobbes claimed: A. none of our motions are voluntary. B. all of our motions are voluntary. C. our "vital" motions are involuntary, but our "animal" motions are voluntary. D. our "animal" motions are involuntary, but our "vital" motions are voluntary. E. voluntary motions can be performed without an act of will. Answer: C 5. In Thomas Hobbes terminology, an "endeavor" is: A. conscious attempt to do or make something. B. tiny, invisible bodily motion toward or away from something. C. long term project to accomplish something. D. deliberate attempt to oppose one's own will. E. None of the above Answer: B

6. According to Hobbes, when I'm deliberating about whether to reach out and grasp an object: A. I physically move back and forth, toward and away from the object. B. I consider the matter in my mind, and move only after I've made a decision. C. I'm considering performing a "vital" action. D. the evidence of my senses cannot influence the process. E. None of the above Answer: A 7. According to the consciousness objection: A. a sufficiently complex machine might be conscious. B. consciousness is incompatible with voluntary action. C. none of us are truly conscious. D. people are conscious if and only if machines are. E. no mere machine can be self-aware. Answer: E 8. If the consciousness objection is sound: A. Hobbes was correct. B. idealism is false. C. dualism is false. D. materialism is false. E. all of our actions are causally determined. Answer: D 9. Hobbes denies that: A. we are free to choose our actions. B. our actions are causally determined. C. humans are just complicated machines. D. sense organs can affect brain activity. E. None of the above Answer: A 10. The point of the example with the very large and very small dominoes is to: A. prove that invisible things exist. B. challenge the consciousness objection. C. show that our perception that we act freely doesn't prove that we in fact do so. D. prove that we act freely. E. None of the above Answer: C 11. According to Hobbes, when I say someone has acted freely I’m: A. necessarily mistaken.

B. saying that his action wasn't physically caused. C. saying that no outside force prevented him from doing what he decided to do. D. Both B and C E. None of the above Answer: C 12. According to Hobbes, if I'm robbed at gunpoint: A. I act freely when I give up my wallet. B. my fear of death prevents my acting freely. C. my duty to preserve my life makes my actions necessary, not free. D. my actions are physically determined, and thus not free. E. the robber's actions are physically determined, and thus he is not morally responsible for them. Answer: A 13. Hobbes and Hume agree that: A. freedom of the will is impossible. B. we are always morally responsible for our actions. C. human actions are determined. D. causal judgments are invalid. E. None of the above Answer: C 14. It's central to Kant's resolution of the determinism/free will debate that: A. physics is an incomplete science. B. causation is a scientific concept, not an ethical one. D. physics tells us only about the world as it appears to us, not about how it is in independent reality. D. we are causally determined in the realm of independent reality. E. we are free from the standpoint of the realm of appearance. Answer: C 15. Who argued that our everyday human activity presupposed that our actions were causally determined? A. Kant B. Hume C. Hobbes D. Leibniz E. The Greek atomists Answer: B 16. Kant says those who believe there is a real conflict between free will and determination: A. are contradicting themselves. B. mistakenly believe in the absolute reality of appearances. C. mistakenly believe in a cause-effect relation.

D. mistakenly believe in laws of nature. E. All of the above Answer: B 17. The mind-body problem poses a difficulty chiefly for A. materialists. B. idealists. C. dualists. D. Both A and C E. Both B and C Answer: D 18. Which of the following is not a form of the mind-body problem? A. How do minds and bodies causally interact? B. What is the special relationship between my mind and my body? C. How can minds know anything about bodies? D. Do I exist as a thinking thing? E. All of the above are forms of the mind-body problem. Answer: D 19. According to Descartes, the properties of physical objects include: A. intention. B. extension. C. rational order. D. purpose. E. None of the above Answer: B 20. The view the author calls the "everything-is-a-body" theory is: A. determinism. B. universalism. C. psycho-physical dualism. D. materialism. E. skepticism. Answer: D 21. Someone who believes that "bodies" are actually collections of ideas is a: A. materialist. B. psycho-physical dualist. C. Cartesian dualist. D. idealist. E. nihilist. Answer: D

22. Which of the following is a materialist? A. Kant B. Leibniz C. Berkeley D. Descartes E. None of the above Answer: E 23. Which of the following would J. J. C. Smart not count as matter? A. Lightning B. Gravitational fields C. Neutrons D. Light E. Smart considers all of the above to be matter. Answer: E 24. To say that the experience of seeing a green apple should itself be green is what Smart calls: A. an irreducible law. B. the phenomenological fallacy. C. billiard-ball physics. D. the mind-body problem. E. the cosmological fallacy. Answer: B 25. One of Norman Malcolm's objections to Smart's materialism is that: A. there's no such thing as a "brain state." B. materialism seems to deny the existence of God. C. there are no psycho-physical laws. D. Smart's definition of matter is too inclusive. E. brain phenomena have spatial locations, but emotions don't. Answer: E 26. Which of the following is not a question of metaphysics? A. Does the past exist? B. Does God exist? C. Must knowledge be certain? D. Could there exist a universe without time? E. What is the relationship between the mind and the body? Answer: C 27. According to Descartes, bodies are: A. complex. B. extended. C. composite.

D. unconscious. E. All of the above Answer: E 28. Descartes’ motivations in developing the official dualist viewpoint did not include a desire to: A. found a new theory of the universe. B. extend mathematics to the realm of the physical. C. find a place in the material world for immaterial mind. D. confirm Scholastic doctrine. E. demonstrate the possibility of immortality. Answer: D 29. Which of the following are not substances, according to traditional metaphysical usage? A. A horse B. A man C. A smile D. A soul E. An essence Answer: C 30. Which philosophical theory explicitly rejects Cartesian interactionism? A. Materialism B. Idealism C. Epiphenomenalism D. Occasionalism E. Neutral Monism Answer: E 31. How many registered “residents” are there in Second Life? A. Several hundred B. Approximately seven-hundred thousand C. Nearly one million D. More than eight million E. More than fifty million Answer: D 32. What is a Digital Person? A. A computer technician who specializes in virtual world graphics B. Anyone who has an avatar in Second Life C. Someone who conducts business anonymously through an avatar D. A computer program that simulates human behavior E. A member of a political organization seeking to ban the Internet Anwer: C 33. Why doesn’t the Order of Cosmic Engineers allow Digital People to be voting members of its ruling body? A. Because the anonymity of the Digital People makes them hard to trust B. Because one real person could vote twice by creating two avatars C. Because Digital People are run by computers not human beings

D. Because Digital People have united to promote a dangerous political agenda E. Because the Order of Cosmic Engineers is biased in favor of real people. Answer: B

CHAPTER THREE METAPHYSICS AND PHILOSOPHY OF MIND True/False 34. Our word "metaphysics" is derived from a Greek term meaning "the books which come after the physics." True. 35. What philosophers call "metaphysics" is the same area of study that Aristotle called "first philosophy." True. 36. "Does the soul exist?" is a theological, not a metaphysical, question. False. 37. Philosophers don't argue so much about whether particular things exist, but about what sorts of things exist. True. 38. Hobbes, as a materialist, disagreed with the theories of the Greek atomists. False. 39. The key problem for a materialist is how to explain the human mind and will in terms of physics. True. 40. Hobbes argues that human beings must be something more than just complicated machines. False. 41. Hobbes divided all human motions into two sorts--vital motions and animal motions. True. 42. Both appetites and aversions are kinds of endeavors, according to Hobbes. True. 43. Modern neurophysiological explanations of voluntary actions are not materialistic. False. 44. Hobbes has no reply to the consciousness objection. False. 45. According to the consciousness objection, we are not merely material beings. True. 46. If our actions are causally determined, we're never morally responsible for our actions. True. 47. According to Hobbes, I can act "freely" even if my actions are causally determined. True. 48. Hobbes believed there was no contradiction between saying (i) that I did something freely, and (ii) that I couldn't have chosen to do anything else. True. 49. Hume believes that human actions have the same causal regularity that the movement of the planets does. True. 50. Kant tries to resolve the conflict between free will and determinism by appealing to the difference between appearance and reality. True. 51. Science, according to Kant, gives us knowledge of independent reality. False. 52. Kant says physical causation does not take place within the realm of appearance. False.

53. "Autonomous" comes from a Greek expression meaning "beyond the law." False. 54. According to Descartes, every object in the physical universe has an immaterial spirit. False. 55. The problem of other minds is an epistemological problem. True. 56. According to Kant, if the things we perceive are things-in-themselves, freedom is impossible. True. 57. According to the traditional theory of substance, minds can only interact with other minds. True. 58. Materialism is the only one-substance theory considered in this chapter. False. 59. According to Smart, all psychological laws and properties are reducible to physical laws and properties. True. 60. Smart's central claim is that states of consciousness are identical with states of the brain. True. 61. Descartes attempted to articulate the teleological purposiveness of material nature. False. 62. Descartes believed that mind and body were separate substances, and not just conceptual distinct. True. 63. According to Descartes, the fundamental property of mental substance is immortality. False. 64. Materialism and idealism are both kinds of monism. True. 65. Gilbert Ryle derived his dualistic view from Descartes. False. 66. The university is an example of what Ryle calls a “category mistake.” True. 67. Contemporary philosophers rarely refer to the mind as a substance. True. 68. According to our author, the mental is inextricably tied to the physical. True. 69. All claims of identity reduce to claims of identity of meaning or sense. False. 70. The identity of the evening and the morning star is only contingent identity. True. 71. According to our author, Descartes’ dream of a unified theory has not been achieved. True. 72. Sue Hoogestraat does not mind that her real life husband has a virtual wife in Second Life. False. 73. Ric Hoogestraat justifies his time spent in Second Life by comparing it to his wife’s time spent watching television. True. 74. Avatars can contract virtually fatal diseases and virtually die. True.

CHAPTER FOUR PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Multiple Choice 1. According to the author, the most influential of the 19th century social thinkers was: A. Charles Darwin. B. Karl Marx. C. Albert Einstein. D. Thomas Kuhn. E. Francis Bacon. Answer: B 2. Science became a dominant force in our lives: A. at the time of Socrates. B. in 13th century France. C. soon after the publication of Bacon's New Organon. D. in 1632, when Galileo published his astronomical views. E. during the last century. Answer: E

3. According to Marx, "scientific" is a (n) A. term that should be applied only to theories about physics, chemistry, and biology. B. unfamiliar term. C. term of high praise for any theory. D. term denoting rigid thought. E. term no social theorist would want applied to his theories. Answer: C 4. Bacon is best known for: A. defending the idea that the earth revolves around the sun. B. his famous debate with Galileo. C. writing the Sidereus Nuncius. D. laying the foundations of scientific method. E. his contributions to the science of astronomy. Answer: D 5. An organon is a (n) A. system of scientific investigation. B. kind of star chart. C. early type of astronomical telescope. D. religious publication. E. musical composition.

Answer: A 6. Bacon believed the key to scientific investigation was: A. deductive reasoning. B. mathematics. C. proper instruments. D. observation. E. inspiration. Answer: D 7. Bacon was a: A. relativist. B. skeptic. C. empiricist. D. rationalist. E. None of the above Answer: C 8. Bacon believed that the scientists before him: A. had the right method, but didn't apply it correctly. B. were primarily empiricists. C. derived their axioms "from the senses and particulars." D. were using the same method in science that they used in mathematics. E. None of the above Answer: D 9. Bacon would agree that: A. there is only one way to discover truth. B. math is the basis of all science. C. observations must be guided by theory. D. deductive reasoning is the key to science. E. empiricism is the best approach to science. Answer: E 10. What Bacon calls "forms" we would be more likely to call: A. objects. B. theories. C. methods. D. properties. E. maxims. Answer: D 11. In Bacon's method, the next step after making Tables of Presence and Absence is to:

A. apply deductive logic to the Tables. B. construct Tables of Increase and Decrease. C. compare the Tables of Presence and Absence to each other. D. make guesses about the form and check them against the Tables. E. deduce the character of the form under investigation. Answer: D 12. If Bentham were to study the nature of sweetness, which of the following would not be part of his method? A. Making a list of sweet substances B. Making a list of substances that are not sweet C. Specifying which things are more or less sweet D. Checking hypotheses about the nature of sweetness against the lists E. Making a list of all the other properties possessed by sweet things Answer: E 13. Which of the following would Bacon not have considered suitable for scientific study? A. Weight B. Redness C. Atoms D. Happiness E. Acidity Answer: C 14. Bacon believes the purpose of scientific inquiry is to: A. gain knowledge for the sake of knowledge. B. improve the human intellect. C. gain control of nature. D. understand nature. E. help eliminate our false beliefs. Answer: C 15. If Bacon's view is correct: A. observations he made in the 17th century are still useful today. B. theory-neutral observations are impossible. C. scientists must avoid religious questions. D. pure science need not have any practical applications. E. science, like art, never progresses, but only changes. Answer: A 16. According to a rationalist approach to science: A. observation is pointless. B. observations must be theory neutral. C. celestial and terrestrial objects are fundamentally different. D. the collection of empirical data must be guided by theory.

E. science is not independent of social influences. Answer: D 17. Newton's derivation of the laws of planetary and terrestrial motion from a single set of axioms was a (n): A. demonstration of the power of Bacon's methods. B. important success of empirical science. C. important success of the rationalist approach to science. D. refutation of Kepler's work. E. refutation of Galileo's work. Answer: C 18. In an experiment: A. two competing hypotheses are tested to see which is better. B. some observations are relevant, and others aren't. C. observations are always theory neutral. D. every observation is relevant. E. None of the above Answer: B 19. If you were a scientist planning a research project, Kuhn's theory would tell you that you should: A. hire only young scientists. B. be sure all your researchers share the same paradigm. C. move as quickly as possible from one paradigm to the next. D. avoid anomalies. E. Kuhn says nothing about what we "should" do. Answer: E 20. According to Kuhn, the Copernican view replaced the Ptolemaic because: A. it explained current data better. B. it made more correct predictions. C. it turned out to be true. D. the Ptolemaic system had socially unacceptable implications. E. None of the above Answer: E 21. Kuhn's view is that: A. scientific views only appear to change. B. scientific development consists of long periods of calm, punctuated by occasional periods of sudden forward progress. C. scientific progress is slow but steady. D. the most reasonable scientific view must ultimately triumph. E. None of the above Answer: E

22. Which of the following is not a technical term of Kuhn's view? A. Normal science B. Falsification C. Scientific revolution D. Paradigm E. All of the above Answer: B 23. Kuhn denies that: A. science is progressive. B. science is an institution. C. scientific facts change over time. D. science is productive. E. None of the above. Answer: A 24. Kuhn's view is that science: A. gives the truth about nature and is progressive. B. gives the truth about nature and isn't progressive. C. is progressive, but can't provide the truth about nature. D. can be progressive if we follow his advice. E. None of the above Answer: E 25. Which of the following would Kuhn say was a paradigm? A. Hypnosis B. Isaac Newton C. Newtonian physics D. Abstract art E. Astrology Answer: C 26. An important characteristic of a paradigm is that is: A. it must be original enough to attract adherents. B. it should be correct, or at least close. C. it should resolve all important problems in its field. D. it should not be "open-ended." E. All of the above Answer: A 27. A pre-requisite for the conduct of Normal Science, Kuhn tells us, is: A. fruitful disagreement among scientists. B. constant questioning of fundamental assumptions. C. a shared paradigm among researchers.

D. continual progress from each paradigm to its successor. E. All of the above Answer: C 28. According to Kuhn, a scientific revolution: A. occurs when the old paradigm is proved false. B. occurs when the new paradigm is proved true. C. is something that ought to occur, but never does in actual scientific practice. D. is when a new paradigm builds upon and extends an old one. E. None of the above Answer: E 29. Kuhn says a paradigm succeeds when: A. it is proven right. B. it attracts enough important followers. C. enough evidence accumulates in its favor. D. it solves all the problems left by its predecessor. E. None of the above Answer: B 30. According to Kuhn, a progressive accumulation of knowledge takes place: A. during periods of normal science. B. during paradigm shifts. C. during crises. D. only outside of science. E. Never Answer: A 31. The discovery of a counter-instance to a paradigm: A. falsifies the paradigm. B. will cause the paradigm to be renounced by its followers. C. provokes a crisis. D. None of the above E. All of the above Answer: C 32. According to Kuhn, a scientific theory is rejected: A. when a falsifying observation is encountered and publicized. B. based on a comparison of the theory with the world. C. anytime it begins to produce severe anomalies. D. when it produces severe anomalies and an alternative view is available. E. under no circumstances. Answer: D

33. The period of time between a scientist's rejection of one paradigm and his acceptance of another: A. is the only time theory neutral observations are possible. B. is determined by the age of the scientist. C. is a period of puzzle-solving. D. occurs during a time of normal science. E. There is no such period of time. Answer: E 34. If Kuhn is correct, then: A. what counts as a fact is socially determined. B. only theory neutral observations are scientifically valid. C. science will end when we all accept the same paradigm. D. experiments are irrelevant to science. E. None of the above Answer: A 35. Kuhn says that paradigm change: A. is an irrational process. B. consists of a struggle between two competing paradigms. C. is determined by subjective factors. D. occurs within a single paradigm. E. None of the above Answer: B 36. The point of Ackerman's "lost children" example is to: A. show that science progresses because of the efforts of a few exceptional individuals. B. illustrate Kuhn's theory. C. show how science should be done. D. show that credit for successes belongs to science as an institution, rather than to individual scientists. E. show that credit for successes belongs to individuals who employ original techniques. Answer: D 37. The efforts of a particular scientific researcher should be judged by: A. his or her success or failure. B. the success or failure of the research program he or she is taking part in. C. how well the scientist carries out his or her role in the program. D. the originality of his or her thought. E. A scientist's efforts can't be judged. Answer: C 38. For Popper, science can be distinguished from pseudo-science: A. only by recognized practitioners of science. B. because the former is falsifiable. C. because the latter has been proven false.

D. because all swans are white. E. because the former fails to make predictions. Answer: B 39. According to Popper, all observation is: A. theory neutral. B. theory laden. C. unfalsifiable. D. underdetermined by theory. E. relative to a particular paradigm. Answer: B 40. Which of the following criteria are not standardly applied when evaluating competing scientific theories? A. Testability B. Predictive power C. Plausibility D. Simplicity E. Relevance Answer: C 41. Which Philosopher argues for a “success” criterion in evaluating scientific theory? A. Larry Laudan B. P.D. Magnus C. Irving Copi D. Phillip Kitcher E. Paul Feyerabend Answer: D 42. What percentage of Americans reject evolution, believing instead that all of life was created by God within the last 10,000 years? A. 10 B 20 C. 40 D. 60 E. 80 Answer: C 43. Ken Ham denies that evolution is a fact because: A. it is not observable. B. there is contrary evidence. C. most people do not believe it. D. it is too hard to understand. E. he doesn’t believe in facts. Answer: A 44. Richard Dawkins argues that evolution is a fact because: A. it is consistent with the Bible.

B most people believe it. C. it is the best inference from the evidence. D. there is no way to disprove it. E. there is no other explanation of what we observe. Answer: C

CHAPTER FOUR PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE True/False 45. The four most influential modern thinkers were all scientists. False. 46. Copernicus was the first thinker to publicly assert that the earth was not the center of the solar system. False. 47. Bacon contributed more to the development of scientific method than to the accumulation of scientific fact. True. 48. Bacon thought he could state, once and for all, how scientific investigations should be carried out. True. 49. Bacon really didn't take sides in the debate between the rationalists and the empiricists. False. 50. Bacon held that careful logical analysis was more important than mere observation. False. 51. Bacon's advances were due in large part to the invention of the telescope and other scientific instruments. False. 52. Bacon took an essentially rationalist approach to scientific inquiry. False. 53. Bacon thought that the same methods used in mathematics would provide a foundation for scientific method. False. 54. Bacon thought mathematical truths and truths of nature must be discovered in fundamentally different ways. True. 55. According to Bacon, the first step in a scientific investigation is to carefully define the true nature of the "form" being studied. False. 56. According to Bacon, the proper objects of scientific investigation are "forms." True. 57. The composition of Tables of Presence and Absence must be guided by a clear understanding of the form under investigation. False. 58. According to Bacon, the proper objects of scientific investigation are characteristics of things readily apparent to the unaided senses. True. 59. Bacon says a muster of instances must be made "in the manner of a history." True. 60. A theory-neutral observation would never need to be thrown out by later scientists. True. 61. If there are theory-neutral observations, then science should show steady progress. True.

62. Bacon and Kuhn agree that scientific observations must be theory-neutral. False. 63. Newton used Bacon's methods in deriving the laws of celestial and terrestrial motion. False. 64. The word "experiment" comes from a Latin term meaning "to try." True. 65. Bacon's gathering of observations into Tables was what rationalists would call an experiment. False. 66. According to Kuhn, the scientists who turn out to be right are those whose theories best explain the available data. False. 67. Kuhn's views were intended only to describe science in the 20th century. False. 68. Kuhn shows us that there's no such thing as "normal science." False. 69. Kuhn holds that textbooks play no meaningful role in science. False. 70. Bacon tells us how science ought to be conducted, rather than how it actually is. True. 71. Kuhn says nothing about how science ought to be conducted. True. 72. Kuhn says that it's good for a paradigm to leave a number of unsolved problems. True. 73. In periods of normal science, scientists are primarily puzzle-solvers. True. 74. According to Kuhn, research under a paradigm will inevitably lead to the abandonment of that paradigm. True. 75. According to Kuhn, it is impossible to conduct research in the absence of a paradigm. True. 76. It is impossible for a scientist who has been educated, trained, and conducted research under one paradigm to fully shift to another. False. 77. The process of paradigm change involves a struggle between two opposed paradigms. True. 78. Kuhn denied the existence of any scientific facts. False. 79. Kuhn deliberately portrayed scientific change as an irrational, subjective process. False. 80. Kuhn showed that paradigm change always takes place within a larger, more inclusive paradigm. False. 81. A scientist's performance can best be judged by the results of his or her research. False. 82. Ackerman's "lost children" example shows that scientists should organize themselves to research as a group, rather than as individuals. True.

83. One implication of Ackerman's "lost children" example is that researchers should be given incentives to follow research strategies which have only a small chance of success. True. 84. Ackerman's example of the search for the lost children suggests that an effective research program must be centrally organized. False. 85. According to Popper, no scientific theory can ever be conclusively falsified. False. 86. According to Popper, no scientific theory can ever be conclusively verified. True. 87. Popper views scientific theories as provisionally true. True. 88. Popper thinks all observation is selective and not theory-neutral. True. 89. Most contemporary thinkers consider all scientific knowledge merely a matter of convention. False. 90. In assessing competing theories, the simpler theory is often preferable. True. 91. In assessing theories, the more innovative of two theories is preferable. True. 92. In assessing theories, empirical testability is an irrelevant consideration. False. 93. The textual example of hormone research exemplifies the under determination thesis. True. 94. According to Kitcher, a science is successful when it provides the means to numerous, diverse hypothetical ends which would not be easily achieved individually. True. 95. The author of our text ultimately agrees with Feyerabend’s pluralist viewpoint on scientific truth. False. 96. There are no black swans. False. 97. The Pope and the Archbishop of Canterbury reject evolution. False. 98. According to Ken Ham, evolution is a religion. True. 99. Creationists maintain that the world was created by evolution. False.

CHAPTER FIVE ETHICAL THEORY Multiple Choice 1. Kant held that the proper foundation of morality could be established by: A. consulting religious doctrine. B. divine inspiration. C. the use of reason alone. D. careful observation of human society. E. Any of the above Answer: C 2. The field of ethics includes the study of: A. which character traits are good and bad. B. how we ought to act. C. what a good person is. D. Both A and B E . All of the above Answer: E 3. For Kant, the central problem of ethics is: A. determining what one ought to do. B. to reconcile science with the commands of God. C. to do what is right even in the face of temptation. D. how to develop a good character. E. to come to know oneself fully. Answer: C 4. Kant wanted to reconcile his ethical views with: A. the views of the skeptics. B. his religious faith. C. the views of the relativists. D. All of the above E. None of the above Answer: B 5. A "hard case" is a moral dilemma in which: A. one is tempted to do what one knows is wrong. B. a moral theory gives the wrong answer. C. a moral theory gives no answer at all. D. a person's ordinary moral instincts are confused. E. None of the above

Answer: D 6. For Plato and his contemporaries, the central ethical question was which of the following? A. How can one achieve the good life? B. How can we overcome temptation? C. How can religion and morality be reconciled? D. How can we come to know our duties? E. What rights does every person possess? Answer: A 7. Which of the following does the author not present as a reason for studying ethics? A. To discover universally valid principles of conduct B. To discover how best to promote the welfare of society C. To find the "good life" D. To find a way to help us make real-world ethical decisions E. He presents all of the above as reasons for studying ethics. Answer: B 8. People who claim there is no real disagreement over moral norms explain their view by saying: A. no universally valid moral principles exist. B. no one has the right to judge another person. C. the disagreement is over the facts of the case only. D. morality is a matter of personal choice. E. None of the above Answer: C 9. Ethical relativism is the view that: A. whether an act is right can never be known. B. the rightness of an act is relative to the amount of goodness it produces. C. no acts are really right or wrong. D. the rightness of an act depends upon the society in which it is performed. E. None of the above Answer: D 10. According to ethical skeptics A. there can't be any right or wrong actions. B. everyone's moral code is equally valid. C. if there are any morally right acts, we have no way to know what they are. D. we should only follow proven ethical principles. E. None of the above Answer: C 11. Ethical nihilism is the view that:

A. there may be morally right acts, but we have no way of telling what they are. B. no actions are ever morally right or morally wrong. C. the moral character of an action depends on the norms of society. D. we have no right to judge the actions of others. E. None of the above Answer: B 12. Who of the following is an ethical relativist? A. Plato B. Kant C. Hume D. Benedict E. Bentham Answer: D 13. Ruth Benedict believes that "it is morally good" is synonymous with: A. "it produces the best results." B. "it is habitual." C. "it is in accord with moral law." D. "it follows the golden rule." E. "it is morally required." Answer: B 14. Who might claim that "Killing is wrong" is the same sort of judgment as "Okra is revolting"? A. Kant B. An ethical nihilist C. David Hume D. An ethical realist E. Jeremy Bentham Answer: B 15. Kant intended his categorical imperative to be: A. the foundational principle of all ethics. B. a refutation of the Golden Rule. C. one of the several elements of the Moral Law. D. a principle of thought, but not behavior. E. All of the above Answer: A 16. Kant believed that the categorical imperative was a: A. new principle of morality. B. principle explaining people's underlying motivations. C. more precise statement of the Golden Rule. D. rough guide to action, not an absolute rule. E. None of the above

Answer: C 17. By "rational agent," Kant means a person who: A. always follows the commands of the categorical imperative. B. knows how to make inferences from one set of propositions to another. C. acts according to his desires. D. can make judgments about the nature of the world. E. can move himself to act by reason. Answer: E 18. At the heart of Kant's ethical view is the idea that: A. what's morally right varies from culture to culture. B. reason is the slave of the passions. C. persons have infinite worth. D. God is the author of moral law. E. None of the above Answer: C 19. According to Kant, when moral agents reason about what they ought to do: A. they should be moved by desire as well as by reason. B. they should consider all the particulars of their situations. C. their conclusions will be maxims, or personal rules of conduct. D. they should concentrate on those facts that hold for all rational beings. E. None of the above Answer: D 20. Whose ethical theory places the greatest emphasis on formulating rules for guiding our actions? A. Bentham B. Mill C. Kant D. Plato E. Jaggar Answer: C 21. Objects Kant would say have only conditional value include: A. objects produced by human action. B. things whose existence is an end in itself. C. things produced by nature. D. Both A and C E. All of the above Answer: D 22. In Kant's "kingdom of ends":

A. everyone obeys laws he gives himself. B. everyone obeys the universal moral law. C. everyone acts rationally. D. everything has either a price or dignity. E. All of the above Answer: E 23. Among the things Kant counts as having intrinsic worth is/are: A. skill and diligence in work. B. imagination and humor. C. kindness based on principle. D. emotion honestly felt. E. All of the above Answer: C 24. Who of the following was not a utilitarian? A. Lucretius B. Epicurus C. David Hume D. Jeremy Bentham E. John Stuart Mill Answer: C 25. The underlying principle of utilitarianism is sometimes called the: A. kingdom of ends. B. best of all possible worlds. C. Golden Rule. D. Greatest Happiness Principle. E. rule of reason. Answer: D 26. According to Bentham, an act is right if it: A. produces pleasure. B. produces more pleasure than pain. C. maximizes the pleasure of the person acting. D. maximizes the pleasure of everyone affected by the act. E. None of the above Answer: D 27. Whose ethical theory requires us to calculate quantities of pain and pleasure? A. Plato B. Hume C. Kant D. feminist ethical theorists E. Bentham

Answer: E 28. According to Bentham, the happiness of a community: A. is a function of the freedom permitted to its members. B. is the sum total of the happiness of its individual members. C. is no greater than the happiness of its least fortunate member. D. can be judged only by its members. E. None of the above Answer: B 29. According to Bentham, ethical "hard choices": A. can be solved by simply counting up all the pleasures and pains involved. B. can only be resolved by giving up utilitarianism. C. are not common enough to be important. D. are caused by selfishness. E. can be solved only by moral relativism. Answer: A 30. Bentham holds that it's morally permissible to lie if: A. you don't mean to hurt anyone. B. you would want someone else in the same situation to lie to you. C. the total happiness produced by telling the truth would be less. D. only evil people are hurt by it. E. Never Answer: C 31. According to the author, the most impressive advantage of utilitarianism is that it: A. shows any type of act (e.g. lying) might, under the right circumstances, be morally right. B. explains what pleasure is. C. provides a criterion for judging legislation. D. reduces complex moral problems to problems of investigation and addition. E. doesn't require us to assume the existence of God. Answer: D 32. One of the most important objections to utilitarianism is that: A. it's too simple to account for all ethical situations. B. it sometimes requires us to perform types of acts (e.g. lying) that we strongly believe are immoral. C. not everyone wants to be happy. D. it fails to define "happiness." E. None of the above Answer: B 33. According to rule utilitarianism:

A. each of us must adopt a set of personal moral rules that maximize utility. B. governments should enact laws that maximize utility, and enforce them fairly. C. the results of our actions don't matter, only the rules of conduct we follow. D. only the happiness of the ruling class matters. E. None of the above Answer: B 34. The point of the "Torture of the Week" example is to show that: A. we don't really understand the Principle of Utility. B. a society is only as morally good as the people who compose it. C. we need to revise our common notion of "happiness." D. Kant was correct. E. if act utilitarianism is correct, then some obviously immoral acts are permissible. Answer: E 35. One morally relevant difference between the suffering of workers on a municipal project and the suffering of the guest stars on "Torture of the Week" is the: A. torture victims provide pleasure to viewers, while the workers do not. B. workers are paid, but the victims are not. C. workers participate voluntarily, but the victims do not. D. All of the above E. None of the above Answer: C 36. According to Bentham, all pleasures are equal, except that: A. some last longer than others. B. intellectual pleasures are better than physical ones. C. some are more intense than others. D. Both A and B E. Both A and C Answer: E 37. Those who've considered the problem agree that the key to a healthy personality is: A. being honest with oneself. B. discovering the proper internal ordering of the self. C. behaving autonomously. D. to seek pleasure and avoid pain. E. to recognize that humans have infinite worth. Answer: B 38. Who of the following claims it is possible to be truly happy only in a virtuous society? A. Marcus Aurelius B. Kant C. Plato

D. Hume E. None of the above Answer: C 39. Which of the following was one of Plato's three parts of the soul? A. justice B. appetite C. imagination D. morality E. None of the above Answer: B 40. The portion of a just soul which rules over the others is A. the reason. B. autonomy. C. the spirited part. D. the authority. E. No part of the soul rules over others. Answer: A 41. A just person, according to Plato, is one: A. who acts autonomously. B. who obeys the laws of the state. C. who knows his place in society. D. who never acts selfishly. E. in whom each part of the soul exercises its proper function. Answer: E 42. According to Plato, wickedness in a person: A. occurs only in unjust societies. B. is an inborn flaw. C. is analogous to civil strife in a state. D. can never be cured. E. None of the above Answer: C 43. Sigmund Freud agreed with Plato that: A. a person's psychological well-being is closely connected to his or her social setting. B. every person passes through an identity crisis. C. the mind should be explored through systematic scientific investigation. D. mental disharmony is closely connected with physical disharmony. E. None of the above Answer: D

44. An identity crisis occurs when: A. we attempt to specify the relation between body and mind. B. an adult in mid-life questions his or her choice of lifestyle and career. C. a teenager reaches a period of instability and personality formation. D. a child grows to realize he is part of a family, and not just an individual. E. None of the above Answer: C 45. Erikson's "ego integrity": A. is achieved during the crises of the teenage years. B. is an understanding reached between parent and child. C. is a condition we should eventually grow out of. D. may be achieved by those who have lived the cycle from childhood to maturity. E. None of the above Answer: D 46. What Erikson calls "ego integrity" is much like what: A. Bentham calls "utility." B. Plato calls "temperance." C. Kant calls "moral worth." D. Plato calls "wisdom." E. Freud calls "identity." Answer: D 47. Jaggar believes that feminist ethics means: A. substituting feminine values for masculine ones. B. putting women's interests first. C. focusing exclusively on women's issues. D. None of the above E. All of the above Answer: D 48. According to Jaggar, a condition any adequate feminist ethics must meet is to: A. accept the moral experience of all women uncritically. B. address both public and private ethical issues. C. focus exclusively on issues of domination. D. All of the above E. None of the above Answer: B 49. The emphasis on duty and obligation in ethical theory was primarily introduced by: A. Plato. B. Hume.

C. Kant. D. feminist ethical theorists. E. the utilitarians. Answer: C 50. Contemporary virtue ethicists trace their ideas back to: A. Bentham. B. Hume. C. Kant. D. Aristotle. E. feminist ethical theorists. Answer: D 51. Which of the following would Aristotle consider an intellectual virtue? A. Courage B. Judgment C. Liberality D. Temperance E. Modesty Answer: B 52. Which of the following arguments against virtue ethics are not addressed in the text? A. Virtue ethics is circular. B. Virtue ethics fails to account for moral obligations, promises, and the like. C. Virtue ethics lacks the principle necessary to defend against relativist attacks. D. Virtue ethics does not answer the question, “What should I do?” E. Virtue ethics lacks the principle necessary to defend itself against skeptical attacks. Answer: B 53. According to Julian Savulescuno human genetic enhancement is morally: A. permissible B. obligatory C. wrong D. neutral E. incomprehensible Answer: B 54. Michael Sandel is against human genetic enhancement because he thinks: A. changing our nature deadens the impulse for social and political improvement. B. genetic science is too dangerous and unpredictable to apply to young children. C. everyone will choose to have male children and there will be too few females in the world. D. the Bible clearly implies that it is wrong. E. environmental enhancements are much more effective. Answer: A 55. In Walter Mischel’s experiment, what characteristic among four year olds predicted more friends, better academic performance, and more motivation to succeed ten years later?

A. IQ B. Sex C. Impulse control D. Nutritious diet E. Parental affection Answer: C

CHAPTER FIVE ETHICAL THEORY True/False 56. In philosophy, ethics is the systematic study of how we ought to act. True. 57. Kant believed science posed an important challenge to the claim that we are free to choose our actions. True. 58. Kant held that ethical truths could never be "proven." False. 59. So-called "hard-cases" occur only in discussions of ethical theory, and not in real life. False. 60. One of Kant's main ethical projects was the definition and achievement of "the good life." False. 61. Plato is the philosopher most often associated with the claim that the truly happy life is a life of virtuousness. True. 62. Some anthropologists have actually conducted surveys of moral norms. True. 63. Ethical skepticism is the view that we can never know with certainty the answers to moral questions. True. 64. According to Ruth Benedict, careful study of various cultures will show that there are numerous moral principles common to all of them. False. 65. According to the author, Immanuel Kant is the strongest opponent of ethical relativism. True. 66. Kant believed the categorical imperative was a new principle of morality. False. 67. A categorical imperative is a command that orders us to do something unconditionally. True. 68. Kant's ethical concerns centered on following moral law, and gave little consideration to human dignity. False. 69. According to Kant, persons have conditional value. False. 70. Kant held that we can move ourselves to act by desire rather than reason. False. 71. Hume believed that "reason is, and only ought to be, the slave of the passions." True. 72. Kant tells us that to act according to the moral law requires us to surrender our autonomy. False. 73. If Kant is right about the nature of persons, it never makes sense to ask if we have acted rationally. False.

74. Kant holds that saying a person has infinite worth is just another way of stating the categorical imperative. True. 75. According to Kant, persons are simply subjective ends. False. 76. Kant's "kingdom of ends" is a society that lives according to the categorical imperative. True. 77. To be autonomous means to refuse to obey any law or command. False. 78. The founder of modern utilitarianism was John Stuart Mill. False. 79. According to Bentham, "pleasurable" means the same as "good." True. 80. Bentham intends the Principle of Utility to apply to individuals only, and not to governments, corporations, etc. False. 81. Bentham's primary concern as a philosopher was social reform. True. 82. If utilitarianism is true, then it might sometimes be morally permissible to commit adultery. True. 83. According to utilitarianism, we should keep our promises and tell the truth, no matter what the result. False. 84. Part of Bentham's intent in formulating utilitarianism was to reform the English legal system. True. 85. Act utilitarianism has particular difficulty accounting for the rights of persons. True. 86. Bentham thought that the only difference between two pleasures was their duration and intensity. True. 87. Marcus Aurelius held that we can only achieve inner peace and harmony in a just and virtuous society. False. 88. Karl Marx drew an analogy between a healthy mind and a healthy body. False. 89. Plato draws an analogy between the individual soul and society as a whole. True. 90. According to Plato, justice in a person is exactly the same thing that justice in a state is. True. 91. According to Plato, a brave person is one whose spirited part ignores the warnings of reason. False. 92. Plato holds that wickedness in a person is brought about by one's way of life. True. 93. Plato believes that living the just life is not only morally right, but also more profitable than living wickedly. True. 94. The term "identity crisis" was coined by Sigmund Freud. False.

95. The author points out that Erik Erikson has some strong similarities to Plato. True. 96. Erikson's "ego integrity" is very much like what Plato calls "temperance." False. 97. Erikson holds that a fear of death indicates a lack of ego integrity. True. 98. Some feminist theorists think the real difference between men and women is the ways they are treated differently by society. True. 99. Jaggar believes that feminist ethics must be an extension of politics. True. 100. Jaggar insists that ethicists must approach moral questions in a neutral, disinterested fashion. False. 101. True.

According to the author, the primary target of feminist ethical theorists is the Kantian tradition.

102.

Virtue ethics has fallen out of favor in philosophical circles recently. False.

103. The term which virtue ethicists often translate “happiness” is equivalent to “human flourishing” or “well- being.” True. 104.

Aristotle distinguished intellectual and moral virtues. True.

105.

Aristotle’s doctrine basically reduces to “everything in moderation.” False.

106. According to Hursthouse, an action is right if and only if it is what a virtuous person would characteristically do. True. 107.

According to Hursthouse, a virtue need not benefit its possessor. False.

108.

All three major theories are concerned with the three central questions of ethical theory. True.

109. When evaluating possible outcomes, a virtue ethicist should always imagine what Mother Teresa or Socrates would do, and do likewise. False. 110.

There is a strong connection between virtue ethics and feminist philosophy. True.

111.

Surprisingly, Aristotle did not think women were inferior to men. False.

112.

Kant believed men and women possessed different virtues. True.

113. Mary Shelly, who wrote Frankenstein, was also the author of A Vindication of the Rights of Women. False. 114. John Stuart Mill argued that subjection of women was one of the chief hindrances to human improvement. True. 115.

Simone de Beauvoir wrote The Second Sex primarily as an argument against Sartre’s

existentialism. False. 116.

One of the primary targets of feminist ethical theory is the Kantian tradition. True.

117.

From a feminist perspective, obscenity is worse than pornography. False.

118.

Jagger, like most feminists, believes that all ethical values are relative. False.

119. The “Don’t Ask Don’t Tell” policy regarding Gays and Lesbians in the military has been repealed. True. 120. According to Gerard V.. Bradley, our increasing religious pluralism implies that we should allow same sex marriage. False. 121. Julian Savulescuno contends that there is no relevant moral difference between environmental and genetic intervention in children’s health. True.

CHAPTER SIX SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY Multiple Choice 1. Which of the following subjects was omitted from the young John Stuart Mill's education? A. Latin B. logic C. Greek D. religion E. political economy Answer: D 2. If Bentham's view is correct, then the fundamental moral question is: A. do I have a right to perform this action? B. is this experience pleasurable? C. does my happiness interfere with the happiness of others? D. would God approve of my action? E. how can I attain a virtuous character? Answer: B 3. Bentham believed that all people are basically: A. rational. B. self-interested. C. prudent in their use of resources. D. A and B E. All of the above Answer: E 4. According to Bentham, one of the great obstacles to prudent, rational, self-interested action is: A. religion. B. class distinctions. C. ignorance. D. superstition. E. All of the above Answer: E 5. Bentham believed that the way to remove the obstacles to rational, self-interested action was: A. religious faith. B. philosophical reflection. C. education. D. passing the right laws. E. None of the above Answer: C

6. The purpose of education, according to Bentham, is to: A. dispel superstitious beliefs. B. teach the facts of science. C. teach how society works. D. Both A and B E. All of the above Answer: E 7. Laissez-faire is: A. a system opposed to utilitarianism. B. a late stage in the development of capitalism, where firms are large and publicly held. C. free market exchange with little government control. D. a theory created by Jeremy Bentham. E. Both B and D Answer: C 8. According to 19th century liberals, a laissez-faire economic system is: A. the surest way to maximize social welfare. B. an inefficient but still desirable economic system. C. the best compromise between conflicting class interests. D. a system that requires the individual to sacrifice his or her own interests for the greater good of society. E. None of the above Answer: A 9. Who suggested that an "invisible hand" operates in a free market to promote the general welfare of society? A. Karl Marx, in Das Kapital B. Jeremy Bentham, in Principles of Morals and Legislation C. Adam Smith, in The Wealth of Nations D. James Mill, in a speech to the Philosophical Radicals E. John Stuart Mill, in Utilitarianism Answer: C 10. In formulating his view, Mill seems not to have considered the writings of: A. the conservative Alexis de Tocqueville. B. the French socialists. C. Jeremy Bentham. D. Karl Marx. E. All of the above Answer: D 11. Plato and other philosophers disagreed with Bentham in that they: A. believed some pleasures are more intense than others. B. believed some pleasures are morally better than others.

C. believed that it makes no sense to say one pleasure is "better" than another. D. held that one pain cannot be quantitatively different from another. E. thought the moral character of an action is determined by the results it produces. Answer: B 12. Mill modified Bentham's utilitarian theory in which of the following ways? A. He abandoned the calculation of pleasures and pains. B. He incorporated a Kantian account of duty and obligation. C. He incorporated a Platonic account of virtue and character. D. He denied that pleasure and pain were the only morally relevant categories. E. He took into account a person's intentions, as well as his or her actions. Answer: D 13. The objection that utilitarianism is "a doctrine worthy only of swine" is, in effect, a charge that: A. utilitarianism is a denial of ethical values. B. if utilitarianism is true, then the way of life that is good for a pig will also be good for a human. C. pleasure is immoral. D. we ought to take pain into account as well as pleasure. E. None of the above Answer: B 14. According to Mill, if two pleasures are quantitatively the same, what determines that one is more valuable than another is that: A. it occurs in someone who deserves it. B. it is pure pleasure, rather than a mixture of pleasure and pain. C. more knowledgeable people prefer it. D. it occurs in someone more capable of enjoying it. E. None of the above Answer: C 15. According to Mill, the proper judge of which of two quantitatively identical pleasures is better is: A. any competent adult. B. any competent person who has experienced both. C. an experienced utilitarian philosopher. D. the lawmakers. E. None of the above Answer: B 16. According to the author, if all pleasures are not equal in quality then: A. utilitarianism is a "doctrine worthy only of swine." B. utilitarianism must be false. C. Bentham was correct. D. special weight will have to be given to the opinions of the educated minority. E. All of the above Answer: D

17. In his political writings, Mill exhibited an aristocratic bias with regard to: A. England's treatment of the "subject races" of her colonies. B. his relationships to women. C. his relationship to his family. D. All of the above E. None of the above Answer: A 18. Mill wrote that the claim that economics is a science rests upon the assumption that: A. custom (habit) plays an important role in economic behavior. B. economic behavior is determined entirely by competition. C. capitalism and utilitarianism are compatible. D. happiness is identical with pleasure. E. pleasures differ in quantity, but not quality. Answer: B 19. According to Mill, "custom" is a (n): A. artificially imposed barrier to competition. B. set of consumer habits which make markets operate more efficiently. C. common force which distorts the effects of competition. D. set of behaviors neutralized by competitive behavior in the marketplace. E. None of the above Answer: C 20. According to Mill, the behavior of men and women in the marketplace is: A. always rational. B. free of the influence of custom. C. both predictable and calculable. D. predictable, but not calculable. E. calculable, but not predictable. Answer: D 21. According to the author, the fact that people often act irrationally: A. entails that an economy cannot be free from government intervention. B. suggests the need for modern welfare-state capitalism. C. undermines laissez-faire capitalism. D. All of the above E. None of the above Answer: D 22. Which of the following would Marx not consider part of the material base of society? A. Iron ore B. Electric power

C. Religious institutions D. Social relationships of production E. Both C and D Answer: C 23. Marx argued that a capitalist economic system: A. is rational, but cruel. B. preserves economic inequality. C. couldn't be very good at production. D. Both A and B E. All of the above Answer: B 24. In Marx's account, the ruling class maintains its position by: A. passing the means of production on to their offspring. B. controlling the courts which produce the laws of the land. C. controlling the religious institutions. D. Both A and B E. All of the above Answer: E 25. By "social relationships of production," Marx means the: A. complex mutually supportive relations between workers. B. proper arrangement of labor needed to avoid alienation. C. system of relationships connecting those who control the means of production with those who do not. D. inbred relations between the members of the ruling class. E. None of the above Answer: C 26. Feudalism is a: A. primitive form of socialism. B. system of production based on ownership of land. C. system in which no production takes place. D. system of production in which there are no class distinctions. E. None of the above Answer: B 27. The distinction between the ruling class and the underclass: A. exists only under an industrial system of production. B. eventually disappears, even in a capitalist system. C. is eliminated by laissez-faire capitalism. D. did not exist under feudalism. E. None of the above Answer: E

28. The bourgeoisie is the: A. population of wage-earning workers. B. ruling class. C. middle-class merchants and craftsmen. D. owners of the means of production. E. None of the above Answer: C 29. When Marx says capitalism is "instrumentally irrational," he means that: A. to maximize profits, a capitalist must minimize the wages paid to the people intended as consumers. B. it fails at its central task, the production of goods. C. capitalists erroneously assume that buyers behave rationally in the market. D. it requires workers to act against their own interests. E. it requires capitalists to compete with one another, instead of cooperating. Answer: A 30. Which of the following is an example of capitalism's "inner contradictions"? A. Alienation of labor B. Famine after a plentiful harvest C. The seizure of the means of production by force D. The eventual revolution of the proletariat E. None of the above Answer: B 31. Marx described periodic economic depressions as: A. natural disasters. B. man-made disasters. C. results of the inner irrationality of capitalism. D. early stages of the socialist revolution. E. Both B and C Answer: E 32. Which of the following is not one of the principle doctrines of Marxism? A. The proletariat will inevitably overthrow capitalism. B. Capitalism is internally unstable. C. The profits of the capitalist derive from the exploitation of workers. D. After the fall of capitalism, it will be replaced by a democratic socialist state. E. All of the above are principle doctrines of Marxism. Answer: E 33. Marx calls the process of fulfilling ourselves through productive labor: A. alienation.

B. externalization. C. capitalism. D. exploitation of the worker. E. replication. Answer: B 34. The labor process is corrupted when: A. workers receive compensation for their labor. B. workers produce goods that are not needed by society. C. the products of workers' labor are taken from them. D. externalization occurs. E. The labor process cannot be corrupted. Answer: C 35. Alienation, according to Marx, is the condition of being at war with: A. one's own nature. B. one's fellow laborers. C. the products of one's labor. D. All of the above E. None of the above Answer: D 36. In order to be happy, according to Marx, a person requires: A. a carefully structured working environment. B. a wide variety of tasks. C. autonomous, fulfilling labor. D. freedom from the need to work. E. None of the above Answer: C 37. Marx tells us that after the revolution against capitalism: A. the proletariat would no longer need to work. B. increased efficiency would, in turn, increase profits. C. the workers and the capitalists would exchange places. D. distribution of goods would be according to human need. E. All of the above Answer: D 38. A state is a (n): A. geographical area. B. group of people who make and enforce laws. C. assembly of equals. D. group of individuals banded together for mutual protection. E. None of the above Answer: B

39. A state may exist with the purpose of: A. lining the pockets of the ruling class. B. carrying out the tenets of a religion. C. ensuring justice and tranquility. D. Either B or C E. Any of the above Answer: E 40. When philosophers say that the state cannot be defined teleologically, they mean: A. the word "state" has too many meanings to allow it to be defined. B. we cannot explain what a state is in terms of the goals at which it aims. C. different people use the word "state" different ways. D. states have no goals. E. None of the above Answer: B 41. Every state: A. uses force to obtain obedience to its commands. B. forbids its citizens from breaking the social contract. C. must keep a standing army. D. requires some sort of explicit consent to the social contract. E. All of the above Answer: A 42. Every state must: A. claim to be legitimate. B. provide for the well-being of its citizens. C. have clearly defined borders. D. be recognized by at least one other state. E. None of the above Answer: A 43. Which of the following can a state use to compel obedience? A. Force of arms B. Threats of force C. Economic threats D. Both A and B E. All of the above Answer: E: 44. The difference between a state collecting taxes and a robber demanding your wallet is the: A. state is working on your behalf.

B. robber is using the threat of force. C. state claims legitimate authority over you. D. robber stands outside the social contract. E. There is no difference. Answer: C 45.

The legitimacy of all states is denied by:

A. hedonists. B. skeptics. C. anarchists. D. nihilists. E. Marxists. Answer: C 46. According to the author, the fundamental question of political philosophy is: A. How do we define "state?" B. Does any group of persons ever have the right to command? C. Is there such a thing as a social contract? D. What is the proper role of labor in a just society? E. Can one state be morally better than another? Answer: B 47. A social contract is a (n): A. agreement between two equal citizens. B. agreement between the citizens and the ruling class. C. agreement between each citizen and every other citizen in the state. D. agreement between the citizen and the legislature. E. denial of the state's authority. Answer: C 48. The key philosophical question addressed by Rousseau was: A. Can there ever be such a thing as a state with legitimate authority? B. Is there a way in which I can submit to the commands of a legitimate state without giving up my freedom and autonomy? C. Has a state ever come into existence by means of an explicit social contract? D. What is the role of race in the social contract? E. Can one be party to a social contract without explicitly consenting to it? Answer: B 49. By saying that social contract theory is a doctrine of popular sovereignty, we mean that the: A. social contract remains in force only so long as a majority of citizens approve of it. B. leader of the state must be popularly elected. C. leader of the state must be unanimously elected. D. the sovereign consists of the people as a whole.

E. None of the above Answer: D 50. To bind a group of people together into a state, a social contract doesn't have to: A. be voluntary. B. be unanimously agreed to. C. be explicitly consented to. D. include a surrender of individual rights to the state. E. Neither C nor D Answer: C 51. Rousseau did not approve of: A. submitting one's rights to the general will. B. government by elected representatives. C. professional soldiers. D. Both A and B E. Both B and C Answer: E 52. According to Rousseau, the people of states who elect representatives: A. are free as long as their representatives vote honestly. B. are free only when they are electing their representatives. C. are free only as long as they are permitted to lobby their representatives. D. are free as long as they limit the terms of their representatives. E. have surrendered their freedom entirely. Answer: B 53. Historically, an explicit social contract: A. has never been used as the basis of a society. B. lies at the heart of every state. C. was the foundation of the United States, but no other country. D. was the foundation of England, but no other state. E. has been the foundation of most liberal democracies. Answer: C 54. The general will, according to Rousseau, is: A. the decision of the citizens to put aside their own interests and collectively pursue the general good. B. whatever the people vote in favor of. C. anything unanimously agreed to by the people. D. the will of the majority. E. None of the above Answer: A

55. According to Locke, which of the following would not constitute tacit consent to the American social contract? A. Staying in a motel in Vermont B. Driving across the Golden Gate Bridge C. Living as a hermit in a cabin in Montana D. A German citizen inheriting land in California E. All of these are forms of tacit consent. Answer: E 56. The major flaw in Locke's notion of participation in the social contract is that: A. the law has never recognized such a thing as tacit consent. B. he assumes people are free to leave when they are dissatisfied with the laws of a state. C. he assumes a capitalist form of government. D. he does not define "state." E. None of the above Answer: B

57. Locke held that which of the following constituted a person's consent to a social contract? A. Tacit consent only B. Explicit consent only C. Coerced consent D. Either tacit or explicit consent E. Any of the above Answer: D 58. According to the pluralist theory of the state: A. the state is a sort of group. B. we should study the individuals who lead factions, rather than the factions themselves. C. interest groups should be eliminated from the political process. D. to understand politics, we must study the way in which groups are formed and how they interact with one another. E. Both A and D Answer: E 59. According to the Principle of Consent of the Governed: A. those who seek to rule must have the consent of those whom they claim to rule. B. those who are ruled must be able to depose the rulers at any time they wish. C. the governed must explicitly consent to all important actions of the government. D. every state must have a mechanism, such as periodic elections, which allows the governed to express their desires. E. None of the above Answer: A

60. According to Charles Mills, the problem with the social contract is it: A. was formed before the births of anyone now living. B. is neither formally nor actually extended to non-whites. C. it is formally, but not actually, extended to non-whites. D. Both A and C E. None of the above Answer: C 61. How many Americans have no healthcare? A. 50 thousand B. 1 million C. 22 million D. 35 million E. 47 million Answer: E 62. Donna Smith argues for Universal Healthcare on the grounds that it is: A. a valuable commodity. B. a basic human right. C. not as expensive as most people think. D. likely to prevent greater costs in the future. E. an economic stimulus. Answer: B 63. Why does Universal Healthcare make costs go up and quality go down according to Ron Paul? A. Because doctors spend more time on paperwork and less time helping patients. B. Because more people use services that are provided for free. C. Because there aren’t enough doctors and nurses to care for everyone. D. Because the system is administered by corrupt bureaucrats who know nothing about medicine. E. Because Universal Healthcare requires Universal Suffrage, which is both expensive and complicated. Answer: A

CHAPTER SIX SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY True/False 64. Bentham and Mill, working independently, simultaneously formulated their utilitarian theories. False. 65. Bentham was more interested in public issues than in private morality. True. 66. James Mill was in sharp disagreement with the Philosophical Radicals. False. 67. Bentham's utilitarianism provided a philosophical justification for a democratic social program. True. 68. The utilitarians worked in opposition to laissez-faire economic policy. False. 69. "Laissez-faire" literally means "allow to do." True. 70. "Entrepreneur" comes from a French term meaning "undertaker." True. 71. The originators of laissez-faire economic theory were Adam Smith and David Ricardo. True. 72. In The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith argued that individuals' attempts to maximize their wellbeing inevitably conflict with the welfare of society as a whole. False. 73. In laissez-faire capitalism, capitalists trying to make a profit and at the same time intend to make consumers happy. False. 74. Adam Smith believed that every merchant should try to trade for the public good. False. 75. Mill denied Bentham's claim that any particular pleasure is as good as any other. True. 76. At the age of twenty, Mill rejected utilitarianism in favor of more conservative economic views. False. 77. According to the author, if any pleasure is as good as any other, then it must also be true that any person is as good as any other. True. 78. Bentham believed that intellectual pleasures are superior to physical pleasures. False. 79. One problem with Bentham's view is he denied that a pleasurable act might have painful aftereffects. False. 80. According to Mill, the question of which of two quantitatively equal pleasures is the better can be decided by any rational adult. False. 81. Mill thought that a calculation of utility must consider both the quantity and the quality of pleasures and pains produced by an action. True.

82. Mill thought it would be rational to prefer being a happy fool to being an unhappy person of intelligence. False. 83. The doctrine of laissez-faire capitalism assumes that economic actors will always behave in a rational, self-interested manner. True. 84. John Stuart Mill accepted the basic assumptions of laissez-faire economic theory. False. 85. Mill noted that economists tend to exaggerate the real effects of competition. True. 86. Mill believed that economists didn't take sufficient account of the effect of custom. True. 87. With enough data, according to Mill, we can predict the behavior of people in the marketplace. True. 88. By "custom," Mill meant irrational preferences and habits that prevent us from maximizing profit. True. 89. In the Principles, Mill pronounces all departures from laissez-faire principles to be "certain evil." False. 90. Mill denied that there was a connection between social liberty and economic liberty. False. 91. Marx thought that capitalism was a rational economic system, but was unfair to workers. False. 92. According to Marx, industrial knowledge is part of the material base of society. True. 93. A "division of labor" occurs only in a Marxist society. False. 94. According to Marx, control of the means of production was originally gained by force of arms. True. 95. The basic fact about a society, according to Marx, is the nature of its social relationships of production. True. 96. The proletariat are the members of the managerial middle-class. False. 97. Marx thought capitalism was an excellent system of production. True. 98. The term "alienation" was first used by Georg Hegel. True. 99. Marx held that the inevitable workers' revolution against capitalism would be non-violent. False. 100.

Marx believed that the path to true happiness was productive labor. True.

101. Marx tells us that under capitalism, healthy alienation becomes destructive externalization. False. 102.

A hallmark of socialism is production for the satisfaction of human need, rather than for profit.

True. 103.

No state can exist without a group of people who make laws and enforce them. True.

104. The legitimate authority of a state is justified by its ability to use force to compel obedience. False. 105.

Men and women only obey the laws insofar as the threat of punishment requires them to. False.

106.

The threat of force is the glue that holds the state together. False.

107. True.

"Legitimate authority" is the right to give commands that others have a moral obligation to obey.

108. If a group of people claim legitimate authority, and their claim is accepted by most others, then they have formed a state. False. 109.

The ultimate political authority invested in kings is sovereignty. True.

110.

Social contract theory has its origins in the writings of Immanuel Kant. False.

111. When a citizen becomes party to a social contract, he submits to authority in exchange for certain benefits. True. 112. According to Rousseau, a social contract requires each citizen to surrender all of his rights to society. True. 113. Rousseau holds that a proper state must institute a system of elected representatives to make laws. False. 114. True.

Rousseau held that a citizen who refuses to obey the general will must be compelled to do so.

115.

No state has ever attempted to found itself upon an actual social contract. False.

116.

Most democratic governments were brought into existence by explicit social contracts. False.

117. Rousseau emphasizes property ownership as a means of participating in the social contract. False. 118. According to Locke, merely traveling on a state's roads is enough to make one party to its social contract. True. 119.

Locke held that one must give explicit consent in order to be a party to a social contract. False.

120. According to Latham and the pluralist theory of state, we ought to be studying relations among social groups rather than relations among individuals. True.

121. True.

The Founding Fathers hoped the Constitution would eliminate the influence of interest groups.

122. Charles Mills sees racism as an anomalous deviation from enlightened European humanism. False. 123. Charles Mills holds that the social contract is neither formally nor actually extended to nonwhites. False. 124.

Bernie Sanders argues that health care is a privilege, not a right. False.

125.

The political writer Ayn Rand asserts that doctors are servants rather than traders. False.

126.

Leonard Peikoff argues that socialized medicine is immoral. True.

CHAPTER SEVEN PHILOSOPHY OF ART Multiple Choice 1. The contributing elements to the artistic brilliance of Plato's dialogues include: A. the characters are fully-realized human beings. B. each dialogue is brief enough to be read in its entirety without interruption. C. the behavior of the characters actually exemplifies the theories Plato is expounding. D. Both A and C E. All of the above Answer: D 2. Plato often made the characters of his dialogues examples of the theories they were expressing. This was designed to demonstrate his belief that: A. there is no real difference between appearance and reality. B. life itself is a form of art. C. the order of the universe is reflected in the order of the soul. D. Both A and B E. All of the above Answer: C 3. Which of the following is an example of the distinction between appearance and reality? A. Arnold looks tall in the movies, but he's really only five feet six inches. B. My aunt lies about her age. C. The English horn is neither English nor a horn. D. All of the above E. None of the above Answer: A 4. The faculty Plato thinks gives us the ability to tell appearance from reality is: A. imagination. B. intuition. C. reason. D. investigation. E. observation. Answer: C 5. A straight stick looks bent when put halfway under water. Plato uses this example to illustrate the: A. principle of light refraction. B. distinction between appearance and reality. C. artistic structure of his dialogues. D. superiority of reason to observation. E. None of the above

Answer: B 6. According to Plato, a person who has true opinions, but does not know what makes them true: A. does not appear to be wise. B. is wise, but cannot lead others to wisdom. C. appears to be wise, but in fact is not. D. has achieved true wisdom by avoiding the conceit of knowledge. E. None of the above Answer: C 7. How does Plato believe one may know what makes one truly happy? A. By making sure all of one's opinions are true B. By carefully observing the actions of those who are truly happy C. By attaining a systematic understanding of the good for humanity D. By studying a correct definition of "happiness” E. None of the above Answer: C 8. Plato thinks that Gorgias is dangerous because: A. his apparently decent speeches conceal the reality of his wicked character. B. his students follow his false moral principles rather than emulating his morally upright behavior. C. he is clearly evil, but still attracts students. D. he speaks the truth, but does not understand what makes his claims true. E. None of the above Answer: B 9. Gorgias' upright moral character and speeches advocating a false ethical view illustrate the: A. difference between knowledge and belief. B. way in which the organization of the individual soul mirrors the organization of the universe. C. contrast between a persuasive argument and an invalid one. D. distinction between appearance and reality. E. All of the above Answer: D 10. In Plato's dialogue entitled Gorgias, the confusion of Callicles' moral relativism is artistically indicated by: A. his unkempt appearance. B. Callicles' opposition to Plato's arguments. C. Callicles' ranting, shouting, abusiveness, and loss of dignity. D. Plato's refusal to even engage with Callicles. E. All of the above Answer: C

11. Plato thought that art: A. leads us away from knowledge. B. was the path to a deeper understanding of reality. C. revealed truth in ways that mere reason could not. D. was more reality than appearance. E. revealed truth through its beauty. Answer: A 12. In the Republic, Plato argues that: A. a society's character is best expressed through its art. B. art should be banned in an ideal society. C. artists should be supported by public funding in an ideal society. D. in a good society, the artists are second in importance only to the rulers. E. None of the above Answer: B 13. Plato held that the benefit(s) of art was/were that it: A. refines our aesthetic sense. B. stirs up our emotions. C. reinforces our psychological harmony. D. All of the above E. None of the above Answer: E 14. According to Plato, a craftsman who builds a chair creates: A. a real chair which cannot be copied by a painter. B. a copy of a real chair. C. a real chair that might be copied by the painter. D. a chair which is no closer to reality than a painting of a chair. E. None of the above Answer: B 15. According to Plato, real pizza is: A. the Form of Pizza, of which all particular pizzas that might be baked are copies. B. all the particular pizzas that are baked in the world. C. a photograph of a pizza. D. All of the above E. None of the above Answer: A 16. According to Plato: A. a painting of a chair and an actual chair are both copies of the Form of chair. B. an actual chair resembles the Form of Chair, and the painting of the chair resembles the actual chair. C. the actual chair resembles the Form of Chair, but the painting of the chair doesn't resemble the actual

chair. D. there is no difference between an actual chair and the Form of Chair. E. None of the above Answer: B 17. A painting of a chair aims at reproducing: A. the chair as it really is. B. the Form of the Chair. C. a small portion of the real chair. D. All of the above E. None of the above Answer: C 18. According to Plato, the presence of two contradictory impulses in a person (such as to grieve and to remain unmoved) indicates that: A. he or she is internally disordered. B. two distinct elements of his or her nature are involved. C. reason no longer rules his soul. D. he or she is of poor character. E. None of the above Answer: B 19. Plato says that poets should be excluded from an ideal society because: A. they undermine the reason. B. poems appeal to an inferior portion of the soul. C. the poets creations are only pale reflections of truth. D. a poem affects the soul as a vicious government affects a state. E. All of the above Answer: E 20. Plato and Aristotle agree that: A. poetry should be banned from an ideal society. B. art merely provides us with imperfect copies of particular instances of universal forms. C. we should seek knowledge of the universal forms of justice, beauty, and goodness. D. All of the above E. None of the above Answer: C 21. According to Aristotle, the universal forms: A. don't actually exist. B. are embodied all around us in the things of the world of space and time. C. exist in an independent transcendent reality. D. were a fiction created by Plato. E. None of the above Answer: B

22. According to whom does knowledge consist of a rational understanding of the realm of universal forms? A. Kant B. Aristotle C. Tolstoy D. Marcuse E. Plato Answer: E 23. Aristotle holds that we can attain true knowledge only by: A. catharsis. B. grasping the transcendent Forms through reason. C. purging ourselves of all harmful passions. D. coming to know the Forms by studying their particular instances. E. None of the above Answer: D 24. The experience of catharsis is the: A. arousal of powerful feelings we did not previously possess. B. purging of powerful emotions that were already present in us. C. harmful experience of fear and pity. D. replacement of fear and pity with hope and affection. E. healthful suppression of fear and pity. Answer: B 25. According to Aristotle, the distinction between an historian and a poet is: A. the former writes in prose, while the latter writes in verse. B. poetry speaks of universals, while history speaks of particulars. C. poetry appeals to the emotions, while history appeals to the reason. D. history describes what might have been, while poetry describes what might be. E. Both B and D Answer: E 26. Aristotle tells us that the plot of a good tragedy: A. should be simple. B. must imitate actions arousing fear and pity. C. involves a good man passing from happiness to misery. D. Both A and C E. All of the above Answer: B

27. A tragedy, according to Aristotle, should involve a: A. virtuous and just person who is destroyed by an error in judgment. B. not particularly virtuous person who is destroyed by vice and depravity. C. virtuous person destroyed by simple bad luck. D. not particularly virtuous person destroyed by an error in judgment. E. virtuous person destroyed by vice and depravity. Answer: D 28. The benefit of a tragedy, according to Aristotle, is to: A. purge the audience of unrealistic expectations. B. purge the audience of harmful emotions. C. put the audience's own troubles in proper perspective. D. arouse in the audience the emotions of joy and relief. E. allow members of the audience to understand the suffering of others. Answer: B 29. The pleasure of a tragedy, according to Aristotle, is: A. the experience of pity and fear. B. to learn to identify with the protagonist. C. to return to the lesser troubles of real life. D. to feel relief that one is not in the same position as the protagonist of the tragedy. E. Aristotle believes that the benefit of tragedy comes from the fact that they contain no pleasures. Answer: A 30. According to Tolstoy: A. mere speech cannot communicate our thoughts. B. art is the practice of communicating truth. C. our feeling may be communicated only through artistic expression. D. art is our single genuine means of communication. E. Both A and D Answer: C 31. Tolstoy believed that the purpose of art was to: A. unite humanity through shared emotion. B. move the masses to political action. C. acquaint us with our true natures. D. provide pleasure to those who have invested time and effort in the study of art. E. All of the above Answer: A 32. Tolstoy held that great art must: A. be imaginative.

B. be sincere. C. educate the audience. D. have a subject with wide appeal. E. Both B and D Answer: E 33. Tolstoy opposed: A. elitism in art. B. the expression of religious feeling in art. C. folk art. D. the application of objective criteria in judging art. E. All of the above Answer: A 34. Tolstoy believes that Beethoven's 9th Symphony is bad art because A. music is incapable of transmitting the highest religious feeling. B. it mixes poetry and music. C. in an age before recordings, few people had an opportunity to hear a symphony that required a large orchestra and a chorus. D. the feelings transmitted by the music did not unite all people, but only a few. E. Both A and D Answer: E 35. Who of the following thought one of the primary purposes of art was to instill religious feeling? A. Aristotle B. Beethoven C. Tolstoy D. Marcuse E. Marx Answer: C 36. Who felt that art was both desirable and a destructive social force? A. Plato B. Aristotle C. Tolstoy D. Marcuse E. None of the above Answer: D 37. According to Marcuse, art is: A. irrational. B. a destructive social force. C. a valuable element in human life. D. Both A and B E. All of the above

Answer: E 38. If a boxer is made angry by some event before a bout, and redirects his anger into the fight, that's an example of: A. repression. B. sublimation. C. transfiguration. D. catharsis. E. Both A and C Answer: B 39. A repressed desire: A. is pushed entirely out of the mind. B. remains in the unconscious, but with its emotional force abated. C. disappears with the passage of time. D. remains in the unconscious with all of its emotional force. E. Both B and C Answer: D 40. The sort of repression that occurs when you force yourself to endure the unpleasantness of an important vaccination (rather than indulging your desire to be elsewhere) is what Marcuse would call: A. subliminal repression. B. necessary repression. C. surplus repression. D. direct repression. E. manifest repression. Answer: B 41. Marcuse tells us that the amount of necessary repression in modern society should be decreased through: A. sublimation. B. transfiguration. C. technological advances. D. transforming it into surplus repression. E. None of the above Answer: C 42. Marcuse notes that: A. the total amount of repression in modern industrial societies is less than the amount of repression in less advanced societies. B. as our necessary repression has lessened, our surplus repression has increased. C. we suffer from much less surplus repression today than we did during the time of our grandparents. D. technology has, it turns out, failed to decrease our burden of necessary repression. E. it is impossible to decrease the total burden of repression. Answer: B

43. The purpose of surplus repression is to: A. preserve the dominance of the ruling sectors of society. B. provide an outlet for unconscious desires. C. restrain us from rising up against the ruling class. D. allow us to "process" certain experiences at some time after they have actually occurred. E. Both A and C Answer: E 44. Marcuse tells us that, in order to encourage people to struggle to free themselves from surplus repression, we must: A. falsely promise them a release from necessary repression. B. make them see the difference between the necessary repression they must endure, and the surplus repression from which they can be liberated. C. first free them from necessary repression. D. gain the support of the ruling class. E. None of the above Answer: A 45. According to Marcuse, the social function of art is to: A. provide a blueprint for a better future. B. annoy the ruling class. C. bring the truth to the repressed masses. D. keep alive the dream of liberation. E. illustrate the difference between necessary and surplus repression. Answer: D 46. Transcendence, in Marcuse's terminology, is: A. entering a higher, non-material realm. B. an imaginative leap beyond the repressions of the given social world. C. an act of artistic revolt, such as calling a blank canvas a painting. D. the realization that surplus repression is different from necessary repression. E. the realization that all repression is surplus repression. Answer: B 47. Who of the following believes that civilization cannot exist without repression? A. Plato B. Aristotle C. Freud D. Marcuse E. Both C and D Answer: E

48. Which of the following serve as examples in Danto’s essay? A. Fountain B. One and Three Chairs C. 4’33” D. Both A and C E. All of the above Answer: E 49. Which artist does not count as an example of the new theory of art Danto proffers? A. Warhol B. Lichtenstein C. Oldenburg D. Rauschenberg E. None of the above Answer: E

50 Which artist is renowned for his comic-strip inspired art? A. Warhol B. Lichtenstein C. Oldenburg D. Cézanne E. Van Gogh Answer: B 51. What is Connoisseurship? A. When the work of an artist’s pupil is mistaken for the artist’s work. B. When the work of a forger successfully fools the experts. C. The discovery of a forged work of art. D. The identification of the artist by his handwriting. E. Aesthetic appreciation of forgeries. Answer: D 52. What was wrong with Gauguin’s little ceramic sculpture “The Faun”? A. It was a forgery. B. Everyone thought it was a forgery, but it was not. C. It was signed by Gauguin’s student. D. Experts damaged it when trying to determine whether it was a forgery. E. Gauguin made it in a different style that did not resemble his other work. Answer: A 53. In 2006, David Geffen, co-founder with Stephen Spielberg and Jeffrey Katzsenberg of DreamWorks, sold a Jackson Pollock drip painting for: A. $40 million B. $100 million C. $1 million D. $140 million. E. $250 million

Answer: D

CHAPTER SEVEN PHILOSOPHY OF ART True/False

54. One element of the artistic brilliance of Plato's dialogues is the genuine persuasiveness of the arguments presented by his characters. True. 55. George Berkeley and Baruch Spinoza were two other philosophers who wrote extremely artistic dialogues. False. 56. A persuasive sounding argument which is in fact formally invalid is an example of the distinction between appearance and reality. True. 57. Plato demonstrates the difference between appearance and reality by making his characters' behavior the exact opposite of what the theories they are expressing would suggest. False. 58. Plato held that the metaphysical order of the universe was mirrored in the internal ordering of each person. True. 59. Plato tells us that reason alone will fail to show us when the easy way is in fact the harmful way. False. 60. A philosophical understanding of justice was sufficient to allow Plato to resist the temptation to flee from the punishment to which the Athenians had sentenced him. False. 61. Plato considers Gorgias morally decent, but still dangerous because of the content of his relativistic views. True. 62. Plato held that the contemplation of beauty would lead us to a proper inner harmony of the soul. False. 63. Plato believed that works of art were the reality underlying the appearances of everyday perceptions. False. 64. According to Plato, art is mere appearance, and hence leads us away from knowledge concerning reality. True. 65. Mill's claim that some pleasures are higher than others is mirrored by Plato's claim that some pleasures are more real than others. True. 66. Plato objected not just to the truthfulness of artistic representation, but also to its psychological effects. True.

67. Anything we call by a common noun will have an associated Form, according to Plato. True. 68. The work of a carpenter who makes a chair is perfectly real, but the work of a painter who represents

it is not. False. 69. According to Plato, a chair has more reality than the ideal Form of a chair. False. 70. Just as there can be more than one painting of a single actual chair, a single actual chair can have more than one Form of Chair. False. 71. The aim of a painter is not to reproduce an actual object as it is, according to Plato. True. 72. A representation reproduces only a small part of an object. True. 73. The tragic poet is more like the craftsman who builds the chair than the painter who represents it, according to Plato. False. 74. The image of an object is a reproduction of a reproduction of the real chair. True. 75. According to Plato, a person of high character does not grieve publicly. True. 76. According to Plato, a person with a well-ordered soul will never experience contradictory impulses. False. 77. The impulse to resist grief comes from the spirited portion of the soul, according to Plato. False. 78. Plato tells us that poets ought to be eliminated from a perfect society, even though they appeal to the highest portion of the soul. False. 79. One proof of the importance of Plato's concerns is that we are swayed by the artistic form of his dialogues, rather than considering their arguments alone. True. 80. A medieval nickname of Plato was "the philosopher." False. 81. Aristotle disagreed with Plato's view that the Forms existed in an independent, transcendent reality, rather than in the world around us. True. 82. Aristotle, contrary to Plato, did not believe that art could arouse powerful emotions such as pity and fear. False. 83. Plato and Aristotle agreed concerning the harmful effects of powerful dramatic performances. False.

84. Identification with the characters of the drama is an important element of catharsis. True. 85. Aristotle tells us that the plot of a good tragedy should be complex rather than simple. True. 86. The protagonist of a tragedy, Aristotle tells us, should be a person of great virtue and justice. False. 87. Tolstoy believed that we communicate our thoughts through art. False.

88. Tolstoy thought that art consisted of communicating one person's emotions to others. True. 89. The hallmark of great art, according to Tolstoy, is extraordinary creativity. False. 90. Tolstoy believed that religion was a superstition that humanity ought to have outgrown. False. 91. Music, according to Tolstoy, cannot communicate the highest religious feeling. True. 92. Plato and Marcuse agreed that art is socially destructive. True. 93. According to Freud, civilization rests upon a foundation of repressed desires. True. 94. "Repression" and "sublimation" are psychological terms first used by Herbert Marcuse. False. 95. Repressed emotions lose their force as time passes. False. 96. Marcuse and Freud agree that repression is essential to civilization. True. 97. Surplus repression benefits only the ruling class. True. 98. Human progress, according to Marcuse, consists of transforming surplus repression into necessary repression. False. 99. As our level of technology increases, our burden of necessary repression decreases. True. 100. True.

Marcuse suggests that those who break artistic rules are performing truly revolutionary actions.

101.

A key difficulty in appreciating Twentieth Century art is determining what art actually is. True.

102. Duchamp introduced the concept of “found art” with his construction, “The Enigma of Isadore Ducasse.” False. 103.

“R. Mutt” was a pseudonym of Marcel Duchamp. True.

104. The musical piece “4’33”,” composed by John Cage, first brought electronic sound to the concert stage. False. 105. The NEA was attacked by conservative critics for its support of Mapplethorpe’s homoerotic photographs and Serrano’s “Piss Christ” in 1989. True. 106.

Danto advocates the Imitation Theory of Art. False.

107.

Danto advocates the Reality Theory of Art. True.

108.

Danto’s views are deeply influenced by the philosophy of Testadura. False.

109.

According to Danto, “is an imitation” is not a sufficient condition for “is art.” True.

110.

According to Danto, to see something as art requires some understanding of the art world. True.

111.

There is only one meaning for the word “is’” according to Danto. False.

112. Warhol’s Brillo Box differs from the average Brillo Box because it possesses greater aesthetic charm. False. 113.

The author thinks Warhol’s Brillo Box is also a useful “mirror held up to nature.” True.

114. According to Martin Gayford, a work of art loses a great deal of meaning when it is discovered to be a forgery. True. 115.

Duchamp decreed that it is the artist’s idea, not his hand, that makes something art. True.

116. Art experts mistook the work of a dog for the work of the well-known American artist Cy Twombly. True.

CHAPTER EIGHT PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION Multiple Choice 1. The central emotional experience of Kierkegaard's philosophy and life was: A. his early physical self-indulgence. B. the death of his father at an early age. C. his confrontation with existential dread. D. his devotion to Hegelian philosophy. E. his fascination with the philosophy of Plato. Answer: C 2. "Existential dread" is the: A. fear of dying young. B. fear of eternal damnation. C. fear that one's life is meaningless. D. fear of dying before one's life's work has been completed. E. None of the above Answer: C 3. For Kierkegaard and his Pietist associates, to believe in God is to: A. believe He exists. B. attend the proper rituals and recite the appropriate prayers. C. expect certain punishment for worldly sin. D. trust God to provide an eternal life after death. E. None of the above Answer: D 4. For Kierkegaard, the central religious problem was the: A. problem of evil. B. problem of faith. C. search for a proof of God's existence. D. problem of determining the nature of the afterlife. E. None of the above Answer: B

5. The price of salvation, according to Kierkegaard's variety of Protestantism, is: A. the performance of "good works." B. frequent public attestations of belief in God's existence. C. unconditioned faith in God's promise of eternal life. D. Both A and C E. None of the above

Answer: C 6. In order to be saved, according to Kierkegaard, one's faith must be: A. free from all doubt, including doubt that one is deserving of eternal life. B. held throughout an observant life. C. justified by reason. D. given only after a long period of questioning one's worthiness. E. All of the above Answer: A 7. The offer of eternal life in exchange for sincere faith caused fear and torment because: A. each person has committed some sin. B. different people interpreted it different ways. C. it is nearly impossible to be sure that one has unconditional faith in God. D. we are limited by our imperfect understanding of the motives of God. E. None of the above Answer: C 8. The first existentialist philosopher is universally considered to have been: A. Kant. B. Kierkegaard. C. Plato. D. Sartre. E. Hegel. Answer: B 9. Kierkegaard opposed himself to: A. the Lutheran Church. B. Hegelian philosophers. C. middle-class society. D. Both A and B E. All of the above Answer: E 10. Existentialism is the philosophical doctrine according to which our being as subjective individuals is more important than: A. what we have in common objectively with other human beings. B. our objective relationship with God. C. our ability to exercise individual choices. D. our choice of inner beliefs. E. None of the above Answer: A 11. Marx and Kierkegaard:

A. disagreed concerning the value of Hegelian philosophy. B. were both concerned with the issue of poverty. C. both concerned themselves with religious reform. D. were opposed to the same forces, though they attacked them in very different ways. E. All of the above Answer: D 12. Truth, according to Kierkegaard, is achieved by: A. using rational means to prove a belief. B. using empirical methods to verify a belief. C. showing that the contrary of a belief entails a contradiction. D. possessing a belief that you hold passionately and without doubt. E. None of the above Answer: D 13. Who among the following denies that we can prove that God exists? A. William Paley B. Anselm C. Thomas Aquinas D. G.W. Leibniz E. Søren Kierkegaard Answer: E

14. When Kierkegaard said we must make a "leap of faith," he meant we: A. should believe in God because the evidence supports our doing so. B. should believe in God specifically because the evidence suggests we should not. C. cannot construct a decisive argument for or against a belief in God, so we must believe in God without any appeal to reason whatsoever. D. cannot construct a decisive argument for or against a belief in God, so we must suspend our judgment. E. None of the above Answer: C 15. Which argument does Kierkegaard use for the existence of God? A. The Argument from Design B. The Argument from First Cause C. The Ontological Argument D. A version of the Cosmological Argument E. Kierkegaard gives no argument for the existence of God. Answer: E 16. The objective truth of a statement depends upon:

A. whether or not it conforms to some independent state of affairs in the world. B. what the scientific authorities think about it. C. whether or not the subject passionately believes it. D. the relation between a belief and the subject of the belief. E. the relation between the belief and itself. Answer: A 17. According to Kierkegaard, truth depends on: A. the relation between a statement and independent objects in the world. B. whether a statement's contrary entails a contradiction. C. the relation between a belief and its subject. D. the preponderance of the evidence being for or against a statement. E. Both B and C Answer: C 18. Kierkegaard claims that a rational proof of God's existence is impossible because: A. God would not want such a proof to be possible. B. God is infinite, and the mind of man is finite. C. if we could prove God's existence, we would have done so by now. D. it would remove God's essential mystery. E. None of the above Answer: B 19. The essential feature(s) of Kierkegaard's philosophy, according to the author, is: A. his opposition to the religious views of the burghers. B. the "leap of faith." C. the subjectivity of truth. D. Both B and C E. Both A and B Answer: D 20. Kierkegaard says it is a mistake to ask about another person's mind, because I risk the possibility of: A. violating the other person's solitude. B. being deceived. C. entanglement. D. sin. E. All of the above Answer: B 21. Kierkegaard tells us that the only ethical interest is interest: A. in the well-being of those less fortunate. B. in the sincerity of others. C. on one's own subjective reality. D. in objective reality.

E. in one's relation to one's community. Answer: C 22. Christianity, according to Kierkegaard, is: A. the fact that God has existed. B. the doctrine of the unity of the divine and the human. C. the claim that subject and object are, in fact, identical. D. a collection of rituals and observances. E. None of the above Answer: A 23. The object of faith, according to Kierkegaard, is the: A. doctrine of Christianity. B. self. C. unity of Jesus and God. D. reality of the teacher. E. subjectivity of truth. Answer: D 24. The soundness of Paley's Argument from Design relies upon: A. the existence of a blind watchmaker. B. an argument from analogy. C. mathematical ratios. D. a leap of faith. E. an ethical principle. Answer: B 25. The fact that the world seems to have a purposive order serves as a premise in the: A. Ontological Argument. B. Cosmological Argument. C. Argument from Design. D. Argument from First Cause. E. Argument from Analogy. Answer: C 26. Paley argues that a watch is to a watchmaker as: A. a hydraulic machine is to God. B. the world is to God. C. the eye is to an intelligent creator. D. a museum is to a curator. E. None of the above Answer: C 27. "We know, by the evidence of our senses, that in the world some things are moved," is a premise of:

A. the Ontological Argument. B. the Cosmological Argument. C. the Argument from Design. D. an argument offered by St. Anselm. E. the Argument from Analogy. Answer: B 28. "Hence, that, than which nothing greater can be conceived, exists, and it is this that we call God," is the conclusion of: A. the Ontological Argument. B. the Cosmological Argument. C. the Argument from Design. D. an argument given by William Paley. E. an argument offered by Kierkegaard. Answer: A 29. "To exist in actuality is greater than merely to be possible," is a premise of: A. the Ontological Argument. B. the Cosmological Argument. C. the Argument from Design. D. St. Thomas's best-known argument. E. the Argument from Analogy. Answer: A 30. The claim that everything that moves must have been started in motion by some other thing is part of: A. the Ontological Argument. B. the Cosmological Argument. C. the Argument from Design. D. Anselm's most famous argument. E. the Argument from Analogy. Answer: B 31. Sometimes, striking a random series of keys on a piano will produce a pleasant tune, even though no one composed it. This sort of example could be used to challenge the: A. Ontological Argument. B. Cosmological Argument. C. Argument from Design. D. Argument from First Cause. E. None of the above Answer: C 32. One important flaw in the Argument from Design is: A. philosophers hold all arguments from analogy to be invalid.

B. it requires a "leap of faith." C. even if its reasoning were correct, it wouldn't prove the existence of an omnipotent God. D. many parts of the universe show no sign of purposive organization. E. Both A and D Answer: C 33. If all the premises of the Argument from Design were true, it would demonstrate that A. an omnipotent, benevolent, omniscient creature exists. B. the God of the Bible exists. C. a long-lived, wise, powerful organizer of the universe exists. D. God exists, but lacks some of His traditional attributes. E. None of the above Answer: C 34. Hume's discussion of the Argument from Design employs the example of the house and the architect to show: A. that Paley had the right approach, but should have used a house as his example instead of an eye. B. that God is not related to the universe the same way that a house is related to an architect. C. that the universe doesn't really seem to display a purposive order. D. Both A and B E. None of the above Answer: B 35. St. Thomas thought that the best way to gain knowledge of God was: A. by the use of reason. B. by a "leap of faith." C. by revelation. D. through the study of Scripture. E. St. Thomas thought we were incapable of gaining knowledge of God. Answer: A 36. One version of the Cosmological Argument attempts to derive God's existence from the fact that A. the world is a well-organized place. B. God can only be known subjectively. C. an infinite idea must have an infinite source. D. objects sometimes move. E. None of the above Answer: D 37. Aquinas’ Cosmological Argument assumes that: A. there must be an infinite regress of causes. B. an infinite regress is impossible. C. nothing can be actually hot and potentially cold. D. Both B and C

E. None of the above Answer: B 38. Which of the following is an example of an infinite regress? A. If I start with a chocolate bar, and give away half of my chocolate each day, I'll never run out of chocolate. B. If I start a ball rolling, and no outside force acts on it, it will continue rolling forever. C. There is no greatest prime number. D. If my cat had to have other cats as parents, and they in turn had to have cats as their parents, and so on, there could be no first cat in the chain. E. All of the above Answer: D 39. Aquinas claims that no thing can be the cause of its own existence because: A. only God can bring things into existence. B. nothing can be simultaneously potential and actual. C. it couldn't cause itself to exist if it didn't already exist. D. there has to be a first cause. E. None of the above Answer: C 40. A necessary object, in Aquinas’ sense, is an object that: F. creates other things. G. is needed to start a chain of causes and effects. C. exists. D. can't fail to exist. E. None of the above Answer: D 41. Aquinas argues that, if there weren't at least one necessary object, then: A. we couldn't gain knowledge of God through reason. B. there would be an infinite regress of causes. C. nothing would exist. D. the universe would not display a purposive order. E. God would not be omnipotent. Answer: C 42. Hume, in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, gives objections to the: A. Argument from Design. B. Cosmological Argument. C. Ontological Argument. D. Both A and C E. All of the above Answer: E

43. According to Hume, no claim can be proven to be true unless: A. the denial of the claim entails a contradiction. B. we can conceive it clearly in our minds. C. it's a clear and distinct proposition. D. there is evidence eliminating all other possibilities. E. it appears in Scripture. Answer: A 44. Hume sees no difficulty in the possibility of "an eternal succession of objects," without beginning or end. This is meant to be an objection to: A. the Argument from Design. B. the Cosmological Argument. C. the Ontological Argument. D. Kierkegaard's "leap of faith." E. Both B and C Answer: B 45. When the painter has finished his work, and is admiring it, Anselm would say that the: A. painting exists in reality. B. painting exists in the understanding. C. painting can no longer be conceived. D. Both A and B E. Both A and C Answer: D 46. An interesting property of Anselm's Ontological Argument is that it: A. shows there can be an infinite regress of causes. B. makes no mention of God. C. incorporates the view that truth is subjective. D. relies upon faith, rather than reason. E. attempts to derive God's existence from the mere concept of God. Answer: E 47. Which of the following is an a priori proposition? A. The Norman Conquest occurred in 1066. B. Too much salt can raise your blood pressure. C. Most mammals have four legs. D. All the angles in a square are 90 degrees. E. None of the above Answer: D 48. According to Kant, any proposition that asserts the existence of something must be: A. unprovable.

B. a tautology. C. analytic. D. synthetic. E. self-contradictory. Answer: D 49. Which of the following statements is analytic? A. There is evil in the world. B. The Confederacy lost the Civil War. C. A round room has no corners. D. Old men go bald. E. None of the above Answer: C 50. Which of the following statements is synthetic? A. Every triangle has three sides. B. 6+7=13 C. Every city has a street called "Main." D. No bachelor is married. E. None of the above Answer: C 51. The key to Kant's criticism of the Ontological Argument is: A. Anselm should have gathered empirical evidence to support his claim. B. the claim that "God exists" is synthetic, not analytic. C. it assumes an infinite regress of causes. D. there's no difference between existence in the understanding and existence in reality. E. there can't be an uncaused First Cause. Answer: B 52. If God is willing to prevent evil, but unable to do so, then he is not: A. benevolent. B. omniscient. C. omnipotent. D. benevolent or omniscient. E. benevolent, omniscient, or omnipotent. Answer: C 53. According to Leibniz's "Best of All Possible Worlds" response to the problem of evil: A. God is not benevolent. B. there is no evil in the world. C. God permits some human suffering in the world, although it's the least amount logically possible. D. God is not omniscient. E. None of the above Answer: C

56. Forty-four percent of Americans are confident that Jesus will return to Earth sometime in the next 50 years. According to Sam Harris, this is a problem because it leaves them with: A. no incentive to build a sustainable civilization. B. no hope for the future C. a great fear of science and new technology D. motive to disrespect other religions E. too little time to lead a fulfilling life on earth Answer: A 57. Sam Harris defines faith as: A. the ultimate solution to all the world’s problems. B. the license to keep believing when reasons fail. C. a supernatural kind of knowledge that is more certain than reason. D. the right and privilege of any free-thinking individual. E. the handmaiden of reason, without which reason would be sterile. Answer: B 58. Which of the following is NOT one of the commonalities between Buddhism and modern science, according to Tenzin Gyatso, the Dalai Lama? A. Deep suspicion of any notion of absolutes, B. Preference for the theory of evolution C. Empirical methodology Rejection of traditional religious cosmology E. Respect for and protection of all forms of life Answer: E

CHAPTER EIGHT PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION True/False 59. The dramatic turning point of Kierkegaard's private life was the breaking of his engagement to Regine Olson. True. 60. Most people are not subject to existential dread. False. 61. Kierkegaard and other Pietists believed that part of the price of salvation was "good works." False. 62. Existential dread is experienced only by those who fear eternal damnation. False. 63. For Kierkegaard, the central religious problem was to discover how we can come to know God through reason. False. 64. The word "gospel" is a term with the literal meaning "good news." True. 65. Kierkegaard and St. Thomas would agree that faith must be supported by reason. False. 66. "Evangelist" comes from a term meaning "path to life." False. 67. Kierkegaard held that a true Christian had to be born a Christian. False. 68. Kierkegaard incorporated many elements of Hegelian philosophy into his own views. False. 69. The Hegelians and Kierkegaard both claimed their doctrines were rational and objective. False. 70. Kierkegaard urged the Christian burghers of Copenhagen to pay as much attention to eternal life as they did to daily profit. True. 71. Scientists would now agree that truth is subjective. False. 72. Kierkegaard holds that truth is particular, rather than universal. True. 73. According to Kierkegaard, truth is objectivity. False. 74. Kierkegaard holds that it's wrong to treat the promise of salvation as "objective." True. 75. No amount of evidence could establish the existence of God, according to Kierkegaard. True. 76. The unification of faith and reason is a cornerstone of Kierkegaard's thought. False. 77. The Ontological Argument shows the claim that God exists is subjectively true. False. 78. Kierkegaard uses arguments to prove that arguments can't be used in matters of faith. True.

79. Before committing oneself to a leap of faith, Kierkegaard claims it helps to begin with a little bit of faith. False. 80. Christianity is not a doctrine at all, according to Kierkegaard. True. 81. The object of faith, according to Kierkegaard, is the reality of the teacher. True. 82. The purpose of the Ontological Argument is to convert agnostics into believers. False. 83. Kierkegaard would find Paley's Argument from Design persuasive. False. 84. "The world exhibits a purposive order," could serve as a premise of the Argument from Design. True. 85. According to Paley, we can infer the existence of an intelligent creator from the nature and organization of an eye. True. 86. The Cosmological Argument purports to demonstrate the existence of an entity that moves, but is not moved itself. True. 87. The Ontological Argument rests on my having a particular sort of idea. True. 88. If the reasoning of the Argument from Design were correct, it still wouldn't prove the existence of an omnipotent being. True. 89. St. Thomas, like Kierkegaard, thought any possible knowledge of God must be subjective. False. 90. St. Thomas' great project was to wean the medieval church from its rationalist approach to theology. False. 90. One version of the Cosmological Argument concludes that some being exists of necessity. True. 91. The earliest form of the Cosmological Argument is found in the writings of Aristotle. True. 92. One version of the Cosmological Argument has as a premise the claim that no object may move itself. True. 93. If an object is necessary (in Aquinas’ sense) it is impossible for it not to exist. True. 94. Aquinas' thought was strongly influenced by Aristotle. True. 95. According to Hume, no being, not even God, exists of necessity. True. 96. Hume denies the possibility of an infinite regress of causes. False. 97. Nothing, according to Anselm, can both exist in reality and be in the understanding. False. 98. The Ontological Argument makes no claims based on empirical evidence. True.

99. The Ontological Argument is what philosophers call an a priori argument. True. 100. An a priori proposition is one that can be known to be true without empirical evidence in its favor. True. 101.

"If Ben is taller than Julie, then Julie is shorter than Ben," is a tautology. False.

102.

St. Thomas thought the Ontological Argument to be a sound proof of God's existence. False.

103.

According to Kant, "God exists" is an analytic proposition. False.

104.

"Bachelors are unmarried," is a synthetic proposition. False.

105.

According to Kant, "being" is not a real predicate. True.

106. The Problem of Evil is reconciling the possibility of an omnipotent, omniscient, benevolent God with the existence of evil in the world. True. 107.

Science asks “Why?” while religion asks “How?” False.

108.

Sam Harris argues that religion is wishful thinking. True.

109. Steve Cable asserts that Christians need not fear science because science and religion are consistent. True.