What are contours?
yl:Geography
MARJORIE HENRY Contributor
REETINGS TO you all! It is a new year undoubtedly filled with opportunities for you to pursue your goals. Based on the thought I shared with you at the start of the current series of lessons in last September, I hope you do have the arrows in your bow as you aim for your goals. May this be a prosperous and productive year for you in all spheres of your life. May good health be yours as you pursue your preparations for the external examinations. Yes, these examinations must be brought into the picture now since you will begin to write them in approximately 14 weeks. That is certainly not far away.
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So, the holidays came and went. How was it for you? I trust it was not all fun and frolic but that you did take my advice to spend some time doing some work as you prepare for the examinations later this year. In short, you should have taken time to review some lessons, research some topics and to complete your school-based assessments – among other things. For several weeks in the last term I have been focusing on some practical skills that you must master, as outlined in the syllabus. These skills are tested in many ways and on all the papers that you write in the geography examinations. I hope you have been placing much emphasis on these skills also, and practising to perfect them for the examinations and beyond. Bear in mind that this is one question on the paper for which you can score maximum marks, once the skills are done accurately and properly. I will go on to another skill today, that of identifying landforms. In reference to the syllabus, the specific objective 1.9 states that you should be able to:-Describe landforms through the reading of contours. To discuss all the landforms in these lessons would be impossible. I will, therefore, discuss selected ones which are indicated on maps for the Caribbean territories. My first question to you is this. What are contours? Just in case you do not know or have forgotten, these are level lines drawn on the map to show heights. Stated another way, these are lines on a map joining places of equal height above or below the sea level. Generally speaking, these lines are called isolines. Those drawn to depict the relief of the land are called isohypses. They are drawn at regular intervals on the map. By now you should be quite familiar with the Ordnance Survey maps on which these lines are drawn. The interval of these lines, known as the vertical intervals, is usually indicated in the key or legend of the map. It is important that you note this when reading your map.
merged lines is a cliff. Here are some examples seen on a map extract of Antigua. Observe places like Snapper Point and Charlotte Point. This section of the map also shows contours closely drawn together at the same points named above, while the area easterly of The Ridge has the lines further apart from each other. Let us now look at some landforms which are shown by the shape of the contours. A spur is a finger of highland jutting out into the lowland. The contours of a spur are similar to those for a valley. Both form a series of V-shaped lines but the difference for each feature is that for the spur, the apex of the V points to the lowland, while for the valley the apex points to the highland. These are shown in the following diagrams:
The V-shaped contours are evident. Look closely at the numbering of the contours to identify the location of the highland and the lowland.
The distance at which these lines are drawn from each other and the shape of them will inform you about the landforms they represent. When contour lines are drawn close to each other, these indicate the presence of a steep slope. On the other hand, when they are drawn far apart, these indicate a gentle slope. Sometimes the lines are drawn so closely to each other that they merge. The landform indicated by these 12
The discussion on landforms will continue in the next lesson.
Marjorie Henry is an independent contributor. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 3-9, 2012
Threecolumn cash book
yl:Principles of Accounts
ROXANNE WRIGHT Contributor
THIS WEEK’S presentation is a worked example of the three-column cash book.
WORKED EXAMPLE On January 1, 2010, Nick Storm’s cash book showed debit balance of cash $3,650 and bank $37,150. During the month of January the following business was transacted. 2010 Jan 1 Bought a computer for cash $1,500; Cash Sales $630; Deposited cash $1,000 Jan 4 Received from A. Huggins a cheque for $5,100 in part payment of his account Jan 6 Paid a cheque for merchandise purchased worth $2,010 Jan 8 Deposited into bank the cheque received from A. Huggins Jan 10 Received from Hugh Kirk a cheque for $1,550 in full settlement of his account and allowed him discount $30 Jan 12 Sold merchandise to Devon Bros. for $3,000 who paid by cheque which was deposited in the bank Jan 16 Paid Saunders $1,830 by cheque, discount received $10 Jan 27 Paid George Anthony $1,300 Jan 30 Paid salaries $3,500 Jan 31 deposited into bank the cheque of Hugh Kirk Jan 31 Withdrew from bank for office use $500
YOU ARE REQUIRED TO: a. Enter the following transactions in the three-column cash book and balance it. b. Post the balances to the relevant ledgers.
SOLUTION
See you next week. Roxanne Wright teaches at Immaculate Academy. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 3-9, 2012
13
System & application software
yl:Information Technology NATALEE A. JOHNSON Contributor
TUDENTS, THIS is lesson 16 in our series of Gleaner lessons. In this week’s lesson we will conclude looking at system and application software and begin a new unit.
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GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE A graphical user interface (GUI, commonly pronounced ‘guey’) is a human computer interface (HCI) based upon a graphical display. GUIs are most commonly found on workstations or PCs fitted with graphics adapters able to support high-resolution graphics. GUI is a variation of the menu-driven system of selecting commands with the use of the mouse. This system, popularised by the Apple Macintosh, uses a graphical user interface. This consists of icons and pop-up and drop-down menus. A mouse is used to click on an icon to execute some operation or select options from a pop-up or drop-down menu.
ADVANTAGES OF GUIS
m Its user friendliness results in less anxiety on the part of the user m Icons/symbols are easier to recognise and provide the user with a context m Fewer command errors
m Reduce typing
DISADVANTAGES OF GUIS
m It may consume more screen space m For programmers, the design of graphical user interface is more complex m Clicking an icon can produce unexpected results because of a lack of icon standard m Increased use of computer memory can lead to slower processing
The name of the unit we are going to be focusing on for the next few weeks is problem solving and program design.
Have you ever wondered how problems are solved on the computer or why do we ourselves have problems we can not seem to solve? Well, you are going to be using your analytical skills with some mathematical knowledge for this unit.
PROBLEM SOLVING AND PROGRAM DESIGN In our everyday life we
actually solve simple problems. For example, you have a problem getting to school early in the morning. How would you solve this problem? m First you need to examine the problem m Determine possible solutions to the problem such as setting an alarm, making arrangements with a taxi to pick you up early, travelling with a friend who is normally early for school or getting ready for school on time. m Based on the possible solutions you would then evaluate to determine the best solution to the problem. m Finally, choose the best solution to your problem. Similarly, the computer is designed to solve problems for you the user. How is this possible? A computer solves end-user problems by following a set of instructions given to it by the programmer and produces the specified results. The computer programmer creates the instructions for the computer to follow. These instructions are referred to as computer programs. You were introduced to the term computer programs when we looked at software. A computer program is a finite set of clear and specific instructions, written in a programming language.
PROBLEM-SOLVING ON THE COMPUTER The design of any computer program involves two major phases: 1. The problem-solving phase 14
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 3-9, 2012
2. The implementation phase The problem-solving phase consists of the following steps: 1) Define the problem 2) Find a solution to the problem 3) Evaluate alternative solutions 4) Represent the most efficient solution as an algorithm (you will learn about this in up-coming lessons) 5) Test the algorithm for correctness The implementation phase consists of the following steps: 1) Translate the algorithm into a specific programming language 2) Execute the program on the computer 3) Maintain the program
DEFINING THE PROBLEM Defining the problem is a way to help the programmer understand what he or she is required to do. It involves breaking down the problem into three key components: m what is given (that is, the inputs) m the expected results (that is, the output) m the tasks that must be performed (that is, processing) These three components can be illustrated using what is a called a defining diagram. Some texts may refer to this as the input processing and output (IPO) chart. The defining diagram is a formal approach to defining a problem. The defining diagram is a table with three columns, which represents the three components: input, output and processing.
THE INPUT The input is the source data provided. You can identify what is the input in a given problem by the following keywords: given, read or accept. We have come to the end of this lesson. See you next week when we will continue to look at problem solving and program design. Remember that if you fail to prepare, you should prepare to fail. Natalee A. Johnson teaches at Ardenne High School. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
The accounts office
yl:Office Administration
HYACINTH TUGMAN Contributor
HOPE YOU all had a wonderful holiday break. This week I will look at a very important part of any organisation. Yes, the accounts office.
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The accounts office in any organisation is very important as it records all purchases and sales, as well as the receipt and payment of money. Accounts are, therefore, kept for the following reasons: m to ascertain whether a profit (or loss) has been made m to record the value of assets and liabilities m to provide information to others about the finances of the business m to control the finances m to maintain accurate records of all transactions Some of the functions of the accounts office will, therefore, include the maintenance of: m accounts payable m accounts receivable m credit control m payroll m petty cash
THE PAYROLL Wages are the rewards paid to employees for the labour/services they have supplied to an organisation. There are other terms used for the rewards of services rendered depending on the nature of the work and the period for which payment is made. The other terms are:
JANET SILVERA PHOTO
Ricardo Johnson, his newborn Victoria Santos Johnson and wife Eugenia Santos Johnson celebrating with birthday boy Dimitris Kosvogiannis during a dinner party at the Grand Palladium Resort in Hanover on Christmas Day.
6 p.m. on any week day, he/she will be paid overtime
m salaries paid to administration workers and are paid monthly, while wages are paid weekly to production or factory worker
m double time is payment for time spent in work after a normal working week, or on public holidays
m piece work is where workers are paid for each piece of work completed. For example, an assistant dressmaker may be paid $100 for every piece of garment upon completion regardless of how long it takes
m commission is additional payments made to sales representatives according to the quantity of goods sold
m flat rate is where all employees are equally rewarded, whether or not they perform well m hourly rate workers are paid for each hour they work. They are sometimes provided with a time card and are expected to clock in and clock out. When workers arrive for work, they select their clock card from the rack and insert it in the clock which print their card with the arrival time m bonus rate is a system where additional money is paid for extra output of work completed in less time than is specified m overtime is payment for work performed outside of the specified working hours. If the normal working hours are 8 a.m. to 4 p.m., Monday to Friday, and the employee works from 4 p.m. to
FORMULA
WAGE AND SALARY DEDUCTIONS In addition to the rate at which the employees are paid, it is important to note that the amount earned and the actual amount received is different because certain deductions have to be made. These can be statutory or voluntary. A statutory deduction is compulsory deduction in an individual’s pay without any consent from the individual. Voluntary deductions are those requested by the employee from salary (wages). In Jamaica, Income Tax, National Insurance and Housing Trust are statutory deductions.
NET PAY This is the amount the worker receives after deductions have been made.
GROSS PAY This is the actual amount that the employee receives before statutory deductions are made. To calculate the net pay, the clerk must deduct the following: tax, NIS, Housing Trust. YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 3-9, 2012
See you next week when I will complete this lesson. Hyacinth Tugman teaches at Glenmuir High School. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
15
The Haitian Revolution yl:History
DEBBION HYMAN Contributor
OBJECTIVES At the end of the lesson students should be able to: a) Describe the course of the Haitian Revolution up to 1804 b) Discuss three effects of the revolution on Haiti and the wider Caribbean.
TOUSSAINT L’OUVERTURE Toussaint was a slave from a plantation in the north. He was the son of a Dahomey man called Pierre Baptiste, who had come to St Domingue as a slave. In his early years, Pierre had been sold to some Jesuit fathers who taught him the Catholic religion. He had also learnt a good deal about books from them. When the Jesuits left St Domingue he was freed with the other slaves. Toussaint’s father taught him to read and write the French language, but he was too poor to buy his son out of slavery. Toussaint apparently read many books during his spare time which were lent to him by the plantation overseer. He was not a field slave but worked in the stables, where he had plenty of time to listen to the conversations of the whites. Toussaint had little or no part in the 1791 rising, but in the subsequent confusion became the leader of one of the many marauding bands which roamed the plain. At first he offered his services to the Spanish in Santo Domingo as a mercenary, but by 1794 he offered his services to the republican army of France and directed all his energies against the English invaders and their allies, the French planters. He quickly became the dominant figure on the republican side, commanding an army devoted to his person and enjoying the respect, indeed the friendship, of powerful people abroad. It was his friendship with John Adams that enabled him to secure from 16
the United States the ships and supplies he needed to fight the English. By 1798, he had so worn down the invaders that the English commanding officer was glad to withdraw this depleted force. The English expelled, Toussaint turned upon the mulatto faction of the west and south, defeated its leader Riguad, himself a soldier of considerable ability, and sacked the town of Les Cayes which had been its headquarters. There followed a systematic round-up mutilation and murder of some 10,000 mulatto men, women and children. Politically, by 1800 Toussaint was supreme within the colony. He was able to secure either the compliance or the removal of all officials sent out to the colony from France. He had already, in 1799, been formally appointed governor general by the government in France. After 1800, Toussaint put a stop to indiscriminate massacres and ordered the now ex-slaves back to work. He even induced some of the white émigrés to return to their estates and revive. Toussaint later drew up a constitution in which he proclaimed himself governor general for life; a step which Napoleon himself (the new ruler of France) had not yet ventured to take. There was no room within the French empire for two dictators and Napoleon’s irritation at the prestige and pretensions of ‘gilded Africans’ was partly responsible for Toussaint’s fall. Napoleon had other motives, however, more practical than mere irritation. His political plans called for alliance with Spain but Toussaint, in 1801 in defiance of Napoleon’s orders, had carried out a rapid and successful invasion of Santo Domingo and had, in the past, been a source of great wealth to France and could be so again. Napoleon also wanted to restore the old system, slavery and all. None of these plans could be executed while Toussaint rule St
part 2
Domingue and his removal could only be achieved through a military reconquest of the island. A formidable army of 20, 000 troops was sent to St Domingue under General le Clerc, Napoleon’s brother-in-law. This was the largest military expedition ever to sail from Europe for the Western hemisphere. Le Clerc landed at Cap Francais in the north and demanded its surrender. Toussaint’s commander there refused and set fire to it instead. The French, therefore, decided to use force. They were successful at first, especially with the mulattoes fighting on their side, but Toussaint, Christophe and Dessalines conducted a series of brilliant campaigns which had the French by, April 1802, on the edge of disaster. As well as having to fight Toussaint’s troops and guerrillas, they were beginning to succumb to yellow fever like the British before them. Toussaint, however, did not realise this, so instead of pressing home his advantage he came to terms with Le Clerc who had insisted that all Napoleon wanted was their oath of allegiance and the surrendering of their guns. Dessalines and Christophe were to accept commands under the French and he would retire to his country estate. However, Toussaint was tricked and he and his family were arrested and sent to France where he died in prison. The betrayal of Toussaint had confirmed the suspicions and worst fears of the blacks in St Domingue. It was impossible for them to accept the word of the French and armed bands of freedom fighters began to form in the mountains. Their numbers multiplied as news arrived that slavery had been restored in the other French West Indian colonies. Christophe, Dessalines and others broke with the French and took up their position again at the head of their
own forces. A period of intensely savage fighting followed. The French eventually gave ground as they were decimated by the ex-slaves and by yellow fever. Reinforcements were sent out from France, but in 1803 war broke out between France and Britain, and St Domingue was soon blockaded by British ships which effectively cut off men and supplies from the French forces in the island. The French leader was, therefore, forced by circumstances to evacuate his troops. He preferred to surrender to the blockading British than to the black rebels. Dessalines thereafter took control of events in St Domingue. He embarked on a campaign of literal extermination of the surviving whites. He had been the most able and ruthless of Toussaint’s generals. Unlike Toussaint he was Africa-born. At the outbreak of the revolt he was a slave on the plantation of a free black whose name he assumed and whose property he seized as soon as the insurrection gave him the opportunity of murdering his master. He quickly rose to power in the entourage of Toussaint and was Toussaint’s enthusiastic agent in the massacre of mulattoes in the south in 1800. He was the obvious successor to Toussaint and in 1804 he proclaimed himself emperor of independent Haiti (the original Taino name). He ruled until 1806. His policies, however, spurred the mulattoes to rebellion against him. In fact, he was killed by a 14-year-old mulatto assassin. After his death, Haiti was divided between rival successors, the black Christophe in the north and the mulatto Petion in the south. This continued until Christophe’s death in 1820 when Jean Pierre Boyer, a mulatto leader educated in France, succeeded in uniting blacks and mulattoes and became president in 1820.
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 3-9, 2012
EFFECTS OF THE HAITIAN REVOLUTION ON HAITI AND THE CARIBBEAN Caribbean m There were a series of sympathetic revolts, for example in Jamaica (Maroons), St Vincent (Black Caribs) and Grenada (Fédon) in 1795. m There was an increase in sugar prices with the decrease production from St Domingue. The British Caribbean prospered during this period. m Islands such as Jamaica, Cuba and Puerto Rico profited immensely from planters fleeing St Domingue who introduced and developed agricultural crops in these areas. For example, these émigrés created coffee estates in Jamaica. Haiti m Emancipaion for the enslaved – Haiti became the first black state in the Caribbean and in fact the Americas. m It created political instability, especially after 1818 where dictatorship marked the nation’s history. m The economy was destroyed as farming declined considerably. For instance, sugar production fell from 163,000,000lbs in 1791 to 1,800,000lbs in 1818.
SUGGESTED READINGS 1. History of the West Indian Peoples, Bk. 4 - Carter, Digby and Murray 2. A Short History of the West Indies - Parry and Sherlock 3. History of the West Indies - A. Garcia 4. Caribbean Revision History for CXC - Ashdown and Humphreys Debbion Hyman teaches at St Hugh’s High School. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
Graphs
yl:Mathematics
CLEMENT RADCLIFFE Contributor
If you have been following the materials presented in the last three lessons, you should realise by now that the following methods are commonly used to solve quadratic equations: m Quadratic factors m Quadratic formula Learning each method is important. It is also critical that you know when to use the different methods. Let us review the materials presented previously with this in mind. m Only some quadratic equations can be solved by the factorisation method. m Given the equation, you should first use the factorisation method, unless otherwise directed. m If a specific method is requested, you must obey the instructions or you will be penalised. m All quadratic equations with real roots (equations with real numbers as their solutions) can be solved using the formula method. m Be sure to use the correct formula and be careful in processing the negative signs in using the formula method. m If you are asked to solve a quadratic equation correct to two decimal places, then you should use the formula method. Please continue to practise solving quadratic equations by attempting the following: 1. Solve the equation: a2 - 8a + 16 = 0 2. Solve the quadratic equation: 3x2 - 5x - 4 = 0, giving your answer correct to two decimal places. 3. Solve: 4x2 + 3 = 8x. 4. Solve the quadratic equation: x2 - 10x + 21 = 0
(2y - 3)2 + 9y2 = 37 4y2 - 12y + 9 + 9y2 = 37 13y2 - 12y - 28 = 0 Solve using factorisation method (13y + 14)(y - 2) = 0 13 + 14 = 0 , y = - 14 13 OR y - 2 = 0 , y = 2. Substituting values of y into equation (3) When y = - 14 , x = 2 x - 14 - 3 13 13 x = -28 - 3 = -67 13 13 When y = 2 , x = 2 x 2 - 3 = 1. Answer: x = 1, y = 2 OR x = -67 , y = - 14 13 13 We will now complete algebra by reviewing aspects of graphs.
GRAPHS Please be reminded that you are required to be able to draw straight line and quadratic graphs. In doing so it is important that you pay attention to the following: m You need to complete accurately an appropriate table of X and Y values. m The X and Y axes must be clearly labelled. m The scale used must be appropriate to the problem. If one is given, it must be accurately used. m A ruler must be used to draw the straight line while free hand must be used to draw the curve. m The use of a suitable pencil (HB) is required.
APPLICATIONS Graphs may be used to solve: m Quadratic equations m Simultaneous equations m Other problems e.g. maximum value, etc In all cases the solution is represented by the X and Y coordinates at the points of intersection of the line and the curve.
EXAMPLE Let us now turn our attention to the homework from the previous lesson.
EXAMPLE 1 Solve the simultaneous equations: y-x=1 y = x2 - 3x + 4
SOLUTION y - x = 1 . . . (1) y = x2 - 3x + 4 . . . (2)
Plot the equations y = 3x2 - 2x - 1 and y = x + 5. Hence: (a) Solve the equation 3x2 - 2x - 1 = 0. (b) Solve both equations simultaneously Completing the tables: y = x2 - 3x - 3 y = x - 3
y=x-3
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x 0 1 2 y 7 1 -3 -5 -5 -3 1 7 y -3 -2 -1
x 0 1 2 y -3 -2 -1 (a)The solution of x2 - 3x - 3 = 0 is the X coordinates of the points of intersection of the curve and the Y axis.
From equation (1), y = x + 1 Substituting into equation (2), x + 1 = x2 - 3x + 4 x2 - 3x - x + 4 - 1 = 0. x2 - 4x + 3 = 0 Factorizing: (x - 1)(x - 3) = 0 x-1=0;x=1 OR x - 3 = 0 ; x = 3
As the X axis is Y = 0, then at the points of intersection of y = 0 and y = x2 - 3x - 3, y = x2 - 3x - 3= 0. Therefore, the x values are: 3.80 and -0.80 The solution of the equation x2 3x - 3 = 0 is, therefore, x = 3.80 OR 0.80 Answer: 3.80 and - 0.80
Substituting in equation (1), when x = 1 , y = 2 when x = 3 , y = 4 Answers: x = 1, y = 2 and x = 3, y = 4.
(b)The points of intersection of the curve y = x2 - 3x - 3 and the line y = x - 3 represent the solution of the simultaneous equations. Therefore, the solutions are x = 0 , y = - 3 and x = 4 , y = 1.
EXAMPLE 2 Solve the simultaneous equations: x2 + 9y2 = 37 x - 2y = -3
SOLUTION . . . (1) Given x2 + 9y2 = 37 x - 2y = -3 . . . (2) Using equation (2) x = 2y - 3 . . . (3) substitute in equation (1)
N.B. At the points of intersection, x2 - 3x - 3 = x - 3 Simplifying: x2 - 3x - x - 3 + 3 = 0 x2 - 4x = 0 the values of x above also represent the solutions of the equation x2 - 4x = 0 . We will continue the review of graphs next week. Clement Radcliffe is an independent contributor. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 3-9, 2012
17
yl:Biology
MONACIA WILLIAMS Contributor
Nutrition
TUDENTS, HOW are you this week? Have you been good? I hope so, because it pays to be good! This week we will continue our study of plant nutrition. Do you remember the name that is given to plants based on their type of nutrition? Of course you do, they are known as autotrophs because they have the ability to make their own food. Of course, you also remember that the name of the process is photosynthesis, right? This week we will take a look at what happens during photosynthesis.
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THE PROCESS First, let us remind ourselves of what is required. These are: m The two raw materials which are two inorganic substances - carbon dioxide, CO2 and water, H2O. m The two conditions - chlorophyll and light. The process occurs in a series of steps or reactions which take place in the chloroplasts of the palisade and spongy mesophyll cells. The reactions also occur in the guard cells, the only epidermal cells which contain chloroplasts. The reactions occur in two distinct stages: 1. A stage that is dependent on light energy supplied by the sun. This is known as the light-depent stage. 2. A stage that can occur whether or not light is present and is, therefore, not dependent on light. This is known as the light- independent stage.
What happens to the products that are formed? The first product formed is glucose; you can see that from the equations above. The glucose produced may be: m Used as the substrate for respiration to produce energy for the plant’s activities. m Converted to starch and stored. Why is starch stored and not glucose? Glucose is soluble in water so it would remain in solution within the cell’s vacuole. This would cause an osmotic gradient to develop between cells, causing some cells to lose water and some to gain. Starch is insoluble, so it would not interfere with the concentration of the cell sap. Additionally, starch can form granules within the cells. m Can be used to make other organic substances, for example sucrose, cellulose and as a starting point for the formation of amino acids. m Can be converted to sucrose to be transported to other areas of the plant for use, or converted to starch for storage. Remember the storage organs? m The oxygen that is formed goes to replace the oxygen that is used in both animal and plant respiration, thus maintaining the oxygen concentration in the atmosphere.
LIGHT-DEPENDENT STAGE In this stage the following happens: 1.Water (H2O) is split to produce oxygen (O2) and hydrogen + (H ). 2. Energy is produced.
LIGHT-INDEPENDENT STAGE In this stage the following happens: + The H produced from the splitting of water is used in a series of reactions resulting in the conversion of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate (the carbon dioxide is reduced). The energy that is produced from the light stage provides the energy needed for the reactions. The process is summarised in the following equation that you are required to learn. The photosynthesis equation in words:
carbon dioxide + water
Light >>>>> Glucose + Oxygen Chlorophyll
The equation using symbols:
(L-R) Tasheka Miller, Kameilia Brown and Tameika Gordon could not miss out on the fun at Secrets’ Christmas party in Montego Bay 18
6CO2 + 6H2O
Light >>>>> C6H12O6 + 6O2 Chlorophyll
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 3-9, 2012
The above covers as much of the process that you will need to know for your examination. Is that all for photosynthesis? Definitely not! We cannot complete the study without looking at the photosynthesis experiments. Many of the examination questions that are set on the topic are set on these experiments. This is especially so for the multiple-choice exam. The experiments are designed so that the conditions and the raw materials can be determined. There are certain things that are common in them. You need to know how to destarch the plant, as well as how to prepare and test a leaf for the presence of starch. Why do we test for starch? Remember, the end product of photosynthesis is glucose and this glucose is converted to starch for storage. What do we use to test for starch? We use iodine because iodine is the test reagent for starch. If iodine is added to starch, the colour changes from amber to blue-black. Next week we will look at the process used to destarch a plant so that its leaf can be tested for starch. See you then! Monacia Williams teaches at Glenmuir High School. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
The small firm
yl:Principles of Business YVONNE HARVEY Contributor
ELLO AGAIN. This week’s lesson will cover definitions and examples of the small firm, characteristics of the small firm and the role of the small firm in Caribbean communities.
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Although we have seen that many firms expand and go into large-scale production, there are some that do not increase their size, they remain small. In the Caribbean, small firms tend to be more in number than large firms. These small firms exist alongside other large firms.
DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES OF SMALL FIRM It is not an easy task to find one appropriate definition for the small firm, therefore, many persons use various criteria to identify them. According to B.M.C. Abiraj in his book Principles of Business for CXC, several definitions of small firms are used in Trinidad and Tobago as outlined by the Management Development Centre in Port-of-Spain. These definitions include: (a) A firm whose total assets excluding land and buildings does not exceed $500,000 (TT). (b) For a firm to be considered small, it should have less than 10 employees. This definition comes from the Central Statistical Office. (c) A small firm should employ one top manager who should manage the business and perform other functional duties as well. Examples of small firms include direct services such as hairdressing, small shops, restaurants, small, private schools, private nursing homes and so on. You may wish to do some research and add to this list of examples.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SMALL FIRMS 1. These are firms which cannot easily be divided into departments since they lack the space and personnel. 2. Workers in small firms do not specialise much, if at all. 3. Many small businesses are family oriented. 4. Small firms do not normally have middlemanagement personnel. The top manager performs all the important duties himself. 5. Small firms are often characterised by a wide variety of tasks and skills. 6. These firms exhibit many of the characteristics of the sole trader. It would be good if you could revise these characteristics.
THE ROLE OF SMALL FIRMS IN CARIBBEAN COMMUNITIES 1. Small firms provide employment for many, especially in rural areas. 2. They provide services that are either not
provided by larger firms or they are not adequately or properly provided. 3. Small firms provide competition to larger firms, forcing them to be efficient and keep their prices low. 4. These firms serve as a means for persons to supplement regular income, for example as farmers, fishermen, etc, especially where the nature of work is seasonal. 5. Many small firms assist larger firms in ‘breaking bulk’ and in the distribution process, for example small-scale retailers. 6. Small firms often try out new ideas and expand to become larger firms to the benefit of the community. 7. Small firms can manage the demand in small communities, whereas larger firms may see their demand as insignificant and a waste of time. 8. These firms are flexible and, therefore, easily adjust to changes in the community, for example changes in the community demand. 9. Some businesses are difficult to control on a large scale. Therefore, if it were not for the small firm, these businesses would not exist in some communities, for example taxi services. 10. Small firms are often linkages to larger firms in the community, obtaining material from them or supplying them.
Now, go through this lesson again, do some additional reading on the topic then write an outline to the following question: (a) Define a small firm. (2 marks) (b) Give two examples of small firms. (2 marks) (c) Discuss four characteristics of small firms. (8 marks) (d) Explain four important roles of small firms in your local community. (8 marks) Total: 20 marks Remember that in answering questions where you are asked to explain or discuss, you must endeavour to expand on your points in order to gain full marks. Next week the lesson will cover the reasons for remaining small, the advantages/benefits open to small firms and the disadvantages/challenges faced by them. questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
Take care until then. Yvonne Harvey teaches at Glenmuir High School. Send
JANET SILVERA PHOTO
Alicia (left) and sister Celia Benito are fashionably fabulous at a dinner party celebrating the birthday of Grand Palladium Resort and Spa’s general manager, Dimitris Kosvogiannis, on Christmas Day.
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 3-9, 2012
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Electoral voting systems
yl:Social Studies
MAUREEN CAMPBELL
Contributor
There are two most used voting systems in parliamentary elections in most countries. These are: m the majority election system use in Jamaica, Trinidad, Barbados and other islands. m The proportional representation system used in Guyana. Both systems have advantages and disadvantages
MAJORITY ELECTION SYSTEM With the majority election system, only one member of Parliament is elected for each constituency. In Jamaica ,we now have 63. This has been done to prevent as much as possible a hung Parliament.
ADVANTAGES
m Individuals usually know the candidates for a constituency and may, therefore, have a close relationship. m These candidates should be more aware of the needs of the constituents and should realise their responsibility.
m There is less chance for favouritism as may become evident when making the list for a proportional system.
DISADVANTAGES
m It is believed that in many cases it may lead to a neglect, or seemingly so, of the Opposition constituencies. m A party with the minority support may form the government. This becomes evident when there are quite a number of parties involved in the election or the size of constituencies. m However, with the majority election System, small parties have no chance to win a mandate unless there are some constituencies with a population having political views differing much from those in the rest of the country.
m Constituencies are of varying sizes as evidently people do not live in areas of exactly the same size. m If there is a constituency with a solid majority for one party, gerrymandering may take place where there could be a subtracting of a few areas voting overwhelmingly for that
party and adding them to a neighboring constituency where such a party just needs a few per cents more of the votes to win the election and exchange these towns for a few towns known to be voting for the Opposition – so the party will win both seats.
PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION SYSTEM With the proportional representation system, several members of parliament are to be elected as representative for the country, en bloc, which is seen as one large constituency. Basically, every political party presents a list of candidates and voters vote for a political party. Parties are assigned parliamentary seats in proportion to the number of votes they get.
In the Caribbean region the structure of government is made up of three distinct bodies/arms or branches. They are the Executive, the Legislature and the Judiciary. Jamaica is a parliamentary democracy based on a system of representative and responsible government. The form of government is a constitutional monarchy. Jamaica is also a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations. The Constitution under which Jamaica assumed Independence in 1962 is primarily modeled on the WestminsterWhitehall (British) system of government.
m Selects and presides over the Cabinet.
m Advises the queen on the appointment of the governor general. m On the dissolution of Parliament. m Appointments of the chief justice, the president of the Court of Appeal and the three service commissions. m Appoint the senior members of the judiciary and the service commissions after consultation with the leader of the Opposition. m The prime minister also nominates 13 of the 21 members of the Senate.
MONARCH ADVANTAGES
m With several parties there is more choice and voters are more likely to find a party that does represent their major political convictions. m Supporters of a small party have a more likely chance to be represented by at least one member of Parliament. m There is one big constituency, the country, and there is no possibility to manipulate the boundaries as with the majority election system (gerrymandering). Since seats are assigned to parties proportionally to votes, the boundaries of a constituency are not as relevant to the election result as in a majority election system. m The strength of the party in the legislative body will reflect the strength of the party in the country.
DISADVANTAGES
m In most countries with proportional elections the parties decide who will represent them in Parliament. There may be a difference between the party hierarchy deciding on the top places on the party’s list of candidates and the voters’ preferences. m There is a possibility of a coalition government which does not have to be necessarily a bad thing. m Areas may be neglected as no one person is directly responsible for a specific area of a country.
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THE STRUCTURE OF GOVERNMENT
The monarch in England is head of state and is represented by the governor general, who is appointed on the advice of the prime minister. The governor general should have no attachment to any political party.
GOVERNOR GENERAL Our governor general is the representative of the queen on ceremonial occasions such as the opening of Parliament, the presentation of honours and military parades. He is also given authority to appoint and discipline officers of the civil service. The governor general may also exercise mercy on behalf of the queen. This is done in relation to the advice of the Jamaican Privy Council.
PRIVY COUNCIL OF JAMAICA The Privy Council of Jamaica consists of six members who are appointed by the governor general after consultation with the prime minister. The functions of the Privy Council are usually limited to advising the governor general.
CABINET The Cabinet is seen as the centre of the system of Government. It is responsible for the initiation of government policies and programmes and is most of all responsible for the general direction and control of the Government. The Cabinet consists of the prime minister and not less than 11 other ministers. Four of these ministers may be appointed from the Senate and they may have portfolio responsibilities. The other Cabinet ministers are appointed from the House of Representatives. Cabinet ministers are usually assisted by ministers of state and parliamentary secretaries. Important matters, especially those which may become the subject of discussion in Parliament, are brought before the Cabinet for discussion and decision.
ACTIVITIES 1. Which system of choosing a government is the best? Give reasons for your answer.
THE EXECUTIVE Prime Minister The governor general appoints as prime minister, the member of the House of Representatives who, in the governorgeneral’s judgement, is best able to command the confidence of the majority of the members of that House. Some of the duties of a prime minister:
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 3-9, 2012
2. Do you believe that Jamaica should use the proportional voting system? Justify your answer. 3. Outline the role and function of the executive form of government in your country. Maureen Campbell teaches at St Hugh’s High School. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
Electrolysis yl:Chemistry
FRANCINE-TAYLOR CAMPBELL Contributor
YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
m Identify ions present in electrolytes m Predict the electrode to which an ion will drift m Identify the products appearing during electrolysis and write relevant ionic equations m Describe the electrolysis of certain substances; concentrated hydrochloric and diluted sulphuric acid, concentrated sodium chloride and diluted sodium chloride, copper (II) sulphate using carbon or platinum and copper electrodes, and fused halide eg lead bromide.
POINTS TO NOTE
m In the electrolysis of molten substances only two kinds of ions are present and both are discharged. The cation is discharged at the cathode where it gains electrons (reduced) and form atoms. The molten metal generally coats the cathode. The anion is discharged at the anode by losing electrons (oxidized) and form atoms. m When electrolysing aqueous solutions, the ions of the substance being electrolysed and water are present. The discharge of ions at the electrodes will, therefore, be dependent on position of the ion in the electrochemical series, concentration and the type of electrode being used. (Please review last week’s lesson to understand this concept).
QUESTION 1 Write electrode reactions for the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride. In a molten substance such as NaCl (l), two ions are present; a positive ion (cation) Na+ and a negative ion (anion) Cl . At the cathode: Na+ migrates towards the cathode (negative electrode) and gains electrons to form Na which is deposited on the electrode. Reaction: Na+(l) + e === Na (s) At the anode: Cl ions migrate towards the anode (positive electrode) and lose electrons to form chlorine gas. Reaction: 2Cl (l) === Cl2(g) + 2e Electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid. Ions present: H+ and OH- from water and H+ and SO42- from sulphuric acid At the cathode: H+ ions migrate towards the cathode and are discharged as hydrogen gas. 2H+(aq) + 2e == H2 (g) At the anode: OH and SO42- migrate
towards the anode but the OH- ion is discharged in preference to the SO42- ion. 4OH (aq) === 2H2O (l) + O2(g) + 4e
NOTE: Since four mol of electrons are produced at the anode, then these four mol of electrons must be used up at the cathode. So, in this reaction, for every 1 mol of oxygen gas produced, two mol of hydrogen gas are formed. Electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride using Pt/C electrode. Ions present: Na+, H+, OH- and ClAt the cathode: Na+ and H+ migrate towards the cathode but H+ is discharged in preference to Na+ (lower in electrochemical series). 2H+(aq) + 2e == H2(g) At the anode: OH- and Cl- ions migrate towards the anode. If the sodium chloride solution is dilute then OH- ions are discharged in preference to Cl-. 4OH-(aq) === 2H2O (l) + O2(g) + 4e If the solution is concentrated, then Clions are discharged preferentially, and in this case a carbon electrode is used instead of platinum, as they are resistant to attack by chlorine. 2Cl- (aq) == Cl2 (g) + 2e Electrolysis of aqueous copper (II) sulphate solution. Ions present: H+, Cu2+, OH- and SO42At the cathode: Cu2+ and H+ ions migrate towards the cathode where the Cu2+ ions are discharged in preference to H+ ions as it is lower in the series. Cu2+(aq) + 2e === Cu (s). This copper is deposited on the cathode which gets thicker. The blue colour of the copper sulphate solution gradually fades. At the anode: Two reactions can occur at the anode depending on the type of electrode used. Using Pt/C electrodes, OH- ions are discharged in preference to SO42-. 4OH (aq) == 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e. The solution becomes acidic as Cu2+ and OHions are removed leaving H+ and SO42- ions. Using copper electrode as the anode results in the copper from the electrode being converted to copper ions (a process which requires less energy) and the anode dissolves and gets thinner. Cu(s) === Cu2+ (aq) + 2e. The concentration of the solution is unchanged (the blue colour remains the same). Francine Taylor-Campbell teaches at Jamaica College. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
The reigning JCDC Festival Queen for St James, Sheena Sterling, looking stunning in this outfit as she enjoys the JCDC Triple P (Poem, Pudding and Punch) event at Robin’s Prime Steakhouse in Montego Bay.
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 3-9, 2012
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