Kahawatte Plantations PLC

Strict restrictions on the handling and usage of chemicals are also clearly evident, and is an important factor in enhancing the number of species on the two estates. Other methods that encourage conservation include rainwater harvesting, improving soil-water retention, and the utilization of tea and paddy waste by converting it to briquettes for energy.

All 16 estates of Watawala Plantations have obtained the important Rainforest Alliance certification for sustainable agriculture practices, and are regularly audited for compliance.

The experience in controlling Tea Tortrix with both the bat species and the wasp species has been an eye-opener in the effectiveness of natural control of this serious pest, and has been a lesson in the fine balance that nature maintains in various ecosystems. The assistance of the bats and wasps has supplemented the wide-ranging programme of the estate management to control Tea Tortrix by using human labour to manually remove the caterpillars.

The estate management is planning further studies throughout both estates to enhance documentation of the various species which inhabit the area, and to better gauge the success of its conservation programmes. The surveys will include a keen focus on the rocky areas of the Elgin Division, despite the difficulties of operating in this hostile terrain.

More research also needs to be carried out on the bats – not an easy task, given the inhospitable terrain and their nocturnal nature. But who knows? The area may contain more interesting species, in addition to the insectivorous bats of Lippakelle

Sri Lanka wood pigeon - Columba torringtoniae

Sri Lanka’s Rich Natural Heritage

Prof. Devaka K. Weerakoon Coordinator Biodiversity and Ecosystems, IUCN Sri Lanka Professor in Zoology, Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, devaka@sci.cmb.ac.lk

Sri Lanka is a moderate sized continental island listed as the 25th largest island in the world. It belongs among the equatorial belt of countries as it lies just South of the Tropic of Cancer. The country has a diverse topography as a result of upliftment and erosion. The net result of this process has been the creation of the central hills, with many peaks, and in cross section, a step-like arrangement referred to as Peneplains. The resulting landform thus has many escarpments, ridges and valleys. Apart from the central hills, there are “rock islands” called inselbergs jutting out from relatively flat terrain in the dry zone.

The drainage pattern of the country is almost entirely governed by the central highlands, with all the perennial watercourses originating in the mountains. The country is dissected by 103 river basins. The river flow contributes to the creation of some unique ecosystems in the flood plain areas.

Sri Lanka’s climate is largely governed by the monsoonal winds and affected by the central hills. The seasonality of rainfall, influenced by two distinct monsoons and convectional and cyclonic effects and the rain shadow effect caused by the central mountains, has given rise to two pronounced climatic regions, the wet and dry zones. Due to the high altitudinal variation, the mean temperature of the Wet Zone drops progressively from 27˚ C in the lowlands to around 13˚ C - 16˚ C in the montane areas. The temperature plays an important role in the highland regions where the decreasing temperature at higher elevations along with the wind has resulted in unique natural communities. The Dry Zone, with a mean daily temperature of 30˚ C, is spread over much of the lowlands plains. A narrow Intermediate Zone lies between the Wet and Dry Zones, and there are two extra dry coastal strips with prolonged drought periods in the north-west and south-east coastal regions forming the Arid Zone.

Sri Lanka, being a continental island, is endowed with a coastline of 1680 km. Therefore, nearly 24% of the land area of Sri Lanka comes under the coastal zone. The shelf around northern and north-western parts of the island is broad, whereas the shelf ends more abruptly in the south and east of the island.

Bundala Pathirajawela

Based on geological evidence, Sri Lanka has been in existence for nearly 3 billion years. From the Preterozoic (2500-500mya) era up to the Jurassic period, Sri Lanka remained part of the Gondwana super subcontinent. During the Jurassic period, approximately 158-160 mya, the Indo-Madagascar plate drifted away from East Africa, followed by the separation of the Indian plate from Madagascar around 84-96 mya (Briggs 2003). After the separation from Madagascar, the Indian plate underwent a period of isolation for about 30-40 million years (my), before colliding with the Eurasian plate around 40-50 mya. With the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates there was exchange of biota between Asia and peninsular India. Consequently, the “Biotic ferry model” was proposed, according to which the rafting Indian plate carried ancient Gondwanan forms to Asia. Upon collision with Asia these Gondwanan forms dispersed out of India and into Asia (also called the “Out-of-India” hypothesis). Likewise Palaearctic mammals such as the Elephants (Elephas, Hyselephas and Palaeoloxodon), Hippos (Hexaprotodon), Rhinos (Rhinoceros), Lions and Tigers (Panthera) dispersed into India (“Into India” hypothesis).

Lowering of the sea level, during the Pleistocene era (1.8 million to 11,700 years before present) made it possible for faunal groups to cross over from the Indian subcontinent to Sri Lanka across the Palk Strait through the Adam’s Bridge. This hypothesis is supported by the discovery of fossils belonging to Tiger (Panthera tigris) from Batadomba and Alawala caves, and Rhinoceros from Lunugala. Sea level changes also facilitated the movement of small vertebrates such as the ancestors of horned lizards (Cerataphora species). Long periods of isolation between interglacial periods, where the sea levels rose cutting off the land connection, appear to have led to the process of speciation allowing the evolution of many new species. A case in point is the evolution of five species of the genus Ceratophora at different altitudinal ranges in Sri Lanka. Prehistoric humans also appeared to have immigrated to the island during this period as evidenced by the stone tools found in the Bundala Pathirajawela (dated to 125,000 years before present).

Therefore, geological history of Sri Lanka can be subdivided into four phases, (i) Pre-drift phase where Sri Lanka and India were part of a much larger landmass referred to as the Gondwanaland (> 160 MYBP), (ii) Drift phase ending with the collision of the Indian plate and the Asiatic continent (50 and 40 MYBP), (iii) Miocene epoch (25 MYBP) where Sri Lanka separated from the Indian subcontinent, following a series of complex tectonic movements, which began in the Jurassic era (iv) Quaternary epoch (two MYBP to present), where sea level changes driven by climate cycles resulted in repeated formation of land bridges between India and Sri Lanka, in the Palk Strait region.

These zoogeographic, climatic, topographic and edaphic factors have resulted in a diverse array of aquatic and terrestrial habitats as well as a multitude of coastal and marine habitats. In addition, 2500 yearlong hydraulic civilization has created some unique manmade habitats such as manmade tanks and agricultural landscapes all of which have contributed to the establishment of a rich faunal and floral assemblage with some very unique attributes.

Sri Lanka supports an unusually high biodiversity compared to any other moderate sized tropical island. The hallmark of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity is signified by the presence of large populations of mega fauna (Asian elephant, leopard, sloth bear etc.,) that do not occur in other moderate sized islands, as well as the presence of a large proportion of endemic species (species that are naturally found only in Sri Lanka). Therefore Sri Lanka, along with the Western Ghats of India, is listed as one of the 34 biodiversity hotspots of the world. Designation of a biodiversity hotspot is based on two criteria, presence of 0.5% or 1500 species of vascular plants as endemics and reduction of forest cover by 70% or more causing many of the taxa to become threatened with extinction. Designation of Sri Lanka as a biodiversity hotspot is based on both of these criteria as there is a high level of endemicity in most taxonomic groups and a high proportion of the species in most taxonomic groups are threatened with extinction, especially in the case of endemic species, primarily due to loss of habitat.

This high level of endemicity may have arisen due to multiple reasons such as the topography, climate, abundance of water, association with multiple land masses during its evolutionary history and being a continental island as opposed to a volcanic island. These factors would have contributed to repeated cycles of colonization followed by long periods of isolation leading to speciation resulting in the evolution of many endemic species. In other words almost all the evolutionary drivers appear to have operated on Sri Lanka, during its evolutionary history, shaping up its biodiversity.

According to the available historical records and fossil evidence, much of the island has been covered with forests in the past. This may be the reason why most of the fauna encountered in Sri Lanka are forest dwelling species. However, the forests in Sri Lanka have been subjected to major remodelling by natural forces in the past such as climate change, and in more reason times, by activities of man.

Sri Lanka Yellow-eared bulbul

Pycnonotus penicillatus

At present more than two thirds of the forest habitats in Sri Lanka are found in the dry zone. However, the tree density, diversity and endemicity in the dry zone forests are comparatively lower than the wet zone forests. The low density in trees makes these forests much more spacious and therefore supports larger populations of charismatic species such as Elephas maximus (Asian elephant), Melursus ursinus (Sloth bear), Panthera pardus (Leopard), Rusa unicolor (Sambur) and Axis axis (Spotted deer). The low endemicity of animals seen in these forests could be attributed to the fact that most of these forests have been cleared by man during the last several thousand years to make way for agriculture during the height of the hydraulic civilization that existed in the dry zone of Sri Lanka, which may have resulted in the removal of many of the sensitive endemic fauna. The only endemics that are unique to the dry zone are found today in forests associated with inselbergs and riverine forests that would have been left undisturbed during this era. For instance, endemic species such as Phaenicophaeus pyrrhocephalus (Sri Lanka Red faced malkoha) and Semnopithecus vetulus (Purple faced langur) are found predominantly in the riverine habitats in the dry zone and endemic species such as Cnemaspis alwisi (Alwis’s day gecko found only in Dolukanda). Cnemaspis kumarasinghei (Kumarasinghe’s day gecko found only in Maragala), Cnemaspis podihuna (Dwarf day gecko found only in Lahugala) and Nannophrys naeyakai (Sri Lanka tribal rock-frog found only in Kokagala and Yakunne hela) are all endemic species recorded only in inselbergs.

The wet zone forests that represent only about 3% of Sri Lanka’s land area on the other hand, have very high plant diversity where the structure of the forest shows a high degree of microhabitat complexity. Further, many of the remaining forests have remained relatively undisturbed by man for a very long time. More than 75% of the endemic species in Sri Lanka are restricted to the wet zone where only about 10% of the original forest cover remains. Forests in the wet zone also show a marked altitudinal variation, based on which these forests are grouped into lowland, submontane and montane rain forests. These three categories have distinct differences in the structure and composition of their vegetation. While many faunal species show a wide distribution among all three types, some faunal species are restricted in their distribution to one of these forest types. The

Rough-nosed horned lizard

Ceratophora aspera

lowland rain forests have the highest land extent, and support a greater faunal diversity. Many species of endemic freshwater fish are restricted to the streams located within lowland rain forests as they provide ideal habitat conditions for tropical fish. In addition many species of invertebrates and vertebrates are also restricted to the lowland rain forests. The montane rain forests have the lowest land extent comprising only 0.05% of the total land extent of Sri Lanka. However, there are a number of endemic species restricted to these montane forests such as, Pycnonotus penicillatus (Sri Lanka Yellow-eared Bulbul), Myophonus blighi (Sri Lanka Whistling Thrush), Bradypterus palliseri (Sri Lanka Bush Warbler), Suncus montanus (Sri Lanka Highland Shrew) and Rattus montanus (Sri Lanka Nellu rat).

Sambur

Rusa unicolor

Sri Lanka whistling thrush

Myophonus blighi

Even though Sri Lanka is endowed with a diverse and unique assemblage of fauna and flora many of these species are running the risk of extinction due to a number of threats they face. Loss of habitat is the most significant threat contributing to the loss of biodiversity in Sri Lanka. During the last century alone, Sri Lanka’s natural forest cover has declined by about 50% and continues to decline even at present. The resulting loss and fragmentation of habitat have been the major driver that has resulted in many of the species becoming extinct or driven toward the brink of extinction.

Overexploitation, introduction of invasive alien species and human-wildlife conflict are three of the other major drivers that contribute to loss of biodiversity in Sri Lanka. Invasion by non native species is considered today as one of the greatest threats to the world’s biodiversity. Sri Lanka is an island with a high proportion of endemic plants and animals due to its long geographic isolation that limits immigration of new species, allowing established species to evolve in the absence of strong competitors and predators. Many of these endemic species are highly specialized to the habitats they have evolved in and their continued existence depends on availability of habitat as well as quality of the habitat. Therefore, invasive alien species, introduced due to human activities, have a dramatic effect on such isolated ecosystems where it can become a leading cause of species extinctions. Further, islands are more vulnerable to invasion by alien species as they lack natural competitors and predators and due to their isolated nature, islands have to interact more with the outside world and the present trends in globalization have led to increased trade, tourism and transportation that are responsible for the most number of accidental introductions of potentially invasive species. Rapid expansion of human use areas resulting in large scale changes in land use patterns has contributed to conflict situations between humans and wild animal populations that has resulted in further deterioration of the conservation status of many of these conflict creating species, who are already threatened with extinction.

As a tropical island, Sri Lanka is extremely vulnerable to the predicted climate change related impacts such as sea level rise, salt water intrusion leading to increased salinization of low lying areas, rising ocean and ambient temperatures, changes in rainfall patterns and increased frequency of storms and other natural hazards such as floods and landslides. These changes will have a significant effect on Sri Lanka’s biodiversity especially the distribution of species, composition of ecological communities and biological processes such as flowering, fruiting, reproduction and migration.

Loss of biodiversity will lead to loss of goods and services provided by the biological resources as well as loss of resilience of natural ecosystems to withstand changes in the environment, especially the predicted changes that are brought about by climate change. This in turn will have a significant impact on human well being and livelihoods such as agriculture and fisheries that directly depend on these ecosystem services. Further, Sri Lanka plans to expand its tourism industry which heavily depends on the natural capital whose loss will reduce the attractiveness of Sri Lanka as a tourism destination. Loss of biodiversity will also have an impact on future benefits that can be accrued from biological resources such as development of new drugs and improving crop varieties using emerging innovations of biotechnology.

Dull-blue flycatcher

Eumyias sordida

Towards an ecosystem inclusive approach in tea plantations

Dr. Herath Manthrithilake Head - Sri Lanka Development Initiative, International Water Management Institute (IWMI)

Sri Lanka is the world’s fourth-largest tea producer and is competing for the highest exporter slot with Kenya and China. The highest production of 340 million kg was recorded in 2013 (CB Annual Report, 2014). Tea is one of the main sources of foreign exchange to Sri Lanka. It accounts for 2% of GDP, contributing US $1,527 million (in 2013) to the economy (EDB Report, 2014). Nearly 1.5 million people or some 5 % of Sri Lanka’s 21 million population, work in the tea sector.

Important as it is for the economy of the country, the sector is faced with numerous challenges. A national poverty study conducted in 2012-13 noted that 10.9 percent of families working in the tea sector lived below the national poverty line of SLR 3,028 per month. The tea industry is faced with rampant ‘labor shortages’; increasing costs of production and market calamities are an everyday occurrence in the industry. Climate change also poses an added and greater challenge. Concerns over loss of biodiversity and disrupted ecosystems have increasingly come to the fore. Therefore, urgent steps are needed in order to ensure the sustainability of the tea industry and to safeguard the thousands of families that depend upon it.

Meeting the Challenge

Times have changed. Old fashioned planting and value addition is no longer acceptable in this millennia. The time to shift gears is now. We can produce better quality tea within a smaller area, replace coffee shops around the world with ‘Ceylon tea’ shops - all while protecting the richness of our biodiversity. What is needed is the integration of innovative thinking into all aspects - from the method of planting a sapling to the end product in the hands of the consumer.

The humidity, cool temperatures and rainfall of the country’s highlands provide a climate that favors the production of high-quality tea. It is said that Sri Lanka has the potential to produce up to 3000 kg or more of tea leaves per ha/annum (personal communications with experts). Currently, smallholders produce around 2500 - 3000 kg of tea leaves per ha per year. The average tea leaf production is larger in upcountry estates amounting to 1200 kg/ha/yr. These numbers indicate the existing potential within plantations. Importantly, this tea production potential has to be harnessed within existing constraints, not from further expansion in new plantation acreage or with more labour. Many associated environmental problems can arise due to the expansion of tea production into virgin areas. With the clearing of new areas, fauna and flora native to the area may be lost and disease, pest problems and the spread of invasive alien species may come about due to changes to the ecosystem. Soil erosion is another significant consequence of expansion into new areas. Additionally, with the increase of new opportunities, it becomes more difficult to retain the younger generation for labor in tea estates.

The expansion of tea cultivation areas around the central highlands have reduced over the years and the total land area covered with tea plantations have in fact, decreased. Areas of tea cultivation in the mid country too have diminished rapidly over the years, whilst in the low-country, tea from small holdings is taking over the industry. Furthermore, productivity in the sector is falling and water shortages are a frequent occurrence as a result of climate change. Thus, there is a growing need to examine the role of tea in the landscape and the sustainability of the value chain of tea.

Many unproductive and abandoned tea plantations lie on hillsides of the mid-country where further land degradation due to soil erosion is a key concern. Productivity of such areas are low due to soil degradation and a lack of effective soil-water management. However, there are methods to raise productivity of poorly performing tea lands. Unless the required Carbon:Nitrogen (C:N) ratio is re-established and moisture retention capacity of the soils rebuilt, it is not possible to gain higher yields. The use of chemical fertilizers may cause temporary yield spikes - however, these yield increases are not always sustainable. In order to make the most of chemical fertilizer application, the humus layer on soils must be rebuilt. Without this layer, nutrients from chemical fertilizer would be washed away. On the other hand, obviously, all these will certainly require significant investments.

Large plantations were designed and operated for a single purpose (mono crop, and in isolation from the landscape of the entire catchment. However, there was no consideration for the broader ecosystem service values in the design. As a result, such plantations have large societal and environmental costs. These include the reduction or loss of biodiversity, soil erosion, diminishing freshwater and/or other aquatic resources, reduced quality of water for drinking purposes and recreational uses downstream. Reduced river flows could affect aquatic ecosystems and wetlands. These impacts are visible in mid-country tea estates, which have mostly gone out of production. It is disheartening to see that now more and more plantations are sliding down the same path. Of course, some plantations are making attempts to reverse some of the adverse effects of monoculture through the ‘Rainforest Alliance Certification’ process. This process establishes a set of criteria designed to conserve wildlife; safeguard soils and waterways; protect workers, their families and local communities as well as support livelihoods. Despite the reasons for engaging in Rainforest Alliance Certification, the effort being made to sustain ecosystems through this process is somewhat admirable.

The above challenges require quick action. One response is to increase tea production in existing plantations, thereby exerting less pressure on the environment whilst focusing on sustainability (without undermining our capacity to continue producing tea in the future). Investments in conservation measures (for sustainability) do not yield shortterm, but the benefits in the long-run are certainly significant. However, there is a general concern that investment decisions are driven primarily by a desire to maximize shortterm profits rather than to ensure long term sustainability.

How do ecosystem services relate to plantations

Historically, the drive for increased productivity and yields has led to monoculture resulting in degraded environments - reduced biodiversity and associated reductions in ecosystem services. These factors affect productivity and yields in the long-run. Tea plantations in the mid-country are ample proof of this. However, agricultural systems have created a diverse range of agro-ecosystems that provide a range of valuable provisioning, regulating, supporting and diverse habitat services that are often unrecognized and undervalued. Furthermore, there also exists a range of subsidiary services of substantial value that communities and societies at large depend on (See Figure 1.).

• Food fish • Hydropower • Freshwater • Recreation • Tourism

• Habitats • Fish migration • River bank development Provisioning Regulating

• Self purification • Nutrient cycling • Water regulation • Disease regulation • Climate regulation

Supporting Cultural

• Spiritual & religious • Education • Cultural heritage

Figure 1. Four groups of Ecosystem Services Source Source: http://www.unep.org/maweb/documents/document.300.aspx.pdf

It is important to appropriately recognize all these services as there is a growing need for more active management of agricultural systems to maximize the value of such services. The challenge lies in re-balancing ecosystem services. It is merely harnessing the inherent but hitherto neglected services of the ecosystems. One may not maximize crop production, however this shall be balanced or rather enhanced with returns from other aspects. (See Fig. 2.)

crop production forest production preserving habitats and biodiversity water flow regulation water quality regulation carbon sequestration regional climate and air quality regulation infectious disease mediation

Natural ecosystem Intensive cropland Cropland with restored ecosystem services

Figure 2. Balancing different eco system services Source: http://www.slideshare.net/SIANIAgri/katarina-hedlund (accessed on April 05, 2016) Ecosystem-inclusive approaches aim to unlock currently unrecognized and therefore untapped opportunities and values associated with plantation agroecosystems. Unlocking these values will increase the resilience of agricultural production systems and enable sustainable intensification of agriculture. Potential trade-offs of ecosystem services in agro-ecosystems are clearly shown in figure 3 (Pittock , 2015). Sustainability would be assured by moving from State A to State C. Or else, arriving at State B is certain. It may be a matter of time. This means, one has to lose a certain amount of provisioning (see fig.1), in order to gain from other enhanced services.

Restoration Degradation

high

Ecosystem Services Level

low State C State A State B

Regulating Provisioning Cultural (recreation) Cultural (information)

natural light use extensive intensive degraded Ecosystem State high low Biodiversity Figure 3. Ecosystem trade-offs Source: http://www.ecosystemvaluation.org/1-02_def3.htm (accessed on June 21, 2015)

Ecosystem Services and Resilience (ESR) Framework

Having these concepts in mind, Water, Land and Ecosystem (WLE) Program, - a research program led by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) has developed a framework for an ecosystem- inclusive approach (See Figure. 4). It considers agricultural systems as part of the broader ecosystem and incorporates connections between them. It connects people with such ecosystems through services. The framework describes how natural (influencing) factors and the anthropogenic (governance) decisions influence such eco-services.

LANDSCAPE

3

GOVERNANCE DECISIONS 4

TO IMPROVE BIOPHYSICAL PROCESSES TO ENABLE FAIR ACCESS OR USE OF BENIFITS

ECOSYSTEMS AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS

ECOSYSTSTEM SERVICES TO AGRICULTURE

IMPACTS FROM AGRICULTURE

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES AND ASSOCIATED BENEFITS 2

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES AND ASSOCIATED BENEFITS FROM AGRICULTURE

INFLUENCING FACTORS

5

E.G. CUMATE CHANCE, ECONOMY, SOCIAL STRUCTURE INFORMATION

1

PEOPLE

Figure 4. Ecosystem Services and Resilience (ESR) Framework Source : https://wle.cgiar.org/ (accessed in October 2015).

Ecosystem service - inclusive management Conclusions

Yet the different but increasing demands from rising population has to be met. This requires that new approaches in management, development, modernization, operation and maintenance be adopted to achieve higher levels of performance and to sustainably to reduce the negative impacts on ecosystems. The overall long-term objective is “a betterperforming and sustainable systems that efficiently and equitably provides a range of ‘goods’ and services.” This approach requires sustainable intensification (SI) of crop production from limited resources. This “sustainable intensification” approach is a policy goal for a number of national and international institutions. However, it also attracts criticism for being too narrowly focused on production or representing a contradiction in terms.

Successful SI will require: a) establishing how land-sharing can deliver sufficiently high yields and multiple ecosystem services, b) quantifying trade-offs between yields and different environmental benefits and assessing how best to resolve them across different circumstances and spatial scales, and c) exploring policy and market mechanisms that enhance the implementation of sharing or sparing initiatives. Innovation and investment are key for achieving successful SI and t here are opportunities for implementing these measures in the tea sector.

Giant Squirrel - Ratufa macroura

The Ecosystem-oriented Approach and Sustainable Intensification of agricultural production is a new and evolving concept - its meaning and objectives are subject to debate and contest. However, sustainable intensification of tea production is only part of what is required to improve the sustainability of plantations and is by no means synonymous with tea sector security. Both sustainability of plantations and tea sector security have multiple social, economic, ethical, and environmental dimensions. Achieving a sustainable, ecohealth enhancing production systems will require more than just changes in a few agricultural practices. It will also require radical investment agendas to reduce intensive resource degradation in plantations and to improve governance, management, efficiency, and resilience.

Literature:

1. Sri Lanka Export Development Board, 2014, Industry Capability Report: Tea Sector,http://www.srilankabusiness.com/pdf/industrycapabilityreport_tea_ sector.pdf (accessed on April 05, 2016) 2. CB Annual Report 2014 Central Bank of Sri Lanka, (http://www.cbsl.gov.lk/pics_n_ docs/10_pub/_docs/efr/annual_report/AR2014/English/content.htm) (accessed on April 05, 2016) 3. http://www.ecosystemvaluation.org/1-02_def3.htm (accessed on June 21, 2015) 4. https://wle.cgiar.org/ (accessed in October 2015). 5. http://www.slideshare.net/SIANIAgri/katarina-hedlund (accessed on April 05, 2016) 6. http://www.unep.org/maweb/documents/document.300.aspx.pdf (accessed on June 21,2015)