ARCH 222 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE MODERN ARCHITECTURE AND THE USE OF GLASS DILYA CELEN 2017 SPRING
This paper examines that what is modern architecture, how people started to use glass in the period of modern architecture and how glass affects the theory and practice of the house in the modern period. These topics will be expounded with many study cases such as The Gropius House,The Fallingwater House, and The Villa Savoye. William Curtis stated that “Modern architecture was evolved less than a century ago to reconcile an idealized vision of society with the forces of the Industrial Revolution.�1 The industrial revolution also allowed the main principles of architecture to be reexamined in new ways. At that point, the idea of Modern Architecture occurred and it started to develop. In that period, people took advantage of technology and new materials that distinguish modern architecture from traditional or ancient architecture. As the 20th century began, people, especially modern architects believe it was necessary to produce an architecture or architectural style that expressed the character of a new age. And this new idea, the modern architecture, exceeded with its materials, styles, and technologies from ancient architecture. The characteristics of modern architecture differed thoroughly person to person. For instance, some architects were firmly believed the power of the machine and these architects were tried to design an architecture that conveys the elegance and energy of a machine. Other architects, however, found machine-like elegance unsuitable to architecture. They preferred an architectural style that expressed the power of human emotion and character. Modern architecture also confronted to traditional ideas. Modernist designers defended that architects should design all kind of building such as civic buildings, churches, and public institutions beside houses for the sake of the society. After these developments, in the first half of the 20th century, many modernist designers produced housing as well as its furniture, wallpapers, and textiles to create a fully designed environment. At that point, William Morris is one of the best examples who designed a house with its furniture and wallpapers.
1 William Curtis, Modern architecture since 1900, (3rd ed. London: Phaidon, 1996), p.2
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It is more important to understand the concept of modern architecture and its critique before moving on to the use of glass in modern architecture. Because in this period, thoughts and criticism have become more important. Architects and thinkers have begun to think differently about the arts and their lives, with the modern age and especially the industrial revolution and war periods. These thoughts and criticisms about art and life have begun to form the basis of modernism.
Developments in two materials - iron and concrete- formed the technological base for modern architecture. Iron had been used since the ancient periods to join building elements together but after the Iron Bridge that is designed by an English architect Thomas Pritchard, it took on a new role as a primary structural material. One of the most magnificent examples of early iron construction was the Crystal Palace in London designed by Joseph Paxton. The structure comprised entirely panels of glass set within iron frames. Paxton altered two main features of the Industrial Revolution to the architecture of the Crystal Palace. One of them was mass production which provides to use of manufactured glass panels and iron frames. The other main feature was the use of iron rather than traditional masonry such as stones or brick. The second important major material was concrete. Also, developments in concrete were parallel to improvements in iron and steel technology. In 1892 French engineer Franรงois Hennebique combined the strengths of both in a new system of construction based on concrete reinforced with steel. His invention made possible previously unimaginable effects: extremely thin walls with large areas of glass; roofs that cantilever to previously impossible distances; enormous spans without supporting columns or beam; and corners formed of glass rather than stone, brick, or wood.2 The use of iron and concrete in modern architecture has undeniably influenced the use of glass. The use of these new materials also changed the way the buildings were built. The relationship between material and building construction cannot be denied at this point. 2 Anthony Denzer, Modern Architecture Report, p.2 2
For instance, architect Daniel H. Burnham and Charles B. Atwood designed the Reliance Building (1889-1895) which rose 16 stories high and at least 6 stories higher than had been possible with masonry construction. Most importantly, they eliminated heavy masonry exterior and they created a system which known as curtain wall construction. In this system, the exterior wall of each floor is hung on the iron or steel frame so that the wall supports only its own weight and not the floors above it. This construction method reduced the total weight of a building that allowed it to be built higher and permitted the extensive use of glass on the facade. Consequently, again, the material and building construction techniques were related to each other and they influenced the improvements in modern architecture.
In addition to all these, there were also art movements that influenced the use of glass in modern architecture. The Arts & Crafts Movement is the most important of these. The Arts & Crafts Movement began in England around 1860 and continued into the first decade of the 20th century. The Arts & Crafts ideal that they offered was a spiritual and craft-based alternative. This movement pointed out local traditions and materials and also it was inspired by vernacular design. English designer William Morris, who led the Arts and Crafts Movement, tried to make a connection between architecture and decorative arts. For instance, in the Red House (1859), which is design for William Morris and his family by English architect Philip Webb, there were brick facades that were free of ornament. The ground floor was informal and asymmetrical and also the materials were drawn from the area and assembled with local building techniques. Also, William Morris set up a studio including Philip Webb, English artist Dante Gabriel Rosetti and Edward Burne-Jones, and they designed everything from wallpaper to stained glass, books, and teapots according to the highest standards of craftsmanship. As a result, This movement was based on handcrafts and art and they used glass as an ornament tool.
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Before mentioning about Walter Gropius, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier, it is necessary to analyze the use of glass in modern architecture as a material and as an architecture. The glass was produced since the Bronze Age but for many years, people saw the glass as a luxury material. However, glass became prominent in the mid-twentieth century as a building material. “Glass is arguably the most remarkable material ever discovered by man.”3 states Michael Wigginton in his exhaustive book on architectural glass. The use of glass in architecture has grown consistently since its first application as window glass, dating back to approximately the first century AD. “Its characteristics of color, translucency, and transparency are so uncommon that mystical properties were often associated with it by the various cultures using it. Over the years, the taste for glass spread throughout the population as glass in window applications became a commodity item in Northern Europe in the late eighteenth and into the nineteenth centuries.”4 The use of glass in architecture branched to the development of fenestration as a design element in the building elevation and to the creation of the conservatory. This later development was to have a huge influence on the future use of glass in architecture.
While modern architecture is spoken of, Bauhaus and its founder Walter Gropius, come to mind. Walter Gropius (1883 - 1969) was a celebrated German architect and teacher, founder of the school of design known as the Bauhaus in Germany, and a leading proponent of modern architecture.
3 Michael Wigginton, Glass in Architecture ,Phaidon, London, 1996, p.6 4 Mic Patterson, Structural Glass Facades and Enclosures, p.42 4
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What is Bauhaus? Bauhaus is directed by Walter Gropius from its founding in 1919 until 1928. Gropius decided to combine Schools of Arts & Crafts and Academy of Fine Arts in Weimar then, Gropius renamed the new institution the Bauhaus. The meaning of word Bauhaus was the contraction of two German words: Bauen ( to build) and Haus (house) and translated means “House of Building�. The Bauhaus was taking into consideration not only the individual object or building but also the larger context, the community, and the environment. The education style of Bauhaus required the student to study fine arts, to learn the skills of a craft, to understand the properties of materials, new technology and to create a new aesthetic.
5 IMAGE- Gropius House / Walter Gropius + Marcel Breuer / 1938 . Image Courtesy of Diego Inzunza - Estudio Rosamente
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In generally, the Bauhaus was related to art, architecture, and design in one institution, where the students learned theater, sculpture, stained glass, ceramics or other arts and crafts. In 1924, the school moved to Dessau, where the Bauhaus Building (1926), designed by Walter Gropius, became a symbol of modern architecture. For instance, in the Bauhaus building in Dessau, above the ground floor, the studio and workshop part was sheathed in an extensive glass curtain wall so that it seemed like floating in the air like a transparent box. Other parts of his design, Gropius set narrow ribbon windows flush with stucco walls, a feature that later appeared in much more modern architecture. Otherwise, Peter Behrens’ AEG Turbine Factory (1908-1910) in Berlin, combined the elements of the classical Greek Temple with modern industrial materials and building technology. Between the steel and supports, the side walls were mostly of glass. From the pediments, a thin grid of steel and glass was hung like a curtain. This glass and steel wall was a forerunner of glass curtain walls common in later skyscrapers. Consequently, the use of glass and iron during these periods has been a great reference to construction for the skyscrapers of the future. What about the relation between the use of glass and House architecture? The Gropius House was the family residence of noted architect Walter Gropius. Gropius wanted his home to reflect its surroundings. In designing the house, Gropius combined traditional elements of New England architecture such as clapboard, brick, and fieldstone with new, innovative materials, such as glass block, plaster, and banisters, along with the latest technology in fixtures. The house was also built with economy in mind. The screened porch and terraces extend the living spaces interior to exterior of the house. Also, it is located for maximum ventilation and passive solar heating. Using the Bauhaus design approach, the house utilizes standard materials and products. For instance, in the first floor hallway, Gropius used glass blocks and a floor-to-ceiling window that transmit natural light to the interior of the house. Also, this situation provides both indirect light and dramatic shadows in the evening. In the study room, which illustrates Gropius’ use of flexible spaces, the angled glass block 6
wall implies motion and invites the visitor to progress toward the living room. About the living room, a glass door on the south wall allows easy access to the patio for entertaining and for everyday use. Also in the bedroom part, Gropius used a glass wall for separating dressing room from the sleeping area. This separation also creates the illusion of a larger space. As a result, the Gropius House became an important symbol for modern architecture both its use of materials and building techniques.
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What about Le Corbusier and his way of understanding use of glass in his designs? “The history of architecture,” said Le Corbusier, “is the history of the struggle for the window.” The struggle for the window began long before glass was employed to protect opening. So, too, glass was discovered long before it found a place in this architectural struggle.7 In 6 IMAGE- Villa Savoye / Le Corbusier / 1929. Image Courtesy of Diego Inzunza - Estudio Rosamente 7 John Peter, Design with Glass, 1964, USA, p. 7 7
contrast to Bauhaus workshop, Le Corbusier who was a Swiss-born French architect and Pierre Jeanneret three years later did not make entire walls of glass in their Villa Savoye in Poissy. By locating the load-bearing frame inside, Le Corbusier introduced the long, horizontal ribbon window that is defined in the five points of modern architecture. In the five points of modern architecture, which are defined by Le Corbusier, the first point was; interior walls arranged freely, without regard to the traditional demands of structural support.The second point was; pilotis, or slender columns that lift the building above the ground.The third point was; a flat roof to be used as a garden-terrace. The fourth point was; external curtain walls that bear no weight, with a free arrangement of windows or other openings. The last fifth point was; a preference for ribbon windows or narrow horizontal bands of glass across the length of a facade. For instance, Le Corbusier’s Villa Savoye (1928- 1931) exemplifies all of these points, and its circular staircase and series of ramps help to showcase his arrangement of spaces and volumes. Villa Savoye is built in the International Style and is set on top of a hillside. “There is an elongated ramp that glides up and around what seems to be the central part of the house.” 8 “The elongation of the ramp gives people time to embrace and experience the house itself.”9 “One of the elements that give villa such a strong character and make the villa as one unity is the material usage of the facade. The key materialis the white plaster in the facades. The white plaster is typical for Le Corbusier and he is known for using plaster and it can therefore be found in nearly all of his designs and buildings. By using white plaster the house strongly refers as one unity and one solid element even though there are a lot of elements and different parts in the house like the terraces and for example the solarium on the roof top. Besides the white plaster, glass is highly present in the facades. The glass contributes to the transparency of the house and proportions.”10
8 Papadaki S., Le Corbusier; Architect, Painter, Writer, New York, p. 30 9 Webb D., Analysis of Villa Savoye, p.3 10 Hasanovic M., Villa Savoye by Le Corbusier, 2012, p. 4 8
“That house looks as though it hated the ground, with vast vanity trying to rise superior to it regardless of nature, depending on a detachment called ‘classical’ for such human values as habit and association of ideas could give to it.”11 For Le Corbusier, the two principal modifying elements of architecture were light and time. The route of the house become lighter as people rise alongside the glazed wall to the firstfloor courtyard on the left side. The saloon part gets more effective sunlight; it streams through large glass sliding doors. Through those glass doors, there is a courtyard provided with a fixed table and its own windows through the perimeter wall of the upper floor. The courtyard is open to the sky, and most importantly to the sun. At the top of the ramp is another fixed concrete table, again provided with its own window. Also, there is the window and table that identifying the garden as a living room. These windows also manage the views of the mountains across the lake. As a consequence, Villa Savoye is a symbol of freedom, it shows Le Corbusier’s ability to generate ideas. Also, Le Corbusier saw the use of glass as an abstract design.
11 Wright F. L.– The Future of Architecture,1953, p. 322 9
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As Frank Lloyd Wright once predicted, “Perhaps the greatest eventual difference between ancient and modern buildings will be due to our modern machine-made glass.� Frank Lloyd Wright was an American architect, interior designer, writer, and educator. Wright designed more than 1.000 structures. The Fallingwater House was one of them. It was built between 1936 and 1939. Architect Frank Lloyd Wright designed the Fallingwater House to be in harmony with nature. While he was designing, Wright used only four materials to built the Fallingwater House, such as sandstone, reinforced concrete, steel, and glass. The steel can be seen throughout the house in railings, shelves windows, and doors. Also, Wright used much clear glasses to allow the outside to flow freely into the inside. At certain
12 IMAGE- Fallingwater House / Frank Lloyd Wright / 1939. Image Courtesy of Diego Inzunza Estudio Rosamente
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times of day, the glass becomes very reflective and reminds some people of the mirror-like surfaces of a calm pool of water. At night, the glass seems to disappear. Walls are avoided almost entirely, the sense of the shelter provided by the overhangs and by screen-like windows detailed to enhance the building’s vertical and horizontal rhythms. Within the house, the effects of dappled light, surrounding foliage and tumbling water exemplify Wright's attitudes towards integrating architecture and nature. Also, Frank Lloyd Wright thought that glass is one of the important material which makes a connection between the nature and the building. As mentioned before, with using glass, Wright tried to make a strong relation between interior of the house and exterior of the house.
“Instead of trying to solve new problems with old forms, we should develop the new forms from the very nature of the problem. We can see the new structural principles most clearly when we use glass in place of the outer walls; this is feasible today, since in a skeleton building these outer walls do not actually carry weight. The use of glass imposes new solutions.”13
To the sum up, glass has become one of the important materials of the building. Not only for light transmission or light condition but for a variety of other purposes. Glass is not ordinarily depended upon for structural strength but it must at least withstand wind loads and moderate impact. Glass is a completely brittle material of widely variable strength. Also, glass blocks with internal prismatic surfaces can change the direction incoming light, directing it to a considerable extent as desired. Additionally, in terms of modern architecture, the glass became one of the major elements. As mentioned before, many modernist architects’ designs have benefited much from the glass. Modern architecture influences the use of glass and the use of glass and new building techniques of glass have also influenced the modern architecture movement.
13 John Peter., Design with Glass, 1964, USA, p.10 11
For instance, Walter Gropius has created a flawless style at the Gropius House with combining traditional materials such as clapboard, brick, and fieldstone with glass which is new and innovative material. With using glass, Gropius tried to make a strong connection between the interior of the house and exterior of the house. Also, Gropius used glass for providing maximum ventilation and passive solar heating. Gropius also used glass to transmit natural light to the interior of the house. The second example was Villa Savoye which is designed by Le Corbusier. Corbusier had five points that are related to modern architecture and horizontal ribbon windows. In the Villa Savoye, some parts of ribbon windows were defining open living spaces. So Corbusier also used horizontal ribbon windows for different purposes, for instance, defining different spaces. Also, the ribbon windows and plane surfaces give the structure clarity and precision. The last study case was the Fallingwater House by Frank Lloyd Wright. It was designed to be in harmony with the nature. The glass was the most effective building material that achieves to connection between the nature and the building. For instance, at certain times of day, the glass becomes very reflective and reminds some people of the mirror-like surfaces of a calm pool of water. These were the most important and major examples of the use of glass in modern architecture. The glass was always there but modernist architects integrated a different meaning to the glass.
REFERENCES
â—? Curtis, W. Modern Architecture since 1900.
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Denzer, A. S. Modern Architecture Report. Wigginton, M. Glass in Architecture (1996). USA. Patterson, M. Structural Glass Facades and Enclosures . Kroll, A. Gropius House Walter Gropius. 2011. Peter, J. Design with Glass. 1964. Gans, D. The Le Corbusier Guide . Webb, D. Analysis of Villa Savoye. Unwin, S. 25 Buildings every architect should understand. 2015. Roth , L. Chapter 20. In Understanding Architecture.1993 Walter Gropius, “Glasbau,” in Probst and Schädlich, Ausgewählte Schriften,
3:103. ● Weston, R. Glass . In 100 Ideas That Changed Architecture,London, 2011. ● Giedion, S.Space Time and Architecture, 1941
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