A final year thesis project by Nur Adila binti Mohd Hisham
OVERVIEW Despite diminishing gender boundaries in contemporary society there are still communities where men and women live segregated lives, with spaces constructed by social rather than physical methods. The project explores these gender issues in Cheetham Hill, an area with a high Muslim and Pakistani population; here, societies uphold a strict gender order influenced by culture and religious beliefs, in which spaces are labelled by gender rather than function. Subsequently, women in these societies are often isolated through the segregation of spaces, bound to principles that forbid them to travel beyond the threshold of their homes. Even if they could, they are limited by their inability to converse in English.
Establishing these isolated women as target users, this project aims to encourage them to participate in their societies by creating spaces that are influenced by gender movements so that they feel comfortable and confident enough to explore these spaces. The programme seeks to create a safe haven for women by providing veiled spaces where they can carry out activities comfortably beyond the threshold of their homes. Using influences from the East and West, intimate spaces within the neighbourhood were created in the hope of encouraging women, especially those tied down by their children and home responsibilities, to participate in activities and socialize with other women.
cheetham hill: the land of diverse cultures Cheetham Hill is known for its cultural diversity. The Irish, Jewish, Eastern European, Pakistani, Indian, Muslims and Sikh forms and alters the landscape of the area as can be seen by general appearence, religious buildings and shops. It is the perfect area to demonstrate the strategies mentioned. Currently, the area is dominated by muslims, mostly from Pakistan and Middle East. Hence, the strategy is to design a scheme that relates to them and make them feel at home.
Migration into the UK: a new beginning In the 1960s, a large number of migrants came into the United Kingdom to reduce the s hortage of workers during the post-war period. Hopeful men came into the country for a better living and brought along their families (Din, 2006). This potentially led to an increase of migrant families in certain parts of the United Kingdom. Among many places in Manchester, Cheetham Hill has one of the highest number of migrants living in the area (Singleton, 2011).
Migrants during the 1960’s were mostly male and most worked in factories or other manual related employment
Families left behind in the village in the care of male-kin (biradari)
Remmitance sent back to families and village kinsmen
Young migrants often return to their home country for an arranged marriage and brings his new wife with him back to the host country The money is also used to sponsor a family to be with the migrant or to sponsor another kins-men.
The money is used to improve villages or to build a home for the migrant for when he returns.
The new migrants are supported by the community residing in the host country.
The wife, being new to the country, is isolated at home while the husband goes out to work. Not being able to speak English further isolates the wife.
St atistics: migration population Country of birth:
Religion:
Ethnic:
(Other countries)
Muslim
Pakistani
Women: Economically inactive: Looking after home or family
Language: No people aged 16 and over in household but at least one person aged 3 to 15 has English as a main language
findings from conversations: what are their views?
Engagements were carried out with various women groups such as the following: 1. Neesa Well Women Drop In Project 2. The North Manchester Black Health Forum 3. The Temple School English Class 4. The Welcome Centre From all the engagements, it is found that migrant women especially those from South Asia and Middle East, enjoy coming together for activities but at the same time, most are tied down with responsibilities regarding their home and their family. They usually participate in activities when their children are in school and their husbands are work. The Temple School, for example, holds English classes in school so that mothers of the children could learn the language while their kids are in class. They really would like to participate in activities but sometimes could not leave home. This frames the strategy to have multi-purpose spaces within the neighbourhood so that it is accesible by the women who lives there.
When asked about their homes and how it is zoned by gender, they have listed the kitchen to be the most womenly space in the house. Muslim women in particular liked the kitchen and the living room to be separated/segmented so that they feel comfortable cooking and hidden from the guest if there are visitors. This forms a design critieria when designing a house for the migrant community.
isolation of women: integrated facilities in the neighbourhood
“I am a housewife with 3 young children, I spent most of time at home with my youngest child and occasionally go to workshops for Asian women when my children go to school or when my husband is free to send me to the centre. I often bring along my youngest boy to the workshops. I try my best to join these activities because it makes me forget about home troubles and makes me feel momentarily happy.�
programme: a residential neighbourhood that encourages women participation
RESIDENTIAL NEIGHBOURHOOD
that houses both the locals and migrants in one neighbourhood
INTEGRATED FACILITIES
pods for community kitchen, multi-purpose room, nursery and other amenities. It is so close to home, women could easily access it for some bonding time with other women.
TERRACE HOUSES
that resembles a typical British terrace house but with subtle hints of the migrant’s home.
PRIVATE COURTYARD
that gives pleasants view from the house and a space for family activities, a place for kids to play and women to carry out their hobbies/house chores
SHARED COURTYARD NEIGHBOURHOOD LANE
a friendly lane for residents to travel along that links each home to inbuilt facilities. It hopes to encourage ‘neighbourly behaviour’ and the exchange of culture among residents and also increase surveillence.
a place for happy family times with fellow neighbours and in which facilities are placed in.
user of programme: consideration for women needs
MIGRANT WOMEN
Women, especially the wife of migrants face dificulty in travelling due to language and culture constraints. The neighbourhood hopes to make it easier for them to participate in activities which are right behind their homes.
LOCAL WOMEN
Local women are hopeful to break the barrier between them and the migrants. It is encouraged for them to guide isolated migrant women to participate and exchange some knowledge between them through activities such as cooking and sewing.
CHILDREN
Children are among the reasons a women cannot travel and participate in activities. Providing a nursery within the neighbourhood helps mothers out with the matter. The shared courtyard also provides a space for them to run around.
FAMILIES
The terrace houses provide a home for any family, the more diverse the better.
living back at home: life in a courtyard
Facilities for women are usually located surrounding an internal courtyard where women mingle and watch their children play directly outside of their homes. This internal courtyard also acts like a buffer zone before reaching the semi-public lanes to the public lanes.
Women are only allowed into spaces that are known to be for women such as the rice fields, the small lanes, and the internal courtyards. Main pathways and markets are strictly off limit to women unless accompanied by a male family member (Mumtaz et al, 2005). Facilities for women are usually located surrounding an internal courtyard where women mingle and watch their children play. Using this as an inspiration to the proposal, a shared courtyard space with facilities within the neighbourhood is introduced with the same spirit of a space for women.
the move to the united kingdom: disconnected spaces
It is much more isolating practicing isolation of spaces in the UK as unlike Pakistani villages where spaces are closely knit together, the spaces here are dispersed and requires one to travel.
Home
Home
Fields
Neighbours Market
In the UK, once stepping out of the house, it is straight away the outdoor urban environment. Facilities are further away from the house requiring a migrant women to walk further to their destination. First Generation of Pakistani Women Pakistan village (Mother to migrant) Home Neighbours
Social
Neighbours
Home
Second Generation of Pakistani Women Pakistan village (Migrant) Home
Neighbours
Social
Neighbours
Home
Second Generation of Pakistani Women UK neighbourhood (Migrant)
Among many cultural aspects that were brought along to the host country, the gendered realm is one of the major one. Although not as severely and strongly gendered as their home country, there are still desires to adjust/accomodate some aspect of gendered spaces within the environment of their surrounding, especially their homes. At the same time, there is a need to accomodate to the locals as well hence a balance of gendered spaces could be introduced. It should be subtlely gendered that it may not seem gendered by a local but can be modified to be a gendered space by a muslim migrant.
courtyard houses: a space for women
Courtyard is considered a sacred space in a muslim home. According to Hassan Fathy (1973), a courtyard is “...open to the calm of the sky, made beautiful by the feminine element of water, self-contained and peaceful...is the domain of the women...”
“Such a fragile creation is this peace and holiness, this womenly inwardness, this atmosphere of a house for which ‘domesticity’ is so inadequate a word, that the least rupture in the frail walls that guard it destroys it.”
He viewed the courtyard as a womenly space where they are free to carry out any activities whilst feeling safe and secure.
Hence, a private courtyard space should be hidden from prying views of neighbours. Much like a secret garden.
gendered zones in a muslim house: how gendered is your home? In the Arab Muslim world of the Middle East and North Africa, gender division exists and is well defined. A study by Farah & Klarqvist (2001) examines the underlying spatial structure of the home in terms of zones of users that embed gender codes instead of zone of functions. Using the same analysis approach, it can be used to test the houses designed and modify it to be become more gender friendly.
E
The exterior public sphere E: This is the street, which is defined mainly as the public sphere.
I
The interior private sphere I: This is the private territory of the inhabitants, which is used by the inhabitants and their visitors.
M
The male domain M: Male members of the household and their male guests dominate this domain. Female family members are expected to be alert while using this zone due to reduced privacy.
F
The family domain F: Family members use this domain in different ways. Yet, it is dominated by the females and the children, and thus identified by the inhabitants as a females and children’s sphere. Female guests are permitted into and received in this part of the private sphere of the house.
Fg
The gathering zone Fg: This is a sub-domain of the private family domain where the family members, of both genders, gather for social activities, such as chatting, watching TV etc. It is dominated and used by the female members and the children.
Fp
The personal/individual zone Fp: Each gender or both could use this zone, yet its use is considered more personal.
Ff
The female zone Ff: This zone accommodates a number of spaces that serve different functions and is dominated by the female family members, who perform different types of activities within this zone.
Having two separate entrances for male guest and female guest makes it convenient for women to enter the premise without any male guest witnessing. Deeper spaces (denominated by the numbers at the side) are encouraged for family spaces as it is more private and hidden from view.
Dwelling unit
Neighbour lanes lined with clothes and bicycles
The arched entrance to the neighbourhood. The main streets are lined with shops and facilities.
lilong houses: terrace houses of the East
The arched entrance with its name
public streets/ courtyards
It also feature a front courtyard in each home as a buffer before entering the home and also to allow more sunlight into the house.
Main lane
Li-long which literally means ‘neighbourhood lane’ is a mix of British terrace house and traditional Chinese architecture. It features a hierarchy of neighbourhood lanes that sees plenty of activities happening on its path. The lanes becomes more private as it goes deeper into the neighbourhood where neighbhours know each other which is good for surveillence purposes.
Side lane
Public road Hierarchy of lanes
(Adapted from Guan, 1996)
20 iterations: new configuration of a British Terrace House Using a typical British terrace house layout as a template, a set of configurations was created to test out new typology of terrace houses. In each home, an analysis is carried to out determined how gendered it is.
Bathroom (Fp) Bedroom (Fp)
Kitchen (Ffg) (str) Reception room (Fg)
Reception room (Mm)
(T)
Bedroom (Fp)
Bedroom (Fp)
TERRACE HOUSE PROTOTYPE
d
b a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
a c
Possible front courtyard entrance
2. Using the housing types from previous iterations, the houses are arranged to form interesting courtyards and gardens. Shared courtyards a, b, c, d are formed
1. Typically, British terrace houses is arranged this way.
4. Spaces that have potential to become a facility space is identified.
3. To allow connections between the shared courtyards, some cuts are made in the arrangement.
6. The final configuration
3. In each courtyard, a facility space is distributed
5. To permit the facility spaces to form, a new configuration of houses is suggested.
cheetham hill: facilities & amenities map
1. Unit 25 2. Cheetham Hill Job Centre 3. Jamia Mosque 4. Northward Housing Cheetham Hill 5. The Trinity Welcome Centre 6. Cheetham Church of England Community Academy
1.
7. Community Support Plus
There are many facilites along Cheetham Hill Road but as you go in to the residential area, there are less and less amenities.
8. Esso
2.
From previous engagement, it was found that women often go to Woodville Sure Start (no 15) and Northward Housing Cheetham Hill (no 4) to participate in activities.
14.
9. Cheetham Hill Advice Centre 10. St John’s Church
3.
For women residing on the east side of Cheetham, Woodville Sure Start is in the heart of the neighbourhood while Northward Housing is along main road which needs a bit of walking.
11. Khizra Mosque
4.
12. The Collegiate Medical Centre
15.
There is an opportunity to design a residential neighbourhood in the west of Cheetham Hill that also provides spaces for residents, especially women, to use.
13. The Transport Museum 14. Abraham Moss Learning Centre
5.
15. Woodville Sure Start
7.
6.
8.
9. 10.
11.
12.
13.
proposed site: where and why?
Site B Site B is further away from the main road (Cheetham Hill road) and is adjecent to parks, a small mosque and a school. It is quite a secluded residential area with less facilities surrounding the area. Hence, there is an opportunity to introduced a neighbourhood complete with shops and facilities.
Site C Site C is quite close to Cheetham Hill road and is of walking distance to the Khizra Mosque and St John’s Church. It is adjacent to the Bignor Street Park which could be of use to the proposed neighbourhood.
Site A Site A is close to the main artilery road which are Cheetham Hill Road and Queen’s Road. Surrounding the site are important facilities such as a school, clinic, church, and mosque that could be of use to the project and integrated with the programme.
PROGRAMME:
RESIDENTIAL NEIGHBOURHOOD
that houses both the locals and migrants in one neighbourhood
TERRACE HOUSES
that resembles a typical British terrace house but with subtle hints of the migrant’s home.
PRIVATE COURTYARD
that gives pleasants view from the house and a space for family activities, a place for kids to play and women to carry out their hobbies/house chores
SHARED COURTYARD
a place for happy family times with fellow neighbours and in which facilities are placed in.
NEIGHBOURHOOD LANE
a friendly lane for residents to travel along that links each home to in-built facilities. It hopes to encourage ‘neighbourly behaviour’ and the exchange of culture among residents and also increase surveillence.
INTEGRATED FACILITIES
pods for community kitchen, multi-purpose room, nursery and other amenities. It is so close to home, women could easily access it for some bonding time with other women.
SITE PLAN: Ground floor
SITE PLAN: Shared and Private garden
26 27
25 26
27
23
24 24
25
17 22
23
21
20
19
21
22
18 17
19
20
16
18
16
15 15
10 1
2 2
1
3
4
3
5 4
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
5 6
7
8
9
11
12 13
14
SITE PLAN: 1st floor
SITE PLAN: Ground floor No of units: 27 units Type Type Type Type Type Type Type
A: B: C: D: E: F: G:
2 units 4 units 3 units 5 units 10 units 2 units 1 units
2 1
Facilities: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Laundr y Nurser y Sewing room Classroom/Multi-purpose space Community kitchen Massage room/Multi-purpose space Nurser y Multi-purpose space
9. Community kitchen
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
TYPE A: gender analysis
F
M
Fp
str
T
5
5
6
Fp Fp
trce
Fp
4
T
Ffg str
cyrd
4
3
3 T
Fg
(str) Mm
(str)
T
1
1
1 2
T I E
E
1. Entrance (T) 2. Reception room (Mm) 3. Reception area/Dining (Fg) 4. Store 5. Kitchen (Ffg) 6. Courtyard (Fg)
2
1. Foyer (T) 2. Master bedroom (Fp) 3. Bedroom (Fp) 4. Bathroom (Fp) 5. Terrace (Fg)
1. Foyer (T) 2. Loft (Fp)
2
TYPE B: gender analysis
F
M
Fp trce
Fp
Ffg
Fp T
cyrd
5 6
Fg
5
4 3
str (str) (T)
Mm
1. Entrance (T) 2. Reception room (Mm) 3. Reception area/Dining (Fg) 4. Store 5. Kitchen (Ffg) 6. Courtyard (Fg)
1. Foyer (T) 2. Master bedroom (Fp) 3. Bedroom (Fp) 4. Bathroom (Fp) 5. Terrace (Fg)
3
1
1
T
2 4
T
2
I E
E
TYPE C: gender analysis
F
1. Entrance (T) 2. Reception room (Mm) 3. Reception area/Dining (Fg) 4. Store 5. Kitchen (Ffg) 6. Courtyard (Fg)
M Fp
5
1. Foyer (T) 2. Loft (Fp)
Fp
Ffg
Fp
4
6
3
Fp
6
T
str
trce
1. Foyer (T) 2. Master bedroom (Fp) 3. Bedroom 1 (Fp) 4. Bedroom 2 (Fp) 5. Bathroom (Fp) 6. Terrace (Fg)
5
cyrd 1
4
1
(str)
Fp
T
Fg
Mm
2
str
T I E
E
1 (str)
3
2
2
TYPE D: gender analysis
F
M
2
1. Foyer (T) 2. Master bedroom (Fp) 3. Bedroom (Fp) 4. Bathroom (Fp) 5. Terrace (Fg)
1
3
Fp trce
4
Fp
5
Fp Ffg T
cyrd Mm
str
6
Fg 4 2
T
1. Entrance (T) 2. Reception room (Mm) 3. Reception area/Dining (Fg) 4. Store 5. Kitchen (Ffg) 6. Courtyard (Fg)
(str)
I E
E
3 1
5
TYPE E: gender analysis
F
Fp
M
Fp
5
1. Entrance foyer (T) 2. Reception room (Mm) 3. Reception room (Fg) 4. Kitchen (Ffg) 5. Courtyard (Fg)
4
2
T (T)
Fg
Ffg
3
cyrd
5
Mm str
1. Foyer (T) 2. Loft (Fp)
1
Fp T
1. Foyer 1 (T) 2. Bathroom (Fp) 3. Foyer 2 (Fp) 4. Master bedroom (Fp) 5. Bedroom (Fp)
6 3
(str)
T
2
7
1 4
T I E
E
TYPE F: gender analysis
6
3
F
2
5
M Fp
1
4
(str)
T
str
1
1. Entrance (T) 2. Reception room (Mm) 3. Reception area/Dining (Fg) 4. Store 5. Kitchen (Ffg) 6. Courtyard (Fg)
2
3
4
Fp trce
Fp
Ffg
Fp T
5
Fg
cyrd
Mm
str
T I E
E
1 1. Foyer (T) 2. Loft (Fp)
2
(str) 1. Foyer (T) 2. Master bedroom (Fp) 3. Bedroom 1 (Fp) 4. Bathroom (Fp) 5. Terrace (Fg)
SITE PLAN: gender analysis
TYPE C SECTION:
ELEVATION: Material study
TIMBER FRAME
BRICK
TIMBER LARCH
STEEL MESH
ALUMINIUM SCREEN
Timber frame construction are becoming more common in modern construction and has the potential to reduce wastage rates on site, compared to traditional build methods. According to Milne (2008), the use of timber frame construction has the potential to reduce on site wastage by 40% when compared to traditional construction and the manufacturing process has a wastage rate of less that 1.6%.
Brick is a part of the vernacular architecture of UK and is available throughout the country easily. There is also opportunities to explore using decorative brick.
Timber cladding is also commonly used in modern houses and is easily available.
The use of steel mesh as the canopy of the walkway to allow ivy to grow and let sunlight through the walkway.
The decorative aluminium screen is reminiscence of the mashrabiya in islamic countries and is proposed to be used as a balcony screen.
Milne, Stewart (2008)
BUILDING STRUCTURE EXPLODED 3D DETAIL 1. Siberian larch tongue and groove V joint 2. Battens to attach timber larch 3. OSB sheating 4. 12 mm ply 5. Kinspan Kooltherm K7 pitched roof board insulation 6. Battens to hold roof slates 7. Welsh slate roof tiles 8. Brick wall 9. Kooltherm K12 framing board insulation 10. Concrete foundation
6
7
5 2 1
3 4
9
8
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1. Welsh slate roof tiles 2. Roof rafter 3. Roof battens 4. Kingspan Kooltherm K7 pitched roof board insulation 5. 12mm ply 6. Roof trusses 7. 100 x 75 mm aluminium gutter to detail 8. Aluminium roof flashing to detail 9. 9 mm ply 10. Timber battens 11. Siberian larch tongue and groove V joint 12. Timber battens 13. Black breather membrane 14. OSB sheating 15. Kooltherm K12 framing board insulation
11 12 13 14 15
SERVICES: VENTILATION SYSTEM Heat Exchanger Cool air from outside Cool stale exhaust air
MVHR Mechanical Ventilation with Heat Recover y To ensure the house is ventilated, a MVHR system is introduced in the scheme. Mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (MVHR) system are provided by companies such as NuAire and it provides good indoor air quality by extracting the warm, moist air from rooms such as kitchens and bathrooms, done through concealed duct system in the wall and ceiling. The air is passed through a heat exchanger then ducted outside. Fresh air from outside is drawn in and passed through the heat exchanger, which warms it, and it’s then ducted to the living rooms and bedrooms. Some systems have a feature so that when it’s warm outside, the air can bypass the heat exchanger to help keep the house cool. Having this system installed avoids heat loss and windows does not have to be opened to ventilate the house. To ensure air is circulated around the house (as shown in the diagram), doors should have a small gap at the bottom.
Warm extract air
Warm incoming air
SERVICES: WATER SYSTEM
Bathroom
Bathroom
Kitchen sink
Kitchen Washing machine
Hot water cylinder and boiler underneath the stairs
VEILED SPACES: Decorative garden brick wall
The garden wall acts as a veil between private gardens. The decorative brick allows residents to have brief chats and exchanges between them.
VEILED SPACES: Courtyard as a women’s space Courtyard is considered a sacred space in a muslim home. According to Hassan Fathy (1973), a courtyard is “...open to the calm of the sky, made beautiful by the feminine element of water, self-contained and peaceful...is the domain of the women...” He viewed the courtyard as a womenly space where they are free to carry out any activities whilst feeling safe and secure.
VEILED SPACES: Chinese front courtyard A shared front courtyard is inspired by the chinese Lilong houses, a private shared space for residence, acting as an warm entrance and buffer zone before trespassing the women’s zone
VEILED SPACES: Mashrabiyya balcony The aluminium decorative panel to veil the balcony is inspired by the Mashrabiya, a type of projecting oriel window enclosed with carved wood latticework, built for privacy in the Arab world.
VEILED SPACES: The connecting pathway The connecting pathway is inspired by the Lilong neighbourhood lanes. Li-long which literally means ‘neighbourhood lane’ is a mix of British terrace house and traditional Chinese architecture. It features a hierarchy of neighbourhood lanes that sees plenty of activities happening on its path. The lanes becomes more private as it goes deeper into the neighbourhood where neighbhours know each other which is good for surveillence purposes.
negotiate
compensate
liberate
EXPROPRIATING VACANCIES:
Liberation of the city vacant spaces for public use Contested Peripheries Nur Adila Mohd Hisham Studio 4.2
INTRODUCTION:
RIGHT TO THE CITY David Harvey
Henri Lefebre
26
“The right to the city is, therefore, far more than a right of individual access to the resources that the city embodies: it is a right to change ourselves by changing the city more after our heart’s desire.”
The urbanization of our city is inevitably mobilized by wealthy, private parties who has the right to most of the capital surplus. Upper class society is slowly eradicating the vulnerable society out of the city, denying participation in the wider public exemplified in the boom of shopping malls and gated communities. Privatization of government facilities such as social housing, hospitals and other facilities makes it difficult for lower class society to access the services.
Harvey, 2012, pp. 1
To gain more power in the right to shape our cities, the government could opt to play the role of ‘good cop’, liberating vacant spaces in the inner cities from private ownership for public use via expropriation. The negotiation and compensation between the private and public in claiming the liberated space could potentially lead to alter the city scape and bring forth regeneration to inner city cores.
Definition of compulsory purchase
EXPROPRIATION IN THE UK:
COMPULSORY PURCHASE OF PRIVATE PROPERTY
Actors in the Compulsory Purchase
noun [mass noun] Law • the right of a government or its agent to expropriate private property for public use, with payment of compensation. In the UK, this policy has been named “compulsory purchase” (Garner, 1975)
Private
Government
Public
Property Private property includes land as well as fixtures, leases, options, stocks, and other items.
Vacant and derelict buildings
Acquisition Taking of physical property, or a portion Acquisition of building property from private thereof, as well as the taking of prop- ownership erty by reducing its value. Public Use
Stockport Metropolitan Borough Council
Requires that the property taken be The liberated space to be utilized by the public to used to benefit the public rather than build after their heart’s desire specific individuals. Compensation
Stockport Town Hall
Requires that the property taken be Mobilization of capital for the public’s welfare, used to benefit the public rather than using the government revenue in terms of taxes to specific individuals. acquire land from private ownership 27
Vacant Property Vacant property can range from empty buildings, shops, sites, and landscape. Government can opt to take only a part of a vacant property to be expropriated resulting in shared ownership between government, private and public.
Power to Acquisite Power of compulsory acquisition are enjoyed are enjoyed by Government departments, local authorities, statutory undertakers, various semigovernmental agencies, new town corporations, urban development corporations, former nationalised industries which have been privatised and exceptionally by private companies (Hawkins, 1994, pp.8)
“Greater democratic control over the production and use of the surplus. Since the urban process is a major channel of use, then the right to the city is constituted by establishing democratic control over the deployment of the surpluses through urbanization”
Thus, if an authority considers that provided it is given short-term use of a piece of land it need not acquire it permanently, these arrangements may be embodied in an agreement which ensures that the objectives of the order can be achieved but without necessarily depriving the owner permaHarvey, 2012, pp.13 nently of the property (Hawkins, 1994, pp.6)
28
Public Use Traditionally, the powers have been used to acquire land for the provision of new public housing or for schools. More recently, authorities have become involved in ‘positive planning’ such as town centre renewal schemes, frequently in partnership with private developers (Hawkins,1994, pp.3). Where there is a need to regenerate large areas of land which have suffered dereliction or otherwise not be in effective use, the Secretary of State has recognized the importance of land ownership. (Hawkins, 1994, pp.4).
Compensate via Tax To buy over the vacant property, the government could attain the fund through government tax, defined as the compulsory contribution to state revenue, levied by the government on workers’ income and business profits, or added to the cost of some goods, services, and transactions.
TAXES IN THE UK:
COUNCIL TAX, BUSINES RATES, EMPTY PROPERTY REDUCTION, COMMUNITY INFRA STRUCTURE LEVY
Cycle of Government Capital The government can recoup the capital used to purchase the vacant property from the potential taxes that will be paid by the new occupants of the property via council tax and business tax. The capital recouped from these taxes can again be used to expropriate other vacant properties.
The government can still benefit from vacant properties via Empty Property Reduction. However, it is not sufficient in encouraging owners to refurbish the property resulting in a derelict town. Community Infrastructure Levy was introduced to gain capital from developers in terms of monies or land, to be used for public infrastructure.
Council tax
Empty Property Reduction
The Council Tax is based on the value of a property. All homes are subject to Council Tax. These include flats and houses, whether rented or owned, and whether lived in or not. There is one Council Tax bill for each domestic property. The bill can be reduced for people who live on their own and for some people with disabilities (SMBC, 2012).
Empty property rating are intended to provide a strong incentive to bring empty property back into use. This is also intended to help to increase the supply of premises to let, and so reduce business rents and improve the competitiveness of the UK. It is also intended to bring forward Brownfield sites for re-development and so reduce the need for new development on environmentally valuable Greenfield land (SMBC, 2012).
Business rates Business Rates (formerly known as NonDomestic Rates), represent the contribution made by businesses towards the cost of services that the Council here in Stockport provides. The amount of Business Rates collected by Stockport Council is paid into the ‘Central Government Pool’. This is then redistributed to the local authorities according to the number of people who live in the area. This money, in addition to revenue received from Council Tax payers is then used to pay for the services provided by Stockport Council in your area (SMBC, 2012).
Community Infrastructure Levy The Community Infrastructure Levy allows local authorities to raise funds from developers undertaking new building projects in their area. The money can be used to fund a wide range of infrastructure that is needed as a result of development. Charging authority can receive land instead of monies to satisfy a charge arising from the levy, for example where the most suitable land for infrastructure is within the ownership of the party liable for payment of the levy (Planning Portal, 2012). 29
CYCLE OF EXPROPRIATION The Cycle of Expropriation illustrates the evolution of a particular property within an enclosure, for example a row of shops or a building with vacant properties.
Vacant property
30
Acquisition
Compensation
Public use
Regeneration
1ST STAGE
Vacant property
Acquisition
Compensation
Public use
Regeneration
2ND STAGE
3RD STAGE
FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
Regeneration can occur in several parts within the site simultaneously or in stages. The ideal regeneration outcome. 31
CO-EFFICIENT EQUATION OF OF EXPROPRIATION EXPROPRIATION The Co-efficient of Expropriation is used to sum The Equation of Expropriation illustrates how the up the benefits the actors of compulsory purchase capital is being added and subtracted in the socigain from the cycle of expropriation. ety. The government can play a role in negotiating capitals between the public and private.
Property = + 1 Private Developer
Government
Vulnerable public
Elite society
Capital = + 1
Regeneration = + 1
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Private Developer
Government
Elite society
Vulnerable public
Government
Public Developer
Private Developer
Private
1
+ property
0
Acquisition
0
+ property
Compensation
1
+ capital
Vacant property
Public use
Regeneration
Government revenue
1
+ capital
2
+ capital + profit
1
- capital gain rate
Public
Government
1
+ capital
0
2
+ capital + property
0
1
- capital + property
1
+ property
2
+ property + income
1
- council tax - business rate
0
1
3
- capital - property
+ economy
+ revenue
If the new tenant of the previously vacant property cannot afford to pay for the property, the government could negotiate a deal with the tenant via refurbishment or services. Regeneration of the newly occupied property could potentially encourage businesses and services to invest in the area. The revenue gained from the occupied properties can be recycled back into the expropriation fund for yet another cycle, perhaps on another site. Also, the extra revenue gained can be utilized to provide other facilities for the public. 33
3
2
3
2
2
4
3
2
3
Public use
3
3
2
1
Regeneration
4
4
3
1
3
Government revenue
3
3
5
2
1
2
Vacant property
4
3
4
Acquisition
1
1
3
Acquisition
3
3
5
Compensation
2
1
2
Compensation
4
3
4
Public use
2
2
1
Public use
4
4
3
Regeneration
3
3
2
Regeneration
5
5
4
2
2
4
4
4
6
Vacant property
1
0
1
Vacant property
Acquisition
0
0
2
Acquisition
Compensation
1
0
1
Compensation
Public use
1
1
0
Regeneration
2
2
Government revenue
1
Vacant property
Government revenue
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Government revenue
EXPROPRIATING VACANCIES:
SUBTRACTION, NEGOTIATION, COMPENSATION.
STOCKPORT UNITARY DEVELOPMENT PLAN
In Stockport, the Underbanks has the highest number of vacant property and it is a shame as the Underbanks is part of the historical core of Stockport. It is imperative to bring in more people to live and invest in the city core area and it is part of the Stockport Future Development Prospectus. To encourage more people to The government can choose to sell the expropri- live in the city, Stockport Unitary Development ated property as affordable homes or shops. They Plan allows conversion of properties over the also have the power to retain the ownership of shop into residents. certain parts of the expropriated property such as the hallway and the stair well but liberate the HP1.5 LIVING OVER THE SHOP The creation of residenspace for the public to utilize it for their own bential accommodation in vacant and under-utilised premefit. ises above shops and offices will be permitted provided In order to fairly and justly distribute the space, property owners (shopkeepers and residents), must go through a series of negotiation and compensation. They can choose to declare ownership of the extra space in terms of time intervals, demarcation of space or other means. As a public space, the liberated space should be made apparent to the wider public, and public events such as weekend street markets and exhibitions is encouraged to take place in this area.
INTERVENTION SITE:
THE UNDERBANKS, STOCKPORT.
that the scheme adequately safeguards residential amenities. Unless the proposed residential accommodation is to be used by proprietors or employees of the A3/A4/A5 business existing on the ground or lower floors, permission will be granted for residential accommodation above these uses in former shops only where it can be demonstrated that the proposed accommodation would provide a satisfactory living environment. All applications in such cases must be accompanied by an acoustic engineer’s report. Reduced parking may be appropriate for living over the shop schemes (Stockport Unitary Development Plan, 2011, p.65).
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Little Underbank ---> Lower Hillgate
Lower Hillgate ---> Little Underbank 36
37
INTERVENTION SITE: 1-3 LOWER HILLGATE STREET, THE UNDERBANKS, STOCKPORT.
1-3 Lower Hillgate Street is a converted shop + residential lot and is currently vacant. To accomodate a resident above the shop, the previous development has included a private hallway to allow access to upper floor. The proposed intervention aims to demonstrate the negotiation between shopkeepers, service providers and residents and compensate the loss of space in shops and residents with other means of capital.
contested space
test site
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EVOLUTION OF THE SHOP G floor
1st floor
2nd floor
3rd floor
1st stage SHOP
private hallway - commercial space
2nd stage SHOP + HOUSE shop
resident
shared hallway - commercial space
3rd stage (Intervention) SHOP + HOUSE + HALLWAY
shop
shop
window frontage + advertising space
service provider
resident
resident
shared hallway - residential space
resident
community workshop
window/door + lighting + recreational space
resident
resident
resident
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EVOLUTION OF THE SHOPFRONT Scenario 1
As time progresses, more hallways could be liberated and expanded, spreading across the area. The ‘parasite’ can choose to ‘grow’ over time, liberating yet another hallway for public use.
Scenario 2 expropriated property
expropriated property
neighbouring property
externalized hallway
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externalized hallway
NEGOTIATION BETWEEN PRIVATE AND PUBLIC
externalized hallway
private property
Shopkeepers can negotiate usage of hallway space at different times.
Shopkeepers can divide the space evenly between them during business hours.
The hallway allows more shops in the building.
Residents can use the space as a recreational area.
During weekends, the hallway space can be used as a street market, exhibition or events.
Residents can agree to both share the balcony space.
The hallway allows more flexibility in the number of residents and workshops.
Community workshop can utilize the space for events.
liberated space owned by the government private property
Residents can divide the hallway space among themselves at different times.
Vacant property
Expropriate
Liberated
Negotiate
Evolve
Vacant property
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Expropriate
Liberated
Negotiate
Evolve
Vacant property
Expropriate
Liberated
Negotiate
Evolve
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GENERATING NEW FORMS OF CAPITAL:
TANGIBLE & INTANGIBLE Capital is defined by the Oxford Dictionaries as ‘wealth in the form of money or other assets owned by a person’. From the perspective of a capitalist, wealth is defined as a tangible form, such as money and property which can be re-invested to gain more wealth. However, there are other means of intangible wealth that can improve a person’s quality of life and re-invested to further improve his quality of life and others around him.
knowledge
electricity
health
water
happiness
space
money
light
skills
network
food
services
The intervention sees a potential in generating these intangible wealth alongside other wealth for the public to benefit from.
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Liberated space Generated capital
CAPITALIST
Shop and Business
GOVERNMENT
Generated capital
Vacant space
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Vacant property
EXPROPRIATING VACANCIES: RIGHT TO CHANGE OURSELVES BY CHANGING THE CITY MORE AFTER OUR HEART’S DESIRE 46
Expropriate
Liberated
In summary, the government has a role to play in the urbanization process in our cities and possess the right to reclaim vacant spaces from private ownership via expropriation. The vacant space liberated by the government encourages negotiation and compensation between property dwellers. Although it is owned by the government, the public has the right to utilize the space yet private parties can also claim the space as well. Ironically, it is a space that belongs to no one yet belongs to everyone simultaneously. The process of negotiation and compensation gives a chance to the wider society to earn their right to the city, the right to change ourselves by shaping the city after their heart’s desire.
Negotiate
Evolve
EXPROPRIATING VACANCIES: “The freedom to make and remake ourselves and our cities is, I want to argue, one of the most precious yet most neglected of our human rights.” Harvey, 2012, pp.2
a place that
BELONGS TO NO ONE YET BELONGS TO EVERYONE
POSSIBLE FUTURE PROJECT: EXPROPRIATION ---> PARASITIC GROWTH
at the same time
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