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SOREN KIERKEGAARD I The outer aspects of Kierkegaard'scareer suggestthe lifeof a studentand man of letters. placidand uneventful on the5thofMay,1813,theyoungest son Bornin Copenhagen of means,he receivedthe humanistic ofa merchant discipline at the ofa classicalschool,and was enrolledin theUniversity were in ten The of yearsfollowing spent someage eighteen. whatdiscursivestudies,rangingover the fieldsof esthetics, he receivedthe and theology.At twenty-seven philosophy, soon enteredintoan and thereafter artiurn, degreeofMagister a after broken of year upon his own engagement marriage, from thistimeuntil and initiative.He remainedunmarried, of on the 11th hisdeath,whichtookplace November, 1855,he to his devotedhimself labors,unfolding unremittingly literary an extraordinary productivity. was endowedwitha sensitiveorganism,and Kierkegaard a tense underthecalmsurfaceofhisoutwardlifetherestirred eulogizesas spiritualvitality. The traitwhichWordsworth a markof spiritualelevation,"the capacityto be excitedto feelingwithoutthe applicationof grossor violent significant washisinan extraordinary degree. Eventswhich stimulants," a in thelivesofmostmenwouldhavepassedwithoutcreating hissoulto itsdepths;and hence stirred rippleuponthesurface, whichso manyof his criticshave the apparentexaggeration and hisexperiences.The ofhimself foundinhisinterpretation andfulness characterized manofgeniusis naturally byfreshness werecerof feeling,and Kierkegaard's personalexperiences indeed,thattheyservedto tainlydeeplyfelt;so profoundly, ofuniversal in hima reflection stimulate significance. II Bothparentswereof peasantstock. The father,Michael as a boyoftwelve, cameto Copenhagen PedersenKierkegaard, to an uncleengagedin trade. He evenand was apprenticed i
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achievedsuccessand retired at forty tuallyset up forhimself, witha competenceregardedas considerableforthe times. frombusinesssynchronized withhis second This retirement a yearafterthedeathofhisfirst wife. Oftheseven marriage, SorenAabyewastheyoungest. ofthissecondmarriage, children Thus thefatherwas alreadyfifty-seven yearsold at the time was forty-five. ofSoren'sbirth,whilehismother Soren'smotherhad been herhusband'shousekeeper.Of she seemsto have been and domesticdisposition, a cheerful into the intellectual lifeof her but littlecapableof entering of two giftedsons,and appearsto have exerteda minimum influenceupon Kierkegaard'sdevelopment.His journals silencewithregardto her. maintain austereand precise. A The fatherwas a dominant figure, nurtured in his of strain by undisposition, melancholy deep its turn to in tended and memories, keep disquieting happy he soughtrelief alive. Fromthismelancholy thesememories and to some extent,it appears,in in a pietisticreligiosity, him Kierkegaardattributesthe To philosophicalreading. of his life. A merchantwho influences formative deepest businesscareerin orderto retiresat fortyfroma successful and haveleisureto repenthissins,readWolflian metaphysics, as cannot be down of set in fear the his children God, bringup and it is not or commonplace an ordinary character; surprising thathisinfluence uponthesonshouldhavebeenprofound. whichwas the commonheritageof father The melancholy trait. and soncan be described by citinga singlecharacteristic on the bare while One day Jutlandheath,emherdingsheep bitteredby his privationsand oppressedby loneliness,the who was thena boy of elevenor twelve, elderKierkegaard, had mounteda hilland assailedwithcursesthe God whohad an existence. In Kierkegaard's himto so wretched condemned to thisincident is a reference 1846 there for the year journal fateofthemanwhohad terms:"The terrible in thefollowing oncein childhoodmounteda hilland cursedGod,becausehe was hungryand cold, and had to endureprivationswhile - and whowasunableto forget it evenat the hissheep herding after When of Kierkegaard'sdeatk this eighty-two." age
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elderbrother, passagewasshownto hissurviving BishopPeder Christian burst into and said: "That is he tears Kierkegaard, of of our and his sons the as well." just story Elsewhere, father, in Stageson theWayofLife,Kierkegaard suggeststhatthese darkmoodsservedto linkthefather and thesonin a fellowship ofsecretand unexpressed sympathy. "Thereonceliveda father inwhichthefather anda son. A sonis a mirror seeshimself is a mirror inwhichthesonseeshimself andthefather as reflected, he willbe in thefuture.But thesetwodid notoftenlookat one anotherin thismanner, fortheirdailyintercourse wascarried on through themedium ofa Butsometimes it happenedthatthefather would gayandlivelyconversation. pauseand turnwithsad facetowardtheson,sayingas he gazedintohiseyes: Toorboy,youarethevictimofa silentdespair.' Thiswasall thateverpassed between ofthemeaningofthesewordswas evervouchthem;no explanation ofhowfartheymightpossiblybe true. The father safed,noranydiscussion fortheboy'smelancholy, thathe wasresponsible andthesonthought thought - butnota wordwasever thatit was he whocausedhisfatherso muchgrief between themon thesubject." exchanged
Thereare twootherphasesofKierkegaard's boyhood,and of his father'sinfluence of his mind, the upon development whichI shallallowhimto describein his ownwords,quoting thesketchgivenofJohannes character Climacus,theprincipal in De omnibusdubitandum an unfinished est, metaphysical essay, writtenby Kierkegaardin 1842-3,and undoubtedly in character. autobiographical "His home-life offered butfewdiversions.He wasscarcely everpermitted togoout,andthushebecameaccustomed, at an earlyage,toattendtohimself andtohisownthoughts.His father wasverystrict, anddryandprosaiconthe thiscoarseand unpretentious he preserved exterior a surface;butunderneath old age was able to dull. When glowing fancy,whichnotevenhis extreme sometimes askedforpermission to go out,he wasmostoftenrefused; Johannes butoccasionally, as ifto makeup forthisrefusal, thefatherproposeda walk and together up and downtheroom. This seemedat firsta poorsubstitute; yet,like his father'scoarsegraycoat, it concealedunderits plain exterior fromthatwhichappearedon thesurface.The prosomething verydifferent it wasforJohannes himself todecidewheretogo. Theypassed posalaccepted, out the gate and visiteda neighboring palace; or wentto the seashore,or wandered aboutthestreets, all at theboy'spleasure.Forthefather's imaginationwaspowerful senseofanything andeverything enoughtocreatea realizing theboydesired.Whiletheywalkedup anddown,thefather described thesights thepassers-by; thevehiclesrumbled anddrowned alongtheway;theygreeted thefather'svoice;the daintiesdisplayedby the fruitwomanon thecorner
4 seemedmorealluringthan ever. When theywereon groundfamiliarto Johanwas givena descriptionso vividand minutethatnotthesmallest nes,everything detail was overlooked. When the way took themto scenesnew and unfamiliar, the fatherknewhow to draw so explicita picture,and give it so vivid an intuition,that afterbut half an hour of this promenadeJohanneswas as tiredand overwhelmedby his impressionsas ifhe had beenout ofdoorsan entireday. He soon learned how to practice his father'smagic art forhimself. A dramatic representationsupplanted the former epic narrative; for they conversed togetheron the way. When they walked amidst scenes with whichJohannes lest anythingshould be was familiar,they promptedone anotherfaithfully, overlooked;when the way was strange,Johannestrustedhis fancyto combine theelementsofhis memoryintopictures,whilehisfather'sall-powerful imagination broughtinto being everyleast detail, utilizingeverychildishwish as an in thedrama. To Johannesit seemedas ifhe werewitnessing, during ingredient the course of theirconversation,a world cominginto being; it was as if his fatherwerethe Creator,and he himselfa favorite,permittedfreelyto introduce his own childishfanciesinto the creativeprocess. For he was neverrepressed, and his fatherwas neverat a loss; everysuggestiontenderedwas made use of, and always to Johannes'completesatisfaction. "With an all-powerful imaginationthefathercombinedan invincibledialectic. And hence when at times the fatherwas engaged in argumentwith a neighbor,Johanneswas all ears; and this so much the more,as everythingin these discussions was arranged with ceremoniousorder and precision. His fatherneverinterruptedthe opponent,but let him speak throughto the end; whenhe appeared to have finished,he always cautiouslyasked himif therewas anythingmore he wished to say, beforebeginninghis answer. Johanneshad followedthe argumentwithconcentratedattention,and was, in his own way, a trulyinterestedparticipant. There came a pause, and thenthe father'sreply; all was changedin the twinklingof an eye. How it was changedwas a mystery to the boy,but his mindwas fascinatedby the spectacle. The opponentspoke in rebuttal,and Johanneswas still moredeeply attentive,if possible,than before; he wanted to bear everypoint in mind. The opponentapproached his peroration,and Johannescould almost hear his own heart beat, so impatient was he to hear theoutcomeof theargument. Then came thefather'sreply,and was changed. The thingsthathad seemedclear before, in a momenteverything suddenly became inexplicable; the things that had seemed certain became doubtful,and theirveryoppositesweremade to appear evident. "What other childrenpossessed in the enchantmentsof poetryand the surprisesof adventure,Johanneshad in the calm of a vivid intuitionand the swiftlychangingperspectivesof dialectics. When he became older he had no need to cast his playthingsaside, forhe had learnedto play withthat whichwas to be the seriousbusinessof his life; and yet it neverlost its allurement.A girl plays with her dolls until at last the doll is transformedinto a lover, for a woman's entirelifeis love. A similarcontinuitycharacterizedJohannes'life, forhis entirelifewas thought."
5 to spenddays In lateryearsKierkegaard was accustomed emotionaland and weeksin practicingon himselfdifferent states,an exercisewhichhe describesas "a temperamental " This kindofnimbledancingintheserviceofthought. making of the passions, an instrument forthe exploration of himself commandof the scale by whichhe attainedan extraordinary to a largeextentmade of humanfeeling,was undoubtedly possibleby the strangetrainingof the imaginationabove souls. as it mustseemto all straightforward fantastic described, was thatwhichhad A finaland decisivepaternalinfluence sombrereligiosity.The its sourcein the elderKierkegaard's of the parentaldiscipline, sternness indeed,gave the boy a of for trained to a strictobedience. was he lofty impression duty, of ofpetty was in a he web Not that enmeshed the multiplicity commands that but with to were obligations, respect the few no it was that evasion was laiduponhim, theparentalprinciple thus to be tolerated. Kierkegaard's largeestheticsensibility in the form and balancingcounterpoise receiveda restraining and of a strongsenseof the value of obedience,of authority, evenof an uncompromising seventy. This lefta permanent markuponhisthought. But it wasin connection withtheteachingoftheChristian dogmathat the father'sinfluencewas most pregnantwith significance.The boy heardlittleat homeabout the gentle and Christmas Child,but so muchthe moreof the suffering so vividly crucified Saviour. Theseimpressions werebrought to bearuponthe boy'sinnerlifeas to do violenceto hisperwithhisnativemelansonalityas a child;and in conjunction cholytheyhelpedto robhis childhoodof its naturalheritage of spontaneityand immediacy."I have never,"he says, " "enjoyedthe happinessof beinga child." This well-meant violence"on thepartofhisfatherhe latercameto regardas a unnaturalto childhoodand youth,but whichnevertraining, thelesslater,whenhewasmatureenoughtoprofit byit,became hismostpreciousspiritualinheritance.But hischildhood, he "too heavyto bear, avows,was burdenedwithimpressions evenfortheold manwholaid themuponme." "My father's error,however,was not to be lackingin love, but to forget
6 the difference betweena childand an old man." The misthebondsof filial indeed,servedto strengthen understanding, piety. 'To love one who makes me happy,is, viewedin formof love. To love one whofrom an imperfect reflection, is virtue. But to makesme unhappy, motivesofmalevolence love one who makesme unhappybecausehe loves me, and butnevertheless hencebya misunderstanding, reallymakesme has unhappy,thatis a formof love whichto myknowledge which a formof love,nevertheless, neveryetbeen described, is revealedas the normalformof whenviewedin reflection, love." The religiousdiscoursesof Kierkegaard'sauthorship wererepeatedlydedicatedin theirsuccessiveissues to "my a deceasedfather,Michael PedersenKierkegaard,formerly ofthiscity." merchant Ill his fatherdied. At WhenKierkegaardwas twenty-five, wasa strangely his thistime,so hedescribes himself, personality circumin external Fortunate the developedpotentiality. stancesofhislife,initiatedintoall kindsofpleasures, equipped and the of culture,giftedwithimagination witha superfluity human student of an and was observer of he power dialectic, andproud. Thatheshould nature. His spiritwashigh-strung seemedto him inconever be defeatedin any undertaking no tobe able toovercome had that he ever hope ceivable,except a livelysympathy hismelancholy.In hishearthe entertained and forall who suffered hardship;and his total oppression attitudetowardlife was thoroughly polemic. He had long entertained theambitionto be able to helpothersto clearness in connection withtheChristian ofthought, religion, especially indeed troubled forwhichhehadneverlosthisrespect, although had never he of which doubts in instances by doubts, many even read or heard. The deathof his father,however,had of childhood, caused a revivalof the religiousimpressions idealizedand in a somewhat whichhe nowcameto experience lessharshform. at theage of twentyA passagefromthejournals,written orientation.The of his intellectual nature the reveals two,
7 a reviewof his entirepassage is a sort of stock-taking, " he variedinterestsand ambitions. "My misfortune, says, "is thatI am interested in too manythings, and notdecisively to any one thing,to whichI mightsubordinate committed the theatre, everythingelse." Along with jurisprudence, he claims takes the of natural as a possible science theology, up vocation. between the industrious prospective Distinguishing collectorof factsand the organizing intellectual geniuswho succeedsingaininga viewofthewhole,heexpresses hisadmirationforthelatter. Nevertheless, he concludesthatit doesnot seempossibleforhimto makenaturalsciencehischiefconcern. Thepassagecontinues: "It has alwaysbeenthelifeofreasonand freedom whichhas mostinterestedme,andithasalwaysbeenmywishthatI might solvethemystery oflife. The forty beforeI couldenter, intothepromised land yearsin thewilderness, ofscience,appearto me tooprecious;so muchthemore,sinceI havean idea thatNaturemayalsobe viewedfrom another an insight side,without requiring intothesecrets ofscience. In a particular I maytrainmyself flower to see the wholeworld;orI maylistento themanyhintsand suggestions whichNature offers withrespectto humanlife. mostclearly "Theologywouldseemto be thesphereto whichmyinterest inclinesme,but mytheological studieshave hitherto metwiththe greatest difficulties. WithinChristianity itselfsuchgreatcontrasts themselves present as at leastto placeobstaclesin thewayof an impartial I survey.Orthodoxy haveso tospeakbeenbrought up in; butas soonas I begantothinkformyself, thehugeColossusbeganto tumble.I callit purposely a Colossus,forit hasin themainmuchinnerconsistency; and in thecourseofcenturies theindividual thatit is hardto cometo closequarters partsofit havebeenso fusedtogether withthemsimplyas isolatedfeatures.Thereareindividual pointson whichI beabletoreachan agreement withtheorthodox butthesewould might doctrine, thenhaveto be regarded as thegreensproutswhichmaysometimes be found in thecleftofthebarrenrock. On theotherhandI mightpossibly be growing abletodiscern theerrors andperversities at otherpoints;butthefounpresent dationitselfI wouldhaveto holdfora timein dabio. If thefoundation were tobe changed, thewholewouldofcoursehavetobe viewedin a different light; andso myattention is drawnto Rationalism.But Rationalismseemsto me tocuta verysorry follows figure.In so far,indeed,as theReasonconsistently itsownimpulses andspiritin theattempt to clearup therelation between God and theworld;and in so faras it thusconsiders manin hisdeepestand most intimate withGod,and hencealsocomesto takeChristianity into relationship as thereligion whichforso manycenturies account,fromitsownstandpoint, has satisfied man'sdeepestreligious need- inso farindeedno objection can be urgedagainstit. But thisis notwhatRationalism proceedsto do. It takes
8 its essentialcoloringfromChristianity, and hencestandson an entirelydifferent footing;it is not a system,but a Noah's ark,whereinthe clean and the unclean animals lie down side by side. It makes about the same impressionon me as thecivilianguardwe formerly had herein Denmark,beside the Royal Potsdam Guard. It seeksessentiallyto base itselfupon theScriptures,and sendsa legion of scripturalpassages beforeit at everypoint; but the expositionand developmentis not itselfsaturatedwith this consciousness. The rationalistictheologians behave like Cambyses,who in campaigningagainst Egyptsentthe sacred fowlsand cats beforehim; but, like the Roman consul,theyare quite ready to throwthe sacredanimalsoverboardwhentheserefuseto eat. . . . "What I reallyneed,however,is a clear mindregardingwhat I oughtto do; not so muchas to what I oughtto know,exceptin so faras some sortof knowledge precedesall doing. I need to understandmyplace in life,and to see what call the divinepowerhas forme; I need to discovera Truth whichis a Truth forme; I need to findthe idea forwhichI can live and die. For what would it profitme if I discoveredsome so-called objective truth; if I workedmy way throughall the philosophicalsystems,and could pass them in review when withineach particunecessary;or if I wereable to pointout the inconsistencies lar schoolof thought;what would it profitme if I wereable to develop a theory oftheState, to combinescatteredfactsgatheredfrommanysourcesintoa totality,and thus construea worldin whichI did not live, but only held up to the gaze of others;what would it profitme if I could expound the significanceof and explainmanyof its particularphenomena,ifit had no deeper Christianity, significanceforme and formy life? . . . What I need is the power to live a completehumanlife,and not merelya lifeof knowledge;lest I come to base my thoughtupon somethingso-calledobjective,in any ca(sesomethingnot myown. I need somethingthat is connected with the deepest root of my existence, somethingthroughwhich I am linked, so to speak, with the divine, and to whichI couldclingevenifthewholeworld wereto fallin ruinsabout me."
It is in theseclosingaspirations ofKierkethatthekey-note life and is struck. gaard'ssubsequent thought clearly IV In September,1840, Kierkegaardbecame engaged to had an imporRegineOlsen. Thisyoungwomanofseventeen tantinfluence his so indeed,that upon authorship; important, it was Kierkegaard's desire that the entire literature expressed shouldafterhisdeathbe dedicatedjointlyto his fatherand to her. A gracefuland attractivefigure, she was a childof So a and sunshine. contrast did she presentto joy complete and reflection which the profound melancholy many-tongued owninmostself,that"it was as if Simeon was Kierkegaard's
9 hadsteppeddownfromhispillarto invitea younglady Stylites of beautyand fashionto sharehis narrowpedestal."(Georg to Brandes). Kierkegaard thoughtit possibleand permissible ofhisowninnerunhappiness; he believed concealthesymptoms it his dutyto use forthispurposehis nativelivelinessof wit and whatever in concealment he possessed, acquiredvirtuosity and so make possiblethe realizationof the projectedmarmanI haveever riage. "My fatherwas themostmelancholy known. But he was at his ease and happythe entireday. He neededonlyto employan hourat nightto drain,likeLoki's thissufficed to makehimsound wife,thecup ofhisbitterness; For again. mypart,I do not evenrequireas muchtimeas this. Onlya momentor twoas opportunity and all is offers, wellwithmeoncemore. Fromthebitterness ofmymelancholy I distila joy,a sympathy, a tenderness offeeling, whichsurely cannotembitter anyone'slife. I willnot marryin orderto compelanotherto sharethe burdenof mymelancholy.For me,therefore, marriage presentsa mostdifficult problem,an anxioustask;butit is also mydearestwish." Suchwerethe ideas withwhichhe enteredinto the engagement.But the moment he facedthesituationat closerange,theprinciple of concealment beganto appear untenable,a violationof that whichhe spirit of mutual confidenceand understanding consideredfundamental to the marriage-relation. His frail whichhe obtaineda physician's unfavorable health,concerning prognosis; his melancholy,which he looked upon as ; his penitencefor sins of youth- all rose unconquerable up in protestagainst him to make impossiblethe realizationofhislovein marriage.Fora yearhe wrestled withthe problem. In October,1841,he brokethe engagement.The and the journalsare filledwith echoes of this experience, is largelybuiltup about it, though literature Kierkegaardian it cannotjustlybe saidthattheappropriate transimaginative formation ofthematerialis everneglected.In thejournalsof fianceehad beenforsomeyearshappily 1849,whenhisformer and at a timewhenthedeathofherfatherhad given married, hima newimpulseto reflect upontherelationbetweenthem, he reviewsthe storyof the engagement in severalparallel
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accounts. One ofthese,underthemotto"Infandutn mejubes, dolorem"describesthe proposal,the engageRegina,renovare hisconscience innerstruggles between ment,andthesubsequent and his love. "Inwardly,almostthe nextday, I saw that I had madea mistake. A penitentsuchas I was,myvitaanta these were enough. I sufferedindeacta, my melancholy, fallsby scribablyall the time." The yearof the engagement thisaccountintofiveperiods,each of whichis briefly characfromhis melancholy and his terized. In the first,he suffers withhavingtornherloosefrom himself reproaching conscience, hermoorings.In thesecond,"she givesherself freereinin a withrespect boundless self-assurance.Atoncemymelancholy to the engagement I breathe and freelyagain. disappears, Hereis a faulton myside. I shouldhavetakenadvantageof thisperiodto permitherto breakthe engagement; it would ofrealizing forher. Buttheproblem thenhavebeena triumph forme,and besides,there a marriage wastooseriousa problem was something childishin her presumption."In the third, "she yieldsherselfin completedevotion,and is transfigured intothemostlovablecreature difficulty imaginable." His first now returns, intensified the sightof herdevotionand by by In thefourth, he comesto thesenseofhisownresponsibility. is unavoidable, and writesher thata separation theconclusion verbatimin Stageson theWay the following note,reprinted of Life,
"Not too oftento experimentwith somethingthat must in any event be done, and which,when it is done, will undoubtedlygive the needed strength, let it now be done. Above all, forgethim who writesthisnote; forgeta man, who,whatevermay be his powers,could nevermake a womanhappy. "In the orient,the sendingof a silkennoose meansdeath fortherecipient; in thiscase, the returnof a ringwill undoubtedlymean death forthe sender."
to let thematterrestwiththisdeci" She refused, however, sion. "In myabsenceshe comesup to myroomand writes mea desperate note,adjuringme,'forChrist'ssake,and by the notto leave her." The crisis of memory mydeceasedfather, In was temporarily Kierkegaard postponed. the meanwhile, obnoxious to "if himself to make her, possibleto attempted sustainher by a deception,and to inciteher pride." Two
II
monthslaterhe brokethe engagement forthe secondtime, despiteherprotestsand thoseof her father. The gossipin withthe CopenhagenaccusedKierkegaardof experimenting of his fiancee. He himselfwentso faras to lend affections to this opinion,thinkingit might some encouragement and senseof independence.His herself-assertion strengthen a fewdaysaftertheevent,threatened to call on the brother, Olsensand showthemthatKierkegaard was nota scoundrel. "If youdo," was hisvehement reply,"I'll puta bulletthrough head." your This was the experience almost whichplacedKierkegaard at a strokein the fullpossessionof his estheticand literary whichderivesfrom itandcenters powers. Thewealthoffeeling a richveinin theKierkegaardian aboutit constitutes literature, and is one of its primeclaimsto distinction.The experience had probeddeep. That he shouldhave venturedupon an whichhe couldnot fulfill, and thathe had been undertaking to in sacrifice his honor ofa solemnpact, the compelled breaking stirredhis senseof prideand self-feeling profoundly.A pasin inwhichhereacts EitherOr reflects of moods one the sage on theexperience. "WhatI needis a voiceas penetrating as theeyeofa Lynceus, as terrifying as thesighofa giant,as persistent as as a soundofnature,as fullofderision a frosty the gustofwind,as maliciousas Echo'sheartless mockeries, running gamutfromthedeepestbass to themostmellifluous soprano,and capableof fromthe softestwhisperto the utmostpitchof ragingenergy. modulation AllthisI needin orderto relievemyspiritofitsburden, and to getexpression forwhatisonmymind,tostirthebowelsofmysympathy andwrath."
- Or thusdesires,Kierkegaard What the estheticist in Either came to possessin the fullestmeasure;forhis unhappyloveaffair had madehiman imaginative ofthefirstrank. writer But theexperience to hisowninterpretation had,according ofit, also a deeperimport.It gave hislifeitsdefinite andfinal direction."WhenI brokewithher,"he writes,"my impressionwas: eithersensuality in extremest measure,or elseabsolutereligiosity, and thataccording to a standardquitedifferent fromtheclergyman's was at melange" The latteralternative bottomalreadychosen,preparedforby hisfather'sdiscipline,
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and maturedby the verymotivesoperatingto bringon the in two crisisabove described. He cameto makea beginning different placesat one and thesametime,namely,as a poetic deand as a religiousnature;suchis his own epigrammatic of the situation."Because of my previousreligious scription tookhold thefactin question[thebrokenengagement] training ofme in a fardeepermannerthanwouldotherwise have been to a certaindegree,in religiousimpossible;it annihilated, had that the beenbornwithinme. The poetic patience, 'poet' became somethingessentiallyforeign, withinme therefore somethingthat had merelyhappenedto me; the religious on theotherhand,thoughnotindeedproducedby awakening, relation nevertheless cameto possessthemostintimate myself, in to myself.That is, in the'poet' I did notrecognize myself the deepestsense; but ratherin the religiousawakening." demandedexpression.The However,the poeticendowment of his side nature,beingthe deeperself,tookit in religious it and serveits ownpurposes. All the whileit made charge, to be stoodwaiting,as it were,forthe estheticproductivity bears with as soon The as authorship possible. got through sinceit has fromthefirsta double themarkofthissituation, - estheticand religious; of and duringtheproduction character author himself tells "the hisestheticwritings, Kierkegaard us, thatweredecisively livedin categories religious." V to whichKierkegaard The numberof externalinfluences An author reactedwasconsiderable. maygaina certaindegree buttheindividual mereexclusion, oforiginality stamp through of the Kierkegaardian so characteristic and coloring highly in the is the consequence ratherof an intensiveness literature of the of assimilation an and given energetic personalreaction, influences.Whatan authoris able to writethe day afterhis as a crucialtestof has beenburnedhas beensuggested library of seems Almost line hisresourcefulness. Kierkegaard's every of a bookish it so is the a little to meetsuch condition, product ofa freecreative is ittheexpression andso completely erudition, intellectual influences many general energy. Nevertheless,
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in his work,and enterdeeplyintoits form revealthemselves and structure. As a truesonofhisnativeland,hisinheritance includedthe fullwealthof Danish cultureas expressedin its literature. he appearsto owe mostto Holberg, But ofall Danishwriters, the great pioneerof Danish comedy. Holberg'shumoris whichKierkegaardmay almostbe said to have something absorbedin succumet sanguinem.The Holbergcomedies servedhimfora veritablelanguage;and the moretechnical to Holphilosophicaltreatisesare repletewith references and characters and substance massto situations, giving bergian thedelicatecomedyoftheirfine-spun polemic. offers Kierkegaard manypointsof contactwithromantihas an emotional cism. The styleoftheestheticpseudonyms a and at timesan intensity abandon, lyricaleffervescence, of and statement close extravagance feeling verging uponthe limitsof the rational. By way of contrast, the religiousdiscoursesare writtenin a style noticeablysober,even, and ofthepseudonyms, restrained.Theinvolvedliterary structure withone authorinsideanotherlike the compartments of a Chinesebox,has also been citedas a romantictrait. More significant, however,is the strongattractionwhichKierkein fortheprimitive withmostromanticists, gaardfelt, common in folk-lore, balladsand sagas. He madesystematic studiesof thegreatrepresentative thatstandout so strongly for figures themedievalimagination: a Don Juan,a Faust,The Wandering Jew,a Robin Hood. And he shareswiththe German romanticists an unboundedadmiration forShakespeare.Of therichShakespearian insighthe makesliberaluse forhisown of thepassions. Thoughhe maybe said to have delineation hada sympathetic oftheGermanromantic moveappreciation On theConcept ment,his dissertation, Irony,revealshimas a severecriticofits aberrations.His attitudewas on thewhole too objectiveand analyticforhimto be classified as a romanticist. relationto Hegelwas thatof a studentsufKierkegaard's docile to absorbthe master'steaching,but whose ficiently maturedcriticism just on that accountbecameall the more
14 destructive.To Hegel he oweshis masteryof a dangerously and Hegel's preciseand finishedphilosophical terminology, influence reversion mayperhapsalso be tracedin thefrequent abstractstyle,clashingsomewhat to an algebraically strangely with expressions vividlypoetic in theirconcreteness.But and the mostintimateinthe mostimportant undoubtedly workand thought, fluence leavingitsmarkuponKierkegaard's ofSocrates. His dissertation wasthepersonality wasan interof of from view of the the Socratic Socrates point pretation a of the This reveals sympathetic study appreciation irony. Atheniansage, and became the point of departurefor an in the sense culminating increasingly deeperunderstanding, in his ofan intimate recognized spiritual kinship. Kierkegaard ofan ethicaland intellectual ownlife-work thefulfilment task which for to that Socrates ancient Greece. analogous performed in the journalsimThis thoughtreceivedits firstexpression of Either Or. after the publication mediately 'Thereoncewas a youngman,happilygiftedas an Alcibiades.He went lookedabouthimfora Socrates;buthe astrayin theworld,andinhisdistress Thenhe askedthegodsto transcouldnotfindoneamonghiscontemporaries. himintoa Socrates.Andbehold,theyoungmanwhohad beenso proud form wasso shamedand humbled ofbeingan Alcibiades, bythegracethegodshad bestowed uponhim,thatwhenhe had receiveda giftofwhichhe mightwell ofall." thehumblest beproud,hefelthimself
Twelveyearslater,whileengagedin theagitationwhichstirred he expressed the same thoughtmore Denmarkso profoundly, a into it still reading deeperimport. emphatically,
"ThepointofviewwhichI havetorepresent andexpoundis so absolutely ofChristendom hundred there yearsofthehistory unique,thatin theeighteen to whichI mightlink nothinganalogousor corresponding is, quiteliterally, - I stand hundred years myself.In thissensealso- overagainsttheeighteen alone. "The onlyanalogyI haveis Socrates.My taskis a Socratictask- torevise ofwhatitmeanstobe a Christian.I do notcallmyself a Christheconception tian(keepingtheidealfree)butI can revealthefactthattheothersare still tothenamethanI am. lessentitled theonlyhumanbeingwhomI admiringly "O noble,simplesageofantiquity, has handeddown as a thinker:thereis butlittlewhichtradition acknowledge oftheintellect, equallygreatas character concerning you,trueandonlymartyr much! How haveI notlonged, butthatlittle,howinfinitely and as thinker;
15 ofthinkers thatChristendom bringsout livingin themidstofthesebattalions thinkers in thecourseofthecenturies, intothefieldas Christian (forotherwise, of significance) therehavelivedin Christendom a fewindividualthinkers , withyou! howhaveI notlongedforoneshorthourofconverse has beensunkintoa veritable farworse "Christendom abyssofsophistry, flourished inGreece.Theselegions whenthesophists thanthatwhichprevailed ofpreachers and Christian docentsare all sophists, earningtheirlivelihood - by filling withdelusions themindsof hereis theancientmarkofthesophist this thosewhounderstand and thenmakingthismass,thisnumber, nothing, thetestandstandardofChristianity humanmajority, andtruth. tothe "But I do notcallmyself a Christian.Thatthisis veryembarassing I understand too,thattheywouldmuch verywell;andI understand, sophists, thatI shouldloudlyproclaim theonlytrueChristian, andI know prefer myself to represent hasbeenmade,untruthfully, verywellthattheattempt myagitationin thislight. ButI willnotallowmyself I do to be madea foolof. ... a Christian. notcall myself "O Socrates!If youhad onlyloudlyproclaimed thewisestmanin yourself it offwithyou! No, Greece,thesophistswouldsoonhavebeenable to finish but at thesametimeyouhad themalicious no,youmadeyourself ignorant; characteristic thatyoucouldexposethefact(precisely as beingignorant) that theothershad stilllessknowledge thanyou,theywhodidnotevenknowthat theywereignorant."
An estimateof Kierkegaard'stotal significance in these termsitwouldrequirea morecomprehensive anddetailedstudy of his entirecareerto motivate. But it may be of interest simplyto namea numberofindividualtraitsin hispersonality and hisworkwhichhave a strongSocraticcoloring.Suchfor and forestablishing a exampleis his talentforconversation, of men. Such pointof contactwithall sortsand conditions also is hislivingenthusiasm, reflecwrappedin an objectifying tion. We note,too,a concentration of interestuponmorals, witha corresponding ofthesignificance ofnatural depreciation scienceandcosmological a devotion to themaieutic speculation; method and greatskillinitsexercise to ironical ; anda tendency self-isolation. The instrumental of the consubordination ceptualapparatusof thoughtto the ends of the personality, and a consequenthighcontemptforobjectiveand external is alsoa Socratictrait. Andfinally, wehavein Kierkeresults, gaard a concretely polemicattitudetowardthe currentsof in intimatepersonalcontact,and contemporary life,expressed withtheassumption ofsomedegreeofpersonalriskand peril.
i6 VI in was Kierkegaard unique thedegreeto whichhisenormous was directedback upon himself.Subenergyof reflection has criticism uncovered veryfewpointsofviewforhis sequent not interpretation alreadysuggestedeitherin the literature whichthejournalsafford. itself,or in the wealthof comment his ClimaIn the Unscientific Johannes Postscript, pseudonym, and work to each its literature, assigns cus,reviewstheesthetic place in relationto his owncentralthesis. Someyearslater, had appeared,Kierkeliterature afterthebulkofthereligious to serveforan interpreautobiography gaardwrotea literary tation of the whole. The latter work,however,was not onlya briefabstractofit appearpublishedduringhislifetime, form. ingin pamphlet It was Kierkegaard's purpose,so he tellsus in the course ofwhatit means a definition to formulate ofthisself-criticism, fruitful and suggestive to live,and to makethisformulation that the readerto a degreeof self-activity forlife,stirring mighthelp him to findhimself.He believedthat the age ofknowledge.Lifewasbeing froman over-abundance suffered with made increasingly unreal,sincelivingwas beingconfused it would be situation this In life. about superfluous knowledge and even harmful merelyto increasethe storeof knowledge even alreadyexisting, ifit werepossibleto attaina considerable thiswouldonlytend uponcurrentconceptions; improvement to promotethe diseaseit was intendedto cure. Kierkegaard to eschewthe abstract,obresolvedsystematically therefore scientific form,and to choose jective,didactic,systematic, of a insteadthesubjectiveand incidentalformcharacteristic In to the assimilated personality. knowledgecompletely as distinctfrom otherwords,he presentsknowledge-in-use, in theformofpotentiality-for-use. knowledge and idealsof lifein this To delineatedifferent standpoints in theirthoughts," to is "existing presentpersonalities way the personalsigand thusrevealingthroughself-expression the ofthestandpoints nificance theyoccupy.Asa consequence, the and polyonymous; estheticliteratureis pseudonymous but"theirwords, authorsare Kierkegaard's different creations,
17 " theirviews,andeventheirprefaces, aretheirownproductions, nowherepreciselycoincidingwithKierketheirstandpoints gaard'sown. Beingidealpersonalities only,theycan express in goodand evil "witha disregard forconsequences themselves of an ideal consistency, a limitedonly by the requirements thatno actualauthorspeakingin hisownnamecould freedom claim/' appropriately waslaunchedis Either The workwithwhichtheliterature by VictorEremita,(1843). An ethicalview Or, a life-fragment,
witha purelyesthetic oflifeis herecontrasted attitude.There an estheticist and an ethicist. VictorEremita are twoauthors, of the material,whichhas is merelythe editorand publisher is theauthor fallenintohishandsbyaccident. The estheticist ofthepapersthatconstitute thefirst is and volume, designated as a; theethicist, forthesecondvolume,conb, is responsible sistingof letterswrittento a, couchedin termsof friendly admonition.The titleof theworksuggeststhatthereaderis witha decisivealternative; confronted he is invitedto weigh and chooseforhimself.The styleof the firstvolumeis imthe work,the thoughtspresented passioned,and throughout of the warmth with glow personalappropriation.The alternais thuscharacterized tivepresented bothin its emotionaland in its intellectual and to the the servicerendered significance, readeris theSocraticoneofformulating thequestionproposed withthegreatest possibleclarityand precision. The estheticist is purposely ofthe madethemorebrilliant twoauthors. His glowing and fancy,hishecticeloquence, his dialecticpower,are all devotedto the exploitation of quasiare all dialecticpower, ofa quasidevotedto theexploitation the introduces byronic despair. A groupoflyricalaphorisms volume. One ofthesegivesexpression to theinnerdiscordof a poet'slife,whileanotherhas a certainsymboliccharacter, as a hintofKierkegaard's determination to utilizethecomical as a factorin his literaryprogram. I quote themhere as oftheentirevolume. typicalofthetenseeloquencecharacteristic
"Whatis a poet? A poetis an unhappy hisheartis tornbysecret creature; buthislipsare so formed thatwhenthecriesand thesighsescape sufferings, tothefate music. His fateis comparable them,theycreatea soundofbeautiful
i8 of thewretchedvictimsof the tyrantPhalaris,whowereimprisonedin a brazen bull,and slowlytorturedovera low fire.Their criescould not reachthe tyrant's ears so as to striketerrorinto his heart, for they came forthtransformed as sweetmusic. And men crowdabout the poet and say: Sing forus soon again. and may your That means: May your heart be tormentedby new sufferings, lips continueto be formedas before;forthe crieswould onlydisturbour peace, but the music is lively. And the criticscome upon the scene and say: Quite correct,so it oughtto be; the rulesof estheticshave been obeyed. To be sure, in his heart and a criticresemblesa poet by a hair,lackingonly the sufferings the musicon his lips. And that is whyI would ratherbe a swineherd,and be understoodby the swine,than be a poet and be misunderstoodby men." "Somethingwonderfulhas happened to me. I was carried up into the seventhheaven. There all the gods were assembled together. As a mark of theirespecial favorI was granteda wish. Said Mercury: Will you have youth, or beauty, or power,or a long life,or the most beautifulof maidens,or some otherof the many grand thingswe have here in the chest? You may choose what you will,but only one thing. For a momentI was at a loss, but quickly recoveredmyselfand addressed the gods as follows: Honorable Contemporaries,I choose alwaysto have thelaughon myside. None ofthegodsanswered me by a singleword; on the contrary,they all began to laugh. This I interand I perceivedthat the gods pretedas a sign that my wishwas to be fulfilled, knew how to express themselveswith taste; for it would hardly have been suitableto theoccasionforthemto have answeredme solemnly:Your prayeris granted."
The essayswhichmakeup thebulkofthevolumedeal with a varietyof topics. There is a criticismof Mozart's Don whichseeksto exhibitthisoperaas a classicalexpresGiovanni, sionforsensuousgeniality;an essayon thetopicof " Ancient a sketchofa modified and ModernTragedy,"including Antigstudiesof Marie Beaumarchais,Donna one; psychological Elvira,and Margaretin Goethe'sFaust; an orationon "The of Scribe'scomedy,The First UnhappiestMan"; a criticism Love;an essayentitled"The MethodofRotations,"describing "The Diary howone maybestescapebeingbored;and finally, of The Seducer,"in all respectsa mostamazingand brilliant Don Juan,a highlycomplia studyofa reflective production, himself catedesthetewhohasconcentrated upontheenjoyment ofthefeminine in all ofitsvariousnuances. B is a gentleman intowhosehousethe youngman whois comesas a weltheauthorofthepreceding papersfrequently comevisitor. Thisgivesoccasionforthetwolonglettersthat
19 makeup the secondvolume;the subjectsdiscussedare those betweenthem. whichhavebeentoucheduponin conversation Himselfmarried,the ethicistwritesin defenseof marriage, of manifestation it as thedeepestand mostconcrete presenting out in to the fitted ethical as and hence bring essentially life, itstruesignificance.A secondletterdiscusses"theequilibrium ofthe betweentheestheticand theethicalin thedevelopment of is: choice one's His ethical formula the self, personality." betweengood and a choiceby whichthe absolutedistinction evil receivesvalidityforthe will. In choosinghimselfthe to the world,and entersinto ethicistalso becomesmanifest so as to realizeitssocialtasks. Time thelifeofthecommunity as an ethicalcategory, sinceit is the condition is interpreted whichmakesa historyand a development possibleforthe an individual thus achieves ethical the continuity. personality; theindividual's ethicalenthusiasm constitutes The specifically victoryover estheticsecrecy,selfishmelancholy,illusory passion,and despair. Sucha viewoflife,he asserts,doesnot butpreserves it and ennoblesit. theesthetic, destroy "WhenI viewlifefrom thqethicalpointofview,I seeitinitsbeauty.Life and notpoor,as it reallyis foryou. I do nothaveto becomesrichin beSauty, travelroundtheglobetofindtracesofbeautyhereandthere, nortoroveabout thestreets.I do nothaveto chooseand select,to criticize andreject. To be sure,I am notblessedwithas muchleisureas youarepossessed of;forsinceI am in thehabitofregarding ofits beauty,t myownlifefromthestandpoint whenI havean hourfree,I takemy alwayshaveenoughtodo. Butsometimes, standat thewindowand observethepassers-by; and everyhumanbeingthat I see,I see as havingbeauty. Let himbe everso insignificant I and humble, cannevertheless seehisbeauty;forI seehimas thisparticular individual whois man. He hashisconcrete at thesametimetheuniversal taskinlife; hedoesnot existforthesakeofanyoneelse, even thoughhe be the humblestof wageHe realizeshis task,he conquers, servants;his teleologyis self-contained. and I can see hisvictory.Fora bravemandoesnotsee spooks,a braveman seeseverywhere victorious heroes. It is only the cowardwho can see no heroes,butonlyspooks."
Atthecloseoftheworkis a sermon, thefruitofthemeditationof a country parson,a friendof b's. It givesexpression to thatreligiousenthusiasm whichovercomestheincommenbetweentheinfinite and thefinite, surability existing removing theobstaclescausedbythemisunderstanding betweenGodand
20
out. Its man by resolutelybravingthis misunderstanding themeis "the happinessto be derivedfromthe thoughtthat as overagainstGod youare alwaysin thewrong." The final wordof thissermonhas a peculiarsignificance.The sermon that "only proposition ends,namely,withthe epigrammatic thetruthwhichedifiesis truthforyou." This is a pragmatic on a higherlevel,and servesas a concrete expression principle ethicalindividualism.The appeal to ediforKierkegaard's ficationis not, as mightperhapsbe imagined,a refugefor sinceKierkegaard givesthe conceptof vaguenessof thought, and itselfan elaboration edification precise definite. in thesecondpartofEither-Oris The ethicthuspresented ofa radicalevil. It an ideal ethic. It ignoresthepossibility assumesthat the individualmay findhimself,even in his withhisformer self,and despair,withoutbreachofcontinuity of a newpointofdeparture.Now this withoutthenecessity did not at the time is a viewof thematterthatKierkegaard to wished that he us tells he but developtheimplications hold; ofan ideal ethicbeforetakingup theproblemofevil. When wheretheethical a manhas reacheda pointin his experience then its in all him for ideal exists infinitude, and not before calledto thefactof his attention to have willhe be prepared crises the theevil will. Here begin,forhere religious strictly assistance. divine needs theindividual assumes ethicaldoctrineof )ife necessarily An immanent commensurate and thatmanfindshisindividualduty destiny withthelifeofthecommunity.The ethicaland theuniversal ofhisethical areforsucha viewcoincident.In therealization all to and intellimanifest tasktheindividualis consequently neither needs individual The gibleto his socialenvironment. with the nor experiences divine,a any privaterelationship from the to is that relationdistinguishable, relationship say, is for the community whichhe sustainsto the community; horiis like the God divine. identicalwiththe himessentially which the outside zonofthelandscape,orlikethepoint picture but Goddoesnotenterimmediately itsperspective; determines intolifeas an individualfactor. Whenthe factof sin is achowever,the whole situationis changed. An knowledged,
21
to God becomesa life-necessity, and it individualrelationship of the old immediacy, and of the is onlyby a transcendence thattheidealselfcan be socialrelationships therein, grounded betweenGod foundin itsreality. Sucha personalrelationship is by Kierkegaard withtheChrisidentified and theindividual of thisconceptthus tianconceptof Faith. The clarification becomesthenextproblemin hisliterary program. By means of threesuccessivevolumeshe advances,step by step,to a of faith:Fear and Trembling motivation , a diapsychological lecticallyricby Johannesde Silentio,(1843); The Repetition,a by ConstantineConstantius,(1843); psychologicalexperiment, and Anxiety,a simpledescriptive psychological inquiry,witha viewto theelucidationof thedogmaticproblemof OriginalSin,
(1844). The lastnamedwaspublished byVigiliusHaufniensis on the same day as the Philosophical Chips,and constitutes, of a of view fromthe point content, companionvolume. of uses and Fear Trembling thestoryofAbraham'ssacrifice a for he cannot his son. Abrahamis not tragichero, claim, or theRomanconsul,a higherethicaljustification likeJephtah his son has a purely forhis deed. His intentionto sacrifice andonewhichnosocialethiccanacknowlpersonalmotivation, ethicalobligation thathislifeorthesituaedge; forthehighest tionrevealsis thefather's dutyoflovinghisson. Abrahamis or a heroof Faith. The detailed eithera murderer, therefore expositionelucidatesAbraham'ssituationdialecticallyand outas problemata theteleological bringing suspension lyrically, ofan absolutedutytowardGod, oftheethical,theassumption and the purelyprivatecharacterof Abraham'sprocedure; of a thusshowing theparadoxicaland transcendent character to all rule,is prerelationin whichthe individual,contrary thanthecommunity.A number higher ciselyas an individual, ofexamplesof thetragicheroare delineatedto forma backgroundfortheexposition. The Repetition attacksessentially the same problem,but modernizes thesituation. A youngmanfallsin love; he disand chagrinthathe has becomea poet, coversto hissurprise and cannotfulfill his engagement to marrytheyoungwoman whowas so unfortunate as to have awakenedthepoeticpro-
22
withhimself fora while, withinhim. He struggles ductivity fleesthefieldwithout and finally leavinganywordofexplanationbehind. His honorhas receiveda blowand his prideis thathecouldhave woundedtothequick,butheis notconscious he voiceshisdespair, actedotherwise.In eloquentmonologues and his senseof the bitterinjusticethatlifehas visitedupon him. In hisagonyhe discovers Job,whoseplightseemsto fit - "if Jobis a fictitious I hereby his case precisely character, forhis words." The storyof Job assumefullresponsibility helpshimfirstto giveventto his emotions;later,it suggests of a solution. Withouthavingany clearidea thepossibility of the case as to waysand means,and withtheprobabilities a to thunder-storm he againsthim, begins expect completely thatwillcleartheair,givehimbackhishonor,and showhim is merelya trial. This expectation thatthewholeexperience and giveshima resemhisanalogywithAbraham, constitutes of his difficulty blanceto a believer. The actual resolution with the comesin a somewhatdifferent form, news,namely, fianceehas marriedanother. This liberates that his former was transitory.Its himfora poet'scareer. The experience resultis a religiousawakeningwhichdoes not quite break itselfin a profoundbut unutterable through,but registers undertone. religious follows The authorof the book,ConstantinConstantius, in theroleofa oftheyoungman'slove-affair thedevelopment consultingpsychologist.He is himselfoccupiedwith the as whichhe interprets esthetically, problemofa "repetition," or in loses esthetic an the problemwhether experience gains based value by beingrepeated. He comesto the conclusion, is a that satisfactory repetition altogether upon experience, in a cynicalself-limitation. The and seekscomfort impossible, the but illustrates same of the love-affair man problem, young a He wins in theformof a religious "repetition" experience. of and as therestoration ofhispersonality, as a redintegration in in a is form. It its to his consciousness integrity higher thislattersensethat the conceptof Repetitionbecomesthe ofthis ofthebook. The essentialpurport chiefsubject-matter of a "new idea the as same Christian creature," conceptis the
23
in but viewedas if fromafar,and witha certainambiguity, in distantgleams. The alternation hintsand suggestions, betweenthe estheticand the religiouspointsof view gives occasionfordealingwiththe categoryin a varietyof moods, mingling jest withearnest;in order,says the author,"that thehereticsmaynot be able to understand me." Repetition is describedas "the interest of metaphysics, and at the same timethe interestupon whichmetaphysics makesship-wreck; thesolutionofeveryethicalviewof life;theconditio sinequa " A nonforeverydogmatic characteriproblem. psychological zationof the conceptis givenin a beautifulpassagewhichI shallherequotein extenso. starchedand stiff andglittering; butithasnever "Hope is a newgarment, it willfit,orhowit may yetbeenworn,andhenceonedoesnotknowwhether becomeone. Memoryis an old garment, and useless,howeverbeautiful;for it has beenoutgrown.But therepetition is an imperishable garment, fitting it neither flutters toolooselyaboutthepersonnorpresses closelyandtenderly; the bodytoo close. Hope is a beautifulgirlwhoslipsaway through your is a handsome oldlady,neverquiteserving thepurposeofthe fingers; memory buttherepetition is a belovedwifeofwhomyounevertire,forit is moment; onlythenewthattires. The old nevertires,and whenthemindis engrossed withtheold it is happy. Onlyhe findsa truehappiness whorefuses to yield to thedelusionthattherepetition oughtto givehimsomething new;forthen he willbe bored. Hopeis a prerogative ofyouth,andso is memory; butit reto hopeis a coward, quirescourageto willtherepetition.Whoeveris content is contentto remember and whoever is a pleasure-seeker; butwhoever has the is a man,and themoreprofoundly he has known courageto willtherepetition therepetition howto interpret to himself, the deeperis his manhood. But whoever failsto comprehend thatlifeis a repetition, and thatthisconstitutes itsbeauty,condemns and deserves no betterfatethanthatwhichwill himself, befallhim,whichis: to be lost. Forhopeis an alluring fruitthat eventually is a miserable failsto satisfy;and memory pittancethatfailsto satisfy;but is thedailybreadthatnotonlysatisfies butblesses. Whena manhas repetition theglobe,it willappearwhether hehas thecouragetoundercircumnavigated standthatlifeis a repetition, and theenthusiasm to findhishappiness therein. Whoever doesnotcircumnavigate theglobebeforehe beginsto live,doesnot makesthejourney, butisovertaken shows begintolive. Whoever byweariness, thathe had a poorconstitution. Butwhoever choosestherepetition, lives. He doesnotrunhereandtheretocatchbutterflies, likea child;nordoeshestandon tiptoeto beholdthegloriesoftheworld,forhe knowsthem. He doesnotsit likean old womanat memory's buthe wendshiswaythrough spinning-wheel, lifecalmlyand quietly,happyin therepetition.Andwhatindeedwouldlife
24 be,iftherewereno repetition?Whocouldwishto be a tableton whichevery Timewritesa newinscription, or a merememorial ofthepast? Who moment couldwishto be subjectto everything thatis newand flighty, and to permit withan ephemeral hissouleverandagaintobe engrossed pleasure?IfGodhad theworldwouldneverhavecomeintobeing;forhe notwilledtherepetition, his fancyto pursuetheeasy plansof hope,or wouldeitherhave permitted itall,andkeptitonlyinthememory.Butthishedidnotdo,andthererecalled lies foretheworldstands,and standsbecauseit is a repetition.In repetition willstorepeat,provesthathis thereality andtheearnestness oflife. Whoever is full-grown andmature." earnestness
In thetwovolumesabovedescribed, Faithis delineatedin It is some of its moreabstractand formalcharacteristics. and witha describedas it appearsin exceptional situations, motivation thatfallsshortof the concreteand psychological to the Christian teachdecisiveback-ground which,according ofsin. The advance ing,it hasforeverymanin theexperience is madein thelast oftheabovetreatment to a moreconcrete mentionedvolumes,Anxiety;and the PhilosophicalChips occupiesitselfwiththelogicofthesamesituationthatAnxiety describes. psychologically In the intervalbetweenthe Philosophical Chips and its the Unscientific Postscript, Kierkegaard produced continuation, oftheproblems treatment a newpoetico-psychological already dealtwith. This resume,whichseemsto have all the lyrical of his firsthandlingof the subject,is vitalityand freshness called Stages on the Way of Life, studiesby various authors, collectedand publishedby Hilarius Bookbinder(1845). The
to the three volumeis dividedintothreeparts,corresponding as which of life fundamental, regarded Kierkegaard spheres theethical,and thereligious.The firstparti'sa theesthetic, ofa banquet-scene, "In vinoveritas." reminiscent reproduction discourseon the subjectof woman. Their Five estheticists ofPlato's withthesimilardiscourses invitecomparison speeches of nor in of in form and neither pregnancy beauty Symposium, second The the do suffer part comparison. they by thought from thestandanditsproblems ofthebookdealswithmarriage To of Either the esthetic Or. ethicist of the proposition b, point of woman in the firstpart,thatthe significance put forward in the moment, theethicistopposesthe viewthat culminates
25 herbeautygrowswiththe years. The ideal resolution with whichmarriage is eulogized begins,andbywhichitis sustained, as constituting thetrueidealityofhumanlife;and thevalidity ofmarriage is defended againstattacksfromboththeesthetic and thereligious side. The thirdpart,comprising thebulkof Frater thebook,is a 'psychological by Taciturnus, experiment' " GuiltyornotGuilty?" Thisis againthestoryofan unhappy and a brokenengagement, in theformofa love-affair presented of is The the diary. subject experimentequippedat theoutset view of life,whichhis with a high-minded ethico-esthetic In his he shatters. experience despair is madeto approachas as to of sin; the nearly possible problemof the forgiveness in a butwithout rest Christian of himself finding interpretation and his situation. FraterTaciturnusdissectshim psychoandindicateshisidiosyncracies, logically, expoundsthetragedy and thecomedyof his situation, and pointsto a viewof life, and in advanceof his own standpoint religiousin character, as a humorist, as beingdeduciblefromit all. The sympathetic is brought collisiondescribed hometo thereaderwithtremendousforcein a beautiful own lyricalprose. In Kierkegaard's this book is of all his the richest view, emotionally writings, buttooidealto becomewidelypopular. of the Philosophical Then came the continuation Chips, withits strangetitle: Final Unscientific tothePhiloPostscript an exissophicalChips,a mimicpathetic-dialectic composition, tentialpresentment, Climacus(1846). It discusses byJohannes theobjectiveapproaches to Christianity biblical briefly through the authority of the Church,philosophical criticism, speculahistoricalachievements. tion,the evidencesof Christianity's It dismissesall thesemodesof approachas incommensurable withthe problemof Christianity, and as tendingto subvert its significance.The restof the book,throughfivehundred pagesofdialectic,humor,pathos,and irony,is devotedto the of thefollowing elucidation subjectiveproblem:"I, Johannes bornand brought nowthirty Climacus, up herein Copenhagen, yearsold,assumethatthereexistsformeas wellas fora servantofphilosophy, a highestgood;I have heard girlor a professor thatChristianity conditions itsattainment.I askthequestion :
26 ?" The exposihowdo I enterintorelations withChristianity ofreligion, tionofthispersonalquestiondevelopsa philosophy an analysisof the conceptsof Realityand and incidentally, makesup hisfinalaccountTruth. It is herethatKierkegaard and withtheinterpretations ingwiththeHegelianphilosophy, ofChristianity whichreston a Hegelianbasis. The workis a but against sustainedpolemicnot onlyagainstHegelianism, in philosophy, all system-making takingits stand upon an conceptionof reality,and emphasizingthe ethico-dynamic of existence, actuality,life. Overagainstthe subcategories Greek whoselifeis an artistic "the thinker, philosopher, jective of his thought/'it sets by way of contrastthe embodiment who of philosophy, "the Germanprofessor objectivethinker, a toutprix" and delivershim feelsboundto explaineverything overto a comicinterpretation. andyetnohermit everlivedso unreala ''We smileat thelifeofthecloister, lifeas is commontoday,forthehermitdid indeedabstractfromthewhole world,but he did notabstractfromhimself.We knowhowto describethe farfromthehauntsofmen,in thesolitudeof situation ofthecloister, fantastic visiblein thepale blue of thedistanthorizon;but thefantastic theforests, situationof pure thoughtaltogether escapesour attention.And yet,the to thecomic of thesolitarymonkis muchto be preferred patheticunreality tfulness ofthehermit, and thepassionateforge of thepurethinker; unreality whichtakestheworldawayfrom him,is farbetterthanthecomicaldistraction himself." in whichhe forgets oftheworld-historic thinker,
book. Its is an extraordinary The Unscientific Postscript its of tremendous and the dialectic, power polemiccoloring, withwhich naturallysuggestthe simileofthehugebattleship, it has been comparedby Brandes. Its easy conversational characterization, tone,its aptnessin anecdoteand humorous of theplayfulfacilitywithwhichit handlesthemostdifficult emas mark it ironical its self and -depreciation, abstractions, writing.It is a bodyinga quitenovelspeciesofphilosophical of to introduction Christianity a mostoriginal philosophical kind. It describes"the way fromphilosophical speculation of philosophical fromthe profundity back to Christianity, ofChristian to thesimplicity faith,justas theprevious thought had describedthewayfromthepoeticto estheticpseudonyms fromtheinteresting to thesimple." "Whatever thereligious,
27
actualsignificance theymaycometo havein theworld,"says of theseworksin a personalnoteaffixed to the Kierkegaard in whichnote he acknowledges the Postscript, Unscientific of thepseudonyms, "is absolutelynot to be found authorship in the makingof any newproposal,or in exploiting any unor in beginning or in heard-of discovery, any newmovement, lies advanced Their takingup any position. significance in of all claim to sigthe preciseopposite,in the renunciation andinmerelyattempting toreadthrough again,solo} nificance, at a distanceofdoublereflection, ofourhuman, thescriptures existendalrelations, theold and well-known individual, scripture^handeddownto us fromthefathers;ifpossiblereading themthrough againwithincreasedinwardness." Of the twenty-one discourses issuedfromtimeto religious timeunderhisownname,whiletheaboveesthetic pseudonyms all butthelastthreestriketheuniversal werebeingpublished, of religious note,i.e.,theyattemptto exhaustthepossibilities in the religiousspherewithoutdrawinguponany edification of the conceptions peculiarto Christianity.The last three, of the Chipsand the run however, parallelto the exposition and deal in form with the considerations edifying Postscript, and esthetically. whichtheseworksintroduce problematically The Kierkegaardian has thusfarbroughtits reader literature of the Christianviewof life,marking merelyto thethreshold theendofthefirst undertaking. phaseofa mostuniqueliterary VII labor of his Despitethe isolationwhichthe unremitting naturallyimposed,Kierkegaard managedto keep authorship inclosesttouchwithhiscontemporaries. hereceived Although no visitors at home(exceptsuchas cameto himforassistance, to whomhisdoorwasalwaysopen)he spentmuchtimeon the streets,talkingwiththe acquaintanceshe chancedto meet, at theUniversity, editorsofCopenhagen professors newspapers, writersand studentsand menabout politiciansand officials, withsomecasualpasser-by. town,orstriking upa conversation In thiswayhe tookhisrecreation ofan afternoon, whenhe did notvarytheprogram into byoneofhisfrequent carriage-rides
28
accessithecountry.He tookpainsto makehimself generally of his intercourse was noticeable. ble, and the promiscuity This contactwithmenon the streethad a considerable perforhim;amongotherthings, it helpedto ensonalsignificance richhis literaryvocabulary. "What you have vainlysought " "is suddenly illuminated forin books, saysFraterTaciturnus, to a servant-girl as shetalkswithanother foryouwhilelistening that you have vainlyattempted servant-girl.An expression outofyourownhead,youhearinpassing;a soldierto torture boysaysit,and he does notdreamhowrichhe is." He felt theideal conception thatthismodeoflifetendedto undermine have of an aloofgreatnesswhichthe publicmightotherwise in King formedof him. He notesShakespeare'stestimony, HenryIV, to themethodby which"a greathostofkingsand and diplomatsand and spiritualdignitaries, Jesuits emperors cleverpeopleof all kinds"have knownhowto profitby the illusionofdistance,so as to enhancetheirpersonalreputation. to givethe But he wouldnot adopt this method,preferring for witnesses situationthestampof truth. "All the unselfish to minglemuchwith the truthhave alwaysbeenaccustomed withthemultitude." men;theyhaveneverplayedhide-and-seek with the completionof the Postscript, Simultaneously in placinghim a ventured upon stepthatresulted Kierkegaard in a still moreconspicuouspositionbeforethe Copenhagen in themostwidely comicfigure public. He becamea standing circulatedjournalof the town,The Corsair. This sheethad obtaineda considerable ascendencyas a vehicleforironical, well-known attacks men,and was muchfeared, levelling upon : its influence thus describes Kierkegaard andwitty, ofCopenhagen hadbecomeironical "The wholepopulation espebutirony and crude;therewas nothing as it was ignorant ciallyin proportion ifI couldbringmyself hadnotbeensoserious, last. Ifthematter first andirony I wouldnotwishtodenythatit toregardit froma purelyesthetic standpoint, I had everwitnessed.I believethatit was themostridiculous phenomenon offortune, to travelfarand wide,and evenso be favored wouldbe necessary comical. The wholepopulaso fundamentally before onecouldfindanything became'ironical.' Theybecame tionof a town,all thesemanythousands, ironicalby theaid ofa journalwhich,again,ironically enough,by theaid of thedominantnoteand the tone strawmenas editorssucceededin striking
29 to imagineanything struckwas- theironical. I believeit impossible more a specificintellectual ridiculous.Ironypresupposes culturewhichin every is veryrare- andthischaosofpeoplewereironical!. . . generation wasonlytooserious.Thisironywasofcoursenothing "But thematter but, inessence, andinspiteofa notinconsiderable degreeoftalentin the vulgarity; ofpeople manwhowasitsoriginating force, bypassingoverintothesethousands a mobtrait,a traitwhichis alwaysonlytoopopular. it became,essentially, ofthelittlecountry, In viewoftheproportions it threatened a complete moral dissolution.Onemustenvisageat closerangehowno attackis so muchfeared oneoutas an objectoflaughter; as thatwhichsingles howevenonewhowould is notfarfrombetraying his ownfatheror bravelyriskdeathfora stranger, whenthedangeris thatofbeinglaughedat; forsuchan attackisolates mother himthesupport thevictimmorethananyother,andat nopointdoesitoffer of and vulgarity grin;the nervouscowardice pathos. Frivolityand curiosity forfearof suchan attackcriesthatit is nothing;the whichitselftrembles whichby theuse ofbribery itself cowardice or goodwordsprotects wretched criesthatit is nothing; and evensympathy saysthatit is nothing.It is a terto riblethingwhenin a littleland idleprattleand vulgargrimaces threaten constitute publicopinion." (Abbreviated)
ofthesheetin questionwas a talentedyoung The publisher man who.was himselfan admirerof Kierkegaard, and The Corsairhad morethan once praisedthe pseudonyms to the skies. VictorEremitahad been pronounced immortal;from a sketchin thejournalsat thetimeit appearsthatKierkegaard had projecteda replyto this pronouncement, askingto be A distinction. the little an later offered spared opportunity of an article in L. Moller's P. published itself,apropos Literary Gaea,in whichMollerhad madesomeirresponsible year-book, animadversions upon the thirdpart of Stageson theWay of it withthe gossipcurrentin Life,bringing into connection about Kierkegaard'sengagement.This gentleCopenhagen manhad describedhimself in the Dictionaryof Authorsas a contributor to The regular Corsair,authorof pieces "both and satirical." Frater Taciturnusrepliedto the critilyrical a cism,taking verysuperiortone,and tookadvantageof the factjust mentioned to add thefollowing remarkat theend:
"NowmayI soonbe putintoTheCorsair.It is pretty hardforan author tobeso singled outinDanishliterature, thathe (assuming tha;twepseudonyms are one) is theonlyone whois notvilified in its pages. My ownprincipal, HflaiiusBookbinder, in TheCorsair, ifmymemory hasbeenflattered servesme right;andVictorEremitahas evenhad to endurethedisgraceofbeingimmor-
30 I Andyet,haveI notalreadybeenthere?Forubispiritalized- in TlieCorsair ubiP. L. Molleribi TheCorsair.Ourliterary tusibi ccclesia, tramptherefore windsup his 'Visit to Soro' withone of thesewretched characteristically seclusion Cor5<M>-attacks men,whoinhonorable uponpeaceableandrespectable followtheirvocationsin theserviceofthestate;excellent men,in manyways ofridicule." well,andinnonehavingmadethemselves worthy deserving
Nothingdauntedby the delicacyofits ownsituation,The Corsairtook up the gauntletflungat it withan attack on whocouldnot restrain the silentbrother, FraterTaciturnus, buthad to revealthesecretsof TheCorsair,entrusted himself, to him in confidence.FraterTaciturnuscounteredwitha
summary article: "The dialecticalresult of a piece of police work."
and "Withrespectto a sheetlikeTheCorsair fwhichthoughreadgenerally of beingignored enjoyedthedistinction by all sortsof people,has hitherto theonlythingthatcouldbe doneina neveranswered, anddespised, absolutely been who had andimmortalized in itspagesto for one was praised way literary themoralliterary in orderofthings thusexpressing as reflected asktobevilified, orderwhichthissheethas doneits bestto establish.I assume thecontrary thattheprocedure engage adoptedhas metwithsuccess. One can therefore to at thehandsof TheCorsair, vilification justas onecan hirea hurdy-gurdy makemusic.. . . "I can do no moreforothersthanthis- toask tobe attackedmyself.The theprofesand ofitscollective secrethelpers, of TheCorsair, fallencleverness in our ofwitand vulgarity, sionaltradesmen oughtto be and shallbe ignored . . . thepublicprostitute. literature, justas inciviclifeoneignores "The wayis nowopen,andas thepseudonyms say,themethodis changed. thepraiseofthissheet,can,ifhehappens whoisinsulted byreceiving Everyone thatdecentliterature andthustestify tothejudgment tolearnofthefact,reply, topursueitslivelihood haspassedon TheCorsair.It is tobe permitted byway andattackas muchas itlikes;butifitdarestopraise,itshallmeet ofvilification withthisbriefreply:'May I ask to be attacked;it is an unendurable disgrace " in TheCorsair.1 to be immortalized
but The Kierkegaarddid not pursuethe polemicfurther, formany Corsairkeptup a steadyfireofsatireand caricature months. Kierkegaardwas featuredas he went about the streets,his umbrellaunderhis arm; the thinnessof his legs as charwereportrayed and the unevenlengthof his trousers whilevanityand prideweredescribed acteristic idiosyncracies, as his besettingsins. It becameexceedingly unpleasantfor on thestreetsin his accustomed to showhimself Kierkegaard
3i manner. The mob grinned, boysand hoodlumsgreetedhim and passers-by tookoccasionto witha chorusof nick-names, If he to talk withanyone,it his trousers. stopped inspect an objectof embarrassing attention.So madehisinterlocutor sink into the did the popularconsciousness, campaign deep one mightfinda nurse thatduringthisperiodand afterward, to correcta childforfaultsof dress,by callingit attempting and the journals "Soren." Kierkegaardwas not insensible, the affected him. As usual, showhowprofoundly experience in all its various hisreflection explored phases an objectifying and idealizingmanner. We have,as a by-product, profound on public opinion, estimatesof the press and its influence and its irresponsibility in relationto probingits anonymity of modernlife. On the otherside,the features characteristic whichhemetinrelation andindifference aloofness to thematter fromtheside of the highercirclesin whichit had previously thatsomething beenurged,privately, oughtto be doneabout The Corsair,but wheretherewas now maintainedthe most completesilence,leavingKierkegaardto bear the bruntof aloofness confirmed theattackalone- thisprudent Kierkegaard in his viewof the mediocrity of the world,and gave a characteristiccoloringto the religiousliteraturethat followed. In his subsequentdescription of the religiouslife,the inner collision,by whicha man comesinto conflictwithhimself, a collisionwhichhad beenthechiefburdenofhisearlydelineation,began to yieldprecedenceto the externalcollision,in whicha man in the pursuitof his dutycomesinto conflict withhis environment, a conflictwherebythe performance of thisdutybecomesan act of trueself-denial.A passage fromThe Worksof Love will illustratethis new emphasis, ofthesecondphaseofhisauthorship. whichis characteristic "A self-denial of a merelyhumanscopereasonsas follows:Giveup your selfish and wishes,dreamsand plans- and youwillbe honoredand respected lovedas justandwise. It is notdifficult toseethatthisform ofself-denial does notreachGod,butremains ontheworldly men. between planeofa relationship self-denial reasonsas follows:Giveup yourselfish Christian wishesanddesires, becometheservantofthegoodin true giveup yourselfish plansandpurposes, - and prepareto findyourself of spirit disinterestedness hated and scorned andderided, orrather, as ifyouwerea criminal; juston thataccount, precisely
32 do not merelyprepareto findyourselfin thissituation,forthat may be necessary,but chooseit of yourown freewill. For Christianself-denialknowswhat will happen beforehand,and chooses the consequences voluntarily. Human self-denialrushes into danger withoutregard for the consequences- but the danger into whichit rushesis one in whichhonor awaits the victor,and the admirationof his fellow-menbeckons the daringhero, and urgeshim on. It is easy to see that this formof self-denialdoes not reach God, but is delayed on the way, losingitselfin the relativitiesof human life. Christianself-denial also rushesinto dangerwithoutregardforthe consequences;but thedangeris cannotinterpretas yieldingany honorto the victor; one whichthe environment is itselfblinded,ensnared,guilty. Thus the Christian because the environment is confrontedby a double danger,for the derisionof the spectatorawaits the herowhetherhe wins or loses."
VIII A volumeofliterary devotedto theinterpretation criticism, of the of a Danishnovel,and notableforits characterization of the revoluage as againstthe background contemporary tionaryperiod,followedclose upon the publicationof the Postscript.From the beginning,Kierkegaard's Unscientific but religious authorship, plan had notincludeda distinctively to suchan authorship.The underlying ratheran introduction was something he had intendedto express motivation religious in some countryparish. by takinga chargeas a clergyman But now,influenced partlyby the troublewithThe Corsair, foran official position, partlyby a senseof his ownunfitness of his productive imand partlyby the acquiredmomentum to devotehimselfto religiouswriting, pulse,he determined entereduponitssecondphase. To the andthushisauthorship Discourses(1847),The firsthalfof thisperiodbelongEdifying WorksofLove (1848), and ChristianDiscourses(1848). Though
each religiousdiscourseis completein itself,the individual and systemandthemethodical arelogically themes connected, oftheestheticproduccharacteristic aticadvanceso noticeably also here,in a gradualapproachto tions,findsits counterpart and to an increasingly moreand moreconcreteconceptions, oftheactualcontemporary lifein thelightof severejudgment theidealsdelineated. Discourses dealsin a,firstsection,withtheunityof Edifying the ethicalideal,- "thatthe heartcan be cleanonlywhenit
33
of aim is possible has a singleaim," and thatthissingleness who for one chooses the and actual only good, onlywhenhe choosesthegoodin truth;in a secondsection,withthelessons to be learnedfromthe liliesof the fieldand thebirdsof the withourcommon an appreciation air,- contentment humanity, which of its glory,and an understanding of its blessedness, with of God; and thirdly, consistsin firstseekingthekingdom of from the "the thegospel suffering, happinessto be derived of thought following Christ,""how the burdencan be light prethoughthesorrowis heavy,""thattheschoolofsuffering "thatit is notthewaywhichis narrowbut paresforeternity," whichis theway,""thatin relationto God we thenarrowness as thosewhoareguilty,""thateternity outweighs alwayssuffer and in its blessedness even the heaviesttemporalsuffering," "thatthespiritofcouragein suffering takespowerawayfrom derisioninto honor,defeatinto the world,and transforms victory." ofa socialethic theelaboration TheWorksofLovepresents onthebasisofChristianity.It makesno attempt to formulate of society,nordoes it so muchas even an ideal organization ofa hintofany externalpolity;but it deals givea suggestion with the attitudeof the individualtowardhis profoundly fellowmen."TheseareChristian saysthepreface, reflections," not about love,but about the worksof love. "and therefore They concernthe worksof love,not as if all its workswere and described, farfromit; notas iftheparhereinenumerated onceforallticularworkshereindescribed werenowdescribed praiseGodthatthisis impossible!Forthatwhichin itswhole wealthis essentially is also in itsleastexpression inexhaustible, because it is essentially essentially presenteveryindescribable, wherein its wholeness,and essentiallyincapableof being described." The beautyand simplicity of the language,the of of the idealism,and the universality tenderpersuasiveness its appeal,makethisperhapsthe mostpopularof all Kierketo contribution it formsa striking gaard'sreligiouswritings; theworld'ssermonic literature. of Christian Discourses containsin thefirst parta treatment of theanxietiesof thepagan mind,"the anxietiesof poverty,
34
of highposition,of presumption, of selfwealth,of lowliness, and of torture, doubt,inconstancy despair/7 devotinga dison theChristian courseto each; second,a seriesof discourses criticalofthe third,a numberofdiscourses gospelofsuffering; situation under the caption:"Thoughts prevailingreligious - in orderto edify";and fourth, whichwoundfrombehind a in sermonicformof the Christiandoctrineof the treatment ontheLord'ssupper. Thefollowsevendiscourses Atonement, is motto attached to thethirdsection: "Chrisingsignificant no and cannot be servedby meansof needs defense, tianity is defense Christianity always on the offensive.To any is themostindefensible ofall distortions defendChristianity of and most the is mostdangerousit unconconfusing it, the to betrayit. Christianity is alwayson sciouslyand cunningly in Christendom, the offensive; it attacksfrom consequently, of behind." Herewe meetwiththefirstdefinite anticipation the attack whichKierkegaardwas soon to make upon the currentin Christendom, of an estabopenortacitassumption, lishedChristian order. A littleestheticarticlefromKierkegaard's pen,"The Crisis intheLifeofan Actress," sawthelightina Copenhagen journal duringthe summerof 1848,to servenoticeupon the public thathis exclusivedevotionto religiousthemesfor the past twoor threeyearsdid nothaveits groundin an obtuseness to estheticvalues. In thespringofthefollowing yeartherewere two remarkabletheologicalessays: publishedanonymously "Has a mantherightto allowhimself to be putto deathforthe Truth?"and "The Difference betweena Geniusand an Aposwithan indirect tle"; theformer bearingupontheAtonement, and thelatterattempting to clearup the Christian conceptof Authority. To thesecondhalfofKierkegaard's religious may authorship be assignedthe following volumes:The SicknessuntoDeath (1849); Practical Introductionto Christianity(1850); and For
(1851). In thesewritings Self-Examination Kierkegaard presentstheChristian teachingin its highestideality,and witha to the prevailingstate of religionin the Christian reference world. The ideal is presentedsharplyand clearly,without
35
compromise.But the consequentjudgmenton Christendom as gentlyas possible,urgingnothingbut admisis formulated ofsincerity, "in orderthatwe maylearn sionsin theinterests to take refugein grace,even withrespectto the mannerin whichwe use grace." The SicknessuntoDeath marksthe ofa newpseudonym, Anti-Climacus.Thestandard appearance is so idealthatKierkegaard forhumanlifeheredelineated did notwishto presentit in hisownnameand character, as ifhis in presented personalexistenceembodiedit; it was therefore and of a thelight renderingfortheideal imaginative poetic - underwhichKierkegaard wished oughtat least to be heard himself to humiliate qua reader. Too muchthepoet to be a to represent he preferred himselfas a spy in the reformer, serviceof the ideals, his missionbeingthe Socraticone of detectingand exposingillusions. The journalsfromthese of his feelingabout whatpasses for yearsshowthe intensity in Christendom, his unmeasured forits Christianity contempt they disclosealso the longpaltrinessand its mediocrity; continuedself-examination whichprecededall thesepublications,and hisanxiousfearlesthe shouldassumetoo highand a role,and say morethanhe had a rightto utter. authoritative forexample,was written The PracticalIntroduction, in 1848, fortwoyears,whileKierkegaard butheldbackfrom publication was debatingin whatformit oughtto appear,or ifit oughtto appearat all. It was finally publishedas by thepseudonym, andtheprefacevirtually Anti-Climacus, appealsto theauthoritiesoftheDanishchurch tomaketheadmission thatthereligion and in Church the was preached practiced reallya modification, severaldegreeslowerthanthe Christianity ofthe New Testament. Withsucha concession made publicly by the highest felt that the established ordercouldbe authority, Kierkegaard made to embodya sufficient measureof sincerity and truth, so thatit wouldbe unnecessary forhim,at least,to makeany open attack upon it. No such admissionwas forthcoming, and BishopMynsterfoundmeansto let Kierkegaardknow, that he regardedthe PracticalIntroduction in the indirectly, of a vicious and not to light dangerousexaggeration, say disof Christian But he refused to discuss the tortion, teaching.
36 and publiclymaintained matterwithKierkegaard personally, silence. TheSicknessuntoDeathis a psychological studyofdespair in its variousforms,consciousand unconscious.Its pointof viewis thatdespairis a universaldiseaseofthespirit,so that fromit whether everymanwhohas notbeencuredofit,suffers for he knowsit or not. Anddespairis an imperfect expression sin; on a higherlevelof consciousness despairrevealsitselfas ofsin. The PracticalIntroduction is perhaps theconsciousness oftheChristian theclearestand mostpreciseexposition dogma and meaningforlifeto be found in its pragmaticsignificance calin any literature.It was publishedin a formcarefully situation culatedinitsbearingupontheconcrete contemporary of twoseriesofdiscourses, in Denmark. ForSelf-Examination, whichthe secondwas not publisheduntilafterKierkegaard's death,presentsa criticalestimateof Lutheranprotestantism, of Luther'smissionas a corthe significance acknowledging for taking modern but condemning rective, protestantism of to thedeeper one-sidedness leave out Luther's advantage of ofChristianity, the ethicalimplications ignoring requirement of vain." and God in the Christ, "taking grace following The ideaswhichwereto playa partin thegrandiose agitationthatfollowedsomeyearslater,as the climaxof Kierkeas literature gaard'scareer,werenowlaid downin thereligious a at distance a whole. But as yettheywerebroughtto bear delineain theformof imaginative fromtheactualsituation, no otherrequirement to thereaderthancontions,suggesting underthe ideal. cession,admissionand personalhumiliation IX From September, 1851,to December,1854, therewas a fromKierkeflowing pausein thesteadystreamofpublications had not gaard'spen eversincetheyear 1843. His reflection in self-preparation butitsenergywas consumed becomesterile, fora newrole,one moredecisivethananyhe had yetplayed, as thejournalsoftheperiodbearwitness. He was engagedin probingthedistancebetweenmodernlifeandthe idealswhich seized upon the his reflection it professes;and particularly,
37
difference betweenthelifeofChristendom and theChristianity of the New Testament. As always, his thoughtwas impassioned,pregnantwithindignationand scorn. Financial whichhadassailedhimforsometime,helpedto mature worries, and thereare indicationsthat Kierkegaard his personality, this began,during period,a courseof self-discipline by means of asceticexercises, to replacethe somewhatluxuriouslifehe himself had permitted earlierto lead. in the Then, year 1854,came an opportunity which,in of his view previous publications, appealedtohimas a challenge thatmustbe squarelymet. In thefallof1853,BishopMynster ofgreatability,and as bishop died. He had beena pulpiteer he had ruledthechurchwitha strongand conservative hand. Kierkegaardmaintainedclose personalrelationswith him, Mynsterhavingbeen his father'spastor. He admiredhis himagainstattackswhich defended ability,and hadfrequently he deemedunjustified.But he had not hesitatedto let him knowwhereand howfarhe differed fromhim. A fewweeks afterMynster'sdeath,Professor Martensen(whoseChristian had so wide a voguein theologicalcirclesat one Dogmatics in whichthelatebishopwas sermon time)preacheda memorial for eulogizedas "one morelinkin theholychainof witnesses theTruth,stretching all thewayfromthedaysoftheapostles " Thisidealization toourowntimes. ofBishopMynster seemed to Kierkegaard an impudent oftheChristian falsification ideal, of thatdemoralization to whichChristendom as symptomatic a wholewas subject. He wroteat oncea briefbut emphatic Martensenwas a candidateforthevacant protest. Professor and hence bishopric, Kierkegaard postponedpublicationuntil theappointment was announced, so as to avoidentanglement withpoliticalcross-currents andotherirrelevant considerations. Martensen receivedtheappointment, and in December,1854, thearticlewas published, in thecolumnsofa dailynewspaper in Copenhagen.It placesin questionthetruthoftheassertion thatBishopMynsterwas a witnessfortheTruth,maintaining thatbothas regardsthecontentofhispreaching and theform ofhispersonallifeBishopMynster fellfarshortoftheChristian idealofa witness. It accusesProfessor of playing Martensen
38
Christianity, just as childrenplay at being soldiers. This of the established decisiveattackupon the ideal legitimation ordercreateda sensation,and naturallyawakeneda storm wasaccusedofattacking thememory ofprotest. Kierkegaard ofthegrave;ofa lack ofthedead,and ofviolating thesanctity of purpose;of an overweening of earnestness personalpride; of of beinginsane;and of whateverelse thewoundedfeelings brushedobjeccouldinvent. But Kierkegaard hisantagonists tionsand objectorsaside,keepingstraightto his maintheme, it withincreasing andmaintaining intensity.Forfourmonths, of a score articles at irregular intervals, altogether publishing columnsof Fadrethe in the agitation Kierkegaardkept up lamdet.It quicklybecameclearthatherewas no attackupon of Bishop Mynster,as that phrasewouldbe the reputation with but thatDenmarkwas confronted understood, ordinarily which of order whole established the a mostsearching critique represented. BishopMynster "If Bishop Mynsteris a witnessforthe Truth,theneveryclergymanin the country,as even theblindestcan see,is also a witnessfortheTruth. . . . What we call being a clergyman,priest,or bishop,is a means of livelihood,just like everyotherin thecommunity;and a meansoflivelihoodcarriedon,ifyouplease, all call themselvesChristians,wherethereis therewithina communitywhereforenot the slightestdanger connectedwith the preachingof the Christian doctrine,but whereon the contrarythis situationin life must be regardedas one of the most respectedand attractive. Now I ask: Is therethe slightest resemblancebetweenthese clergymen,priests,bishops,and what Christcalls his witnesses? Or is it not ridiculousto call such clergymen,priests,bishops, 'witnesses*in the sense of the New Testament- as ridiculousas to call field maneuvresin timeof peace, war? "But Bishop Martensenpersistsin callingthemwitnesses,witnessesforthe Truth. If the clergyunderstoodtheirown interestsin the matter,theywould whichputs the withoutdelay petitionthe Bishop to give up this terminology, to say theleast, in a ridiculouslight. For I knowseveralmost wholeprofession, respectableand able, very able, clergymen;but I ventureto say that in the wholekingdomthereis not one, who whenviewed in the lightof a witnessfor the Truth does not presenta comic figure."
advanced Withrapidstridesand boldstrokesKierkegaard to thepositionthatthenotionofa Christian peopleor nation sanctionand withofficial is an illusion,that a Christianity of to the teaching Christ,that is directlycontrary authority
39 protestantismin general is a slily dishonest perversion of Christianity,and that New Testament Christianityis so completelynon-existentin modernstates that it is norisenseeven there being nothingto reform. In to talk of a reformation, the situationwas intensified leaflets two separatelypublished "Whoever almost to the breakingpoint. you are, my frierid, and whateveryourlifemay be, by refusingany longerto take part (ifyou have hithertodone so) in the public worshipas it is now conducted,withthe pretenseof beingthe New Testament Christianity,you will have one less crime,and a heavy one, uponyourconscience;foryou willno longertake partin making a mockeryof God." .... And shortlyafterthispronouncement,he sharplycalled the attentionof the public to the fact that the clergywerebound by oath to the New Testament;and thenwenton to apply the wordsof Christin Matthew23:29-33 and Luke 11:47-48,withoutreservation,to an officialChristianity of every description,and particularlythat of the Danish church. The last week in May, Kierkegaardbegan the publication of a pamphlet called The Moment,of which altogethernine numbersappeared up to the end of September. A tenthnumber was made ready for publication,but its appearance was delayed by Kierkegaard's last illness, so that it came to be published posthumously. In these stirringpamphlets the agitationis carriedon to its last consequences,and the measure of the distancebetweenthe Christianideal and the actual life ofthe Christianworld,is takenwitha certaintyand an accuracy that leaves no illusionunexposed. "He was a greatagitator," says Brandes. "His soul was full to the brim with a living indignation;he had the language completelyin his power; by his religiouswritingshe had trainedhimselfto speak the plain man's tongue;and his quiver was fullof the sharpestarrowsof wit. He was just the man to carryon an agitationof which the nineteenthcenturywill scarcelysee the equal. He united the personalweightof a La Salle to the eloquenceof an O'Connell and the bitingscornof a Dean Swift. It is impossibleto describehis procedure. One mustsee how he chiselshis scorn into linguisticform,and hammersthe word until it shapes
4O
itselfinto the greatestpossible,the bloodiest injury- without fora momentceasing to be the vehicleof an idea." His purpose was ideal. He had no finiteend in view, no proposalof a changedorganization,no displacementof authoriof conties,no derogationofpersons,nothingbut a clarification of sciousness in the direction greaterhonesty and sincerity. For those who wonderedwhat his motivemightbe, he replied: "I want honesty. I do not representChristianseverityas over against Christian mildness; by no means. I represent neitherseveritynormildness,I standforhumanhonesty And if the human race or my contemporarieswishhonestly, and to sincerely,frankly,openly,to rebel against Christianity, say to God, 'We cannot and will not subject ourselvesto this power/- well and good; providedthis be done openly,frankly and sincerely,then,howeverstrangeit may seem forme to say this,I am withthem; forI want honesty." In October, 1855, he fell in a fainton the street,and was taken to a hospital. In the notes of the young internewho kept an account of the case, there are incorporatedcertain expressionsto whichKierkegaardgave utterance. The following is fromthe firstday's journal: "He considershis disease mortal. His death is necessaryto the cause he has used all his the cause forwhich spiritualand intellectualpowersto further, alone he has lived, and which he considershimselfespecially called and fittedto serve; whencethe greatintellectualpowers withwhichhe has been endowed,in connectionwithso fraila body. If he wereto live,he wouldhave to continuehisreligious agitation. But people would soon tireof it; if he dies, on the otherhand, the strengthof his cause will be maintained,and as he thinks,its victory." On the 11th of November he died, forty-twoyears and six monthsold. It appeals as a fitting poeticsymbolismthat thepatrimonywhichhad made his untiring literarylabors possible should have been found just exhausted at the timeof his death.
X It would be interestingto speculate upon the reputation that Kierkegaard mighthave attained, and the extentof the
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ifhe had written he mighthaveexerted, in oneofthe influence of in instead the tongueof one of majorEuropeanlanguages, An intheworld. idealismmorepowerful thesmallestcountries thanthatofeitherEmersonor Carlyle,a and moreconsistent as thorough-going as thearistocratic individualism democratic of Nietszche,and presentedwith an equally individualism an ethicalvoluntarism clothedina literary intensity, passionate as thatofSchopenhauer's and a formas persuasive philosophy, morecarefully and thoroughly worked speciesof pragmatism - thesequalitiesmust outthanthatofeitherJamesor Bergson attention.And yet, he himself have attractedworld-wide underwhichhe was compelledto believedthatthelimitations lackofanyeffective from labor,and theconsequent opposition factorin thepeculiardevelopment theoutside,was a necessary ofhispersonality, andonedemanded byhispeculiartask. Had in Englishor in Germantherewouldhavenaturally he written beenenoughsignificant oppositionto have consumeda great in of external his polemic. As it was,theoutward energy part he was negligible; was compelledto set his own opposition was thus standardand to be his own critic. His reflection have turnedinwardin a greatermeasurethanwouldotherwise as essential forthekindofliterabeenpossible;thishe regarded willalways tureit washismissionto produce. Thisliterature remainin onesensea luxury;it doesnothavethekindofoneofa school sidednesswhichwouldadapt it forthefoundation ofa movement.Nevertheless, or thepromotion it is boundto forit "delineatesthe essential have an enduring significance, of in life,and of individualexistence, thought-determinations a mannermore dialecticallypreciseand more emotionally thananything to be foundin anymodern primitive comparable " literature. David F. Swenson University of Minnesota