yl:History
Emancipation & apprenticeship DEBBION HYMAN
e) To assist in fixing the value of Negroes who wanted to buy their freedom
Contributor
OBJECTIVE At the end of the lesson, students should be able to: 1. Explain the social, economic and political factors which led to the abolition of slavery in the French and Spanish Caribbean. 2. Discuss the main provisions of the Emancipation Act and the problems of the apprenticeship system.
These duties were strenuous and led to the death of many SMs, who were not accustomed to tropical conditions and could not afford the high cost of medical treatment.
CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT Salary - £300 for the first year then increased to £450 for travel expenses and housing. There was no pension for dependents if the SMs died in service. There was no sick leave and they had to pay their own fare back home if they was dismissed or invalided out of service. These bad working conditions prevented SMs from performing their duties satisfactorily and many were easily bribed by planters. They were also overburdened by work because they were so few in numbers. Those who tried to do their duties were sometimes persecuted. They were abused physically, verbally, and in the press. They were all obstructed in the performance of their duties, as planters sometimes refused to allow them on the estates.
SUCCESS OF STIPENDIARY MAGISTRATES a) They listened to complaints from both sides and acted as a buffer between masters and apprentices. b) They informed apprentices of their rights, they did not have to listen to gossip or obtain information from newspapers. c) They helped apprentices to organise their lives better by giving advice. However, they had very little to formulate schemes to improve the social conditions of the apprentices. They were unable to prevent apprentices from being punished harshly.
The stipendiary magistrates (SM) were retired naval and army officers on half pay, appointed from Britain, who were accustomed to rough conditions and enforcing discipline. They were chosen because they were not connected to the planter class and it was felt that they would not be biased.
DUTIES OF STIPENDIARY MAGISTRATES a) To supervise the apprenticeship system b) To settle disputes between masters and apprentices c) To visit estates at regular intervals and hold court d) To inspect jailhouses and workhouses
CONTROLLING APPRENTICES ON THE ESTATES a) Valuations on able-bodied slaves were often inflated. b) It was illegal for apprentices to leave the estate without written permission. c) Locking up apprentices on false charges and dropping the charges before the arrival of the SM was a common practice. d) High fees were charged for the use of the markets and for licences to work off the estates as carpenters, blacksmiths, etc. These licences and tickets to sell in the markets could be withdrawn. e) Paying low wages, making unfair deductions from wages and paying wages late. f) Refusal of planters to give customary allowances. g) Finding fault with apprentices’ work which had to be done over in the apprentices’ free time. h) Cutting down apprentices’ fruit trees and forbidding apprentices to own livestock. i) Spreading the 401/2 hours per week over five days instead of four.
THE END OF APPRENTICESHIP Apprenticeship ended for all apprentices in 1838 because: a) The system was not achieving its aims. b) The anti-slavery society exposed the abuses in the system and began to campaign for full freedom. c) The planters feared violence if domestic apprentices were freed before field apprentices. d) Some planters felt that it was cheaper not to have to provide for apprentices and only to employ the number of labourers they needed.
PUNISHMENTS
NOTE
Apprentices were usually sent to the workhouse, however SMs had no control over what happened there. The most common form of punishment in the workhouse was the treadmill. There was also the whipping post and apprentices could be put in penal gangs. Females often had their heads shaved. Time lost in the workhouse had to be repaid by the apprentice via working for his master during his free time.
Antigua granted full freedom to their slaves. The planters decided against apprenticeship.
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 31-FEBRUARY 6, 2012
The apprenticeship system came to an end in 1838 when the colonial governments in each colony voted against its continuation. Debbion Hyman teaches at St Hugh’s High School. Send question and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
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yl:Mathematics
geometry Coordinate Given two points represented by A (x1 , y1), and B (x2, y2) then the formula is: m = y2 - y1 x2 - x1
EXAMPLE Find the gradient M of the line joining the points A(2 , 5) , B(1 , 2). Since m = y2 - y1 substituting x2 - x1 m = 2 - 5 = -3 = 3. 1- 2 -1 Answer = 3.
INTERCEPT This is the y coordinate of the point where the line cuts the y axis, that is the point (o , y). This y value is denoted as c.
CLEMENT RADCLIFFE Contributor
N THIS week’s lesson we will complete the review of functions. This is to be followed by the introduction to aspects of coordinate geometry. We will begin with the homework from last week. We will now begin to review coordinate geometry by considering straight lines on the Cartesian plane with respect to the following: Gradient Intercept Midpoint Length of line Equation of line
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Again, let me remind you of the importance of the theory of graphs; it is very important to this topic.
The following is a plot of the points A and B on the Cartesian plane which will illustrate the concepts.
The Cartesian plane consists of the perpendicular x and y axes.
MIDPOINT REMINDERS The axes must be properly labelled. Appropriate scales should be accurately used. The coordinates of a point are always expressed in the form: (x , y). Three points are required to draw a straight line. A ruler must always be used to join the points.
This point is denoted by M and from the diagram, the coordinates of the midpoint are:
IN REVIEW:
GRADIENT The gradient of a line is a measure of its slope. The value is denoted by m and is defined as: m = Increase in the y coordinates Increase in the x coordinates
Clement Radcliffe is an independent contributor. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
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YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 31-FEBRUARY 6, 2012
yl:Geography
Vegetation MARJORIE HENRY Contributor
HIS WEEK I will continue to share with you how to write descriptions as is required by the syllabus. In the last two lessons I discussed the description of drainage. I will now go on to other descriptions, beginning with vegetation. This is either natural vegetation or cultivated crops (agriculture). Invariably, what you are being asked to do is clearly stated in the question. To describe vegetation, you must rely heavily on the legend or key of the map. Study this carefully to identify the symbols for each type of vegetation or agricultural activity indicated on the map. It does not matter how well you know the country from which the map extract was taken; you must refer to the section that is represented on the extract given.
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Natural vegetation includes forest of different types, scrub, grassland and woodland. In keeping with the syllabus, you are often asked to explain the relationship between the type of vegetation and the relief of the land. The approach I would recommend is: Study the legend to see the natural vegetation listed. Study the map extract to see if those listed in the legend are present on it. Observe closely the relief of the land where each type of vegetation identified is found. Make a link between both.
For example, what is the vegetation found in the highlands, on steep slopes, on gentle slopes? Give examples of the height at which particular vegetation is found. Woodland could be found above a certain height and on steep slopes, while forest is lower down on the same steep slope. Grassland could be on gentle slopes at lower elevation. Cultivated crops would be those typical of the Caribbean region since the map extracts you are given to use are all from the region. The crops include sugar cane, banana, coconut, rice and citrus. Sometimes you are asked to list a specific number of the cultivated crops. In that case, once you have identified the crops in reference to the legend, simply list them on your answer sheet. For other times, you are asked to account for the distribution of them. In the latter situation, you are required to link vegetation with the relief of the land. The approach is similar to that of discussing natural vegetation, as was given above. Study the legend to see the cultivated crops listed. Study the map extract to see if those listed in the legend are present on it. Observe closely the relief of the land where each type of crop is cultivated. Make a link between both.
For example, you may find sugar cane on low lands, citrus on gentle slopes and rice on flat swampy lands. In addition, you can observe and comment on whether the cultivation of the crop is scattered because of the relief – may be steep slopes and the rugged nature of the land. The availability of water can be included in your response if asked to account for the distribution of agricultural activities. That is the presence of rivers or streams to provide water for irrigation. You may even identify areas where cultivated crops are absent, suggesting reasons for this. Let me now go on to description of settlements. These are usually shown by dots on the map and in the legend. These dots may be referred to as ‘other buildings’. You must have knowledge of the different settlement patterns to be able to identify these on the extract. Let me revise these very quickly. When the settlement (the dots) follows a line of movement, for example, a road or a river and sometimes along the coast, this is linear. A nucleated or compact settlement is identified when the buildings are close together and are connected by roads. In areas where there may be hilly terrain or extensive farming activities are present, a dispersed settlement pattern is identified. These three settlement patterns are shown in the diagram below.
(Source: Skills in Geography in Secondary School by V.A. Rahil) In your description of settlement, once you have identified the pattern state the name of both the settlement and the pattern and give four-figure grid references for its location. You must ensure that the examiner knows exactly what you are writing about.
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RUDOLPH BROWN PHOTOGRAPHER
Jessica Williams (back seat, left) and Maricet Leyva, while in the driver’s seat are Amanda Mitchell (left) and Gordene Jocas, giving their megawatt smiles at the Jamaica Motor Show held at the Police Officers’ Club on Sunday, January 22.
The discussion will continue in the next lesson. Marjorie Henry is an independent contributor. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 31-FEBRUARY 6, 2012
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yl:Chemistry FRANCINE TAYLOR-CAMPBELL Contributor
MAIN POINTS Avogadro’s Law states that equal volumes of all gases measured at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules. The temperatures and pressures usually used are standard temperature and pressure (STP), which is 00C and 1 atmosphere pressure, and room temperature (RTP) which is 200C and 1 atmosphere pressure. The formula of a compound shows how many atoms of each element are present in a molecule or formula unit. The empirical formula is the simplest formula, which represents the composition of the compound. The actual formula is called the molecular formula. It is generally a multiple of the empirical formula and is calculated from the molar mass. 1 dm3 of any gas at STP contains the same number of molecules as 1 dm3 of any other gas at STP. 22.4 dm3 of any gas contains L molecules (6.0 * 1023) at STP. This is one mole of the gas and is called the molar volume. At RTP the molar volume is 24 dm3.
CALCULATIONS ON MOLAR VOLUME 1(a) What is the volume of 8g of oxygen at (i)RTP (ii) STP 1 mole of oxygen (O2) = 2 * 16 = 32g 32g = 24dm3 at RTP and 22.4 dm3 at STP Thus 8g = 24/4 dm3 at RTP and 22.4/4 dm3 at STP Volume of 8g of O2 at RTP = 6 dm3 and at STP = 5.6 dm3
The mole concept following reactions. (i) 3.40g calcium form 9.435g of the chloride
Ratio of moles Empirical formula
Calcium (Ca) 3.40g 40 3.40/40 = 0.085 0.085/0.085 =1 = CaCl2
Calculate the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon containing 85.7% carbon given that the molar mass is 56g/mol.
METHOD 1 85.7% C 14.3% H Mass in 100g 85.7g 14.3g No. of moles 85.7/12 14.3/1 = 7.14 = 14.3 Ratio of elements 1 : 2 Empirical formula = CH2, Mr = (12+2 = 14g) Molecular formula: (CH2)n = 56 14n = 56 & n = 4 Formula = (CH2)4 = C4H8
METHOD 2
METHOD Elements present Mass of each element Relative atomic mass Number of moles
In determining molecular formula, the empirical formula and/or the molar mass must be known.
Chlorine (Cl) 9.435-3.40 = 6.035g 35.5 6.035/35.5 = 0.17 0.17/0.085 =2
Mass of carbon = 85.7% * 56 = 48g Mass of hydrogen = 14.3%*56 = 8g 1 atom of carbon = 12g 1atom of hydrogen = 1g # of carbon atoms = 48/12 = 4 # of hydrogen atoms = 8/1 = 8 Molecular formula = C4H8 Francine Taylor-Campbell teaches at Jamaica College. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
(b) Calculate the mass of 4.8 dm3 of (i) N2 (ii) CO2 at RTP. (i) 1 mole of N2 = 28g 24 dm3 at RTP = 28g 4.8 dm3 = (28 * 4.8)/24 = 5.6g (ii) 4.8 dm3 of CO2 at RTP = (44 * 4.8)/24 = 8.8g
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION 1. Calculate the Mr for the compound eg. Ammonium phosphate (NH4)3PO4 Mr = (14 + (4*1))*3 + 31 + (4*16) = 149 1 mole = 149g 2. Calculate the mass of each element in one mole N = 3*14 = 42g H = 3*4*1 = 12g P = 31g O = 4* 16 = 64g 3. Calculate the % of each element N = (42/149)* 100 = 28.2% H = (12/149)*100 = 8.1% P = (31/149)*100 = 20.8% O = (64/149)*100 = 43.0%
EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAE The formula of glucose is given as C6H12O6. This shows that the compound glucose is made of 6 atoms of carbon, 12 atoms of hydrogen and 6 atoms of oxygen. This is the molecular formula. The empirical formula of glucose is CH2O and is the whole number ratio of the elements in this compound. To find the empirical formula from combustion or percentage composition data, the number of moles must be found.
NOTE: Number of moles = Mass (g) Molar mass (g/mol) 1. Calculate the empirical formula of the compounds formed in the 16
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 31-FEBRUARY 6, 2012
yl:English Language NATASHA THOMAS-FRANCIS Contributor
ELLO, ALL. As I promised last week, here are the answers to the multiple-choice questions that I had set for you last week:
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1. C 3. B 5. C 7. C 9.A 11. C 13. D 15. A 17. C 19. A 21. D 23. B 25. D
Writing a report
2. C 4. A 6. C 8. D 10. B 12. B 14. A 16. C 18. D 20. D 22. A 24. B
All the time I watched the radiation readings on my detector rise steadily as we approached the plant: it read 0.7 microsieverts per hour in Naraha, located just near the edge of the 12-mile restricted zone from the plant.
part 1
As we reached Tomioka, it rose to 0.9, and then soon it was 1.5. In Tomioka, we passed a former welcome centre for nuclear plants operated by Tokyo Electric Power Station (TEPCO), operators of Fukushima Daiichi. It consisted of a small collection of Bavarian-style gingerbread buildings. There was even a posted of Naoto Kan, the prime minister at the time of March 11 who is now no longer in power.
How many did you get correct before you consulted your dictionary?! I hope most. Now, let us turn to the lesson at hand. Have you ever witnessed an incident and had to write a report on it? Or, have you read reports documented in newspapers? Well, this week we shall be exploring the report, with particular emphasis on eyewitness and newspaper report writing. Being able to write a report is an essential skill, as reports are used in many aspects of daily life. Examples of major types of reports which you may encounter are: the informative report, the field trip report, the newspaper report, the investigative report, the progress report, the sales report, the incident/accident report, the eyewitness report and the evaluation report. You will notice, then, that if you intend to be a news reporter, a police officer or even a business analyst you will need to develop your skills in this area. So, what is a report? It is a compilation of information systematically organised on a specific topic, subject, issue, matter or incident. The report has a specific purpose and is directed to particular audiences and readers. Generally, the structure of a report for academic purposes is organised as follows:
INTRODUCTION This includes your purpose for writing the report, as well as the specific matter which will be dealt with.
DISCUSSION This is a summary of a description of the incident or main focus of the report.
dealership with its windows shattered and insulation exposed. Then came a gas station which had been cleaned up of debris – but then taken over by a population of crows.
By now, the warning buzzer on my radiation detector was going off constantly: I watched the radiation levels rise quickly, from 2.7 microsieverts to 3.7 to 4.1. When we arrived in a place called Okuma, the reading was 6.7 microsieverts and the bus came to a halt. We were instructed to put on respirator masks at this stage – which meant that every inch of my skin was now covered and protected.
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WINSTON SILL FREELANCE PHOTOGRAPHER
ALT Autohaus launches the new Audi A6 motor car at the Sandals hangar,Tinson Pen Aerodrome, Marcus Garvey Drive, on Wednesday night January 18.
ENDING This is the conclusion. It entails a summary of actions taken and, depending on the purpose for which you are writing, may even provide recommendations. Let us take a closer look at the eyewitness report. An eyewitness report is an account of an event, incident or accident which a person experiences first-hand. It captures what the person saw, felt and thought. This type of report can sometimes be used in a court of law as evidence. An eyewitness report focuses on the following: Time of the incident Location of the incident Accurate and complete details of the incident Sense impressions of the person Vivid language to convey the experience clearly
Appropriate verb forms such as the past simple tense and the past passive tense. The following is an example of an eyewitness report. It is an excerpt taken from The Telegraph, dated January 18, 2012. Eyewitness report - inside the wreckage of Japan’s Fukushima nuclear reactor (by Martin Fackler in Fukushima 7:00PM GMT 12 Nov 2011) Japan’s stricken Fukushima nuclear plant has opened its doors to reporters for the first time since the March 11 earthquake. Martin Fackler of the ‘New York Times’ sent this pooled dispatch. I was one of around three dozen journalists put on to two buses. We were given protective suits, double gloves, a double layer of clear plastic booties over shoes, hair cover, respirator mask and a radiation detector.
And then we began our drive to the plant. First, we passed through the police check point. Through the bus window I saw the empty towns of Naraha, Tomioka and Okuma pass by. There were abandoned homes. A plant store with its greenery still on display outside, but withered and dead. I could see that many homes had been visited and fixed already by residents, with the surrounding areas swept clean and debris from the earthquake placed into neat piles. Other houses, however, were clearly left exactly as they were when residents fled on March 11. Inside one office I saw papers scattered in piles on the floor, apparently untouched since the earthquake. We continued past a pachinko parlour, its facade collapsed, and a car
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 31-FEBRUARY 6, 2012
Then we turned on to the main road which leads to the plant. We were within 3 kilometres of the plant at this stage but even here many houses appeared to be neat, with front doors closed, window curtains drawn. Finally, we reached the security check point at the entrance of the plant: the radiation detector buzzed at 20 microsieverts. (Note: a microsievert, also known as sievert, is the International System of Units (SI) SI derived unit of dose equivalent radiation. What are the details that you have garnered from the excerpt? Would you consider this to be an effective report? In next week’s lesson, we shall look at a newspaper report. Until then, I encourage you to read examples of a newspaper report this week and familiarise yourselves with the features of this type of report. Natasha Thomas-Francis teaches at Glenmuir High School. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
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yl:English Literature
‘Theme for English B’ part 2 BERYL CLARKE Contributor
ID YOU do a little dancing, singing or both after you found out about Bach, Bessie Smith and bop (short for bebop)? Have you ever listened to any blues music? Try to listen to some and then see if you can make a song of this poem using the ‘blues’ beat or rhythm. You won’t be disappointed; have some fun and perhaps you will get the underlying tone of sadness.
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The speaker in Theme for English B is a college student whose instructor has given his class the assignment of writing a page. The question then arises as to what the page is to be about. The answer, such as it is, is to be found in the third line of the instruction And let the page come out of you... You must have wondered what you would have done if you had been given such a task, just as the student in the poem does. This should help you to understand his concern with the last line of the work that says that if it comes out of the writer it must be true. Now, we do not know whether the students were told first to write this page on a specific topic or whether this is all they were told, but our focus is on whatever is of concern to the speaker. Read lines six to 15 please. Now, yes now. Tell me, why does the persona who is also the speaker in this case spend time informing us about his background? Of what benefit is it to us to hear that he is coloured, just twenty-two, that he was born in Winston-Salem, went to school there, then to school in Durham, is presently at Columbia University, is the only coloured student in his class and is living at the Harlem branch of the YMCA. Yes – we are getting to know him. We meet here a young man from an industrial city who moved from his home to another industrial area, but one this time known for its academic offerings and then to New York to attend a university. He is living in Harlem. Do you see any significance in this? Is there any thing in Harlem that could have an impact on him?
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YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 31-FEBRUARY 6, 2012
He, the speaker, is struck by the teacher’s belief that if the ideas a person expresses comes out of the person, they will be true and he wonders if bringing out or telling the truth presents no difficulty, no complications, is just plain. So then, he gives us his brief personal history. We are able to realise through this that his truth, or what is true for him, is made up of a variety of experiences. He continues to reflect, beginning with thinking that at his age, twenty-two, it is difficult to know what is true. After all, he has not seen, heard nor done enough to have set beliefs or proofs about anything. He decides, however, that he is learning, and not only from the experiences of Harlem but also, to a lesser extent, from the city of New York, maybe even the whole state. He uses repetition and personification to tell us how wrapped up he is with Harlem. He tells us what he likes, all normal, natural actions and desires. He is just another human being, we can say, including his love of music which is not limited to what is popular or black. His conclusion, like ours, is that he, a black man, is fond of the same things of which the members of other races are fond. He does not believe that his written piece will be white; but it will not be totally coloured for he has been affected by his exposure to a white instructor. More than that, he concludes that America creates the opportunity for the races to influence each other, something that is not appreciated at times by the teacher and the student. Finally, he mentions something he sees as true. He claims that the instructor is more free than he is. ‘More free?’ Let us look at this philosophical idea. He is making the point that circumstances have enslaved both of them, but that within the situation the teacher has more latitude than he does. His truth is that though bound together because they live in the same country, they are not equal. Continue to enjoy! Please answer the questions that you had in last week’s lesson, and have a wonderful week. God bless!
Beryl Clarke is an independent contributor.Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
yl:Office Administration
Stock control HYACINTH TUGMAN
give the closing stock figure, which appears in the final accounts.
Contributor
HE PURPOSE of stock control is to make sure that the right quantity/number of each type of product is always available. This is important or else the firm might find itself out of stock and lose sales as a result. Too high a stock level means money is tied up unproductively and valuable space wasted.
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COMPUTERISED STOCK CONTROL The computer, with a special software, can also assist with stock control. The computer can record all the items available for sale and then deduct each item that is sold from the total stock. Some retailers use what is called bar coding for printing receipts. This makes it easier for the establishment to keep a tab on its stocks as the computer will show when it’s time for reordering. Here is an example: when you go to a large bookshop to purchase a textbook, the item is passed over a scanner (the section with the bar code facing scanner), the computer reads the description and price of the item and automatically deducts the total from the stock figure.
Several steps must be followed to ensure that an accurate picture of the current stock position is always at hand. Therefore, proper records must be kept for ordering, receiving and issuing of goods. Stocktaking must be carried out at regular intervals.
RECORDING INCOMING STOCK This may be done either centrally, through the use of a stock record card, or computer system, or locally. A local system means that a card (sometimes called a bin card) is attached to the rack where the product is stored. The date and quantity of incoming stock are recorded on the card.
STOCK LEVELS 1. Minimum level The minimum stock level is the point at which there is just enough stock to take care of the normal demand until the new stock is delivered. The storeroom supervisor establishes the minimum levels for all items.
After goods have been checked, the storeroom should be arranged in an orderly manner to expedite efficient handling of storeroom content.
RECORDING OUTGOING STOCK
The minimum stock level is determined by: the delivery period - the amount and frequency with which an item is used
Whenever stock is issued, the date, quantity and requisition number must be recorded on the stock record card. Keeping a running balance is important so one can know how much stock is held. The final column of the stock record card shows this.
Can you say what the storeroom clerk does on noticing that the minimum stock level is approaching? A minimum stock level for each item is fixed at a level which allows for the item to be reordered before it runs out.
REORDERING WHEN STOCKS RUN LOW A well-organised storeroom has a reordering procedure that goes into effect whenever an item reaches the minimum stock level. Usually, the storeroom notifies the purchasing department which, in turn, places the order with the supplier.
2. Maximum level The maximum stock figure is the largest quantity of stock. The purchasing staff should be able to decide upon the amount of goods to be ordered. However, if the stocks are too high for the needs of the firm, then the rate of turnover would be lowered and the profits reduced. Of course, if stocks are perishable they will deteriorate.
STOCKTAKING This is done regularly so as to ensure that the balances on the stock cards are accurate. The firm’s auditors may make spot checks to make sure that products are not unaccountably disappearing. Regular check detects slow-moving items and poor buying practices. An annual stocktaking is done at the end of the financial year. This involves the assessment of the value of the goods on hand. A physical count of each item is done and its value calculated. At the end of the financial year, the totals are then added to
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WINSTON SILL FREELANCE PHOTOGRAPHER
Usain Bolt (right), the RJR Sportsman of the Year for 2011, with his coach Glen Mills at the Sportman and Sportswoman of the Year awards ceremony, held at The Jamaica Pegasus hotel, New Kingston, on Friday night, January 20. YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 31-FEBRUARY 6, 2012
This is all for this week; continue to revise. Hyacinth Tugman teaches at Glenmuir High School. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
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yl:Social Studies
Good governance MAUREEN CAMPBELL
KEY ATTRIBUTES OF GOOD GOVERNANCE
Contributor
OOD GOVERNANCE may be used to describe how public institutions such as political ones conduct public affairs and manage public resources. Governance, on the other hand, can be described as “the process of decision making and the process by which decisions are implemented or not implemented”.
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Governance, according to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), “is the exercise of economic, political and administrative authority to manage a country’s affairs at all levels. It comprises mechanisms, processes and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations and mediate their differences”. Many groups and individuals have looked on these concepts and have given their definitions which, if studied, are quite similar. It is “... among other things, participatory, transparent and accountable. It is also effective and equitable and it promotes the rule of law”. - UNDP It “...encompasses the role of public authorities in establishing the environment in which economic operators function and in determining the distribution of benefits as well as the relationship between the ruler and the ruled”. - OECD [Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development] It is “...epitomized by predictable, open and enlightened policy making; a bureaucracy imbued with a professional ethos; an executive arm of government accountable for its actions; and a strong civil society participating in public affairs; and all behaving under the rule of law”. - World Bank 1994: Governance: The World Bank’s Experience
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The concept of good governance has been illuminated by the work of the former Commission on Human Rights. In its resolution 2000/64, the commission identified the key elements of good governance: transparency responsibility accountability participation responsiveness (to the needs of the people) It links good governance to sustainable human development while emphasising principles such as accountability, participation and the enjoyment of human rights.
TO THIS WE CAN ADD: Independence of the judiciary Access to information Prudent use of resources Efficient civil service Tolerance of freedom of expression Citizens expects that the government with it various ministries must have a high-quality performance. When good governance is practised, citizens can go about their personal business and other endeavours with ease and confidence. If individuals/citizens’ expectations are not continuously met or seemingly so, citizens usually become angry or indifferent with governance. However, governance that restricts citizens’ opportunities to success and to live well socially and economically will always be met with opposition and result in conflicts, in some case even civil war. In this unfulfilled situation not much will be accomplished due to the atmosphere of discontent, and many will voice opinions like, “I will never vote for
them again” or “We will soon vote them out”. Good governance will help to create an environment conducive to maximising their productive capacity. Good governance never happens by chance, we must all work towards it. We must demand good governance, and when we have it we should work with those at the helm to sustain it. As citizens, we must ensure that we participate freely, openly and fully in the political process. It is a right. We can compete if needed for office and we can form political parties. Most of all, we must be able to enjoy the fundamental rights and civil liberties of society. According to Balmiki Sing, good governance is accordingly associated with accountable political leadership, enlightened policy making and a civil service imbued with a professional ethos. The presence of a strong civil society, including a free press and an independent judiciary, are pre-conditions for good governance. He further states that good governance means securing justice, empowerment, employment and efficient delivery of services.
ACTIVITIES 1. Differentiate between governance and good governance. 2. State four reasons why good governance is necessary in your country. 3. Suggest three ways in which the new government can practise good governance and explain how citizens help in the process. 4. As a citizen, what do you use to decide that a government is practising good governance? Maureen Campbell teaches at St Hugh’s High School. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 31-FEBRUARY 6, 2012
yl:Biology
Nutrition in animals MONACIA WILLIAMS Contributor
AST WEEK we completed our study on nutrition in plants with a description of the experiment to show that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis. While this is not directly required by your syllabus, it is important to note because questions can be set that require knowledge of what happens when carbon dioxide is absent. This week we continue our study of nutrition by beginning to look at what happens in animals.
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Sorry, students, I have gone ahead of myself and hence I have neglected to greet you! How are you this week? Just bubbling and on top of the world I hope! I want to share a thought with you that I hope will help you as the days to your exams draw nearer and nearer.
increase in the number of fast-food outlets and the reduction in the activity of children and teenagers. Habits developed in childhood are not so easy to break. A person is described as being obese if he is 20 per cent above the recommended weight for his/her height and if his body mass index (BMI) is greater than 30. BMI is calculated using the following formula: Body mass (in kg)/height (in metres) x2 If your BMI is under 20, you are also malnourished because you are underweight. The ideal BMI lies between 20 - 24%. Unbalanced diets can also lead to the development of certain diseases. Examples of these are:
ANAEMIA Caused by a deficiency of iron or Vitamin B12 in the diet. It can be cured by eating a diet rich in meat, liver, leafy green vegetables, dried peas and beans and yeast.
Knowledge is power Information is liberating Education is the premise of progress in every family. Kofi Annan
KWASHIORKOR/ENERGY PROTEIN MALNUTRITION (EPM) To begin our study, we will first look at the diet of humans. The food that we eat every day is our diet. This diet should contain the following: Carbohydrates Minerals Proteins Water Fats Roughage Vitamins
This is seen in children whose mothers have stopped breastfeeding them. Their subsequent diets do not contain enough food to provide energy for normal functions, so their bodies begin to use stored protein as a source of energy.
Unfortunately, there is something in some of us that makes us want to seek perfection in certain aspects of our lives. This can lead to the development of poor self-esteem, causing us to believe that we are not measuring up to the so- called ‘ideal’. How we look is not exempt from this so some of us want to be as slim as the model on the runway. This often affects our diet and can lead to the development of eating disorders. On such disorder is anorexia nervosa. Individuals suffering from anorexia eat so little that their BMI becomes dangerously low. They develop problems such as: Pale, papery skin Reduced resistance to infections Irregular menstrual periods in females The illness is psychiatric as it has to deal with the individual’s perception. Treatment includes ways to improve the individual’s selfesteem, as well as the reintroduction of normal eating patterns.
These individuals will need to include a source of Vitamin B12 because this vitamin is not found in plants. Individuals become vegetarians for different reasons. These can be:
ETHICAL There should be no direct destruction of animal life to provide food for them.
RELIGIOUS
It follows then that a 16-year-old girl should not be eating the same amount as a 16-year-old boy, nor should the manager of a company be eating the same amount as a cane cutter. A pregnant or lactating (breastfeeding) mother must also have different dietary requirements from another woman who is of the same age. As the person gets older, the amount of food that the individual consumes should decrease because the energy requirements of the older person will be less than that of the younger one.
Obesity used to be thought of as a problem of industrialised countries, but it is fast becoming a problem in Jamaica due to the
Caused by general starvation through lack of food. The body will then use stored carbohydrates and fats as sources of energy, causing the person to lose weight. If the dietary deficiency continues, this use of stored food can extend to the proteins in the muscles of the body.
There are some persons who do not eat meat. These are vegetarians. They replace meat with other forms of protein. There are different types of vegetarians: Some do not eat meat but eat fish. Some do not eat either meat or fish but consume dairy products. Some do not eat meat, fish or dairy products. These persons are known as vegans.
Your diet is balanced when it has all of the things listed above in the correct amounts and proportions. The food you eat in a day should provide you with enough energy to get you through that day. If you eat too much the body will store the extra amount as fat. The amount of food that is needed by the individual is dependent on the following factors: Your body size How active you are How fast you are growing
Any deviation from the balanced diet will lead to the individual becoming malnourished. We Jamaicans have a concept that if the individual is not fat, well rounded or ‘fluffy’, then the individual is malnourished, but a fat or obese person is also a person who is suffering from malnourishment. The word ‘malnourished’ when translated means ‘bad nourishment’. This person is consuming a diet that is not balanced. He/she is getting more energy from the food consumed than the body requires or, to put it another way, the person’s energy intake is greater than his/her energy output.
MARASMUS
Some religions frown on the consumption of animal products, feeling that the consumption of plant products will make the individual healthier.
NUTRITIONAL Some persons suffer from allergies to animal products. It is believed that a vegetarian diet can provide the following benefits: Low blood cholesterol and low blood pressure High retention of calcium and other minerals Less likely formation of gall and kidney stones Provision of a good balance of the types of fat that the body needs.
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WINSTON SILL FREELANCE PHOTOGRAPHER
Sportswoman of the Year sprinter Veronica CampbellBrown at the RJR National Sportsman and Sportswoman of the Year awards ceremony held at The Jamaica Pegasus hotel on Friday, January 20.
See you next week when we will begin to look at digestion and dentition. Have a marvelous and productive week! Monacia Williams teaches at Glenmuir High School. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 31-FEBRUARY 6, 2012
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yl:Information Technology NATALEE A. JOHNSON Contributor
TUDENTS, THIS is lesson 20 of our series of IT lessons. In this week’s lesson we will look at how to represent an algorithm graphically, as well as control statements.
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A flow chart is a graphical representation of an algorithm. It uses special geometrical objects to designate the basic steps of a program, which are:
A PARALLELOGRAM
Flow charts
Before we look at the selection statement, below are examples of
how the various control structures are depicted in a flow chart.
SEQUENCE SELECTION (DECISION) LOOP (REPETITION) SELECTION/CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS In our everyday lives we make simple and important decisions. These decisions that we make are normally based on a particular condition. For example, if school is keeping you will go to school, but if school is not keeping then you will stay home. The decision will be made based on the condition of whether or not school is keeping.
This is used to represent the input operation as well as the output operation.
THE IF STATEMENT
A RECTANGLE This is used to represent a processing /assignment statement.
A DIAMOND In example 1 (given in the previous lesson), you were required to read the values of three numbers, find the product of the numbers and output the product. This is the flow-chart version of the product algorithm Let us now look at control statements and ways of representing them with a flow chart. This is used to represent a decision (if-then-else and loops) structure.
CONTROL STATEMENTS Sequencing Sequencing is a part of any programming structure. This is where the program is viewed in a simple top-to-bottom manner, from the input statement to the end of the program. Example 1 (product program) given in the previous lesson is an example of a basic program written in a sequential manner.
AN ELLIPTICAL SHAPE
The ‘if statement’ is a conditional statement. It causes execution of some statement to depend on the truth value of a certain condition, given as a Boolean expression. A Boolean expression is one that results in a value that is either true or false. For example, the expression 2 < 5 result would be true because the number ‘2’ is indeed less than the number 5. If the condition is true, then the statements immediately after “then” are executed; if it is false, then the statements after ‘else’ are executed, provided that the “else” clause is present. As observed in the examples above, the ‘if statement’ structure begins with an ‘if’ and ends with the word ‘endif’.
This is used to represent the terminal indicators, START or STOP.
DIRECTIONAL ARROWS These are used to indicate the flow of the logic in the algorithm.
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Let us look at a pseudocode algorithm that will show sequencing and selection, as well as the flow-chart version of the program. Example 3 Write a pseudocode algorithm to read two numbers and to print the value of numb1 if it is greater than numb2 else print numb2. YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 31-FEBRUARY 6, 2012
yl:Principles of Business
Law of of diminishing diminishing Law returns returns YVONNE HARVEY Contributor
ELLO, READERS. The recent lessons on economies and diseconomies of scale taught us that as
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businesses expand their size of operation they will experience advantages initially, but ultimately they will be faced with disadvantages.
In the case of a firm, we should also note that as it expands beyond its ideal or most efficient size it will experience diminishing returns. Diminishing returns, therefore, serves as a limit to the expansion of the firm. This law operates only in the short run. The short run is defined as a time period during which there is at least one fixed factor of production. If demand and prices rise, the firm can only increase output by increasing the variable factors. A fixed factor is a factor of production that cannot be changed or varied in
Notice that the marginal output (the addition to the total output) INCREASES up to the employment of the third unit of labour and capital. The fourth to sixth units of labour and capital show diminishing returns. If the producer should continue adding the variable factors to the fixed factor, the marginal output would decline until it reaches zero. It reaches zero when the total output does not change (it is constant). When
the short run, and a variable factor is one that can be changed or varied.
total output falls, marginal output becomes negative. The law of diminishing returns, also known as the law of variable proportions and the law of diminishing marginal product, states that as successive units of variable factor are added in equal amounts to a fixed factor, the marginal or extra product for each additional unit of the variable factor will eventually decline or fall. The initial growth of the firm will result in increasing returns. Average costs will fall and profits will rise. However, output will reach a maximum at some point. Further expansion of the firm will cause diminishing returns to operate. Average costs will rise and profits will fall. To make it clear what actually happens, consider a car tyre without air. This would correspond to the fixed factor of production. The air would correspond to the variable factor of production. As you begin to pump air into the tyre, the tyre will inflate at a fast rate. However, if you continue pumping air into the tyre, after a while it will inflate at a slower and slower rate. This occurs because the fixed factor (the tyre) is overworked. The same principle applies to a Now, revise the lesson above, do some additional reading and then answer the following question:
growing business.
(a) Define the term short run. (2 marks) (b) What is meant by a fixed factor of production? (2marks)
It is important to note the following: 1. The law refers to amounts of physical product and not to the value of the output.
(c) Explain what happens when a firm is experiencing increasing returns. (2 marks) (d) State the law of diminishing returns. (2 marks)
2. It assumes that there is no technological change.
(e) Explain two reasons the law operates. (4 marks)
3. The law may be applied to all factors of production. 4. Diminishing returns sets in primarily because the factors of production are imperfect substitutes for
(f) Illustrate the law using a table or a graph. (6 marks) (g) Why is it that the law can be applied to any factor of production? (2 marks)
each other.
TOTAL: 20 marks It is usual to illustrate the law of diminishing returns using land as the fixed factor and labour and capital as the variable factors of production. The table below shows a numerical illustration of the law of diminishing returns:
Next week our topic will be the small firm. Bye until then. Yvonne Harvey teaches at Glenmuir High School. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 31-FEBRUARY 6, 2012
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yl:Principles of Accounts
Theory of double entry ROXANNE WRIGHT Contributor
ELOW IS a worked example. Please follow the principles applied and try very hard to retain as much as possible.
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QUESTION a. State what is meant by the following terms. State the formula where appropriate: i. Working Capital ii. Owner’s Capital iii. Capital Employed iv. Authorised Share Capital v. Loan Capital
C. Working capital is important to a business as it helps in the daily operations without which the business may not be able to meet its current or short-term obligations such as purchase of stock, payment to creditors, payment of expenses, extension of credit to customers, among other things.
b. The balance sheet of Salmon contained the following information:
Show the effect (plus or minus) and the amount of the transactions 1 to 7 on EACH of the three types of capital. If there is no change, state ‘no change’. Use the headings in your answer: Working Capital Owner’s Capital Capital Employed
EXAMPLE:
1. Salmon withdrew $2, 000 cash for personal use. 2. Machinery costing $100,000 was bought and paid for with the help of a five-year bank loan of $80,000. 3. Surplus fixed assets, book value $3, 800, were sold for $2, 400. 4. Fixed assets were depreciated in the books by $5, 000. 5. Stock which had cost $2, 000 was sold on credit for $2, 800. 6. A long-term business loan of $16, 000 was repaid by Salmon from his private funds. 7. Salmon received a cheque for $1, 940 from a debtor in full settlement of a debt of $2, 000.
Visit with us again next week when we will present purchase of business. See you then. Roxanne Wright teaches at Immaculate Academy. Send questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
c. Explain the importance of working capital to a business.
SOLUTION: A.
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YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 31-FEBRUARY 6, 2012