^KRV Of PRINCf^
,L5|
tiIe religions of china. 'ONFUCIANISM
AND TAOISM DESCRIBED
COMPARED WITH CHRISTIANITY.
JA^IES LEGGE, r
KOFKSSOK OF THE
CiU.MiiSE
LANGUAGE AND LITERATLRE
IN
THK
UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD.
HODDER AND STOUGHTON 27,
PATERNOSTER ROW. IIDCCXLXXX. (-T.V
Ki^hts reseived.]
THE SPRING LECTURE OF THE
PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH OF ENGLANl) FOR Delivered
in
iSSo.
the College, Giilford Street, London.
When
asked by the Rev. Dr. Dykes, on behalf
of the Committee of the Presbyterian College, to
write
and
deliver
the
the author was the more his request because
following
Lectures,
ready to accede to
he does not himself belong
to the Presbyterian Church.
He
a
services
frequent
ministers cordial
interchange
of different
sympathy
common
Lord.
of
churches,
in the faith
longs to see
who
among are
and love of
in
their
—
CONTENT s?^'"^^'"'''" LECTURE
I.
CONFUCIANISM, in these lectures of the name Confucianism Error of not regarding Confucius as a rehgious teacher— The earhest thoughts on rehgion of the
Meaning
Chinese to be sought
— Primitive name God — For
in
primitive
their
written
heaven or the sky
characters
for
the
spirits
and
— For
spiritual things
For the idea of manifestation or revelation— For the manes of departed men Three primitives Results derived from the relating to divination primitive characters and further method of treating the subject The old religion of China was not merely animistic, with a fetishist tendency Views spirits or
—
—
—
—
of Professor Tiele— What took place in the time between the formation of the primitive characters
and the twenty-third century
B.C.
— Institution
of a
—
worship of God and a worship of ancestors The Shu King, and its evidence concerning the worship of Yao and Shun as a monotheism, with an inferior worship of spirits Testimony of the Shih King, Predicates in them both in addition to tlie Shu
—
—
about Heaven and Shang Ti, or God— New style of speech on the rise of the Chau dynasty, in the twelfth
——
Contenfs.
vi
—
century B.C. The dualistic phrase heaven and earth used for the single terms, Heaven and Ti Judgment of Confucius about the solstitial sacrifices Expansion of
— —
his
judgment by the author-rHow the
continued, and
dualistic
name
guarded against being misunderstood Announcement by the first emperor of the present dynasty The Yi King and its subject-matter On the divination of the old Chinese- Appendixes to the Yi by Confucius Two sentences from one of them Prayers to Shang Ti at a special solstitial sacrifice in A.D. Conclusions from those 1538 is
—
—
—
—
—
—
prayers
—
—The
oblations,
offerings at the solstitial services are
not propitiatory sacrifices
substitution
is
not
unknown
— The
idea of
Chinese history, but
in
—
has no part in the religious services The solstitial service is an acknowledgment for himself and his line
and the nation of
The emperor does priest
—Ancient
their obligations to
God
not preside at the services as a
division of the Chinese
community
no indication of a priesthood The place of that supplied to some extent by the cultured class Pages i :S
into four classes, with
—
—
Notes
Pages 59—66
LECTURE
II.
CONFUCIANISM. The worship
—
of their forefathers
Filial piety
by
all
the Chinese people
—The worship of parents a part of
it
and worship of Shun and subsequently down to the Chau dynasty Living representatives of the dead then employed Further description of the filial piety and worship of the Chau kings Titles Filial piety
;
— —
—
—
Contents. and worship carried back
vii
to ancestors
— Prayers
worship were family re-unions
— Seasons
of
dead worship, but it was to the
— Something pleasing about — Ancestors became tutelary — Service of the duke of Chau — Defect of the system — Case of Ch'ang — Has driven the masses to the 'iaoists-^ Result of the teaching of piety — The worship the departed great — Imperial worship of such and —Warning of Confucius — Had the worship of the of the departed a good influence?— Man filial
injurious
spirits
1
filial
of
its evils
spirits
is
the creature of
God
;
the most intelligent of
all
— The
duty required of man is compliance with his moral nature Kings and sages appointed creatures
—
to help
man
to
fulfil
his
duty— Man's moral
feeble-
—View of Confucius and Mencius — The course of human duty confined to the relationships of society — Relationships of friend and friend, and of husband and wife — Position of woman — Historical view of that position — Infanticide — Feet-binding — Confucianism says nothing explicitly about the state of man after death — Classical monies — More modern view, that retribution works ness makes this necessary
five
testi-
—
itself out in time Four utterances of Confucius on the subject— Conclusions Life of Confucius His
birth to his marriage
— — Marriage
—
to his visiting the
7—
court of Chau, B.C. 5 1 To the end of his brief period of office, B.C. 496 Till his return to LO in B.C. 483
—
To
his death in
— Confucius did
—
B.C. 478 Personal characteristics not modify or change the ancient
—What to be thought of —Two things that lower our estimate of Confucius —The admiration of him among his psciples — Estimate of him by the government and people of China Pages 67 — 149 religion— His golden rule
him
is
as a religious teacher
.
Notes
.
.
;
.
Pages 150—156
—
;
Contents.
viii
LECTURE
III,
Taoism. WTiat is Taoism ? Both a religion and a philosophy Legal standing of Taoism in China It is legally recognized, and its chief endowed— Origin of Taoism
—
as
a religion
before
— Its
polytheism
—\yhat Taoism was — A mass of super-
Buddhism enter£djChina
stuTonTand saoTRcesnot digested Into any sysTefiPIllustrated by the case of the Han emperor \Vu The origin of the present Taoisni Position of Confucius in regard to the growing Taoism of his time Rapid degeneracy of the nation after Confucius From Mencius to the Han dynasty Connexion of Taoism with what are called the state gods The
—
—
mor.al_Leiii;hing of
Taoism
— Its purgatory and
—
hell
Taoism as a magical power in conflict with malevolent spirits Geomancy and the worship of the dead Taoism as a philosophy Historical account of Lao-tsze — Errors in the interpretation of the Tao first of Preniare and other Roman Teh King second of P. Amiot and Catholic missionaries Remusat third of Professor Midler Things that are
—
—
—
:
;
—
;
taught in the book
:
First, the author's description of
himself; Second, emptiness is necessary to usefulness ; Third, a freedom from all seltish motives
Fourth, Sixth,
humility
;
Fifth,
three
returning good for evil
;
precious
things
;
Seventh, with the
progress of knowledge and society the author has no sympathy Does the Tao Teh l^ing recognise
—
the existence of in the
Notes
book
God? — No
inculcation of religion
Pages 157— 230 Pages 231—237
Contents.
LECTURE
ix
IV.
THE RELIGIOXS OF CHINA COMPARED WITH CHRISTIANITY. Object and method of the Lecture— PreHminary points of agreement in the three religions— Comparison as to the doctrine and worship of God Comparison
—
as regards fiUal piety and the worship of ancestorsComparison as regards the teaching of morahty On
—
the position of
woman— Comparison
as regards the
teaching about a future state— Pecuharities in the by Christianity— The Chris-
disclosures of the future
tian revelation of futurity rests
on the resurrection Christ— Results of the comparison thus far, and farther pursuit of the subject— The evidence of the resurrection of Christ— The Christian Scriptures of
claim to contain a divine revelation— Bearing of the revealed character of Christianity on the comparison between it and other religions, and on the study of its sacred books— The Christian doctrine of the death of Christ as a propititiary sacrifice— The Christian doctrine of future punishment and retribution generally— Two practical issues of the course of four lectures :— A greater interest in Christian missions in China ; and a greater earnestness in manifesting our personal Christianity, and in all Christian work Pages 230—310.
....
I.
COXFUCIANISM: ITS DOCTRINE AND WORSHIP OF GOD.
—
til "In
it
—
±* H
/;?
si
the ceremonies at the altars of
served God."
Confucius, "'Doctrine of tkc
"They knew God.'
Paul,
e li
Heaven and
Mean"
Romans
i.
^:P
Earth, they ch. xix.
2i.
I.
The meaning in these Lectures name Confucianism.
'npHE first thing to be done in these Lectures
I.
-I
of the
to give
is
must define
an account of Confucianism, and
at the outset in
that term to be understood.
among men
is
Confucius.
We know the
more
We
died.
his
country for
see
years, in
I
wish
current
than that of
and the months,
which he was born
him moving on the stage
between
years in the sixth and Christian ^ra.
No name
fully historical
and the days of the months, and
what sense
of
seventy and eighty
fifth centuries_befb.i:e
our
But the religion of China does It has been saidi
not date only from his time.
indeed, but incautiously, that
""
without
Confu-
China had been without a native religion."^ The sage, no doubt, helped to preserve the ancient religion of his country, and it may be cius,
said that his Âť
A.
own
it
took some tinge through him from
character
and views
;
but more than
" Studies in the Philosophy of Religion' and History."
M.
Fairbairn.
Page
244.
:
Confucianisvi
4
What
cannot be affirmed.
this
he claimed for
be a "transmitter, and
himself was to
not a "
maker, believing in and loving the ancients
;
he was fond of antiquity, and earnest in What his grandson seeking knowledge there." ^
that
"
claimed for him was that doctrines of) his ancestors,
he handed down (the as if they had been
and elegantly displayed (the regu-
Wan
of)
lations
"
Yao and Shun,
and Wu, taking them
as
his
models."^
Confucianism, therefore, as
the term
use
I
covering,
of
first
all,
religion
ancient
the
of
China, and then the views of the great philoso-
pher himself,
—
in
his views as
illustration or modification of
committed
to writing
by
it,
himself,
or transmitted in the narratives of his disciples.^
The
case
is
pretty
much
as
when we comprehend
under Christianity the records and teachings of the Old Testament as well as those of the
The
error of not
New,
regarding Confucius as a
religious teacher.
Thus much
in
application of the '
vindication of
name
"Confucian Analects," VII.,
i.,
'
" Doctrine of the Mean," xxxi.
'
See
my
my
extended
Confucianism, and in xix.
Preface to Vol. III. of the " Sacred Books of
the East," pp. xiv., xv.
"
Its
and Worship of God.
Doctrine
some who
correction of the error of
Confucius
in
connexion with
China more highly than we
A
think.
him
The
of place. to me,
Was
it
"
reHgion of
the
reason
have
questions
to
regard to
be out
will not
have often been put
Confucianism really a religion } anything more than a system of morals
But
intended
is
for the
government of human society
The most extended is
think of
few words on an error in
of an opposite character
5
.'
expression of this sentiment
given in a recent number of Tlie Chi)ia Rcvieiv,
where the writer simple
is
in
says, "
Confucianism pure and
our opinion no religion at
essence of Confucianism
all.
an antiquarian ad-
is
herence to traditional forms of etiquette, the place
of ethics
relation between
a
;
sceptic
man and
the place of religion a sort of worship of
;
while there
human
— taking
denial of any
a living God, is
— taking
encouraged
genius, combined
with a set of despotic political theories.
who can
honestly
tainly
this
if
call this
were a
in Confucianism,
I
fair
The
a religion
account of
would not
call
it
}
all
"
^
But Cer-
there
is
a religion.
China Revieu',Yo\. VIII., i., p. 59. See also the p. 363, where the Rev. Mr. Macintyre says, " Confucius was a sceptic, who deemed it his duty '
T/:e
previous number,
to conceal his scepticism out of deference to the ancient
sages and traditional opinions."
See also Note A.
Co7ifucianism
:
But the representation is absurdly unfair. I will think I not stop to show this immediately. you it,
will all
when
I
to
the Chinese sage,
The
2.
me in what I thus say of show what the teachings of
agree with
come
"
pure and siniple," were.
thoughts of the Chinese religion to be sought for in their mitive written characters. earliest
I
will
now
give a view of
some
on pri-
of the
religious thoughts of the fathers of the Chinese
people, the fruit of which
is
found
of their descendants
down
In doing
go back
this, I
will
to a period long
anterior to the composition of the
Chinese books,
ai^fti
in the beliefs
to the present day.
most ancient
glance with you at some of
We
the primitive written characters.
shall get
from them a vivid idea of what was
in
the
minds of those fathers when they were laying the foundations on which so great a structure of literature has been built
We
shall
logists,
be
by
their descendants.
the position of the
in
Aryan
philo-
who, from the root-words of Sanskrit and
other kindred languages, try to give us pictures of the earliest Professor
Aryan
Max
life
;
as, for instance,
Miiller, in his "
when
Essay on Com-
parative Mythology," having found the root of
daughter
(duhitar) in
duh, meaning to milk,
:
Its
Doctrine
and Worship of God.
goes on to observe,
"The name
of
7
-
milkmaid,
given to the daughter of the house, opens before
our eyes a httle idyll of the poetical and pastoral We are not treading life of the early Aryans." ^
on
less firm
the same for
ground when we undertake to do the ancient Chinese by the study
of their primitive characters.
treading on
much
We
roots in the fields of philology
What
uncertain.
a
boon
it
are, in fact,
Hunting
firmer ground. is
difficult
would be
if
for
and
a chart
were discovered somehow of the root-words of
somewhere before
that speech which existed
it
branched out into Sanskrit, Celtic, Latin, Greek, Teutonic, and the other languages that claim
be descended from of what
we may
characters,
— the
call
it
Such a chart we have
'.
Chinese rÂťots
pictures
exhibit to the student
t?o
and ideagrams which
by
the minds of their makers.
in its primitive
the eye the ideas in
We
thus learn their
meaning without reference to the names by which they have been called,^ and, according to the sentiment of the line in which Tennyson condenses two well-known lines of Horace " '
Things seen are weightier than things heard."
" Chips from a
German Workshop,"
II., p. 26.
papers on " Principles of Composition in Chinese as deduced from the Written Characters," in the Jo7'.rnal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XL, Part ii. -
See
New
X.\\o
Series.
:
Cofi/ucianism
8
Application of the above method. 3.
me
Let
therefore adduce a few specimens
of those primitive characters which served as the
symbols of the
religious or supersensuous notions
of their makers, and which are to
classify,
hundreds It
if
assist
in
still
employed
the pronunciation
of,
of other characters of later formation.
by unbroken
is
from the
tradition
earliest
time that we determine their meaning
historic
—
or
we could
make
exactly
;
out their pictorial
and original grouping, we should see how that meaning grew from their component outlines
parts.
The
results of analysis, so far as
go, are remarkable,
the ago.^
and put us 01 rapport with
Chinese fathers fully
From no
they
five
thousand years
other source do
we
obtain in-
formation so important and reliable concerning
what we may
call the religion of infant
man.
Primitive for heaven or the sky. i.
Our
first
t'ien, the
example
symbol
must have been
for
first
shall
heaven.
we
use
ruling Power,
Its application
to the visible sky, but, all
along the course of history,
used as
be the character
it
has also
Heaven, when we
been
intend the
whose providence embraces '
See Note B.
all.
Doctrine
Its
The
character
tives
—
mid Worship of God.
made up
is
9
of two other primi-
the symbol of unity, placed over ta,
yi,
awakens the
the symbol of great,^ and thus idea of the sky, which
above and over
is
and to whose magnitude we can assign no
Max
Professor
"In Chinese, same word,
says:
Miiller
all,
limit.^
t'ien denotes sky or day, and the like the
Aryan dyu,
of God."
^
and not
its
nunwiis
But
it
recognized as the
is
was the vastness of the sky,
brightness, which
made
Chinese use
in the ancient
the
its
sciisiis
name
to
There
express the idea of an overruling Power.
was a
name
radical difference in the concepts of the
Aryan and Chinese
fathers,
view of those concepts
is
supposing that our
That of the
correct.
former might be symbolized by Apollo the latter,
by Hercules.
;
that of
And, moreover, the
Chinese did not from t'ien, "the sky," fashion a character or
name which should be used
the general appellation to the
Supreme Being Primitive
ii.
as a person.
the
name God.
That name was Ti, and the character so
denominated
j^ -
for
(t'ien)
is
=
the second primitive of which
—
'
(yi
=
one) over
yy^ (ta]=
See Note C. Lectures on the Science of Language,'" IL,
^ '"
as
God, and lead the mind
great).
p. 4S0.
:
I
Confucianism
o
I
wish to speak.
It is
than t'ien, and
native help
attempt to analyse
and ascertain
more complex
it
into
us
fails
There
their significance.^
to symbolise,
—
that,
the
in
constituent parts
its
no
is
doubt, however, as to the idea which
made
form
in
it
was
" lordship
namely, of
and government."^ Heaven is styled Shang Ti, and as frequently Ti alone without the Shang. That addition, meaning Supreme, inand throughout dividualises and exalts the Ti the Shu and the Shih, the ancient books of History and Poetry, the names T'ien, Ti, and Shang Ti are constantly interchanged, in the course of the same chapter or paragraph, often Ti enters also into the in the same sentence. ;
—
title
Hwang
of the emperor of China,
adapted
it is
application of
for
an appellative name
it is
and dates from
Ti mean-
This shows how
ing " the great or august Ti."
;
but such
only two thousand years old,
B.C. 221,
when
it
was adopted by
the founder of the shortlived dynasty of Ch'in,
avowedly that he might appear equal to Fu-hsi, and other ancient sovereigns, to
whom
the
title
of Ti had been given in subsequent times
a
process
of
deification.
Since
its
by
earliest
Ti has properly been the personal name of Heaven. T'ien has had much of the
formation,
'
See Note D.
2
See Note E.
1
Its
force of the
Himself
and Worship of God.
Doctrine
to
name
and governor.
Ti was
believe, exactly
what
men
to the
God
of their lord
Chinese fathers,
was
to our fathers,
whenever they took the great name on
their lips.
Thus the two characters show us the
religion
of the ancient Chinese as a monotheism. it
God
Jahve, as explained by
Moses; Ti has presented that abso-
lute deity in the relation to
I
1
was with them more than
five
How
thousand years
we have no means of knowing but to find among them at that remote and early period was worth some toilsome digging among
ago,
;
this
the roots or primitive written characters.
I will
only add here that the relation of the two names
which we have been considering has kept the monotheistic element prominent in the religion
proper of China
down
to the present time,
prevented the prostitution of the
Deus and
name
and
Ti, as
other corresponding appellations of
the Divine Being were prostituted.
Primitive ch'i, used for spirits, and spiritual things. iii. I proceed to a third primitive symbol, having two different names or pronunciation.?,
ch'i and shih.^ '
TJ[,
Pronounced ch'i,
it is
composed of Zl* and ;Ja.
used as
:
12
Confuciaiiisin
the significant
element
denoting
characters
in
spiritual beings, sacrifices, and prayer.
generally, and referred
whose
especially those
whose influence
simply styled ch'i, and an altar to them called
is
and over the earth are
in
is
seat
shan;^ those
heaven, are called
to
Spirits
is
sheh,- formed from ch'i and t'u, signi"territory;" and another
fying "the ground,"
character altogether, of which speak,
employed
is
I
will
presently
or
vnwcs of
for the spirits
departed men.
Primitive shih, with the idea of manifestation or revelation.
Pronounced shih, part of
it is
this character
the symbol
The upper
the same as that in the older form
"what
of Ti, indicating
three lines
below
account.
Hsu Shan
moon, and
sun,
is
and revelation.
for manifestation
I
"
will of
Heaven."
above
;"
but of the
says they represent "the
stars,"
bolises
is
have not found a satisfactory
and that the whole sym-
by these bodies of the
the indications
Shih
therefore tells us that
the Chinese fathers believed that there was com-
'
composed
jfjEp
' )||
1
,
of
TT|
composed of
and the phonetic HEf
||j
and ~t"
.
3
Its
Doctrine and Worship of God.
munication idea
of
Heaven and men.
between
revelation
did not shock
them.
special interpretation of the strokes below, ever,
if
it
1
The The how-
were established, would lead us to
think that even then, so far back, there was the
commencement
of astrological superstition, and
also, perhaps, of
Sabian worship.
Primitive for the spirits, or manes, of
departed men. I
iv.
have just said that another character
used for the
spirits,
or manes, of departed men.
named kwei,^ and
is
being
It
enters into the characters
corresponding to the Latin or the animal soul
is
and the
a?ni}ia
and auiuins,
intelligent
;
besides
an extensively used phonetic element.
According to Hsii Shan, figure of a ghost's or
it
is
formed from the
demon's head over the legs
of a man, with the addition of another character,
denoting maliciousness. of
it,
Tai scouts
and deservedly so
better himself.
I
;
cannot form a definite idea of
what the makers meant by using as the symbol of the disembodied learn from '
^^,
legs),
it,
K
this
kwei
spirit.
We
however, that they did not think
formed of
and
this analysis
but he supplies no
|qg
(selfish;.
(a
ghost"s
head),
/L
(the
4
Confucian ism
1
that
man when he was
:
dead, had
all
ceased
to be.
Three primitives relating V.
There
are
some
us
affording
three
still
insight
to divination.
other
primitives,
the
into
religious
notions of the earliest Chinese, on which
make
They
a few observations.
two
together, the
will
I
are connected
being derived from the
last
first.
That symbol
first
character
for divining
named pu/ and
is
by the
lines
the
is
produced through
a certain process on the back of a tortoise-shell. It consists
merely of two
lines,
which
may
sibly have been intended to represent the
appearing on the
shell.
poslines
For some reason or other
the makers held the tortoise-shell in veneration,
and supposed that
power of
it
mysterious
possessed a
indicating, with regard to undertakings
about w-hich
it
was consulted, whether
their issue
would be fortunate or unfortunate.
The second
character
significant element, It
was the symbol
eight
famous
is
kwa,- with pu as
and used
itself as
for divining
trigrams of
its
a phonetic.
by means of the
Fii-hsi,
formed from .rfc. "Fr and
themselves
5
Its
called
" the-
racters,
and Worship of
Docirine
They
Kwa."
eight
God.
are not cha-
figures on which was
but lineal
1
built
up
book called the Yi King. Its in divination by manipu-
the mysterious
diagrams were worked
number of
lating a certain
Ptarmica Sibirica}
called the shih, the
formation of
stalks from a plant
kwa from pu, and
The
the absence of any
primitive character for this plant, indicate that this
was more recent than that tortoise-shell, though we find them both recognized in the " Counsels of the Great Yu,"
method by the
of divination
one of the oldest documents of the Shu King. The third character, also formed from pu, by the addition of (k' a u,)- the symbol for a mouth,
chan, which
is
one of the most
name
fruitful
is
phonetic
more than It was the symbol for the seventy characters. interpretation of the answers given by the shell divination, the practice of which, it would appear, was reduced to some sort of art. The interpreelements, and
gives
its
to
tation of the answers derived from the
stalks
was expressed by a character shi, not so ancient and composed of the symbol for the
as chan,
bamboo, and another denoting a sorceress or '
So, Dr. Williams.
the character Shih t-t?,
See his Syllabic Dictionary, on
'
formed from
y
,
(pu),
and
JZJ (k'au).
6
Confucianisin
1
had found
Superstition
spirit-medium.
:
its
way
very early into the minds of the ancient Chinese,
and made
itself
by
manifest side
side with the
intelligence that appeared in the characters for
Heaven and God. I may have seemed
tedious while dwelling so
long on the testimon}- borne religion
racters
from
language here years ago
in
set
them
I
have drawn
I
I
felt
began the study of the
London, nearly forty-three
many
but
;
my way to
ancient
the
to
primitive written cha-
and important.
are legitimate
their truth soon after
to
its
but the conclusions which
;
it
by
of China
years elapsed before
forth as
I
I
saw
have endeavoured
do to-day.
Results derived from the primitive characters,
and further method of treating the
subject. 4.
Five thousand years ago the Chinese were
monotheists,
and
this
corrupted,
— not henotheists, but
monotheism was
we have
seen,
in
monotheists
;
danger of being
by a nature worship on
the one hand, and by a system of superstitious divination on the other.
show,
first,
how
It will
been affected by these dangers time, and
how
be
my
object to
the primitive monotheism has
far
it
in the course of
has prevailed over them.
7
Its
and of the departed
My
the country. of
man
great, as
has prevailed in
it
third subject will
be the place
considered as to his nature, duty, and
destiny in the religion of China I
1
then speak of the worship of ancestors,
will
1
and Worship of God.
Doctrine
-
will give
you,
my
cording to
if
and, finally,
;
the time permit me, and ac-
lights,
a sketch of the
life
and
character of Confucius and of his teachings, so
they have not appeared
far as
the other subjects. for all this,
The
but
I
5.
may
it
in two.
was not merely
old religion of China
I
will not suffice
hope to accomplish
animistic with a
Views
our discussion of
in
One Lecture
tendency. —
fetishist
of Professor Tiele.
appropriately introduce the
first
of
by referring to a view of the of China that has recently found
these four subjects old religion
expression
in
Europe,
and
places
it
in
the
category of what are called animistic religions, l^rofcssor Tiele of
Leiden says
of the old Chinese empire, as
from the twelfth century a
much
earlier
period,
it
B.C.,
is
:
"
The
religion
existed certainly
and probably at
best described
as a
and organised worship of spirits, with a predominant fetishist tendency, combined into a system before it was possible for a regular purified
mythology
to
develop
out of
it.
The
sole
8
:
Confitcianis7n
1
objects of worship are the spirits (shan), which are divided into heavenly, earthly,
and, as a rule, are
What
closely connected with
still
the objects of nature." religion,
^
may be
it
its
are regarded as spirits
But
they are
?
it
that
spirits
asked,
not
is.
objects of worship
animistic, in the sense that
because
and human,
not merely
is
they are
wor-
shipped, but because of the relation that they are supposed to sustain to the worshippers,
Supreme
the
to
Chinese
came
God And
it
religion'
Spirit,
God.
or
the old
If
were only animism, whence
we can
to have, as far back as
as the
and
one supreme object of
as to the other spirits, to
its
whom
Ti or homage ?
go,
at
an early
period an inferior worship was paid, and who, is said, were closely connected with the it objects
doing
nature,
of
default of
they were
worshipped
men on behalf prayers or hymns of a
service
to
of God.
date anterior
we may
to our era addressed to such spirits, accept,
as
tradition, the following prayers to the
of the
'
"'
ancient
representing faithfully the
and earthly
spirits,
as
In
heavenly
selected from the " Statutes
Ming dynasty (1368
— 1642)."
To
the
Outlines of the History of Religion to the Spread of
the Universal Religion,"
Translated by
J.
p. 27.
(Triibner
Estlin Carpenter, M.A.)
and
Co., 1S77.
Its
D
heavenly
and Worship of God.
Oct line
"the
spirits,
spirits
of the
19 Cloud-
master, the Rain-master, the lord of the Winds,
and the Thunder-master," office,
the
O
and
rain,
to
it
"It
said,
is
is
your
superintend the clouds and
Spirits, to
raise
and send abroad the
Shang
winds, as ministers assisting
All
Ti.
the people enjoy the benefits of your service."^
Again, to the earthly
spirits,
mountains and
of the four seas and four
hills,
''
the spirits of the
great rivers, of the imperial domain, and of
the
hills
and
" It is yours,
under the sky,"
rivers
O
ferred powers,
Spirits,
it
is
all
said,
with your Heaven-con-
and nurturing influences, each to
preside as guardian over one district, as ministers assisting the great
Worker and Transformer, and
thus the people enjoy your meritorious services."
Such language might seem structed to prevent
to have been con-
the misrepresentation that
the religion of China took
its
form from the
principle of animism.
Professor
Tiele
says
Chinese worship of
dominant
by
this
fetishist
that
connected with '
See
spirits
in
there
my
the the
spii.-its
ancient
the
was
a
pre-
Perhaps he means
tendency.
no more than what he says
sentence,
and
that
were
objects
of
in still
the next closely
nature.
But
"Notions of the Chinese concerning God (Hong-kong, 1853.)
Spirits," pp. 34, 35-
20
Con/ucianis?n
:
according to the prayers just read, they were so
connected with those objects
in
subordination
to the
conception of nature as sustained
Shang
Ti, or
having
its
by
God, for the good of mankind,
different parts, with their elemental
the
committed to the guardian care of spirits. This is not our view of nature,
but
it
agencies,
is
one that has appeared
stages of society; and to fetishism in
in
different
do not see any tendency There is a danger, indeed, of
it.
I
the spiritual potencies being regarded as inde-
pendent, and
gods
;
being elevated to the place of
but the most ancient and strong convic-
tion of one
God prevented
this in China.
But the language of Professor Tiele may have been moulded by a mental reference to the
wooden
tablets
which are employed as resting-
places for the spirits, both in the state worship of"
China and the ancestral.
These
rectangular pieces of wood,
are
small
high again as they are wide, set up in front of the worshipper, and having written upon them the characters
shan
w'ci,
at
least
"Seat of the
as
spirit,"
or
ling wei, "Seat of the soul," or shan chu, " Lodging-place of ti^e spirit," with, perhaps, the surname, name,
and
office of the departed,
in
the ancestral worshi/3.
is
performed, the tablet-
While the worship is
.
supposed
to
be
lis
occupied by the ;
returns to
its
in
spirit
2
specially interested
and at the conclusion, the
the service
aside
and Worship of God.
Doctrine
own
repository,
its
required
till
in
spirit
and the tablet
place,
i
is
laid
use
for
being in the interval no
again,
possessed than
more spiritany other piece of wood.^ In
the next Lecture
practice, especially
using living
shall
I
during the Chau period, of
members
of the worshipping family,
to be taken possession of
deceased,
instead
have to speak of the
of
by the spirits of the wooden tablets.
these
How the use of the tablet originated can only be matter of speculation with us, and I will not take up time with an attempt to account for it. But it was not and is not fetishism.
"A
fetish,"
perly so
thing
says Professor
called,
supernatural
meant
itself
is ;
the
Max
Miiller,
regarded idol
was
as
"pro-
some-
originally
an image only, a similitude or a symbol of something else. No doubt, an idol
was
as
apt
to
become
a
fetish
;
beginning, fetish-worship, in the of
the word,
different
'
-
springs
but,
in
the
proper sense
from a source
totally
from that w^hich produces idolatry."^
See Note F. Lectures (the Hibbert) on the Origin and Growth of as illustrated by the Religions of India,
Religion,
pp. 63, 64.
—
:
Confucianisvi
2 2
The
tablet
not regarded as in
is
eupernatural or sacred
;
and
it
itself
either
has operated
to prevent the rise of idolatry in the Confucian religion of
China,— a
which
fact to
may
I
ha\'e
occasion to refer hereafter.
"What took place
in
formation of the
the time between the primitive characters
century B.C. Institution of a worship of God, and a worship of Ancestors. twenty-third
and the
6.
From what we may we
the prehistoric
we have found great
time, in which
of thought,
call
exercises
arrive at the twenty-third century
before our era.
More than
a thousand years
have passed since Fu-hsi, during which period there must have been growth and development,
We
both progress and corruption. little
of what
was transacted
on the theatre of China.
by
later historians
authority.
A
;
— we
A
in
i^w hints are given
do not know on what
few are given also by Confucius
himself, in the longest of the
Yi King, ascribed
we may be
know very
that millennium
to
appendixes to the
him but however willing them as his, both they, ;
to accept
and a few other similar passages in " the Record of Rites," crumble away, on close handling, into speculations and guesses about the progress of
Its
Doctrine and Worship of God.
step had certainly
One very important
society.
and unreported
been taken during the long
Methods of worship,
interval.
ment
throw
as the
on which
of the religious ideas
tried to
23
comple-
have
I
from the primitive Chinese
light
a worship of characters, had been instituted God for all, but in which the ruler of the State should be the only officiator and a worship of :
;
ancestors
by the Heads themselves and all the members
by
families, for
or at
all,
The. nature of
their relative circle.
worship
will fully
present day
we
least
appear as
I
in
this twofold
proceed.
find the state
of
At
the
worship of God,
and the universal worship of ancestors, and
we
can trace them back from dynasty to dynasty. If
we cannot
fully
explain every modification
which they underwent, we are certain that we always have substantially the same things before us, until we reach the time immediately succeeding the prehistoric.
King, and
The Shu
its
ing the worship of
evidence concern-
Yao and Shun
as a
monotheism, with an inferior worship of spirits. 7.
We
come
to the
Shu King,
a compilation
of historical documents, and the oldest of Chinese
books.
The
first
two parts of
it
extend over a
:
2
Confucianism
4
hundred and
fifty years,
and are occupied with
the characters and events of the sage rulers
and Shun.^
do not say that the composition
I
them was contemporaneous
of
subsequent
diately
narrate
and
but there
;
They
them.
to, is
imme-
with, or
they
that
things
the
an element of history
in
bear the iuipriniatnr of Confucius,
A very
repay our careful examination.
will
— Yao
now
intelligent Chinese gentleman,
Europe,
in
said to me, not very long ago, '^,\Ve have nothing
China the roots of which are^rot to be found
in
the
in.
Canons of Yao and Shun." Canon of Shun we have the record of
In the
several acts of religious worship.
Yao
resigns
the administration of the government to Shun,
and
his inauguration in that
place '"in
That
Ancesfor."^
whom Yao
to
temple
(the
ancestor,
new
position takes
the
Accomplished
suppose, was he
I
traced his lineage,
was thus sought
kingdom
of)
for
to another.
the
and
his sanction
transference
of the
Shun was now the
ruler
of the Chinese state, and he signalised the fact
by
a
solemn act of worship
specially,
:
"
He
sacrificed
but with the ordinary forms, to Shang
Yao's reign began in B.C. 2357, and Shun's ended in The shorter chronology of the Bamboo books reduces these dates, but only by a little more than two '
2207.
hundred *
years.
The Shu,
II.
i.
4.
Its
Ti,"
Doctrine and Worship of God.
— that
is,
we have
seen, to
purely to the six objects of appropriate
their
God " sacrificed Honour; offered ;
to
sacrifices
25
the
and
hills
rivers, and extended his worship to the host of
^
spirits."^
The
when
notice that Shun, on this occasion,
sacrificing specially to
God, yet used the ordi-
nary forms, indicates that there was even then a [regular worship
China,
of^
— such,
of
God by
sovereign
the
no doubt, as we find
fully
established in later times, and observed at the
present day. his
every
Thereafter,
fifth
year,
on
tours of inspection through his dominions,
Shun
offered
sacrifice
what seems
to
have been a similar
each of the four
at
quarters of the
country, where he met the feudal lords, " presenting," as
it is
Heaven, and
When
rivers."'
the capital,
to
the
expressed, " a burnt-offering to
and
sacrificing in order to the hills
he returned "
from these tours
he went to (the
temple
Cultivated Ancestor, and offered a
of)
single
bullock."^ It is
impossible to give a distinct account of
by Shun, when he
the other sacrifices ottered
inidertook the administration of the government.
Chinese writers '
The Shu,
differ
II.
i.
among themselves
6. ^
-
lb.,
i.
S.
in
Ib.,\. S.
what
:
2
Confiicianisjn
6
they say about "the six objects of Honour."
When
he sacrificed to the
hills
and
he
rivers,
did so to the spirits supposed to preside over the
and
hills
rivers of note in all the kingdona,
and thereby exercised in
royal prerogative, for
his
subsequent ages each feudal lord sacrificed to
the
hills
and
rivers in his state, while the
ship of the sovereign embraced
all
wor-
such objects
"under the sk)-."- The final statement that Shun " extended his worship to the host of spirits," is
understood of
all spirits
to in his previous sacrifices, "
and the
spirits of the
not attended
" those,"
mounds, dykes,
over
presiding
forests,
—
is
said,
plains,
and
it
sages and worthies
of ancient times."^
Thus
in the
worship of the sage Shun,
we
see
the primitive monotheism of his race, and that there had
grown up round
it
ship of multitudinous spirits.
argued that
this
inferior
nature-worship, and that
an I
inferior
wor-
have already
worship was not
a
was subordinate to the homage due to God, and resulted from a mistaken idea of His government in creation. This will be seen more fully as we ^o on. '
'•
it
See note in the Chinese Classics,
Mayers' Chinese Readers Manual,"
The '
Li Chi, xx.
\'ol. II., ///
loc,
p. 3:9.
3.
See Commentary
in the
Yung-chang Shu,
/;; loc.
and
Its
Dodriiie and Worship of God.
27
Testimony of the Shih King in addition to the Shu.— Predicates in them both about Heaven and Shang Ti, or God. The documents
of the Shu extend, though not continuously, over between seventeen and eighteen centuries. Next in antiquity to the S.
Shu It
Shih, or book of ancient poetry. contains three hundred and five pieces, six the
is
of \\W\ch. are of the period of the second feudal dynasty, from B.C. 1766 to 1123. The rest are of the
or
third
Chau dynasty, down
into
the
things
are
sixth century B.C.
In
both of
predicated
of
these
many
books
Heaven,
Ti,
and
Shang Ti, He is the world. Men
that are true only of the true God. ruler in
of
men and
general,
peculiar care.
He
lower
this
all
the mass
of
the people, are
His
appointed grain to be the
chief nourishment of
all.
over the conduct of kings,
He watches especially whom he has exalted
to their high position for the
good of the people. While they reverence Him, and fulfil their duties in His fear, and wit reference to His will, taking His ways as their pattern. He maintains them, \
smells the sweet savour of their offerings, and
them and their people with abundance and general prosperity. When they become
blesses
:
Confucianism
28 and
impious
of
negligent
punishes them, takes
away
them, and appoints others
terrors,
His
Him.
He
appears to array Himself
in
and the course of His providence
is
The
altered.
evil
Heaven
is
the
in
called
His strange work,
men not
throne from
the
in their place.
fore-ordination.
Sometimes
is
He
duties,
come from His fore-knowledge
appointments
and
their
to repentance.
He who
in
He
state
is
ascribed to
But
unpitying.
call
and
it is
hates no one
;
really causes the evil time
a consequence of forsaking
ways of government.
this
judgment, and to
:
that
the old and
is
right
In giving birth to the
He
gives
nature, but few are able to
keep
multitudes of the people,
them a good it, and hold
out good to the end.
There called "
is a remarkable document of the Shu, The Establishment of Government," in
which the consolidator and
legislator
of
the
Chau dynasty gives a summary of the history of the feudal kingdom down to his own time. Yii the Great, the founder of the Hsia dynasty, dating
from
B.C.
2205,
honour God
"
(in
sought for able
men who
should
the discharge of their duties)."
But the way of Chieh, th^ last of his line, was different. Those whom he employed were cruel men, and he had no successor. The kingdom
and Worship of God.
Doctrhie
Its
29
was given to T'ang the Successful, the founder of the Shang or Yin dynasty, who "grandly administered
the
His reign dates from last of his line,
was
cruel as
quence,
"
came
1766; but Shau, the
B.C.
to the throne in 1254,
Chieh had been.
God,
and
in conse-
The throne House of Chau, whose fitness for the charge by
sovereignly punished him."
was transferred chiefs
ordinances of God."
bright
showed
to the their
employing men to serve God with reverence^ and appointed them as presidents and chiefs of "
while
people,"
the
such as their
their
all
officers
other
ministers,
their
treasurers
of law,
men
"
and historiographers, were
of constant
virtue."^
Such
is
to
the
as
during the
the testimony of the entertained
views
many
Shu and Shih
concerning
centuries to which the histories
and pieces belong
nor do they contain a sen-
;
tence inconsistent with those which into
my description
about the
'
or
;
nor
is
I
have woven
there a word in
them
other spirits
implying
among them "equal
or second"
sacrifices
that there was one to,
God
to
more than a minister
of,
Shang
Ti.
This and the two previous paragraphs are taken almost my prolegomena to the Chinese Classics,
I'trbatim from
pp. 193, 194, and III., there indicated.
II.,
p. 152.
The
original
te.xts
are
Co7ifucianis7n
30
New
speech on
of
style
Chau dynasty,
in
:
the rise of the
twelfth century B.C.
— The dualistic phrase Heaven and Earth used 9.
On
Heaven, and
for the single
the rise of the
Chau dynasty we meet
with a style of speech that reign (B.C.
1
122) in a
is
new.
Its first sove-
"Great Declaration" made
to his adherents
when he had taken
against
ruler
the
and Earth
last
mother) of
man
intelligent
of Yin, said,
parent
creatures,
all
the
is
the
is
most
(lit.,
and of
field
all
creatures
The
sincerely
men) "becomes
sovereign, and the great sovereign (lit.,
the
V Heaven
fatHer-and
the
intelligent.
(among
Ti.
is
the
great
the parent
the father and mother) of the people.
But
now, Shau, the king of Shang, does not reverence Heaven above, and
inflicts
calamities on
Heaven and Earth pass immediately, you perceive, into the one name Heaven notwithstanding the dualistic form of
the people below."
;
—
the expression, all creatures.^
we have
it is
only one that
Further on
similar
and
guage, corrected in
in
is
the parent of
the "Declaration,"
more remarkable lanthe same way by reference still
The Shu, V. i., sect, i., 3, 4, " Heaven and Earth" is no more plural, than the sovereign, who also is father and mother," is plural. '
'•'
1
Doctrine and Worship of God.
Its
to the one
3
supreme controlling Power, to
whom
Heaven.
The
the speaker gives the
name
of
Heaven and Earth " stands for the phrase Being sacrificed to at the two places distin"
—
at guished as the altars to heaven and earth the day of the on heaven altar to round the ;
winter solstice, and at the square altar to earth
on the day of the summer the
solstice.
Such was
•
Chau dynasty as it is There was a danger of its
practice under the
at the present day.
leading to serious misconception concerning the oldest religious ideas and worship of the nation,
—a
danger which Confucius himself happily We have from him thecame in to avert. express statement that
"
the ceremonies of the
Heaven and Earth are those by The w^orship Shang Ti." serve which we offered in them was to the one and the same
sacrifices
to
^
God.
Expansion of the judgment of Confucius about the tv(/o sacrifices by the author.
A
commentator expands
sage in
this
sentence of the
the words,^ "The emperor
sacrifices to
'-The Doctrine of the Mean," xix. 6. See the Four Books, with the Standard Commentary and a Paraphrase, in loc. '
-
Confucianism:
32
and
solstice,
earth
the
at
Thus
pool.
square
the
at
mound at the summer solstice
whiter
round
heaven on the
the
to
service
is
emperor
Ti, and the reverence wherewith and takes and respect to the heaven he gives honour to earth to acknowledge His goodness in the
performed
to
Shang
sincerity
the
processes of production and
maturing."
meaning which we
led
ceremonies
the two state
now
it
are thus
in
words which
twenty years ago
The
"
:
I
man
and
I
used eight-and-
material heavens and
They speak
earth are the great works of God. to
The
attach to
following,
the
is
to'
with different voices, and
con-
utter
cordant, yet various, testimony concerning their
When we
maker.
are filled with
and reverence
When we trated
awe
consider the
we
;
are
Him whose
consider
the
to honour
throne
we
peneSofter
and we are disposed
crowneth the year with His
Him who
The heavens
goodness.
are.
the)-
are
with a sense of His kindness.
feelings enter into the soul,
to love
moved
earth,
we
heavens,
are to us the repre-
sentatives of the Divine majesty; the earth
the representative
of
the Divine
care.
is
The
former teaches us God's more than paternal the latter His more than maternal authority ;
love.
By means
of the one and the other
we
;
Its
Doctrine a?id Worship of God.
33
rise to Him, as maintaining a sovereign rule and an ever- watchful care; as the Being into our
service of
whom
there should enter the elements
of fear and love, reverence and gratitude. is
Such
the ideal of the highest worship in the religion
of China, the worship rendered through the ser-
summer and winter solstices."^ Some may suppose that I have expressed
vices at the
myself about they
will
it as from a Christian standpoint hardly do so when they hear some
prayers to
reached
How
its
Shang
Ti, in which Chinese devotion
height.
name continued, and is against being misunderstood. Announcement by the first emperor of the present dynasty. the dualistic
guarded
—
We will come to them soon meanwhile let say that the judgment of Confucius must be accepted as final ow the common object of the 10.
;
me
two
solstitial services.
Unfortunately, his words
did not have the effect of abolishing the use of the double name,— Heaven and Earth, instead
of
Heaven or God
most
part
;
rendered
yet the abuse
harmless
correct phraseology with which
for the
is
by the it
is
more
associated.
"Notions of the Chinese concerning God and p. SI.
3
Spirits,"
—
:
Confucianism
34 Let
me
first
emperor of the present dynasty took pos-
session
give an example.
In 1644,
formally of the throne, he announced
the fact at a great service to
which began thus ''^^1,
when the
Heaven
in
a prayer
:
the -Son of Heaven, of the Great Pure
dynasty, humbly, as a subject, dare to
announcement Earth.
on
all
to imperial
make
Heaven and sovereign
Throughout the vast world, God looks without partiality.
My
imperial grand-
father received the gracious decree of
and founded
a
became firmly
established.
kingdom
in
the
My
Heaven,
east,
which
imperial father,
succeeding to the kingdom, established it, and it grew wider and more powerful. I, Heaven's servant, in
my
poor person, became the inheritor
of the dominion they transmitted."
Further on, he says: "I, receiving Heaven's favour, and in agreement with the \vishes of the people, on
this the first
Heaven
to
day of the tenth month, announce have ascended the throne of Evidently in this announcement,
that
the empire."
I
Heaven and sovereign Earth," was but names God and Heaven, Heaven, whose servant the Emperor was.^
" imperial
a periphrasis for the
'
See the whole prayer in Edkins' " Rehgion
pp. 18, 19.
in
Chhia,"
Doctrine and Worship of God.
Its
King, and
The Yi II.
I
its
should be glad
the prayers of which
I
35
subject-matter.
now
to
adduce
spoke a
little
at once
ago
;
but
about the Yi it is necessary to say something King, " the mysterious book." In 1876 a trans-
was published by the Rev. Canon M'Clatchie, :\1.A., of Shanghai, with Notes and Appendix. Another translation in Latin, with
lation of
it
more copious notes, made in the first part other of last century by Father Regis and at published been had Jesuit missionaries, iNIohl. Stuttgart in 1834, edited by the late Jules The difference between the two versions is conthe difference of opinion between the siderable two translators as to the bearing of the book on
still
;
the question of the Religion of China
great indeed.
The
Edinburgh Reviciv
writer of an for
is
very
article in the
October, 1877, based on
M'Clatchie's translation, says that
Canon Yi King go
is
the
which we must
" the fountain-head to
to gain a true notion of the deeper beliefs
of the
pioneer
Chinese; and adds that of
Roman
Catholic
if
Ricci,
missionaries
"
the in
China, and certainly one of the ablest of them, " if Ricci had read the works of Chu-tsze and
—
the Yi King, he never would have imagined that the T'ien, the Heaven of the Confucianist's
:
Confucianisvi
36
any points of
worship, had
Christian's God."
had
similarity with the
have no doubt that Ricci
I
marked, and inwardly digested
" read,
"
the
Yi, and only found his conclusions respecting the- religion of China, drawn from other sources,
confirmed by
The
it.
M'Clatchie parative
So
it
quotes
reviewer
has been with myself. a
to the effect that " so long as
mythology continues
Mr.
from
sentence
com-
be neglected
to
by Chinese students, so long must the Yi King remain a sealed book to them." I cannot admit as Chinese
that,
think
me,
with
mythology.
I
students,
have
I,
be passing strange
its
meaning
comparative
have looked much into
have looked more into the Yi appendixes to
and others who
neglected
it,
if
it,
I
would
It
itself.
Confucius, with
but
his
all
had not been able to
make
sufficiently plain without our
re-
much
more recent than itself, and whose authors had never heard of What, then, do we find in the Yi ? Before it. this question, let me point out an answer I
sorting to
error into
equally
writings
which the Canon and
fall.
The
latter
calls
his
the
reviewer
Yi
"the
;
oldest book of the oldest nation " and the former, " the most ancient of the Chinese classical
writings." '
^
The
fact
See Note G.
is,
that
not a
Ih Doctrine and Worship of God. character in
single
twelfth century
Yi
the
The
B.C.
37
older than the
is
text of
it,
not taking
the appendixes of Confucius, consists of two
in
portions,
— from
portion
is
referred
authority for
Wan, and from his son, The composition of Wans to the year 143 B.C. As an
king
the duke of Chau.
1
the
therefore, the
Yi
Shu and the
Shih.
is
ancient
religion
of China,
by no means equal
In these circumstances,
how
to the
has the common'
opinion about the antiquity of the book arisen
The answer
is,
that
it
is
based on diagrams, or
lineal figures, ascribed to Fu-hsi,
whole and divided
Those
?
lines
and made up of and
(
— —
).
figures are in all sixty-four, but the prevail-
ing opinion Fu-hsi,
is
— the
that only eight of
them were from
famous kua or trigramsl-
— — — —
j.
What
their framer intended
by these figures we do not know. No doubt there was a tradition about it, and I am willingto believe that Yi.
There
is
it
found a
home
some ground
in
the existiner
also to suppose that
there was an explanation, or two explanations, of
the figures
during the two
dynasties that
38
Co7ifucia7tis7}i^
preceded Chau.
If there were, the
Wan
If king
perished.
and
his
whole has
son incorpo-
rated previous explanations with their own, so
important a fact could
hardly have escaped
special mention.
The idea
character called Yi
The
Changes."
reaction, flux
and
and immediately
"The Book
is
We
reflux,
its
the symbol for the
of the world
fashion
being altered.
tinually
is
The Yi
of change.
is
of
con-
have action and
— now,
one condition,
The
opposite.
vicissitudes
the worlds of sense and society have their
in
correspondencies in the changes that take place the lines
in
relations
of the diagrams.
to good, are fortunate
;
to evil, are unfortunate
and certain others lead and these results are ;
by
the relative position of the lines.
lines
were systematically changed by
indicated
Those
Again, certain
and conditions of men and things lead
manipulating with a fixed number of the stalks of a certain plant. the
In this
way
the Yi served
purpose of divination; and since such
is
the nature of the book, a reader must be pre-
pared for
much
in it
that
is
tantalizing, fantastic,
and perplexing.
The whole
lines in the figures are styled the
strong, and the divided lines the weak.
The
two represent the two forms of the subtle matter
Doctrine and Worship of God.
Its
— whether which
eternal
the other is
created
not said
is
— of
Under one form yang; under called yin. What-
things are composed.
all
the matter
ever
or
39
active,
is
it is
and
passive,
and
strong and active
called
is is
is
yang
of the
nature
;
weak and passive is of the yin. and earth, sun and moon, light and Heaven darkness, male and female, ruler and minister, whatever
is
The
are examples of these antinomies.
aggre-
gate of them makes up the totality of being
and the Yi
is
supposed to give,
a complete picture of the totality.
It
in
it
embrace other antinomies as and power on the one side docility in
on the other:
the Yi.
of that
does not give us a sexual system
antinomy of sex
but the lines on which
;
it is
constructed
well.
Authority
inferiority
;
and
— these are the ruling ideas
Mr. M'Clatchie makes the sexual
antinomy unpleasantly prominent, both translation
;
diagrams,
phenomena
of nature, though of course the is
in its
and
in
his
his notes.^
Further, the hidden operation in and through
which the change takes place
in
nature
is
said
kwei shan. We have seen that kwei was the name for the spirit of departed men,^ and shan^ the name for spirits to
be that of the
'
See Note H.
.
*
Page
*
Page
13.
12. ,
:
Co7ifucianism
40 generally,
and specially
heaven.
for spirits of
names can often be The combination translated in no other way than by spirits, of the
In the Yi, however,
spiritual beings. nification
Shan
is
is
yang, and
in the process of
indicates the
But we
its sig-
held to be peculiar and technical. indicates the primary matter
expanding
same
;
kwei
yin, and
is
in the process of contracting.
Confucius
shall see, immediately, that
held there was a force in the operation which
was not material. What I have thus said about the Yi has given you,
I
and
I
hope, an inkling of the nature of the work,
cannot devote more time to
it.
It is a
book of strange physical speculation, constructed so as to serve the purpose of divination, and affords us little help
in
studying the subject
of religion.
On 12.
the divination of the old Chinese.
Let
me
interject here a
few sentences on
the divination of the Chinese.
I
showed how
a superstition on the subject had infected the this
was
proved by some of the primitive characters.
It
minds of the
earliest fathers,
and that
should be understood, however, that
it
was not
supposed that by means of divination future events in
themselves could be
known
before-
— — 1
to determine
was
Its object
hand.
and Worship of God.
Doctrine
Its
4
what would
be the issues of undertakings contemplated by the consulter, and how certain anticipated conditions of events
would turn out ;— whether they or
be fortunate
would
And we
unlucky.
and the
are told that the tortoise-shell
stalks were consulted only in doubtful
But the whole scheme was
cases.
lucky or
unfortunate,
and
vain,
must have been injurious to the practical conduct The old methods of divination have of life. fallen into disuse,
and
I
cannot say how
far other
methods are sanctioned by the Government but the almanac published with its approval still contains the distinction of days as lucky for this ;
and
enterprise prise
and
is still it
this.
that,
and unlucky
With
for that enter-
the multitudes, divination
a popular profession.
Those who follow
are for the most part T^oists,
if
they are any-
thing in religion.
Appendixes by Confucius to the Yi. sentences from one of them. 13.
The
larger portion of the text of the
Two Yi
is
understood to be from Confucius himself. His opinion of it was very high, and he said that if
his
life
were prolonged, he would give fifty In what he wrote
years to the study of the Yi.
about
it
two objects
at least clearly
appear
:
Confucianism
42 to impart a
lessons
moral and ethical charactet- to
and to explain how the
;
made
were
change
to
on
In
his
Lord and Master,
He
my
has always brought to
until,
has crowned the
The whole passage
year with His goodness.
Hymn
he describes
seasons,
four
the
throughout
of
appendix called
emblemed by the eight
the processes of Ti, as trio-rams,
lineal figures
Diagrams,"
the
its
phenomena
the
represent
nature.
in
" Discourses
as the
:
mind Thomson's
to the Seasons.
end
I will
my
account of the Yi by quoting
two sentences from the longest of the appendixes.
The one
stance of the successive
them expresses the sub-
of
book
things
:
"
The
of the inactive and active
movement
elements makes what in
few words
in these
is
called the course (of
The
nature)."
sentence
other
is
"That which is unfathomable movement of) the inactive and active elements is what we call (the presence of a) equally brief: in
(the
spiritual
which appeared all
the
Confucius
(operation)." in the
that
all
Yi did not account for Given fact.
that took place in the world of distinction
inactive
of
and active
the states of ;
matter into
given also the agencies
of expansion and contraction all,
felt
something unfathomable
;
— there was, in
after
every pheno-
Its
Doctrine
and Worship of God.
43
nienon, and in that unfathomableness the sage
recognized the working of a spiritual power.
When my mind came
there
apostle Paul, "
all
apprehended also
it
meaning,
his
words of the
those
The same God worketh
all
in
In a wider application than the apostle
all."
had
first
into
view,
in
Confucius
phenomena
there
I
felt,
believe, that in
was the
doing of God, the potency that
presence and "
spreads un-
divided and operates unspent," an immanent spirit, and yet not to be confounded with the
matter which
He moulds and
changes.-^
Prayers to Shang Ti at a special sacrifice in A.D. 1538.
am now
14. I
of
my
solstitial
draw to a close this branch monotheism of the Chinese
free to
subject on the
a s seen in^lre ""state^wbrshrp, 'by~^bmitting to
you a
series of prayers "addressed to
ShangTi,
1538, by the then emperor of the They suit my purpose, perhaps, ?kling dynasty. better than any other selection of solstitial
in the year
prayers
that
were prepared
could for a
be
made, because
special occasion.
It
they
had
been determined to make a slight change in the name by which the Supreme Being was called in the imperial worship.
See Note
I.
Heretofore the
—
:
Confucianism
44
name had
been,
"Shang
Ti, (dwelling in the)
bright heavens;" henceforth
it
should be
"Shang
Ti, (dwelling in the) sovereign heavens."^
Such
was the matter canvassed at Peking, while in London, at the court of Henry VIII., they were deliberating about the articles of the new creed to be given to the nation instead of the
dogmas of was made.
the Church of
The change
Rome.
was inaugurated at a solemn service with more than the formalities of a and the style then regular grand sacrifice It
;
initiated
passed
over
without
alteration
into
the worship of the present Tartar dynasty.
But such a thing could not be done without in heaven as well as on various preparation,
—
The
earth.
intercession with
Shang Ti
of
all
any way associated with the the solstitial worship must be secured, and for this purpose the emperor went in state to the round altar, and heard the reading of the following spirits
paper " I,
in
:
emperor of the
the
Great
Illustrious
dynasty, have respectfully prepared this paper to inform
the
moon
— the ;
spirit of
the sun
constellations of the zodiac, in
all
;
the spirit of
the spirits of the five planets, of the
and of
the sky; the spirits of the ^
See Note K.
all
the stars
clouds, the
;
and Worship of God.
Its Doctri7ie
rain,
wind, and thunder
tains
;
the
the
;
spirits
of the
spirits
the spirits of the five
hills,
the spirits of the four seas four great rivers
tenth month, and
Shun-teh
;
all
"
presiding over
the spirit ruling over the
;
those over every day
;
the
day of the coming month, We reverently lead our officers and people to the
first
honour the great name of in
and
^
altar.
On
shall
the
the terrestrial
;
spirit
the spirit in charge of the ground about
border
;
the spirits of the
them on the earth
under heaven; the
present year
the
;
under heaven
spirits
celestial
and
hills
Hsiang-
Chi-yiin,
the intelligences which have
:
duties assigned to
spirits
guardian
five
T'ien-shan,
Shan-lieh,
shang,
the spirits which have
them throughout the whole of the five grand moun-
duties assigned to
heavens
;
45
heavens,
sovereign
the
inform you,
and
all
ye
celestial
will trouble
exert your spiritual
Ti, dwelling
looking up to the
azure vault.
lofty nine-storied
spirits,
Shang
and
Beforehand we all
ye
terrestrial
you, on our behalf, to
power, and display your
vigorous efficacy, communicating our poor desire to
Shang
Ti,
and praying
Him
graciously to
grant us His acceptance and regard, and to be pleased with the present.
title
which we
shall reverently
:
Co7ifucianism
46 "
for
For
this
purpose we have made this paper All ye
your information.
well aware of our purpose.
should be
spirits
Ye
are respectfully
informed."
This paper shows how there had grown up
around the primitive monotheism of China the recognition celestial
and worship
of
terrestrial
spirits
and
They
alone.
are
and
;
Shang Ti
m.onotheism remained. not among, but above
multitude
a
all,
those
stands out,
spirits, single,
but ministering
spirits,
though there are occasions when worship to
them
specially,
of
yet the
is
and paid
they receive their orders from
the emperor,
who speaks
his ministers
and people, with the 'authoritative
to them, as he does to
We. But
The
day arrived, and we stand, with the emperor and his suite, at the round altar. We watch and listen to them while they engage in the different parts of their
I
hasten on.
service,
themselves greet the
— as
in
Of
approach
old, in
times they prostrate
eleven
reverent
homage.
(real,
invisible) of the spirit of
"
selected
First,
they
they think, though
Shang
Ti,
and say:
the beginning, there was the great
chaos, without form
and dark.
The
five
ele-
ments had not begun to revolve, nor the sun and moon to shine. In the midst thereof there
;
Doctrine
Its
presented
O
and Worship of God.
Sovereign, earnest forth
spiritual
Thou,
neither form nor sound.
itself
presidency, and
first
47
in
Thy
divide the grosser
didst
Thou madest heaven Thou modest man. All
from the purer.
parts
Thou madest
earth
;
things got their being, with their reproducing
power.
'>
1
The next
step was to present a notice about
the change
O
"
the
in
title,
when
was
it
said
:
when Thou hadst opened the course
Ti,
for the inactive
and active
forces of matter to
Thy making work went
operate.
didst produce,
O
Spirit, the
on.
Thou
sun and moon, and
and pure and beautiful was their light. The vault of heaven was spread out like a curtain, and the square earth supported all on
five planets
it,
and
all
presume I
;
creatures were happy.
reverently to
I,
Thy servant,
thank Thee, and, while
worship, present the notice to Thee,
calling
O
Ti,
Thee Sovereign."
Precious stones and silks were then presented as offerings, with the following prayer:
hast vouchsafed,
O
Ti, to
hear
regardest us as our Father.
and unenlightened, '
See
for all
am
I,
us,
Thy
for
"Thou Thou
child, dull
unable to show forth
the prayers here
my
my
""Notions of the
I think "madest" is the likeliest Chinese," pp. 25 to 31. word in English for the character li in this prayer. It
is
the symbol of setting up, establishing.
:
Confucia7iisvi
48 feelings.
thank Thee that Thou hast accepted Honourable is Thy great name.
I
the intimation.
With reverence we spread out stones and
these precious
and, as s\yallo\vs rejoicing in
silk,
the spring, praise Thine abundant love."
Vessels with offerings of food followed, with this
prayer
"
:
The
great feast has been set forth,
and the sound of our joy
The
like thunder.
is
Sovereign Spirit vouchsafes to enjoy our offering,
and
his
heart
servant's
him
within
is
The meat has been
particle of dust.
like
a
boiled in
the large caldrons, and the fragrant provisions
Enjoy the
have been prepared.
shall all the people
and then
Thy
Thy
servant, receiving
oftering,
O
Ti,
have happiness.
favours,
am
I,
blessed
indeed."
A first was
drink-offering
said
"
:
The
was now made, when
great and
lofty
favour and regard, which we, in our
down His
insignificance, are hardly sufilicient to receive.
His simple this
it
One sends
servant,
precious cup
while
to
I,
worship, present
I
Him, whose
}'ears
have
in
these
no end."
There words:
He '
is
was
next a
"When
called
into
Ti, the
thanksgiving
Lord, had so decreed.
existence^
The character whose meaning
very strong.
the I
three
powers
have thus expressed
Translators of our Scriptures into Chinese
Doctrine
Its
and Worship of God.
Between heaven and
(heaven, earth, and man).
He
earth
separately disposed
men and
overspread by the heavens.
all
beg His (favouring) decree,
me His Him in
vassal
appear before
for ever
drink-offering
numerous
indebted
was
said
goodness, but
him
to
.'*
"
All
of animated
beings are beginning.
O
Ti, in
All living things are indebted to
love.
come
:
favour for their
tribes
Thy
to
it
and creatures are emparadised,
jNIen
Thy
I
to enlighten
the empyrean."
At a second the
may
so
things,
His small
I,
servant,
;
49
Thy
who knows whence his blessings It is Thou alone, O Lord, who
art the true parent of all things."
There was a
when
displaj-ed
ranged
the
;
and
third
was said
it
:
"
The
collected
;
men and
make no recompense it
The
this,
'
spirit
it,
wide
creatures are is
(for
ar-
— with
harmony is happy. The
of
troubled, that he can
such goodness)."
the various offerings were removed,
was said: "The service of
have used
Hebrew
is
gem-adorned benches are
breast of His servant
After
drink-offering,
the pearly spirits are presented,
;
music and dancing.^
and
final
precious feast
soncr
is
com-
alone or with another character, for the
bara.
These have always been accompaniments
great religious services.
of
the
:
Confucianism
50
pleted, but our poor sincerity cannot
Thy
expressed.
As
a potter
sovereign goodness
Thou made
ha.st
all
be fully infinite.
is
living things.
Great and small are curtained round (by Thee
poor servant
As engraven on the is the sense of Thy
my
cannot be fully displayed.
from harm). feeling
kindness
great
Thou
Thy
heart of
goodness, but
dost bear with
With
us, and,
notwithstanding our demerits, dost grant us
life
and prosperity." It
remained only to send away the
Shang
Ti,
and to barn
spirit of
At
the various offerings.
the performance of these ceremonies, the follow-
"With
ing prayers were used:
reverent cere-
monies the record has been presented
O
Sovereign
Spirit, hast
and Thou,
deigned to accept our
The dances have
service.
;
been performed,
all
and nine times the music has resounded.
O
Thy
Ti,
happiness of
great
my
blessing
House.
to
Grant, the
increase
The instruments
ot
metal and precious stones have given out their
melody
;
the jewelled girdles of the officers have
emitted their tinklings. together, praising
Spirits
and men
Ti the Lord.
What
rejoice limit,
what measure can there be, while we celebrate For ever He setteth fast the His great name .^
high heavens, and establisheth the solid earth. His poor His government is everlasting.
1
and Worship of God.
Doctrine
lis
servant,
bow my
I
And
finally
"
:
We
have
written the Great
Name
Now we
display
it
the
These valuable
fire.
on
worshipped
this
the
offerings of silks
with
also,
may
and
gem-like sheet.
before Ti, and place
meats we burn
prayers, that they
these
it
in
and
sincere
ascend in volumes of
flames up to the distant azure. of the earth look up to Him. all
in
it
bathed in His grace and glory."
dust,
fine
and lay
head,
5
All
All the ends
human
beings,
things on the earth, rejoice together in the
Great Name."
Conclusions from those prayers. 15.
will
I
increase
the
not
multiply words
which
impression
to
try
prayers
these
must have made upon your minds.
and
The original
monotheism of the Chinese remains in the state worship of to-day. We saw how the fathers of the nation, when they began to form their written characters, figured the visible heavens as the one thing over and above table.
Then
there arose in their
of God, ruling to
them by
name
for
personal
and overruling
and illimiminds the idea all,
all,
symbolized
the figure of this visible sky. this
idea of
being
was
God
Ti,
Their
conceived of as a
and
the
connexion
between the two names T'ien and Ti,
Heaven
Confucianism
52
:
and God, tended to prevent the
of poly-
rise
theism, and to bring about the extrusion of if it
did at
any time manage
the country.
in the religion of
did do so, and
thing
if it
did,
it,
to obtain a foothold
in
Whether it ever what manner the
came about, are questions on which neither
my
the time nor
me
inclination will permit
to
enter.
All semblances of an uncertain polytheism
were
swept away from the imperial worship
soon after the middle of our fourteenth century,
immediately on the
Ming dynasty,
of the
rise
whose statutes have supplied us with a
We may
such remarkable prayers. to feel
much sympathy
with the
not be able
way
we do
as
deplore,
worship of a multitude of celestial,
the
in
superstitious
spirits, terrestrial
that finds a place in
them
;
not Gods, and are not called
As
divine name.
think that,
in
I
have already
any
is
do not
name
Ti,
is
applied
Him whose right it is. As we argue that Roman Catholicism
spirit
well might
is
said, I
Those by the
the truly Confucian worship of
the empire, that name, the to
and
but this
abuse does not obscure the monotheism. spirits are
which
We may
the solstitial services are conducted. deplore,
series of
but
not monotheistic, because of the place which held in
reliction
it
by angels and
of China
is
saints, as that
the
not so because of the inferior
;
Its
Doctrine
worship given in
and Worship of God. it
to
various
53
real or
spirits,
fictitious.
With some remarks on the nature of the
16.
offerings at the'solstitial services,
and the absence
of Âť*priestly class from the Chinese religion,
bring this
will
Lecture to a
I
close.
offerings at the solstitial services are oblations, not propitiatory sacrifices.
The
These offerings are oblations^ and not
common
sacrifices
acceptation of that term.
in
our
is
not^ and never was,
or expiation in them.
any idea of
They
There
propitiation
are the ti;ibutes of
duty and gratitude, accompanied with petitions They do not express a and thanksgivings. sense of guilt, but the feeling of dependence.
A
whole burnt-offering, indeed, consumed on a special furnace near the altar, always forms a part of the greatest solstitial services sins of the emperor
;
but the
and people have not been
confessed over the head of the heifer so devoted.It does not bear those sins in its body, nor in its
death carry them away.
tution
is
The
not in the solstitial or
idea of substiin
any other
of the religious services of the Chinese people
nor
is
the idea of consecration on the part of
the worshipper symbolized
worship.
by any part of the
:
Confucianis7n
54
idea of substitution is not unknown Chinese history, but has no place
The
in
in the religious services. 17,
We
hav6
B.C. 1766.
and
In
in it
the
Shu
venture to say
I
a
document of the date
T'ang, a truly noble and heroic, also,
pious man, having
overthrown the dynasty of Shang, announces to his subjects the principles of the rule through
which they would, under himself, enter on a new At the conclusion of it, he said, "When life.
who occupy the myriad regions, let it rest on me, the One man. When guilt is found in me, the One man, it shall not attach to you who occupy the myriad
guilt
is
found anywhere in you
In
regions."
harmony with
this
generous utter-
ance was an incident in the life of T'ang, which, though not in the Shu, has been handed down
by the
historian
Sze-ma
Ch'ien
and
others.
For seven years after his accession (B.C. 1766 1760), there was a great drought and famine. It was suggested at last by some one that a
—
human
victim should be offered in sacrifice to
Heaven, and prayer made for rain. T'ang man must be the victim, I will be He fasted, cut off his hair and nails, and
" If a
plain carriage, rushes,
in
drawn by white
said,
he." in
a
horses, clad in
the guise of a sacrificial victim, he
Its
Doctrine
and Worship of God.
proceeded to a forest of mulberry
trees,
55
and
or crime of there prayed, asking to what error had not He owing. his life the calamity was
The done speaking when a copious rain' fell. are thus ideas of substitution and consecration China, but they to be found in the history of religious have not found their way into its
ceremonies.
solstitial service is
The
an acknowledgment
his by the emperor for himself, and obligations line, and the nation, of their to God.
Writing with reference to the solstitial "the idea of a services, Dr. Edkins says that This is in them is that of a banquet."^ 18.
sacrifice
hardly vice
intelligible.
The
notion of the whole ser-
might be that of a banquet
;
but a sacrifice
Nor and a banquet are incompatible ideas. to appropriate altogether the idea of a banquet is
a
solstitial service.
It is true that
the ancestors
are supposed of the emperor are present, that is, and receive altar, the to be present, in spirit, on
homage from him, Ti,
thus being assessors of
and sharing with him
service
;
Shang
in the tribute of the
deep but they are there only from the •
"Relieion in China,"
p. 23.
56
Confucianism
:
conviction of the solidarity of the family, which is
They and
characteristic of the Chinese.
descendants
the
are
representatives
family which was called
their
the
of
by the divine decree
empire when the sovereigns of the
to rule the
previous dynasty had been proved incompetent to
The
that high charge.
fulfil
the living chief of the family
son of Heaven," the one delights to honour, as son,
whom
and to
ruling
the
good, in
myriads
if
with him in
title
that he
is
of
"the
man whom Heaven
he were
of
the
harmony with the is
highest
Its first-born
delegated the duty of
is
The emperor stands his glory
is
people for their
divine will.
forth in his dignity,
and
on his ancestors, present and who have been the steps,
reflected spirit,
own time and place, by which the came to him. But the whole service is Shang Ti, and the last act of it is the burning
each
in his
dignity to
of the offerings and prayers, that their
may
ascend
in
The emperor, representing
all
smoke
a cloud of incense to heaven.
for
himself and his
line,
and as
the millions of his subjects, gives
solemn expression of their obligations to God, and of their purpose to rule so as to secure
in
it
the objects intended
Him
of government.
my
by Such is
in the institution
idea of the highest
acts of'worship in the religion of China.
Doctrine
Its
and Worship of God.
The emperor does not
-57
preside at the
services as a priest. 19.
vices priest
It is often said
emperor appears at once the high and the father of the people. But if he
the
be the high
under him
We in
that at the solstitial ser-
priest,
?
who
There
is
are the class of priests
no priesthood
in
China.
apply improperly to the religious offerings its various services the name of sacrifices, offer those
and then conclude that in order to sacrifices there must be priests.^
Ancient nity
of the Chinese
division
four
into
priesthood.
cation of a that supplied, to
commu-
with no
classes,
— The
some
indi-
place of
extent, by the
cultured class.
The
distinction of all the Chinese
into four classes
is
very ancient.
community named
It is
one of the books of the Shu^ as an existing The four division in the twelfth century B.C. in
classes were the official or cultured
class,
the
husbandmen, the mechanics or workers, and the This was a social, and traders or merchants. not a religious, distribution of the
and owing '
to
it
community
;
there never appeared in China
See note L.
"
V.
x.\.
12.
.
Confucianism
^8
anything
like the castes of
of Chinese history, borne
The
Brahmanism.
official or cultured class have,
along the
all
some
line
resemblance to a
While the feudal system lasted, the members of this class were scions of the princely families of the different states, who had clerical
body.
in the schools set
been educated
apart for them,
and the shadowy forms of which
we can dimly
discern nearly four thousand years' ago.
When
the element of rank disappeared from the com-
munity, that of education was developed and
took
its
the ruling rule,
The
place.
class, or
literati
generally became
the class from which, as a
the governors of the people should
be
nearest to our idea of a
They come body but they are far enough from being priests, or even in any sense ministers of religion, unless when they are exercising some
chosen.
clerical
;
function in connexion with the
The
state worship.
emperor himself presides at
the highest
worship as a minister of
ser\'ices of that
religion,
giving expression to the highest ideas of God that have been the inheritance of his nation
and acknowledging the upon Him -for life and breath
for several millenniums,
dependence of
all
and
;
all
things
but he does this as the parent
and representative of the people, and not priest.
as a
NOTES TO LECTURE Note In the Buddhist work,
A,
"A
I.
p. 5.
Dispassionate Discussion of
Confucianism (lit., the system of the Learned), Buddhism and Taoism," by the recluse ascetic, Liu Mi, it is correctis said that "the great idea in Confucianism ordering of right "the is object its ness," and that This would reduce it to a system of morals society." The author did not understand what and manners. Confucianism is the only one of the three is. systems he treats of, from which he could have got an His discussion, of course, comes to a idea of this. triumphant issue in favour of Buddhism but the book religion
;
might
in
many
respects be a
Note I
am
model B,
for controversialists.
p. 8.
speaking within bounds when I say that by these we go back five thousand years. Their invention
characters
ascribed to Fu-hsi, Ts'ang Chieh, and Hwang Ti. The year of Hwang Ti was B.C. 2697 but, according to the chronologists, the evidence preponderates in favour of is
first
;
Fii-hsi (see the largest of the appendices to the Yi King, ascribed to Confucius, Pt. ii. 23, and the preface to the Shu King, by his descendant K'ung An-kwoj, as the
inventor of the written characters.
The
" Chronological
Tables from the Twenty-four Histories," published with authority early in the present century, make Fu-hsi's
6o
Notes
to
Lecture
I.
They give another estimate making the year B.C. 3697, and a third which would place it at a still more distant date. The " Chronological tables of the reigns throughout
reign begin in B.C. 3252.
the different dynasties," published in 1817
by Ch'i ShAo-
3376 for Fu-hsi's first year, placing also fifteen reigns between him and the Yen Ti, Shan-nang shih, without saying how long they lasted. From the tables in the Yi Sze, or "Lengthened His-
nan, give B
C.
by Ma Su of the present dynasty, the lowest makes Fu-hsi's reign begin in B.C. 3316 but one estimate is mentioned which would carry him up to more than B.C. 20000 There is nothing extravagant, therefore, in placing the commencement of the written characters of China five thousand years back from the present time. Dr. Morrison (View of China for Philological Purposes, p. 5S) makes Fu-hsi's reign commence in B.C. 3369. The late Mr. Mayers (Chinese Reader's Manualj p. 366) reduces the and he is followed by Dr. Edkins (Introdate to 2S53
tories,"
estimate
;
!
;
duction to the Study of Chinese Characters,
p.
2).
I
any Chinese authority for this The assigning to Shan-nang only forty years reduction. is evidently an oversight. have not been able
to find
Note Hsii Shan, author of the 100, says that
C, p. 9.
Shwo Wan
dictionary, A. D.
t'ien was formed from yi and
t
a,
on the
principle of " association of ideas."
Tai T'ung, a lexicographer of our thirteenth century, takes the upper line as equivalent to "what is above," and refers the formation of
t'ien
of
its
to the principle of "indication."
His account
significance, however, is substantially the
T'ien
is
which
same as
have followed in the Lecture. also a phonetic element, though overlooked by
that of Hsii Shan,
I
Notes
to
Lecture
6i
I.
Dr. Williams even says Gallery, Williams, and Edkins. ninety(Syllabic Dictionary, Introduction, p. Ixi.) on the heaven en, t'i resembles primitive first phonetic, "This ;
In but that forms no derivatives." No derivatives! Chalmers' Concise Dictionary of Chinese, p. 268, t'i en appears as a phonetic and, along with two other subor;
dinate phonetics derived from different characters.
It
has
it gives rise to forty the characteristics of a
it,
all
primitive.
Note D, Ti
is
written
p. 10.
^*, which is modified from a more ancient
Shan and Tai Tung make the upper portion what is above," but they give us no Dr. Chalmers (The help towards analysing the rest. the whole equivalent makes 12) Chinese, p. the Origin of earth." to " He who is great, overruling heaven and Hsii
form. of
it
to indicate "
this analysis, he introduces with the important observation that " the peculiar nature
Whatever may be thought of it
of Chinese written language has done good service in stereotyping, so to speak, the primitive behef in one
Supreme
Ti."
The "Concise Dictionary" shows
two other characters,
in
which Ti
is
forty-
the sole or partial
phonetic element.
Note E, This
is
Tai's account of
p. 10.
Ti,— "
the honourable designa-
and government." The recognition of the Supreme Being as our Lord and Governor is, I must It believe, the true sensus Jiiuninis in the mind of man. tion of lordship
is
not an intuition innate in his nature but it is a condoes not fail, in connexion w^ith his per;
viction that
ceptions, to arise in the unsophisticated mind.
persuasion of this has
made me hold
for
My
many
firm
years
62
Lecture
N'otes to
I.
Ti and our God are synonymous terms and it keeps me from accepting, without question, the meaning of the Sanskrit Deva, identified with deus and other corresponding terms, in the root significance of being "the bright or shining.'' " The bright " may well be an epithet of God, as in the old Chinese poem, " The bright and glorious Shang-Ti (Shih, IV., Dec. ii., Ode 2,)" but could hardly be that that the Chinese
of the two languages
general appellation
;
itself.
In illustration of this important point,
venture to give
I
two sentences from Sir Isaac Newton's famous scholium " Deus est vox relativa, et at the end of his Principia ad servos refertur et deltas est dominatio Dei, non in corpus proprium uti sentiunt quibus deus est anima mundi, sed in servos. Deus summus est ens eternum, infinitum sad ens, utcunque perfectum, sine" dominio non est dominus meus." There is a very remarkable reference to this scholium at the commencement of Voltaire's tractate on "The Metaphysics of Sir Isaac Newton. (London, 1747. Translated by David Erskine Baker.)" :
;
;
Note
F, p. 21.
The most common name n]jm it). Dictionary, tablet,
p.
for this tablet is
On
this
SS;
— "Shan says,
name
Shan chu
Dr. Williams
chu,
the
(Syllabic
ancestral
intimating that the deified lord resides
" Deified lord "
in
it."
an erroneous translation of the characters for shan and chu in the name. Shan, according to its proper significance, is here the symbol for the idea of spirit, spirits, spiritual, and is used substantively, = " the Spirit." Chu is here not ="lord/' though that is a common meaning of the character. It is used as a verb, in a well-known sense, the sjTTibol of residing with, is
—
being present, as a guest (Mencius, V.
i.,
ch.
8.).
The
:
N'otes to
spirit is
On
Lecture
63
I.
present at the service, a guest for the occasion. first prayer is "to
every occasion of worship, the
meet or welcome the coming of the escort the spirit on
its
departure."
spirit
;
"
the
last,
" to
Before and after the ser-
As it is one vice, the spirit does not reside in the tablet. of the prerogatives of the sovereigns of China " to sacrifice worship all spirits," he is called pai shan chih chu, "the host or entertainer of all spirits." Dr. Morrison's account of the name shan chu is not sufficiently complete, but it contains no inaccuracy, so "Shan chu, a tablet in family temples with far as it goes If he have, the name of the deceased inscribed on it. to or
:
held an
official situation,
before his
own"
the
(Dictionary
Note
name I.
i.,
G, p.
This error does not surprise
of his office
is
inscribed
p. 30).
36.
me
so
much
as that the
title-page of Regis' translation should say that the Yi
is
But this is due, I Antiqiussimus Sinarum Liber '^ suppose, to the editor, and not to Regis, so difficult is it to free one's self from the entanglement of a blunder that
"•
has once obtained currency.
Note H,
p. 39.
Professor Tiele (Religion of the Chinese, p. 28) says " The twelfth century B.C. is the era of the establishment
Chau dynasty, whose cultus we know from the book Chau Li. Plath objects to the conception of the joint working of heaven and earth as a marriage, and But the great describes the earth as a feudal prince. power which they exert is called generation (sang) and in the Yi King they are frequently represented as husband and wife, as father and mother. The same idea occurs also in the Shu King. See the passages cited by Plath of the
—
Notes
64
to
Lecture
I.
Rel. der alten Chinesen,' pp. 35— 3S, and Ti. To treat this as a type of parental care is inappropriate. The two original principles, Vang and Yin, which Plath regards as the fruit of later philosophical reflection, make
himself,
'
'
Chau Li, the same work it is
their appearance as early as iioo B.C. in the op.
cit. vii.
3,
and
ix.
10,
1 1
;
and
in
not the chief vassal of the empire, but the principal wife The of the emperor, who is named after the earth. old and generally diffused myth of the marriage between
heaven and earth certainly lies at the foundation of Chinese mythology also, though the philosophers afterwards disguised it past recognition." note. I have thought it Avell to give the whole of Tide's When he says that it is not the chief vassal, but the principal wife of the emperor, that earth, he after
the
must intend
chief vassal, but
after
referring to the phraseology "
of which there
is
Dr. Edkins on
an instance
p.
is
named
after the
to say that^the earth is not
3.4,
the
Hwang
principal
named wife,
Tien, Hau T'ia," quoted from
in the prayer
and translated by him,
correctly,
Imperial Heaven and Sovereign Earth." Hau need not be feminine any more than Hwang need be masculine.
'•
This correction takes away the force of his argument in adducing the phraseology. The idea he is insisting on occurs indeed in the Shu, but only in the passages which I have specially commented on at p. 30. He would hardly
have said that
to treat the
of parental love
is
language in them as a type if he had known what
inappropriate,
have called attention to in a note on the same page, that same sentence where "Heaven and Earth" is called the father and mother of all creatures, the one sovereign Plath was is called the father and mother of the people. correct in saying that the joint working of heaven and I
in the
earth in the Yi was not to be regarded as the result of their marriage.
means covers
A
marriage and
the antinomy of the
its
consequences by no
Yin and Yang.
A^ofes (o Lecture I.
Note
I, p.
43.
These two sentences are the twenty-fourth and thirtysecond of what is called " the Great Appendix (Section i)." The former appears in P. Regis as " Principia Yin Yang habent viam suam seu operandi ordinem certum mo-
—
dumque of the
vel
legem naturalem."
Chinese,
p.
— Dr.
translated
114.)
Medhurst (Theology it by, "One male
(? and) one female principle of nature may Canon M'Clatchie be called the right course of things." The has, "The revolving Darkness- Light is Reason."
principle or
—
second sentence appears in P. Regis as " Quod non cadit sub mensuram modumque principiorum Yin, Yang,, Dr. Medhurst translated dicitur Chin (Shan) Spiritus." it by "The inscrutable character of the male and
—
may be denominated Shan,
the mysThat which is incomprehensible in the Darkness- Light (Yin-Yang) is God." by Canon Strangely enough, the meaning found M'Clatchie is the same as that which I also find in it. He comes to his view, however, by mistranslating the character shan, which means spirit and spiritual, and the view is incongruous on his system of interpretation. The rendering of shan by Dr. Medhurst, mysterious,
female principle terious."
is
Canon M'Clatchie
only admissible
mysterious
is
when we bear
Ti
I
must understand the
f:^ T^
in
mind
that behind the
the idea of spirit, spiritual.
Note So
has, "
I
w'
J
K,
'
•
p. 44.
title
Hwang Tien Shang
literally
— " Sovereign Heaven,
But the two pairs of characters cannot nouns in apposition, nor can we construe the first pair as performing the part of an The version which adjective, and qualifying the second. have given is not contrary to Chinese usage.
Supreme God."
well be taken as binomial
1
5
Notes
66
When
the
Roman
Lecture
to
I.
Catho'ic missionaries at
during the K'ang-hsi period (1662
Peking,
— 1722), were disputing
the meaning of the names T'ien and Shang Ti, those on one side presented a memorial to the emperor in JVIanchii, submitting their view that the two names denote but one object, the Supreme Ruler, and that Tien, singly or with attributives, was to
among themselves about
—
be understood of the place of Ti, employed, according
naming Him. The emperor caused their memorial to be translated into Chinese, and published it in the imperial Gazette, with
to Chinese usage, to avoid directly
a declaration of his own approval of their views. Remusat's " Notices des Manuscrits," pp. 414, 415.
Note The Chinese
L, p. 57.
character tsi (^"^
)
covers a
space of meaning than our term sacrifice. of
it
in Morrison's Dictionary, Part
the K'ang-hsi dictionary,
is
See
— "To
i.,
much
wider
The account
taken mainly from
carry
human
affairs
That which is the medium between, or brings together, men and gods. To offer before the gods
{i.e. spirits).
tlesh in the rites of
There
is
nothing
worship
in the
;
to sacrifice with victims.''
K'ang-hsi corresponding to his
but I suppose Morrison took it from the account of the character that is quoted from Hs.ii Shan's
third sentence
;
and which says that tsi is made up of two one the primitive for spiritual beings (see ideagrams p. 11). and the other representing a right hand and a piece of flesh. Otterings of flesh must have been common
dictionary,
;
in
religious
The most
—
worship when the character was formed. it is an ottering
general idea symbolised by
—
whereby communication and communion with being's
is
effected.
spiritual
II.
CONFUCIANISM ITS WORSHIP OF THE DEAD, AND TEACHING ABOUT MAN. :
CONFUCIUS.
—
-(fe
As
"Esteem most highly
filial
la
^
piety and brotherly
snbmis.-ion,
in order to give their due importance to the social relations."
The K'ang-hsi Sacred Edict, Precept
.
"Honour
long
in the
I.
thy father and thy mother
land which the Lord thy
Conunandment.
;
God
that thy days
may be
giveth thee."— />/?/;
II.
The worship
of their forefathers by
all
the
Chinese people. I.
"npHE -L
first
thing to be set forth in the pre-
sent Lecture
ancestors.
principally
is
the Confucian worship of
The former Lecture was occupied with the worship of God as per-
formed by the sovereign of China and as the representative of his ancestors
worship of state
ceremonial,
but
is
in
for himself
people
his
;
the
also a part of the
performing this the
sovereign does not stand alone
;
— the
worship
of their forefathers has always been—the practice of all the
We only
Chinese people.
found that a belief in one supreme and
God was
coeval
the
with
fathers
and
founders of the nation, and was testified to by the primitive written characters. of
God
was, no doubt, the
probably,
the
only
first,
worship.
|
The worship
and for a time, By-and-by all
nature was conceived to be a manifestation of
God, and
to
be peopled with
spirits
superintend-
:
Confucianism
70
ing and controlling
of these
in
sub-
There grew up a worship
ordination to Him.
connexion with the worship
spirits in
The name
of God.
parts
different
its
God was
of
not given to
them, but honour was done to them as ministers of God, and help might be sought from them
as
we
it came about, God and of these devolved on the Head of the
saw, that the worship of
was
spirits
people.
the one that in
all
At the same time the recognition of God was common to all. They knew Him they " lived and moved and had
being,"
their
and that His
and nature;
will
should be the
All derived from
rule of their lives. life
And
Him.
as mediators with
all
owedto Him
Him
their
the duties of
obedience and reverence.
The that
"
philosopher Mencius says in one place,
man were
though a
wicked, yet
if
he
adjusted his thoughts, fasted, and bathed, he
might
sacrifice to
the value
that
purification,
God."^
and how he
felt
that
all
men had
to
But the people were debarred from
do with God.
was done for them Men, however, must worship, and as
the worship of Him. vicariously.
The language shows
Mencius attached to penitent
Tliat
they were cut off from worshipping God, there
remained
for
them the worship of '
Mencius, IV.
ii.
their ancestors.
ch, 23.
Worship of Parents and
Its
Filial piety.
— The
worship of parents a
part of
According
2.
parents
is
services,"
parents
row
for
it.
part-of-#i€-dutiLpf
he
said,
the worship
Confucius,
to
yi
Ayicestors.
of love an3~reverence
'•'
of
"The
piety.
filial
to
when alive, and those of grief and sorthem when dead these completely :
—
discharge the fundamental duty of living men."^
The fundamental duty of living men is filial piety, and among the services of grief and sorrow to parents when dead, the worship of them holds a prominent
Confucius was
place.
expressing in these sentiments the tradition of
The
his race.
lisiao,
is
character for
filial
a phonetic element,
itself as
piety, called
one of the primitive characters it
is
yet
:
used
made up
of two other primitives, the symbols or pictures
an old
ol
man
conception of
Thus the primary by the
and a son.'
{filial _
£iety was set forth
picture of a son bearing up, or supporting, his
But supporting and nourishing by no
father.
means exhaust the duty pretty =
'
description
full
The Hsiao Hsiao
-H
,
[
King, ch.
^j =
a son).
of
or it
virtue.
Take
from the
a
sage.
18.
lao {~^,a.n old man) over tsze
;;
Confuciayiisvi:
72
"The
to his parents
conduct
deavour
;
is
is
to give
Avhen they are
mourning
general
manifests
the
utmost
them the utmost pleasure
he
ill,
for
his
nourishing of them, his en-
his
in
feels the greatest
;
to them,
in sacrificing
When a son may be
he displays the utmost solemnity.
complete
anxiety
(dead), he exhibits every
them
demonstration of grief;
is
son does
filial
— In
follows:
as
them, he
to
reverence
in
"which a
service," said he,
these five things, (he
in
pronounced) able to serve his parents. "
He who
(thus) serves his parents, in a high
be
situation will
ation will
among
be
free
free
from pride
from
;
a low situ-
in
insubordination
his equals will not
equals,
quarrelsomeness
;
in
In
a low
punishment
situation, insubordination leads to
among
and
be quarrelsome.
a high situation, pride leads to ruin
wielding of weapons.
;
leads
to
If those three things
the
be
not put away, though a son every day contribute beef, is
mutton, and pork to nourish his parents, he
not
sentence in
With the sentiment
filial."^
may
in
this last
be compared what Confucius says
the Analects, that the reverence of parents
was necessary to distinguish our support of them from that given to our horses and dogs.^ '
^
The Hsiao Analects,
King, ch. lo.
II. vii.
of Parents and Ancestors. 73
Its WorsJiip
worship of Shun
and
piety
Filial
;
and Chau
down to the subsequently dynasty. Living representatives of the dead then employed.
—
3.
It
was
account of the ancient Shun,
in the
Shu King,
we found
the
first
instances of religious worship addressed to
God
given in the
and to the host of ance
Shil
in the
of his
Shun's
spirits.
is
piety.
filial
that
first
appear-
in
connexion with the report
It
was that
to his elevation to the throne
virtue which led
and we have
;
in
the classic clear intimation that the worship of
He
ancestors was observed even in his time.
commit the ceremonies,
direction
— the
worship of the of men.
of
Po-i
he should
three
his
ceremonies, that
spirits
One
whom
to
minister,
asks his chief
(religious)
the
in
is,
of heaven, of earth, and
recommended, he
being
appoints him in these words
"
:
Ho
!
Po,
you
must be the arranger in the Ancestral Temple.
Morning and night be reverent. Be upright, be Thus the dignitary whom we may call the minister of Religion at the court of Shun was specially denominated the arranger in the Ancespure."^
tral
Temple.
The ceremonies belonging
would require most of >
his time
The Sha,
II.
1.
and
23.
to that
attention.
—
:
ConfuciatiisDi
y4
Our information about the temple
ancestral
increases,
pected, as time goes on.
services
might
as
What
in
the
be
ex-
Confucius said
them as practised by the founders of the Chau dynasty might have been said, I believe, Once every season from the time of Shun.
of
worship was performed. "In spring and autumn," •
— and
it
might have been added
summer and
in
— winter "they repaired and beautified the temple of their ancestors, set forth the vessels that had
belonged to them, displayed their various robes,
and presented the offerings of the several seasons."^ service,
had
worshipper, as preliminary to the
The when
it
to fast for
person
whom
where
he
was confined two days, and
to
one ancestor,
to think of the
he v/as intending to honour, had stood and sat, how he had
smiled and spoken, what had been his cherished aims, pleasures, and delights and on the third ;
day he would have a complete image of him Then on the day of the in his mind's e)-e.
when he entered the temple, he would seem to see him in the shrine, and to hear him as he went about in the discharge of his
service,
worship.
There are
in the
the worship of *
Shih two odes descriptive of
Tang, the founder of the Shang
Doctrine of the Mean, ch.
19.
—
—
Its WorsJiip
dynasty
of Parents and Ancestors.
1766
(B.C.
— 1122).
I
will
75
read to you
one of them, written apparently by a member
House who had taken part
of the royal service "
in the
:
O grand The drums, both large and for the hand, Complete in number, all in order stand Their tones, though loud, harmoniously are blent, !
;
And
rise to greet
Him
the great T'ang, of merit vast, our king
Asks by
To
this
our ancestor's descent.
music
to
descend, and bring
us, the worshippers, the soothing sense
That
he, the object of desire intense.
Deep
drums emit which shrilly fit concord great, Into the diapason Which the sonorous gem doth regulate Majestic is our king of T'ang's great line, Whose instruments such qualities combine.
Is here.
And now we
are the sounds the
hear the :
—
!
we
;
flutes,
hear, which with the
Large
bells
While
in the court the dancers
—
drums have
move with
place.
grace.
Scions of ancient lines the service view.
Pleased and delighted, guests of goodness true. service we received from former days, Down from our sires who showed us virtue's ways,
Such
How And
to
be meek and mild, from morn
to night.
reverently discharge our parts aright.
^lay T'ang accept the rites his son thus pays. the winter comes, and autumn days
As round
" !
"The Speech at Kan," probably contemporaneous document of about '2194 B.C., the second sovereign of the Hsia dynasty In the Shij, in
a
:
Confucian ism
76
is
leading his troops against a rebellious vassal,
him " the punishment appointed by Heaven." Having exhorted them to be valiant, he concludes by saying, "You who obey my
to inflict on
my
orders shall be rewarded before (the spirits of) ancestors,
and you who disobey
my
orders shall
be put to death before the altar of the of the land."
spirit
This seems to indicate that the
kings carried with them to the
ancient
field
the tablets of the spirits of their ancestors and of the spirit
success, just as the
an
land, to be
of the
army
omen
of
of Israel required on
one occasion that the ark of God should be brought to the camp.
We
conclude also from
spirit-tablets, .of
lecture,
were
in
which
this
I
in
the former
commencement of
embrace the occasion
presents to mention a strange inno-
it
vation in this practice that
the
passage that the
spoke
use at the
the Hsia period, and
which
I
period of Chau.
discarded,
and
the
took place during
The wooden departed
was
tablet
ancestors
were
represented at the service by living relatives the
same
certain
rules.
of
surname, chosen
These took
for
according the
to
time the
place of the dead, received the honours which
were due to them, and were supposed to be possessed by their
spirits.
They
ate
and drank
—— Worship of Paraits and Ancestors.
Its
whom
those
as
done
by
they personated would have
accepted for them the
;
77
their descendants,
homage rendered
communicated
their will
to the principal worshipper,
and pronounced on
him and on
benediction,
his line their
assisted in this point
by
being
a mediating officer of
This strange practice of using living
prayer.
relatives at the ancestral worship, instead of the
wooden
tablets,
which
in
it
remark about
my
passed away with the d\-nasty
prevailed. it
;
I
make but one
—-strange as
it
was,
opinion that there was, and
is,
it
other
confirms
nothing of
fetishism in the use of the spirit-tablet.
Further description of the filial, piety and worship of the Chau kings. Titles and worship carried back to ancestors. Seasons of worship were family reunions.
—
4.
The Shih abounds
in
pieces
descriptive
of the services in the ancestral temple of the
Chau
kings.
There are others which may be
denominated sacred songs of filial piety. This virtue is celebrated as the crowning attribute of the founders of the dynasty.
Take
the following piece in praise of the
list
as a
specimen
Wu, who heads
of the actual sovereigns of his line
" Kings die
And
in
Chau, and others
in their footsteps tread.
rise,
':
;
;
Con/iccianism :
8
Three had there been, and all were wise, And still they ruled, though dead. T'ai, Chi, and Wan were all in heaven, When Wu to follow them was given.
Wu
Yes,
to follow
them was
given.
To imitate his sires, And to obey the will of Heaven, He ardently desires. This aim through
all
his course endured,
And
this the people's trust secured.
Yes,
Wu
secured the people's
Arid gave to
Of
filial
duty,
all
faith.
the law
which
till
death
Shining in him they saw.
Such piety possessed his mind Such pattern did he leave behind. ;
Thus the one man was Wu, the One, The king whom all did love. They saw in him the pattern son Such sons to be they strove. The filial aim in him bright shone In him were seen the dead and gone. ;
In W\j his sires were thus brought back.
The kings that from him spring. Continuing in his steps to walk.
Upon
themselves shall bring,
Through myriad years
The
to
Chau
still
given.
blessing of impartial Heaven.
Ah yes, Heaven's blessing will descend, And men their names shall bless. !
Thousands from Chau's remotest end Their praises shall express. Their sway through myriad years shall
Nor
helpers
fail,
strong friends and
last,
fast."
Its
Worship of Parents and Ancestors. 79 innovation
Besides the
represen-
living
of
tatives of the departed in the ancestral temple,
another alteration
in
manner
the
Chau
legislator of the
was made by the famous Confucius says
dynasty.
of the worship
in
the Hsiao: "
Of
all
none greater than
the actions of man, there is and in filial piety there filial piety
is
;
nothing
greater than the reverential awe of one's father. In the reverential awe shown to one's father there
is
nothing greater than making him the
correlate of
the one
The duke'
Heaven.
who
did
first
this."
Chau
of
That
^
text CToes on to say, the duke of
Chau
\yas
as the
is,
associatecl
the remote ancestor of his line with the service at the border altar to
Heaven, and instituted
another great service to God, at which his father, kino-
of
Wan, was
the
Many
the correlate or assessor.
Chinese
scholars,
passage, say that
explaining
in
the
Shun thought only of the and did not associate them with the worship at that the kings of Hsia and
virtue of his ancestors,
the spirits of any of
the border altar
Yin were the of their lines
;
first ;
to
do
this
with "the founders
but that the honour was not ex-
tended to the father of the sovereign
till
the duke
of Chau.
This explanation of the language of
Confucius
I
am
constrained to accept '
The Hsiao,
ch.
ix.
;
and
it
:
8o
Confucianis7ii
gives us a glimpse of the earliest worship of
God
He
in the prehistoric time.
No
altar alone.
men
distinguished
a feast or banquet.
make
to It
was a
it.
us regard
tribute of
and
The it
as
homage
one Lord and Governor
to the
by the Head and
upon
are allowed
service has nothing
and gratitude
occupies His
spirit-tablets of favoured
representative of the Chinese
people.
And
the duke of
Chau did more than
give
a place to the tablet of his father, on the altar " He carried up the title of king to of God. his
grandfather
and
sacrificed to all the
great-grandfather,
former dukes of the
and line
with thecerempnies due to the Son of Heaven."^ Such has been the rule in all subsequent dynasties.
The emperors
of the present
Manchu
dynasty have actually possessed the throne only given to six others
since 1644, but the title
is
who preceded them
kings or chieftains of
their
as
These share with
Manchurian inheritance.
the sovereigns since 1644 in the worship, which is
performed
in the
grand ancestral temple at
the end of the year, while the more frequent
worship
in the first
month
of each season ex-
tends only to the grandfather of the
Their wives also have a part '
in
Doctrine of the Mean, ch.
first
emperor.
the service, 18.
—
—
Worship of Parents and Ancestors. St
Its
pair of tablets being placed side
each in
by
side
one shrine.
From what
has been said,
appear to
will
it
you that those great seasonal occasions
at the
court of China, have always been what we might call
grand family reunions, where the 'dead and
the living meet, eating
and drinking together, and the dead
^\•here the living worship the dead,
This appears very clearly
bless the living.
in
the following lines from a long ballad sung at the court of one of the marquises of Lu, of the .seventh century B.C.
"In autumn comes With
bulls,
:
the autumnal
whose horns
Were capped
with care
in '
:
rite,
summer
bright
—one of them white,
For the great duke of Ch.iu designed
One And
see
they place the goblet
!
In figure fashioned as a bull
The
;
red, for all our princes shrined.
dishes of
full.
;
bamboo and wood
;
meat, roast pig, and pottage good,
.Sliced
And
Below the hall the large stand. There wheel and move the dancers all
O
filial
And
grant you glorious success.
Long
On
;
prince, your sires will bless.
life
and goodness
they'll
bestow
you, to hold the state of Lu,
The horns of the bulls were capped, to keep them from goring, and also to preserve them from injury. If '
they were in any victims.
way
injured, they could not
be used as
:
82
Confucianis7n
And
all
Like
moon
No
the eastern land secure,
complete, like mountain sure.
earthquake's shock, or flood's wild rage,
Shall e'er disturb your
And
happy age
;
with your aged nobles three,
Unbroken shall your friendship In long and firm security."
be,
'
Prayers to the dead.
Of
5.
tral
the prayers or addresses in
only permit
worship, the time will
are from the statutes of the
of you,
my
ances-
me
to
The two following Ming dynasty :— " I
give three brief specimens.
think
tlie
sovereign ancestors,
whose
As from an
glorious souls are in heaven.
over-
happy streams, such is the connexion between you and your descendflowing fountain run the
ants.
I,
a distant descendant, having received
the appointment (from Heaven), look back and offer this bright sacrifice to you, the
honoured
ones from age to age, for hundreds of thousands
and myriads
of
And
years."
again
brightly manifested,
now mysteriously
movements of the
spirits
in
their imperial
are
chariots they
tranquil wherever they go.
heaven
;'
:
"
Now
hid, the
without trace;
wander about,
Their souls are in
their tablets are in the rear apartment.
Their sons and grandsons remember them with 'The
Shih, IV.
ii.;
Ode4.
Worship of Parents and
lis.
in
nearly the same language,
prayer of
is
a concluding
present dynasty, taken from
the'
published
ritual
83
To the same effect, and
thoughts untiring."
filial
Ajictstors.
in
"Now
1826.-
ye front
a us,
(O Spirits,) and now ye pass by us, ascending and descending, unrestricted by conditions of place. The adytum behind is still and retired, very tranquil and felicitous. Your souls are in heaven
your tablets are
;
For myriads of years think of you with
your descendants
will
thoughts unwearied."
filial
Something pleasing about but
A
6.
it
was
recent writer
apartment.
that
in
filial
worship,
injurious.
who
has carefully studied
the ritualistic books of the
Chau dynasty, has
was supposed to be the glory of the early statesmen and sages to have correctly apsaid
:
" It
prehended the natural feeling of to
make
it
filial
duty, so as
an engine for the perfect government
of the family, the state, and
the empire.
In
the description given us of the intention of the sages we seem to lose sight of superstition, and to be in the presence of practices as harmless as
some which
There Rev. v.
249.
is
flourish in Christian countries."^
considerable truth in this representa-
John Macintyre,
in
the
C///ÂŤ^;
Revie-.u,
VII.
:
Confucianis7ii
8-1-
The
tion.
people, as
out, being cut off
have already pointed
I
from the worship of God
for
them the worship
themselves, there remained for
of their ancestors,^ the only other channel that liad
been opened
religious
with
feeling.
filial
the nation for the flow of
The
sages,
make
dut)- so as to
was not
It
itself,
in
therefore,
a religion of
it.
capable of existing by
a relig'ion
apart from the belief in and worship of
the one God, the Lord and Governor iitood side b}' side with that
the influence of
it
was
The
ancestors of
;
but
it
higher worship, and
injurious.
Ancestors became tutelary spirits. of the duke of Chau. 7.
dealt
tr.e
— Service
kings were exalted to
the position of the tutelar}- spirits of the dynasty,
and the ancestors of each family became tutelary
spirits.
the passage on
in
This p.
result
Si from
its
appears clearly
one of the
praisc-
The following passage from the will of Napoleon III. sounds remarkably like a Chinese utterance :^" It is necessary to consider that from heaven on high those it is the whom you have loved regard and protect you soul of my illustrious uncle that has always inspired and sustained me. The like will apply to my son, for he will '
;
—
always be worthy o( his name. With regard to my son, him be convinced that my heart and my soul remain
let
with him."
—
of Payents and Ancestors.
Its Worsliip
songs of Lu.
And
even more remarkably
it is
part of the Shu, in the
shown
in
called
"The Metal-bound
the
fifth
85
Coffer."
book
There the
duke of Chau appears proposing to die in lieu of his brother who was dangerously ill, and whose life he considered more necessary to their infant dynasty than his object,
own.
his
To
accomplish
he conducts a special service to his
father, grandfather,
and great-grandfather, and.
prays to them as having in heaven the charge
Wu, and the interests of their line, begging that his own death may be accepted in substitution for that of WiV of king
of watching over the
life
We
day
are told that the
after this prayer the
king got better, while the duke of Chau continued to live and act as chief minister.
—
Defect of the system. Case of Ch'ang I. Has driven the masses to the Taoists.
The
8.
ancestral
produce
And to
the
the
superstition
there was
it.
also
originated
It
worship
The worship by them
;
of
tended
tutelary
to
spirits.
a great defect attaching in
king and the vassal
nobles and great
thus
the feudal time, lords, with their
officers, all
had
when high
their temples.
of their ancestors could be kept
but what provision was there for
maintenance among the masses of the people
up its "*.
:
Confucianism
86
When
the
system passed away, the
feudal
case was harder
Ch'ang
still.
a very dis-
I,
tinguished scholar of our eleventh century,
tells
us that in his time most of the families of great officers,
and other
and other
of their ancestors
They might be parents,
of things,
traditional
rites.
attentive to the support of their
but they failed
in
doing what was
The
state
he says, was very deplorable.
He
them
required of
for their ancestori.
— — connected
himself had a temple, large
neglected the worship
officers,
shrine,
perhaps
it
with his
was only a house, and
furnished with the spirit-tablets of his ancestors.
Before these, on the
first
day bf each month,
he set forth fresh offerings.
He
seasonal services in the second
At
season.
to his grandfather
death, he
;
and
his father.
in
On
removed the
the principal
to
month
of each
the winter solstice he sacrificed to
his remotest ancestor; in the
autumn, to
observed the
beginning of spring, the third
month
of
the anniversary of a
tablet of the individual
adytum
of the
there performed a special service
;
temple, and for the rites
of the service of the dead ought to be observed
more
liberally than the
duty of nourishing the
living.^
This '
is
an interesting account of the practice
Taken from Chu Hsis Hsiao Hsio, Bk.
5,
par. 6.
Its
Worship of Parents a7id Ancestors. 87
of an extraordinary man, though us to doubt whether
much
to dwell so
however,
and his
it
with the dead.
man
for him, a
latterly in
an
Unable
people.
is
may occur
to
all
It
was
possible,
of culture and wealth,
official
temple and keep
but such a thing
it
was healthy for his mind
position, to maintain
the days he mentions
not possible for the
;
common
to observe the ancestral wor-
ship as prescribed in the Confucian literature, finding
it
too cold and too exacting, they have
thrown themselves into the arms of the Taoists and Buddhists, becoming the victims especially of Taoist superstition.
my
It
does not
province to describe in
actual
ancestral worship
prevalence social
life
this
that
is,
of Taoism, a great of the country.
within
fall
Lecture the
through the
feature
the
in
Millions fancy that
their dead, and other dead, are in a sort of
purgatory, and
will
spite
and injure them
they do not bring about their deliverance. Taoist professors fleece that object, and
are
them
in
if
The
order to effect
wonderfully ingenious
in
finding occasions to wheedle
or frighten their
victims out of their money.
Feeling, in itself
good and admirable, is abused, and made to supply the wages of greediness and deceit.^ '
See an Essay on ancestral worship, by the Rev. Dr.
Yates, in Records of the General Conference of Protestant
:
Co7ifucianis7n
88
Result of the teaching of
filial
piety.
The Chinese teaching of done much to turn the hearts
filial
piety has
9.
back to to
their fathers,
them and
their
of the children
and to keep them attached
ways.
fourth lecture wherein
will point out in
I
think
I
it
my
wrong and
injurious; but numberless instances, well attested,
of
filial
devotion could
be
on the long-continued
justified in looking
ence and growth of the nation "
Honour thy
exist-
command-
father and mother, that thy
long in the land which Jehovah thy
days
maybe
God
giveth thee."
The worship 10.
are^
as a verification
of the promise attached to our fifth
ment,
We
added.^
of the departed great. of the departed great need
The worship
not detain us long.
The
theory of
is
it
given
Missionaries in China, held at Shanghai in May, 1S77 Dr. Yates' (Shang-hai, Presbyterian Mission Press). account of his subject is full and graphic he unfortu;
nately sees only '
its
dark
side.
Dr. Yates has had a different experience-
people," he says, " of
whom we
"
Of all
the
have any knowledge, the
sons of the Chinese are most unfilial, disobedient to parents, and pertinacious in having their own way. The filial duties of a Chinese son are performed after the death of his parents."
representation.
I
am
thankful
I
have not
to endorse this
Worship of the Departed Great.
Its
in
the last paragraph of the book called
Laws
It
served by the sage
was
this,
—that
there said
is
"
:
The
rule ob-
kings in instituting sacrifices
who had
those
the people should be sacrificed
who had
"The
Record of Rites or
"
of Sacrifice," in the
Ceremonies."
89
legislated for to,
also those
died in the diligent discharge of their
whose toils had established states, and those who had warded off, or given succour duties, those
great calamities."
in,
Then
follows a
tinguished
by
list
to
the
mountains,
It
is
zodiac,
they
with admiration
from
the
the sun, moon,
to
the
forests,
people derive
resources.
As
men
looked up to by as
:
"
of
constellations
and
achievements,
such
paragraph concludes
and
of ancient worthies, dis-
rivers,
them
and
are
and
;
valleys,
material
their
only such beneficial services
that give a place in the sacrificial canon."
was shown is
in the
former Lecture that,
briefly called sacrificing to the hills
material objects, the worship the spirits presiding over
men under God.
So
it
is
them is
and other
good of
regard to the
worship of the benefactors of the people the
course
of time.
It
is
It
what
really paid to
for the
in
in
in all
dominated by the
idea of the one God, the Lord and Governor,
with which the Chinese fathers started in their
—
:
go
Coyifucianisju
social
This
state.
following^ verses at
of the
evident
very
in
the
one of the border services
Chau dynasty, addressed
to Ch'i or
Hau-
to whom its whom they honoured besides as the father He is one of those worthies husbandry.
kings traced their lineage,
chi,
and of
is
mentioned
in the
paragraph
Sacrifice,"
and
was said
'•
O
it
"The Laws
in
him
to
of
:
thou, accomplished, great Hau-chi,
To thee alone 'twas given, To be, by what we owe to thee, The correlate of Heaven.
On
all
who
dwell within our land
Grain-food didst thou bestow
:
wonder-working hand This gracious boon we owe.
'Tis to thy
God had the wheat andbarley meant To nourish all mankind None would have fathomed His intent :
But
Man's
for thy guiding
mind.
social duties thou didst
show
To every tribe and state From thee the social virtues :
That stamp our land
'
flow " the Great.'
In such worship of the departed great there is
little
to shock us.
and the good
is
The memory
blessed
all
of the just
the world
over.
Every nation should keep its benefactors in remembrance, and men everywhere should
Its
Worship of the Departed Great,
honour the names of have ministered by
of every nation
all
example and
their
tions to the advance
present
offerings
them
to
expect their presence expect and things truth,
pray are
that
instruc-
dead
the
to
invoke
to
;
the service
at
their
for
help
founded
not
who
amelioration of our
ar-l
But to build teniples
race.
91
;
;
to
and
and
to
:— these
arc
reason
and
in
and that encourage superstition instead
of contributing to the healthy edifying of the
mind and manners.
Im peri al worship There kings
and
Peking
in
is
of such,
emperors
the of
and twice a year,
in
reigning sovereign
visits
spirits of the
of their
long
its evils.
Temple
different
of
the
dynasties,"
spring and autumn, the
line,
it,
and worships the
and of the most noted
The
ministers.
"
and
sacrificial
canon of
1S26 contains the names of about a hundred and ninety sovereigns, from Fu-hsi downwards.
The
roll
tinuous
is
a wonderful testimony to the con-
occupancy
and there soothe the
is
of the
much mind
thought that when
throne
to nourish
of
the
his line
of
China,
the pride and
worshipper lias
in
the
passed away,
there will yet be a tablet in that or a similar hall to his spirit.
The members
of the Board
:
Confucianisju
92 of
and
Rites,
emperor, decide
reigning
the
what former sovereigns
be included
shall
the canon, and what excluded from a
name
as
dynasty,
of the founder of the Ch'in
that
burner
the
in
Such
it.
the
of
classical
books,
and destroyer of the Confucian scholars, can never obtain a place little
;
but
general there
in
is
regard paid to the moral and intellectual
character
second
the
of
different
Manchu emperor,
the famous sovereign
of the K'ang-hsi period, declared that
unseemly
for
men
to
The
sovereigns.
the
discuss
it
was
characters
throne,
and
whether they should be sacrificed to or
not.
of those
The
who had occupied
the
canon thus becomes a tribute to power
place, without regard to worth and virtue. So it is in the worship of the departed great by the emperor you can conceive how liable the practice is to be abused, when it descends
and
:
among
the people.
Warning I
consider that Confucius uttered his protest
against to
of Confucius.
it,
when he
a spirit
said, "
For a man to
sacrifice
which does not belong to him
(mere) flattery."^
The term employed
which represents the '
spirits
is
is
that
of the deceased.
Analects, II. 24.
Worship 0/ the Departed Great.
Its
That
should
all
worship the
spirits
of
institution
of his
country,
was an
ancestors
which the sage himself observed beyojii
95
th£__circle of one's
;
their
but to go
family -and
jvv^Drship
was\iiOjthing but flattery, a thing unauthorized,
and done with a mercenary aim.^
Had
the worship of the spirits of the
departed a good moral influence II.
It
is
time that
next topic, and while
question,
— Have
worship of the
endeavour
we reason
influence
to
to
answer,
it
the
think that the
moral and
beneficial, a
Of
?
to our
which has been described
spirits
had or has now a gious
should go on
only detain you from
will
I
and
ask,
I
I
?
course,
we
smile
at
reli-
the
idea of the service having power to bring the to the tablets from wherever the}' are
spirits
but
as
the significance
of the
which has been accepted as meaning is
the liaving
with,
;
Chinese term, sacrifice,
communion and communication
we can conceive
striving to recall his tiieir \irtues, till
he
the sincere worshipper
fathers,
feels the
and dwelling on glow of
and resolves to be good as they were.
affection, I
have
often talked with Chinese on the subject, but
never got
full
and satisfactory answers to •
See Note A.
my
—
^
Confuciaiiism
g4
They would
inquiries.
by
The
How
"
of Confucius,
me
refer
first v/as the
abundantly do
beings display their powers
men
were benefited
assert they
the worship, and then
classical passages.
:
They
!
to
three
language spiritual
cause
all
under heaven to fast and purify themselves,
and put on
their richest
Then,
their sacrifices.
dresses to engage in
like
overflowing water,
they seem to be over the heads, and on the right
and
left (of their
worshippers)."^
The second was the account of the good king Wan,
in
"Wan
one of the pieces of the Shih
formed himself upon his
Nor gave
sires,
their spirits pain.
Well pleased were they. Next he His wife. His brethren fain
To
follow there.
The
chiefs
:
inspires
In every state
on his example
wait.
—
In palace see him, bland, serene In fane, with rev'rent fear. Unseen by men, he still felt seen
;
—
By
spirits
always near.
Unweariedly did he maintain His virtue pure, and free from
The
third
stain."
passage was also from the Shih,
from a long and admirable piece
in
•
Doctrine of the Mean, ch.
i6.
2
The
Shih, III.
ii.,
Ode
6.
which an
—
Its
Man.
Doctrine about
95
aged marquis of Wei admonishes himself to a It is more to virtuous and intelligent course.^ the point, and speaks of the spirits generally, and not only as intercourse is sought with them in
Thus
the temple. *'
When
runs
it
:
mingling with superior men, then
In friendly intercourse, oh
How
mild your face
and
All v\Tong
!
error,
!
what harmony how you flee
!
!
When
in your chamber, 'neath its light, Your conscience keep as pure and bright. Say not, No one can see me here *
;
The The
place
is secret.'
Be in fear. when and where
spirits come, but one beforehand can declare. The more we should not spirits slight,
No
But ever
Man The
12.
attention,
feel as in their sight."
the creature of God.
is
topic
third
— What
now
will
our
receive
China teaches
the religion of
concerning man, especially as to his_nature, his duty, and his d est iny.
You remember service of the in
my
that
former Lecture,
all
the
He
—how
numerous
are indebted to it is
the prayers at a great solstitial
Ming dynasty, which
God
alone, \the '
it
was
Ibid., III.
who iii.,
introduced
of living
tribes
for their
Lord,
I
is
Ode
them
said in
beginning
beings ;
that
the true parent 2.
:
Coufucianism
96 of
things
all
He made
that
;
heaven and earth
and men. Most of us were acquainted, one time, with what
at
is
called "
suppose,
I
The
First
by Dr. Watts. The first question Can }-ou tell me, child, who made
Catechism,'" in
it
you
}
is
"
—
"
A
Chinese child, familiar with
thc.-e
prayers, would be likely to answer in the very
heaven and
The
"
words of Dr. Watts,
And
earth."
God who made
great
the answer would be
according to the testimony of some of the oldest
the people,"-' said
greaPr'ang, the
in
the eighteenth century
same sentiment mankind."-
_giyes_ birth
to
Chung-hui, a minister of the
the ninth century to
Heaven
"
Chinese documents.
repeated
is
B.C.,
in
— " Heaven
That man
Heaven, or God, therefore,
is is
B.C.;
and
poem
gives
the a
a
of
birth
creature of
tenet of the
religion of China.
The most
intelligent of all creatures.
In a passage which it is
creatures."^ in
man If we
said that "
is
-
^
adduced from the Shu
ask what there
the constitution of '
I
the most intelligent of
man
peculiar
that gives him this
The Shu, IV. ii. 2. The Shih, III. iii., Ode 6. The Shu, Y. i., sect. 1. See \
is
all
p. 30.
Its
Doctrine about
Man.
97
superior intelligence, these ancient writings do not
Mencius indeed says that " that whereby differs from the lower animals is but small,
tell us. IX .n
and that the majority of people cast
men
while superior
preserve
it
"
;
it
away,
but, without
pausing to define the differentiating characteristic,
he goes on to specify the ancient Shun
as one of the superior men. "
"
Shun," he says,
clearly understood the (natures of) things,
marked the
He
relations of men.
and
walked along
the patji of beneyolence and righteousness, not
needing to pursue_jt as by an philosopher was of the difference
not thinking
metaphysically
the cultivation of moral
hearers
qualities to his
The
between men and animals, but
commend
wished to
effort."^
;
and hence Chao Ch'i commentator
of our second century, the great
on his works, says that the difference is "
in
question
simply the interval between the knowledge
of righteousness and
the want of that
This interval
ledge."
is
know-i
indeed great, but
it
appears that the ancient Chinese held popularly that
man
just as for
is
" the
most
intelligent of all creatures,"
we do when we say
their
below the
of
some remarkable
depravity that they put themselves level of the brutes.
'
Mencius, IV.
ii.
19.
Confucian is?n
98
of man is compliance with his moral nature.
The duty required
13.
most in
On
God from
the duty required by
man was
which
this
His creatures, and the way
intelligent of
enabled to
fulfil
it,
we have
Thus spake T'ang,
the following statements.
whose name must by this time be familiar to " The your ears great God has conferred :
(even) on
the
people a
inferior
moral sense,
compliance with which would show their nature invariably
To make them
right.
pursue the course which
work
what we read a
it
little
would indicate
To
of the sovereign."^
tranquilly
the
same
is
the
effect
is
in the Shih, in a piece, referred to
ago, of the ninth century B.C.
in gi\'ing birth to
:
"
Heaven,
mankind, to every faculty and
The people
relationship
annexed
possess
normal nature, and they (conse-
this
quently) love faculty of
relationship
normal
its
man its
its
has
its
laws.
virtue."^'
function to
Thus every fulfil,
duty to be discharged.
every
The
and the duty are the laws which man has-lCL observe. This is the normal nature conferred by Heaven, the moral sense, compliance with which would show men's conduct invariabh'
functidfT
'
'
The Shu, IV. iii. 2. The Shih, III. iii., Ode
6.
Its
Man.
Doctrine about
ri'sht.
This moral sense constitutes
various
relations "
[
a law to himself."
99
man
in his
,
Kings and sages appointed to rule and guide 14.
men
to fulfil their duty.
But men need guidance and help
use of their normal nature
that to define the course of duty to keep
it
Avas the
in
the
and T'ang's idea was
;
work of the
and
assist
sovereign.
editors of the imperial edition of the
Shu
men The that
1730 pause at this point in the to express their admiration of T'ang.
appeared classic
He was
in
the
first,
the doctrine of
they say, to bring out clearly
human
nature.
It
was con-
more ancient Shun T'ang is in mind praise. Let it be borne worthy of their that he ascended the throne of China two huntained
in
utterances of the
to which they refer, but only darkly.
dred years before Moses was born according to our
common
chronology, and forty-four years
earlier than that event according to the chrono-
logy of Dr. Hales.
How
our nature as given by
grandly he speaks of
God
How
!
conceived of the work of the sovereign
nobly he !
His notion, indeed, of that work was pitched too
high,
though
it
has
the literature of China.
ruled It
is
ever since in
the duty of the
;
Confucianism:
lOO
sovereign to rule for the good of the ^people -and
when he has ceased
to^^do
so,
,
the
when he
doctrine
the
very striking language
in
people are the most
said that "the
important element
'
and the
in a nation,
But
lisrhtest."^
for-
Mencius formu-
feited his title to the throne.
lated
he has
sovereigns
all
ruler
is
cannot be
They they may
expected to teach and guide the people. are in the position of authority, but
not have either the
moral superiority or the
would
intellectual ability that
new
factor introduced,
by king Wu, the .
these
words
:
to realize
His theory was expanded, and
T'ang's ideal. a
them
fit
"
first
which we find stated
Chau
of the
Heaven, to help the
kings, in inferior
made for them rulers, and made for iheni instructors, who should be assisting to God, and
people,
"help to secure tranquillity throughout the realm,
This idea as to instructors, though not
fully
enunciated by T'ang, was not beyond the range of his thoughts.
"
I,
the
little
child," said he,
charged with the decree of Heaven, and its bright terrors, did not dare to forgive (the "
criminal).
presumed to use a dark-coloured making clear announcement to
I
victim bull, and,
the spiritual sovereign in the high heavens," '
-
Mencius, VII.
The Shu,
ii.,
V., sect.
ch. 14. i.
7.
—
or,
Its
Doctrine about Man.
loi
as Confucius quotes the passage, "to the great
and sovereign God,"
— requested
sought for the great sage, with
my
unite
Then
whom
request the
to
strength,
deal
leave to
with the ruler of Hsia as a criminal.
I
might
I
favour
of
Heaven for you, my multitudes."^ Thus the religion of China teaches that pod made men, and endowed them with a gobd nature intended to lead them invariably right ;
and to secure
this result,
He
further appointed
them kings and wise men to ruTe^and instruct Instruction to promote their virtue, and these government to secure their happiness were what Heaven made provision for in behalf i/ for
them.
:
—
of mankind.
Man's moral feebleness makes this necessary. View of Confucius and Mencius.
—
But
15.
why was
provision for those
necessary to
it
who were
make such
furnished with so
" Heaven," it was said to T'ang good a nature by his minister Chung-hui, " Heaven gives birth .••
to the people with (such) desires, that without
must fall into all disorders and Heaven again gives birth to the man of intelli-
a ruler they
;
gence to regulate them." '
The Shu,
IV.
iii.
2
;
jNIan with his
and Analects, XX.
i.
moral
','
:
Confucianism
I02 sense
go
is
yet in danger of going astray,
Nearly
astray.
sure to
is
hundred years before
five
T'ang, the same truth had been indicated by
Shun, when, as related in the Shu, he said to his chief minister, "
The mind
prone
affinity
(to err)
its
;
suing what
right),
is
on
the
in
first
that you
The same
jiold fast the JMean."^
in
is restless,
right
is
as
-
warning the
Wan last
Shang dynasty, and saying
How
great
is
may
is
pur-
(in
sincerely
thing appears
stanza of a remarkable piece
the Shih, where king
duced
"
man
what
Be discriminating, be uniform
small.
later
of
to
of
Chau
now
of
the
to him,
God, who ruleth men below
In awful terrors
intro-
is
sovereign
!
arrayed.
His dealings seem a recklessness to show, From which we shuddering shrink, dismayed. But men at first from Heaven their being drew. With nature liable to change. All hearts in infancy are good and true. But time and things these hearts derange."-
Such passages seem cerning
human
to teach a doctrine con-
nature, not inconsistent with the
teaching of our Christian scriptures. to teach this
For the
full
;
and
I
believe they do teach
exposition of the
however, we must descend •
'
They seem it.
Chinese view,
to the writings of
The Shu, II. ii. 2. The Shih, III. iii., Ode
i.
Its
Mencius, turies
Man.
Doctrine about
between thirteen and
after
103
fourteen
cen-
Tang.
Confucius had said that man is born for uprightness and that, if one be without uprightness, and yet live, his escape
\
'•
;
(from death)
|
/
/
the result of mere good fortune.'^ ^
is
manner was, gave his opinion and roundly. " Man's nature is good," he said. " The tendency of man's nature to good is like the tendency of water to flow downwards." 2 But he explained these statei\Iencius, as
more
his
distinctly
ments, saying, "
we
practice of in
From
the feelings proper to
see that our nature
what
is
is
good.
constituted for
This
is
what
saying that the nature
it,
mean men do
the subject without prejudice will object to this In fact, that philosopher, born
view of Mencius.
more than two thousand years before
bishop Butler, developed
a theory of human nature in which he anticipated every important point insisted on by the Christian prelate. He
admitted, as Chung-hui had done, that
man was
prone to go astray, and could not be safely left to himself By wrong-doing men were violating the law of their nature, formed for goodness '
*
I^Iencius, \"I.
Analects, VI. xvii. i.,
ch.
i,
2.
'
|
I
is
rather
-
the
is good. If not good, the blame cannot be imputed to their natural powers."^ Few who consider
what
\
ibid., ch. 6.
;
I
'
'
:
Confucianism
04
1
they must
"
seek for their lost heart," and then
by following the example and obeying His analysis of the the maxims of the sages. When constituents of humanity was correct. keep
it
he came to speak of
how men
conduct of the ideal which
their
how they
are to regain
short
fall
in
suggests, and
it
and keep that
ideal, his
teaching was defective.
The course
human duty
of
confined to the
five constituent relationships of society. 16.
laid
What now
down
is
the course of
by the .sages raised up
the purpose
human duty
as
by Heaven
for
In answering this question,
.''
will
I
use the words of a Chinese writer of the last century.
In the year 1670 there was issued in
China what Edict,
is
known
containing
as the K'ang-hsi Sacred precepts,
sixteen
by the
present dynasty,
second emperor of the
for
An amplificathe instruction of the people. tion of the precepts was published by his successor, and
portions
of this are read
explained twice a month
all
and
over the empire,
approaching more to our idea of sermons than anything else cept enjoins
ftlial
greatest of the
seventh
is,
in
"
Confucianism.
The
first
pre-
This
the
first
and
piety.
commandments Discountenance
is
in
China.
and
put
The away
—
Doctrme about Man.
Its
105
strange principles in order to exalt the correct
Wang
doctrine."
on
phrast, says
this
"
:
Here
head towards heaven, and
He
things.
rectitude
is
is
man, with
feet
his
midst of
the earth, in the
all
other
endowed with the
there
his
planted on existing
principle of
complete, and outside him there
all
are the requirements of duty in his lot is
para
Yu-po, a very able
wonderful and
rare
that
;
— what
he has
to
There are the relations of ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, elder brother and younger, friend and friend, attend
to
.*
and the duties severally belonging to them
;
no one, intelligent or stupid, can dispense with these for a single day.
If besides these,
be-
yond your proper lot, you go about to seek for some refined and mysterious dogmas, and to engage in strange and marvellous performances, you will show yourselves to be very bad men." Such, then,
is
the whole duty of
religion of China, as
themselves. the
duties
What
man
in
the
expounded by the Chinese the sages have taught are
binding on
men
in
society.
The
scheme says nothing about men's duty to God. It Ts~tTOe~that -man's nature and 'fhe^co'nstitution
of society are
performance of
the
from duties
Him, and that a belonging
to
the
:
io6
,
Co}ifucianisin
five relationships is
obedience to His will
but
;
the duties are enforced without any immediate reference
to
God.
Our
Christian
The
put the matter differently. stands foremost in them
catechisms
God
idea of
"
Man's chief end is to glorify Him." In the teaching of the Chinese religion, man's duty to God is left to take care :
of itself
The
five constituent relationships of
society
are mentioned in the canon of
Shun in connexion with his appointment of a minister of Mencius
Instruction.
there belongs the
go)
;
refers to the
and amplifies
the Shu,
and
if
way
passage "
saying,
it,
in
To men
which they should
(in
they are well
warmly
fed,
clad,
and comfortabl}- lodged, without being taught (at the same time), they become almost like This also was a subject of anxious
the beasts.
solicitude to the sage (Shun),
and he appointed Hsieh to be minister of Instruction, and to
teach the relations of humanity, father
and son there should be
— how
between
affection
tween ruler and subject righteousness
;
;
be-
between
husband and wife attention to their separate between old and young a proper functions ;
distinction
;
and
between
friend
fidelity.'? '
Mencius,
III.
i.,
ch. 4.
and
friend
— ;
lis
Doctrine about
Relationships
and
husband
of
friend
of
Man.
and
friend
to
wife.
107
— Position
of
woman. do not know any other scheme of society which gives so prominent a place to friendship and what is found in Chinese moralists on the 17.
I
subject
The end
of a noble character.
is
friendship
of
be mutual helpfulness, and
should
^he
especially the promotion of virtue,
functions of husband and wife are-^=tk^ direction of all affairs outside the family by the hus-
band, and of
matters inside by the wife,
all
the leading of the husband, and the following I do not see that fault can be of the wife.
found
with
account
this
liusband and wife
becomes more it
attention
liven
difficult
to
entirely
now
minded
but as social
;
"I
wife
least,
life
in
of
China
have the
to confine the wife's
her
often
household
during the
aftairs.
the
strong-
things
outside
found
regulator of
as well as inside the family. at
duties
the
like our social life in the west,
be found
will
of
And
nominally
minority of the present
emperor, as was the case also during that of his predecessor, the government has been in the
hand of an empress-dowager and the empressmother.
The
condition of
woman
/
separate
in
China,
1/
—
:
1
Confucianism
o8
however, has always been
man
religion does not look
its
;
inferior
an equal eye. a mother
It is
not
to
that of
upon her with
the wife becomes
till
— the
a place in
mother of a son, that she takes the family and the temple, on a level
with her husband.
Historical view of the position of
woman.
Infanticide and foot-binding.
There are two common Chinese characters with the signification of wife. The older, and 1
8.
which
is
also a primitive belonging to the pre-
historic time,
called ch'i,
is
and denotes " the That this equal." ^
woman who is the mate or was the most ancient designation of a wife is satisfactory, and would have been entirely so but for our
having among the primitive characters
one called ch'ieh, and denoting a concubine.^ Neither the primitive characters of China nor its
written documents disclose to us a state of
society in which the
man
had, or ought to have,
only one sharer of his bed.
'
Ch'i
primitive, -
^T
(^J, composedof 3^> meaning
Ch ieh ,
a
f
-^
female
;
)
The concubine was a f^i^^^^5 ^"d^"°^^^''
— on a level with. .
The lower
the upper
is
part
of this
is
not fully ascertained.
also
Doctrine about
lis
Man.
109
do not know that the system that prevailed by
the wife, and
inferior to
we should call the name of polygamy
I
but
;
Chinese history
all
testifies to the evils springing from
it.
Canon of Yao," the first document Shu King, the sage Yao gives his two daughters in marriage at the same time to the sage Shun, as an experiment by which he might know whether Shun were fit to occupy his own In
the "
of the
Subsequently, as related
place on the throne.
also in the Shu, the ruin of both the dynasties
of Hsia and
Shang
is
occasioned by the wicked-
ness of the concubines of their
The Book
of Poetry affords us
the domestic
monarchs.
last
many peeps into Wan, the
at the court of king
life
founder of the line of Chau, and subsequently at
many
queen,
of the feudal courts.
is
of her
the theme of
noblest qualities
jealousy,
and her
harem
well-filled
many
her
and one
her freedom
is
complacency even of
Wan's
T'ai-sze,
pieces,
from
in
Many
lord.
think that the force of degradation could
the will
no
farther go.
There B.C.
is
a
fine
poem
on the completion
Hsuan.^ happiness
of the ninth century
of a palace
The author augurs in
it
'
;
for the
and anticipating
The
Shih,
II. vi.,
Ode
by king king
in the last 5.
all
two
—
I
Confiuianism
ID
:
stanzas the birth of sons and daughters, he thus
them
sings about
:
" Sons shall be his,— on couches
The
little
lulled to rest.
ones, enrobed, with sceptres play
;
Their infant cries are loud as stern behest Their knees the vermeil covers shall display. As king hereafter one shall be addressed The rest, as princes, in our states shall sway. ;
;
And
daughters also to him shall be born. shall be placed upon the ground to sleep
They
Their playthings
their dress the simplest
tiles,
Their part alike from good and
ill
Dr. Morrison understood the hne,
good and
;
to keep.
And ne'er their parents' hearts to cause to mourn To cook the food, and spirit-malt to steep."
alike from
;
worn
*'
;
Their part
to keep," as saying that
ill
the daughters would be "incapable either of evil or good,"'^ but the sentiment that.
It
is
simply
this,
is
not so extreme as
— that
a
woman
oughts
to have no mind of her own, and not to talce In one piece the initiative either in good or ill.
compared to a dove, but not because gentleness and beauty, but because of its
a bride of
its
is
A
quietness and stupidit^.^
poem
dilates
woman,"
in
on the
evils
terms which
I
do not care
'
See his Dictionary,
2
The
'
Ibid., III.
Shih,
I.
I.
i.,
Ode i. Ode lo.
ii.,
iii..
stanza in a thirdj.
caused by " a wise
p. 6oi.
to quote."
^
1
Its
Infanticide
Chinese,
Doctrine about has
charged
been
showing their
as
Man.
1 1
the
against
want
natural
of
and though it does not exist to the extent that has sometimes been represented, it meets you in most parts of the empire, and is
affection
;
owing mainly reason
why
I
to the poverty of the people. refer to
it
The
because the victims
is
of the unnatural practice are almost invariably
Woman
girls.
certainly
has no occasion
Both Confucius and
bless the religion of China.
^lencius were distinguished to their mothers,
to
devotion
for their
and neither of them
is
open
to
the charge of having added a concubine to his wife
;
but their married
life
does not appear to
have been very happy, and no generous sentiment tending to the amelioration of the social position of woman ever
came from
either.
The low opinion entertained of woman in China may be considered to have found its strongest expression between nine hundred and a thousand years ago,
when the custom
of binding
and cramping the feet of girls commenced. I once saw a notice condemnatory of it in the Mohammedan mosque at Canton. It was a sin,
the placard said, against the
Supreme Lord,
and disfiguring His handiwork I and Mohammedanism sternly forbade it. never succeeded in warming a Chinese father
interfering with
;
Confucianism
2
1 1
:
to enthusiasm against the practice.^
It is to the
honour of the second emperor of the present dynasty that he prepared an edict commanding its
suppression.
The
representations
ministers about the opposition which
encounter,
Among
however,
So powerful habit
would
made him withdraw
it.
the most furious in the outcry against
would have
it
his
of
it
is
been the the
women
themselves.
of fashion and
dominion
!
Confucianism says nothing explicitly about the state of 19.
The Confucian
man
after death.
no
religion gives
utterances on the state of
man
explicit
after death.
holds, and has always held, that, though
embodied, he continues to very
little,
and nothing
live
on
;
but
it
It
dissa}-s
definite, as to the con-
ditions of his future existence. In his "View of China for Philological Purposes," p. 28, Dr. Morrison quotes one account of the origin of this practice, under the date A.D. 916 ; but the Chinese WTiter '
prefaces his narrative with the statement that " it is not known when the bow {i.e. small) foot of females was introduced."
Dr. Williams, (Middle
mentions three not say which
different is
accounts of
the most correct.
Kingdom, its
origin
This
II. p. 28,) ;
is
but does
a point
worth the attention of some Sinologue, who has the means of investigating
it.
Doctrine about
Its
Man.
1
13
Classical testimonies. 20.
have already quoted
I
in this
ode of the Shih which says that
Wan," "
were
all in
heaven
to the case of the
same
to those
;
get sick
brother
of that of his
lieu
whose continued
the kingdom.^ to
have also referred
I
and asked that they would
accepted in
important than his
available
and
own
to
life
was more
the interests of
Other pieces of the Shih are
prove
the
ancient
belief
books of the Shu,
also,
B.C.,
in
the
In one of the
continued existence of the dead.
teenth century
and
duke of Chau, when he prayed
three,
his death
"
Chi,
kings of Chau,
ancestors of the
three
Lecture^ an
" T'ai,
belonging to the four-
king Pan-kang,
irritated
by the opposition of the wealthy and powerful Houses to his measures, threatens them with calamities to be sent down by his ancestor, T'ang the Successful. that their ancestors and served
his
predecessors,
entreating T'ang to
Not
He
tells
his
ministers
who had loyally were now urgently
fathers,
punish their descendants.
good sovereigns continue happy existence in heaven, but their
only, therefore, did
to have a
good ministers sliared their happiness with them, and were round about them, as they had been '
See
p. 7S.
^
Page
85.
8
—
:
Confucianism
114 on
earth,
and took an interest
the progress
in
of the concerns which had occupied
Indeed, the two forms of wor-
their lifetime.
of which
ship, the origin
prehistoric time
— the
pendent existence of
ancestral temple
"Your That God
books. the
in
it
is
no
occupant of His throne
idle
With reverence Heaven's Its
are
B.C.,
of
general
will
I
go
will
duty's path
is plain.
clearly
know
—
;
let
me
It
high,
There in the starlit sky round about us moves. Inspecting
And
all
we
do,
daily disapproves
Wliat S3.
;
not say
Heaven is remote on Nor notices men's way.' '
Pp. 82,
in the ancient
favour to retain
hard
Is
I
is "
not just and true."-
The
is
young king Ch'ang,
of the
:
Where
'
the imperial
in
said to the worshipped
is
century
twelfth
"
possibility
souls are in heaven."^
The words
application
the
inde-
the services ap-
at
a multitude of passages
in
the
In the three prayers
adduced from those used
dead,
taught
and the
spirits
communion with them I
God and
— supposed
pointed in their honour.
which
have traced to the
I
worship of
worship of the departed
of
them during
Shih, IV.
i.,
Pt. 3,
Ode
3.
I/s
Dodrme
about ]\Ian.
In illustration of this point
1
15
quote but one
I will
more passage from one of the appendices to the Yi King, by Confucius.^ /l^he family," it says, ;
'that accumulates goodness
is
sure to havesuper-
abundant happiness; the family that accumulates evil is sure to have superabundant misery."
may appear
It
that this
Heaven's complacency at the bad,
and
that,
for the
descriptive only of
good, and anger
and of retribution simply
though we
good
find
my
time
in
;
rewards and dignity
after death, nothing
punishment of the bad. intimated
is
in the
So
it
is
is
;
any
said of
and
I
have
opinion that the sx'stem of ances-
worship prevented the development of the
tral
idea of future retribution.^
might have spirit
his
The tyrant-oppressor and
tablet in the temple,
much
be feasted and prayed to as
as
Shih
poems
king Hsuan
of the ninth century
in
of excessive drought. for succour,
though
the
He
is
a prayer
B.C. in
he
One
had been a great benefactor of the people. of the finest
his
if
by
a time
prays to his parents
his father
ously worthless and wicked.
had been notoriEndeavours have
been made to explain away the simple text, probably from a wish to avoid its seeming to give honour to one so undeserving of '
''
The Yi, App. 7, par. 41. The Shih, III. iii., Ode 4,
"
St. 4.
it."''
Page
92.
Confucianism:
ii6
More modern view,
that retribution takes
place in time. 21.
I
have selected the
from the
illustration
seventh appendix to the Yi, because
it
speaks
of the issues of good and evil in the history of
a family, and so far extends the theory of retri-
bution into the future, just as our second com-
mandment does
;
but
is
the future of
still
The
about the era of Confucius.
until
distinct statement of
was
it
This view did not take definite shape
time.
in
535
B.C.,
it
that
I
can
mind
by a minister of Lu, on
Giving orders that
death-bed.
call to
first
son
his
his
and
another scion of his clan should become disciples
of Confucius,
who was
then attracting
the public notice, he referred to several ancestors of the sage, and said that in
him was about
to
be verified the frequent saying of an eminent statesman, that " If a wise and good
not get distinguished in his sure to be
among
intelligence."
^
own
his posterity
This
is
time^ there
some one of is
now
vast
generally
Virtue and
spoken of by Chinese scholars. vice have their appropriate issues, '
is
the form in which the
doctrine of future retribution
,1
man do
if
not in the
See the Tso Chwan, under the seventh year of duke
Ch'ao.
:
Its
Doctrine about
Man.
1
experience of the individual, certainly
_
1?
that
in
of his posterity.
on the
of Confucius
Four utterances
subject. 22.
We
need not be surprised that the old
China should sp.eak^thus indefinitely be about -the^Juture state of manl religion of
(^
LeT^
thankful ratherTEanFrecognizes, as
it
does, his
continued existence after death, and the ascent of the spirits or souls of the good to heaven.
By
the time of Confucius, however,
— say
in
the
century B.C.,— men had come to wish for He information more definite and minute.
fifth
himself j
I
speaking
avoided
extraordinary
things
bellious disorder
;
;
and
feats
on
subjects
four
strength
of
;
re-
But he could
spirits.^
not prevent his disciples from questioning "him
about them.
It
was
not, after all,
they learned from him, but I division of my Lecture by relating
much
will
The
first
of his utterances
is
that
close this
it.
well
of the foremost of his
known.
Chi Ld, one asked him once about the_jeryice.^f..the spirits " While you are (of the dead), and he replied, not able to serve men (alive), how can you serve their spirits.?"
The '
disciple
went
Analects, VII. xx.
^
disciples,
on, 'T venture
\
8
1
:
Co7ifucia7iisvi
1
ask
to
about death
;
and he was answered,
"
While you do not know
"
know about death taken
been
profound
?
of these
meaning
how can you
Y\{&,
Different
^
'
them
in
views have
Some
repHes.
others
;
the sage's avoiding unprofitable subjects-. latter
a
find
merely This
view seems the more correct.
The
occasion
the
of
second
of
utterance
Confucius was the question of Tsze-kung, another
who asked him whether knowledge or not of the services
distinguished follower, the dead had
The master
"If
I
were to say the dead have such knowledge,
I
rendered to them.
am
afraid that
filial
sons and dutiful grandsons
would injure their substance offices
replied,
to the departed
;
and
paying the
in if
that the dead have not such knowledge, afraid that unfilialsons
unburied.
You need
would leave
no present urgency about the
after
you
will
know
it
for
other
am
their parents
point.
There Here-
The Confucian Ana-
yourself."^
former utterance was from the lects,
I
not wish to learn whether
the dead have such knowledge or not. is
last
were to say
I
and may be accepted as genuine. This is from the " Narratives of the School,"
the authority of which does not stand so high. '
Analects, XI.
*The Chia Yu,
xi.
II.,
Art
I.
Its
would hope
I
the Chinese,
Doctrine about that, it
is
Man.
119
though generally accepted by It gives us no not genuine.
information, and certainly
was not the teaching
proper to a sage.
The the
"
r~
third utterance
is
from the ninth book of
Record of Rites," where Confucius
He
Yen Yen.
versing with
is
con-
says, " (By-and-by),
died, (his friends) went on the housetop, and cried out to him by name to come back, Afterwards they (wishing his soul to return).
when one
*
set forth
by the corpse
and pieces of roasted
rice
uncooked and crude,
flesh.
Thus they looked
heaven (where the soul was gone), and The body and buried (the body) in the earth.
up
to
animal soul descend, while the intelligent
Hence the dead
on high.
is
spirit
are laid with their
heads to the north, and the living stand facing In all these matters they followed the south. (the
ways
the beginning (of funeral and
at)
sacrificial rites).^
The
practice of going on the
See the Li Yun, Part i. 7. The text, it is supposed by many, contains a Taoistic clement, surreptitiously introduced by the compilers under the Han dynasty. Portions, including this paragraph, are thrown out of >
some
editions.
The name
of " the intelligent spirit
" is
The character is ch'i, literally, "the knowing breath." and not shan, " the breath " being used like the Hebrew ruach and the Latin spiritus. A famous commentator, Ch'an Hsiang-tao, says, " The body and animal soul are
<^
:
I20
Co7ifucianis7ti
top of the house, it,
is
still
observed
of the passage, ,
when
and shouting
in
there
is
a death has taken place
to the deceased to
in
But the importance
China.
if it
come back,
be authentic, about which
some doubt,
the testimony which
is
it
gives as to the ancient belief in the separation
of the soul and body at death, and the continued existence of the former on high.
r^\ 'â&#x20AC;˘\/\\
Much
same
to the
effect is the fourth utter-
ance, found also in the
"Record
of Rites," in
the twenty-fourth book.
There the
disciple Tsai
Wo
says, " I
shan, but
I
have heard the names kwei and do not know what they mean." "
Confucius said, the
shan
measure;
nature,
The and
shows
animal
the
spirit
(intelligent)
soul
is
in
fullest
of
the
kwei
is
nature, and shows that in fullest measure.
the union of
kwei and shan
of
that
that forms
It is
the
highest exhibition of doctrine.
"All the to the
living
ground
;
must this
die,
is
extinguished, and nothing of intelligent soul continues to
and, dying, return
what
is
caITed"'^kwei.
them remains.
be moved and
to
But the move, and
always is."' Compare a passage in Professor Max jMiiller's " Philosophy of Mythology," p. 359, et scq., beginning, " When man wished for the first time to grasp and express a distinction between the body, and something else within him distinct from the body, an easy name that suggested itself
was breathP
Doctrine about
Its
The bones and
Man.
1
i
mould e^r_a-way below, and,
flesh
hidden away, become the earth of the
But the
2
spiri t issues fo rth^nd is
fields.
displayed -on
The
hig h in a condition of glorious brightness.
vapours and^odoTiTsTvhich produce a feeling of sadness (and
from
arise
decay of
the
their
bodies) are the subtle essences of animals, and (also)
a manifestation of the shan nature."^
You may
think that in this passage, attributed
to Confucius, counsel
darkened by a multitude
is
of words without knowledge.
It
is
not for me,
however, to attempt an elucidation of every part of
I
it.
have adduced
it
to
show how he held
man's body crumbles and
that, while
returns
to the dust at death, the liberated spirit, " the
breath,"- as he phrases
The body and
state.
be,
excepting as they
it,
ascends to a brighter
the animal soul cease to
may
mingle with the dust
of matter, but the intelligent soul or the spirit lives
on
in
the bright heaven.
Of
its
condition
there the Confucian religion says nothing
does
it
say
how
sacrificed to,
with '
â&#x20AC;˘
its
;
nor
can come from heaven, when
it
and communicate and commune
sincere
worshippers
from the
spirit-
See Note B. Is there not in this
told in Genesis
ii.
7,
"
term a groping
And
the
after what \ve are Lord God formed man of
the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life ; and man became a living soul "?
Confucianism:
122
That
tablet.
religion teaches the existence of
the soul after death, but nothing of the character of that existence
flame its
of faith or
and so
;
hope
it
does not fan the
regard to the future
in
in
and adherents.
friends
Conclusions.
must now leave the subject of the most what I have ancient or state religion of China, called Confucianism, and give a brief account 23. I
—
—
of Confucius
himself,
have described that
I
from three points of view,
religion
—what
teaches concerning God, concernjrig-spiF-its
concerning man.
down
to the present day,
God
worship of
it
and to show how the
worship of ancestors has
the
extended to
all
the people.
sometimes
may
I
arguing,
describing.
any
are not ligious,
matter of state
has been a
ceremonial, and
and
on these subjects
from prehistoric, time
even
earliest,
I
am
sorry that
have seemed to be debating
and
There
and
have endeavoured to trace
I
the fundamental ideas of
from the
it
not
simply
no help
is
for
relating this.
and
There
subjects, political, historical, or re-
even here
in
Europe, however long and
extensively they have been discussed, on which there it
is
is
an universal
no wonder that
agreement of opinion
:
different views should be
Doctrine about Ma?i.
Its
about
entertained
the
religion
of
i
it,
China,
a
subject of comparatively recent study.
done what
I
could to form
and
research,
after sufficient
my own to
have
I
opinions
express them
you clearly and dispassionately, avoiding as
to
much as I could expressions of praise or blame. Of the value of the old religion of China, I shall have to speak when I come to compare it, in-
my
Let
concluding Lecture, with Christianity.
me now direct your attention to Confucius, lest my account cf Confucianism should be thought like
Hamlet himself
the play of Havilet with
left out.
It
has become,
I
have no doubt,
sufficiently
clear to you that both the views of Confucianism
which
I
mentioned
at the
commencement
my
of
former Lecture are erroneous.
China does not
owe
Confucius.
its
religion
national
to
|
He
received it^_asjdid-J2thers, frc.n prehistoric time,
bdlhTnits twofold worship and in its rules of and on this point I need say social duty ;
notliincr
more.
originate the
did
>
And
religion
he discountenance
sensible degree.
I
Confucius
if
of his it,
did
not
country, neither
or
alter
have quoted
his
it
in
words
any
freely,
ancient sages,
and practices of the more and we have found them pervaded
by
sentiment.
to illustrate the ideas
religious
He
taught morality.
:
Confucianism
124 but not
a
morality without reference to the
God.
of
will
He
taught ceremonialism,
formalism
did
content
not
with
itself
outward observance of established
rites.
but
His
not for the sake of the ceremony merely.
the
These
statements will receive further illustration as
proceed to give you of the
life
in
brief
I
compass a sketch
and character of the man.^
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
Sketch of the life of Confucius. His birth in B.C. 551 to his marriage. Confucius,
24.
K'ung-foo-tsze, â&#x20AC;&#x201D; that â&#x20AC;&#x201D; was born the year 551 is,
"the master K'ung," B.C.,
in
in Lu, one of the feudal states, and covering is now known
a considerable part of what of Shan-tung.
name for
father,
of Liang-ho, and an
his
born.^'
be, for the
to us
by the
remarkable
was over was distinguished as any
when the
Their lineage' was as
China could
its line
ola'
the province
officer
strength, bravery, and
seventy years
in
His
skill,
future sage
K'ung family traced
to the sovereigns of the Sha.ng dynasty,
and back from them, among the mists^pf hardly discernible antiquity, to the mythical
Hwang
Ti,
See Note C. See the prolegomena to the Chinese Classics, Vol. I., for a fuller account of Confucius, and reference to the authorities for statements here. '
-
L i/e of Confucius. century
the twenty-eighth
in
soldier died )-ear,
in
"When
condition was low, and
many We know
things
in
;
many
I
when
things he
was young,
I
acquired
but they were
of his youth.
little
his third
in
a later time,
people were surprised at the could do, he said,
old
bringing him up, had to
At
struggle with poverty.
The
B.C.
when Confucius was
his mother,
and
125
my
mean
my
ability
matters."
Accounts describe
boy as fond of playing at the arrangement of sacrificial vessels, and at postures of ceremony. He tells us himself that at fifteen his mind was the
on learning.
set
his marriage to his visiting the court
From
of 25.
At
Chau, B.C. 533â&#x20AC;&#x201D;517-
nineteen he married, and his only son,
was born the 'year after. About the same time we find him in charge, but whether in the
Li,
service of the state, or merely of one of the ministers, cannot be
some
public fields.
ments
determined,â&#x20AC;&#x201D; in charge of
stores of grain, and subsequently of the
in
superior
Mencius
illustration
man may
refers to those
employ-
of his doctrine that the
at times take office
for the relief of his poverty,
but must
in
simply such a
case confine himself to places of small emolument, and aim at nothing but the discharge of
1
Co7i/ucianism
6
2
their
humble
duties.
:
This was what Confucius
did.
In his twenty-second year he
labours as a teacher, and j-esort
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; not
inquiring
commenced
for schoolboys, but for
spirits
his
house became a
his
who wished
young and their
increase
to
knowledge of the history and doctrines of the past.
However small the
fee that
was given,
but he did he never refused his instructions and improvement for desire require an ardent ;
some degree
of capacity.
His mother died in the year B.C. 528, and he mourned for her with the bitterest grief. Having raised
the coffin of his father from where
had been had
he
more than twenty years
laid it
conveyed, along with
of his
that
mother, to the place where the K'ungs had
found refuge
in
Lu, and buried the two
To mark
it
before,
in
first
the
the spot, he emplo}-ed
same grave. some of his disciples to raise a mound over and when told that this had fallen down it ;
through a sudden storm of
rain,
he burst into
tears.
When
the period of mourning for his mother
was concluded, he remained
more
years, pursuing his
own
in
Lu
for
ten
literary researches,
studying antiquities and music, and guiding the studies of others.
The
chief
men
of the state
Life of Confucius.
1
27
were gradually becoming aware that a great man had risen among them; and in B.C. 517,
one of
related,^
son,
principal ministers, as
its
I
have already
gave orders on his death-bed that his
and another member of
their clan, should
Such pupils increased its reputation in the country, and also That same year enlarged the master's means.
enter the
Confucian school.
he was able to
the capital, and
visit
inquiries than he could
do
at
make
fuller
a distance into
the ceremonies and rules of the founders of the
Chau dynasty. There also he is said to have met with Lao-tsze, the father of Taoism, and to have had various conversations with him. I may refer to these in
my
next Lecture.
By
the end of
the year he was back in Lu, and resumed his work of teaching.
His fame was greatly increased,
came to him from all quarters, till number amounted to thousands. We are not to think of them as forming a community,
and
disciples
their
and
living together.
after
this
We
find, indeed, the
master
always moving amid a company of
number must have had their proper avocations and ways of living, and would only repair to him when
admiring
followers,
but the
greater
they wished specially to ask his counsel. In the year B.C. 516, there were great troubles '
Pasre 116.
128
Confucianism:
Lu, and the marquis, worsted
in
families or
with the three great state, fled
Ch'i.
from
in
a struggle
of the
clans
to the neighbouring state of
it
Thither Confucius followed him, and there
he would have remained,
if
he could have done
so
with advantage to
his
government without compromising Finding
character.
it
the ruler
and
of Ch'i
impossible to
his
do
own
so,
he
returned to Lu.
To
the end of his brief period of office in
,
B.C. 495. he continued without
26. [After this,
employnrait
The expelled marquis having
year^.
Ch'i, the rightful heir
member
died
was set aside, and another House appointed in his
disorder
of
the
state
increased,
and the wisdom of Confucius appeared prudence with which he steered as not to
ambitious
Some
in
of the ruling
The
place.
official
long period of fourteen
the
for
become the partizan
in the
his course, so
any of the
of
chiefs.
say that during this period he divorced
his wife, but the notion that
he did do so has
proceeded from an erroneous interpretation of a passage in the
At
length,
"
Record of
in B.C. 500, '
Rites."
^
when Confucius was
See Note D.
Life of Confucius. fifty-one years old,
restored,
some degree
129
of order was
and he became chieiLmagistrate of the
town of Chung-tu, and a4ÂťaTv5iimis reformation of the manners of the people speedily took
The
place.
marquis,
astonished
at
what he
him whether a whole state could rules, and was assured that they might be appHed to the whole kingdom.
saw, asked
be governed by his
,/-
was made assistantsuperintendent of Works, in which capacity he Forthwith
Confucius
made many
improvements^Jn-agfieulture.
The
of minister of Crime followed, and the ap-
office
pointment was enough to make an end of crime. There was no necessity to put the penal laws in
No offenders showed themselves. For three years Confucius held this important
execution.
The resistance to the supreme authority which had so much disturbed the state was
office.
possible through the fortified cities held
by the same purpose as the castles owned by the barons of Europe in the
great clans, which served the
feudal ages.
Confucius succeeded
several of these. "
"
He
in
strengthened,"
dismantling
we
are told,
the ruling House, and weakened the ministers
and
chiefs.
abroad.
A
transforming government went
Dishonesty
and
dissoluteness
ashamed, and hid their heads,
goodTaith became the
jj^oyalt}-
were
and
of the
characteristics
9
t/
:
Con/ucianism
130
men, and chastity and
those of the
docility
women.
Strangers came in crowds from other
states."
Confucius was the idol of the people,
and flew
in
But
songs through their mouths.
this success did not long
As
of our hero.
gladden the heart
the fame of his reformations
went abroad, the neighbouring states began to be afraid. The marquis of Ch'i said, "With Confucius at the head of
become supreme among which up.
is
nearest to
the states;
Let us propitiate
One
territory."
of
be the
will
it,
government,
its
it
by
first
a
however, that they should
first
Ch'i,
swallowed
surrender of
ministers
his
Lu will
and
suggested,
try to separate
between the marquis of Lii and his wise adviser. Beautiful women and fine horses were sent to Lu as baits, and by them the prince was taken. Confucius
and
his lessons
he could not retain remain
were neglected. office,
in the state. " It
is
He felt that
that he ought not to
time for you to leave,"
said Tsze-lu to him. Most unwillingly and slowly,
by short stages, he went away. He would have welcomed a message of recall. But none came. Till his return to 27.
The
sage was
in B.C. 483.
in his fifty-sixth year,
driven to forsake his native I u
when he
felt
and
thirteen
for
now
Lu
;
years he travelled from one
Life of Cortfucius.
1
3
i
feudal state to another, seeking rest and finding
none, always hoping to meet with a ruler
would adopt
his
Time would
pointed.
him and
follow
his
who
and always disap-
counsels,
we were
to
attendant disciples in
all
us
fail
if
His fame had gone before
their wanderings.
whom
him, and most of the princes
he visited
him with distinction, and would gladly have given him office and retained him at their courts but no one was prepared to accept Repeatedly, his principles and act them out.
received
;
in travelling
through the country, he and his
companions were of their
in
straits,
and even
Once they were
lives.
in
peril
by
assailed
a
mob, who mistook the master for an ofiicer at whose hands they had suffered much. While the others were alarmed, he calmly said, "After
the
death of king Wan, was not the cause of
letters
and truth lodged
wished to
let
this
in
mc
have got such a relation to does not can the
let
men
the cause
of
}
cause perish,
If
Heaven had
I
should not
While Heaven what
it.
of truth perish,
K'wang do
me
to
.''
In the
"
same way, on another occasion, when they were attacked by a band employed by a malicious officer
"
called
Hwan
T'ui,
Heaven has produced the
what can
Hwan
T'ui do to
Confucius obser\'ed, virtue that
me
" .''
is
in
me
;
"
132
:
Confuciaiiis7n
I will
mention only two additional incidents of
At one time
this period.
the whole party
reduced to great distress by the provisions,
and even Tsze-lu said
Has the this way ?"
superior
"
may
The
man
The
"
indeed have to endure want in distress, gives
The
distress,
it
to the master,
indeed to endure
reply was,
man,
way
;
superior
but the
in
man
mean
to unbridled license."
said, continued
is
was
failure of their
seven
daj's,
Confucius maintained his
during which time
equanimity, and was even cheerful, playing on his lute
and
He
singing.
deep impression of the
and recurred to them the
however a
retrained,
of the occasion,
perils
after
in
men who had then been
years, recalling
his faithful
com-
panions.
The
otlier incident
is
of a difterent character,
and shows us the sage moods.
One
in
one of his lighter
of the princelets through whose
and who had never how he would describe
territory they passed,
seen
him, asked Tsze-lu
him.
The
disciple did not venture a reply
;
but when
Confucius heard of the circumstance, he said to him,
a
"Why did
man who
you not say that
in his
forgets his food,
that old age
is
am
simply
eager pursuit of knowledge
who
forgets his sorrows,
I
in the joy of its
attainment
and who dues not perceive
coming on
}
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;3
Life of Confucius.
From
1
;
3
his return to his death, B.C. 483 47S.
28.
It
was brought about, how
that
detail,
he returned at length to Lu
The marquis and
483.
B.C.
need not
I
his
in
ministers re-
ceived him respectfully, but he can
hardly be
said to have re-entered public
Only
life.
five
more years remained to him, and he devoted them mainly to the literary pursuits which had
He
long occupied him.
had
in
Lu
compilation of the annals of possess
also the
hand that
we
still
name of the "Spring and The year 482 was marked by the
under the
Autumn."
death of his son Li, which did not affect him so
much
next year. is
"
Then he cried out,
destroying
The
Yen
as that of his favourite
me
Pleaven
!
Hui,
Alas
in
destroying
is
the
Heaven
!
me!"
other disciples had to admonish him of the
excessive character of his
grief.
And
Tsze-lO, perhaps the best loved after
in
Yen
479, Hui,
met with a violent end. The master had forebut when the boded that he would do so And his own death event came, he wept sore. ;
was not
far off.
It
the following year,
took place
B.C.
Early one morning, and,
v.-ith
his
in the spring of
478.
we
are told, he got up
hands behind
his back,
dragging
:
134
Co7ifiicianisrn
he moved about by the door, crooning
his staff,
over, "
The The
great mountain must crumble
And
the wise
strong
beam must break
man
wither
;
;
away
like a plant."
After a httle he entered the house, and sat
down
Tsze-kung had heard
opposite the door.
and
his words,
said to himself, " If the great
mountain crumble,
beam
the strong
away, on
whom
what
to
shall
I
look up
break, and the wise shall
I
lean
I
}
man
fear the
.^
If
wither
master
ill." With this he hastened into when Confucius told him a dream which he had had in the night, and which he
is
going to be
the house,
thought presaged his death, adding,
"
No
intel-
monarch arises there is no prince in the kingdom who will make me his master. My ligent
;
time has come to die." his couch,
Such
is
and
So
after seven
the account
it
was.
He
took to
days expired.
we have
of the last days
of the great philosopher of China.
His end was not unimpressive, but it was melancholy. He uttered no prayer, and he betrayed no apprehension.
"The mountain
falling
came
to
nought, and the rock was removed out of his place.
passed
;
So death prevailed against him, and he his countenance was changed, and he
was sent away."
5
Life of Confucius,
1
3
His disciples buried him with extraordinary-
pomp, and many of them
built huts,
and remained
mourning near his grave as for a father for and when the others were gone,
three years
;
the faithful
Tsze-kung continued
and affectionate
same
vigil for
his reverent
another period of the
Seven years ago
duration.
I
made
a
pilgrimage to the tomb of the master outside the city of Chii-fau in Shan-tung.
many
things,
I
Musing on
walked round and round, and
mound of which the dust must now form a part, and where
ascended, the large of Confucius
bushes of the plant that supplies the divining stalks were growing.
house which
is
I
also stood
by the
little
supposed to enclose the ground
where Tsze-kung
built his hut.
Memorabilia of Confucius. â&#x20AC;&#x201D; His personal characteristics. In the "Confucian Analects," a compilation that
and
must have been formed by the disciples, portions of " The Record of Rites," we
in
have abundant information of the sayings and A whole book of the doings of the sage. Analects teristics
dress.
;
is
occupied with his personal charac-
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; his
It
deportment, his eating, and his
shows him to us
at court, in his
own
He was
nice
house, in his carriage, in his bed.
:
1
Co7ifuciamsni
36
in his diet,
precise limit to himself in the use
of wine, or whatever drink
meals
in
He
but he was not a great eater.
down no
laid
China
be confused by
was then used
at
but he did not allow himself to
;
it.
Although the food might be
coarse rice and poor so p, he would, with a grave respectful it
On
air, offer
not said to
is
a
little
whom
of
it
in sacrifice
;
but
the oftering was made.^
occasion of sudden thunder or violent wind
he would change countenance; ana also when he saw a person
in
When any
mourning.
his friends died, if there
were no
relatives
could be depended on for the necessary
he would say, "
From
I will
of
who
offices,
bury him."
the multitude of these
memoranda we At one
get a very complete idea of the man.
compared them with the different I style of our gospels, I was offended by them. have long learned, however, to welcome them.
when
time,
They
I
are the tribute to Confucius of admiration
and love from those among many years gone in and out. '
whom
he had for
This was a practice something like our saying grace.
was made, according to the commentators, worthy or worthies who first taught the art of An analogous practice is referred to in two cooking.
The
offering
to the
lines of 'â&#x20AC;˘'
an ancient
poem
(Shih, II. v.,
Ode
2)
:
With a handful of grain I go out and divine, How I may be able to become good.''
Teachings of Confucius.
\^
1
37
Confucius did not change or modify the ancient religion. But have we reason to think, as some
29.
have done/ that he made any changes ancient rehgion of China, or modified at
all,
must
when they passed through
its
in the
records
hands
his
?
I
answer this question in the negative.
I
have shown
in different
on the ancient
classics
works that
generally supposed.
as has been
his labours
were not so extensive
He
studied
them, and exhorted and helped his disciples to
do the same, but he did not digest
them
alter
them, nor even
into their present form.
His enunciating the golden 30. JHis greatest
tion of morality rule,
which
achievement
was
sion in the old classics.
own.
We
Doctrine
find
it
qf_tllÂŁ.
its
The
'
.''
merit of
Mean, and the if
and
Gre^
his
Learning.
there were one^ r ule_QjLg0Hduct
he replied, "Is not reciprocity
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; What
you do not want done to
Hardwick's " Christ and other Masters,"
iS, 19.
it is
repeatedly in the Analects, the
Tsze-kung once asked him
such a word
golden
condensed expres-
Vax:d-^-hich would serve ^s a for all the life;
the inculca-
his formulating the
not found in
is
in
rule.
Pt. III., pp.
1
Confucianisfn
38
yourself,
do not do to
when the
:
Subsequently,
others."
him that he was carrying you aware thus He was that."
disciple told
" Ts'ze, this rule into practice, he replied,
have not attained to of the difficulty of obeying the precept, and he confessed on one occasion that he himself failed His words then also showed that the to do so. rule
had
him not only
for
also a positive form.
a negative form, but
He was
unable, he said,
to take the initiative in serving his father as
would require
his son to serve
him
;
he
and so of
the other relations between ruler and minister, elder brother and younger, friend and friend.^ Chinese critics contend that in so speaking Con-
was only using the language of humil'ty but evidently he was speaking the truth, md we do not think the worse of him when we find that, like other men, he was compassed with fucius
;
infirmity.
So
far,
therefore, as the morality of the reli-
gion of China was concerned, the sage invigorated If it be said that he it by this golden maxim. arrived at
it
from
his analysis of
human
nature,
and laid it down without a divine sanction, it must be remembered that with him, as with T'ang and others of the great ancients, man's nature was the distinguishing '
â&#x20AC;˘'
endowment given
Doctrine of the Mean," ch.
13.
139
Teachings of Confucius.
him by Heaven, or God, and that the path which it indicated was the will of God concern-
to
There could be no testimony on point more express than what we have in
ing his duty. this
the
sentence of the Doctrine of the
first
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; "What nature
;
Heaven has conferred an accordance with
the path of
is
Mean
:
called the
this nature is^called
duty; the regulation
of this path
is
called instruction."
What
is to
be thought of him as a religious teacher.
31.
much
But
it is
not in the sphere of morality so
as in that oJ^j;eligioaJiLat^fauU- is found
have complained myself of hiT^avoiding the personal name of Ti, or God, and only using the more indefinite term Heaven. with Confucius.
1
Only one case occurs
to
!TKe personal and relative
me
in
which he used
name excepting when
he was quoting from the old books; that case being his vindication, as related in the former Lecture, of the solstitial services, whether per-
formed at the
altar of
heaven or that of earth,
as being equally rendered to God.
the
name Ti seems
to
His avoiding
betray a coldness of
in the matter of temperament and religion"; and yet when we consider how the public worship of God was restricted to the
intellect
Confucianism:
140
the representative of the
sovereign as it
may have been
fettered,
felt
people himself
and did not care to use the personal need not have been so but that
He
name. "
that Confucius
Heaven
;
was to him the name of a personal
"
being appears not only from the instances of his
employment of
these two
others
already adduced, but from
it
He who whom he
"
:
offends
against
can pray " and Heaven has none to " again, "Alas there is no one that knows me to which he immediately subjoined, "But there " is Heaven It knows me ;
!
!
;
It
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
has been
!
said, again, that the definition of
wisdom which he gave to the disciple Fan Ch'ih was likely to make him doubt the existence of spiritual beings, or at least to make him slight "
their worship. " to the duties
To
give one's
self,"
said
he,
due to men, and while respecting
spiritual beings, to
keep aloof from them,
may
But we had occasion to approve the warning which he gave against sacrificing to spirits with whom we have no be called wisdom."
legitimate connexion.^
knew
all
said to hig.
It
might turn out,
if
we
about Fan Ch'ih, that what the master
him was
And
to the
same
effect as that
warn-
indeed the worship of ancestors and
of the departed great was a practice of such '
Page
93.
1
Teachings of Confiuius.
1
4
doubtful propriety, and so liable to abuse, that
pleased to think that Confucius wished to guard his disciples and others against the superI
am
and other evils to which it might lead. one could be more observant of it when he
stition
No
believed
it
ficed (to the dead),"
present
it
is
said,
he sacrificed to the
;
He
"
to be right, than he was.
"as
if
sacri-
they were
spirits,
as
if
the
were present."
spirits
This charge against Confucius, then, must be dismissed as not proven. Nor was he a mere formalist, institution
to
clinging
the
dead
the spirit had
when
letter
all
of an
gone out of
Generally, no moral teacher ever required
it.
more stringently an inward sincerity than he influence rather did and the power of example
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
;
than forceâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; has quite an important place in his But he was conservative in his teachings. tendencies, and
He
the past. "
wisdom existed
did not understand
to his view in
how
old order changeth, yielding place to new, fulfils himself in many ways, custom should corrupt the world." good one Lest
The
And God
My
meaning
will
appear from the following
In the end of every year the feudal princes received from the Court of Chau a calendar for the next year, and each of them,
instance.
on the
first
day
of every month, should have
:
Confucianism
142 repaired
to
temple, sacrificed a
ancestral
his
sheep to the founder of his
line,
and requested
leave to go on to the duties of the new month. But in Confucius' time the lords of Lu had long ceased to do their part in this ceremony, though
sheep was
the
Tsze-kung
in
sacrificed
still
in
the temple.
these circumstances
wished to
abolish the custom altogether, but the master said to him, I
"You grudge loss of the
grudge the
the loss of the sheep
ceremony."
That
;
is,
while the form remained, he thought that the
might be brought back. The dry bones might live. In that hope Confucius was spirit
of
it
but the instance
suffices to
show that
/
in error,
V
his formalism was not for the form's sake. Qnce more, it is said that he discountenanced the use of prayer but the passage on which ;
this charge
is
based
is
insufficient to sustain
it,
and contains, moreover, Confucius' own declaraOn some occasion when tion that he did pray. he was very him, and
ill,^
Tsze-ld asked leave to pray for
when the master
hesitated, doubting
whether such a thing were proper, referred to some book of prayers, and quoted from it to the effect that prayer might be â&#x20AC;˘
Analects, VII., ch. 34.
that;.
to
the
have seen a statement some-
took place during Confucius" last but the death of Tsze-Iu had taken place before
where that illness,
I
made
this incident
Teachings of Confucius. spirits of
heaven and earth.
said in reply was, "
We
long; time."
He may
All that Confucius
praying has been
disciple's
superstitious notion on the subject
The utmost
that can be surmised
that his piety
was not demonstrative
of prayer. it is
for a
do not know what he meant.
have wished to disabuse the
mind of some from
My
143
or effusive.
Two
things that lower our estimate of
him. 32.
While thus defending Confucius from some
charges that have been brought against him,
must not be
silent
about two things that lead us
to think less highly of
you that
I
do.
him than
/We have
it
in
the
"B-eteFft-good-^or
said,
field
it,
to
had advanced
of morality, and
evil."
Confucius' school heard the
puzzled by
may seem
rejoiced in his enuncia-
tion of the golderTrtjle^â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Lao-tsze
even beyond this
I
Some one
of
maxim, and, being
consulted the master.
He
also
was puzzled, formed a syllogism in his mind about it, and replied, " What _t hen wi ll you return for good Recompense injur}- with justice, and return good for good." Well, justice is good, and I do not think that Confucius had any .*
thought of vengeance when he used the term but
if
we only do good
to
them
;
that do good..
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Confucianisjii
144 to us,
what reward have we
put before him.
The
tion of the historical
wish the sage
I
?
thought that was
risen to the height of the
had
:
other thing
work
called
the execu-
is
The Spring
"
and Autumn," which contains the annals of Lu for two hundred and forty-two years, down to within two years of Confucius' death.
regarded
it
as
of
greatest
the
achievements, and says that
its
the
Mencius master's
appearance struck
and anfilial sons. opinion of it, had a similar The author himself and said that it was from it that men would know
terror into rebellious ministers
him, and also (some of them) condemn him.
Was
when he thus spake his own C'f men condemning him for the Ch'un Ch'iO ^ The heart misgiving him,
fact
is
that the annals are astonishingly meagre,
and not only so, but evasive and deceptive. The Ch'un Ch'iu," says Kung-yang, who commented on it and supplemented it within a century after its composition, "the Ch'un Ch'iu ''
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
"conceals (th e truth ) out of regard to~TlT^~tiigh in rank, to kinship, I
]
we shown
Classics,
and to men of worth."
in the
in
io-noring, concealing,
we
volume of
my
that this "concealing" covers
ground embraced shall
fifth
And
Chinese all
the
our three English words
and misrepresenting. What
say to these things
^
It
has been ob-
served that "charges have been brought against
Teachings of Confucius.
145
Confucius of want of truthfulness, but if we examine them, they dwindle down to the mere question of what is truth." ^ This consideration
ought to silence certain charges that have been
made from unimportant career, but
it
does
incidents in the sage's
not solve the difficulty in
regard to him that arises from the style of the
Ch'un Ch'iu. question
No
answer can be given to the
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; not a small oneâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; What
is
truth
?
that
meet the case of the historian who ignores, conceals, and misrepresents events he is writing will
about.
I
often wish that
I
could cut the knot
by denying the genuineness and of the " Spring and it;
Autumn
"
as
authenticity
we now have
but the chain of evidence that binds
it
to
the hand and pencil of Confucius in the close of his
life
is
very strong.
And
a foreign
if
student take so violent a method to enable him
look at the character of the philosopher
to
without this flaw of historical untruthfulness, the governors of China and the majority of
its
scholars will have no
sympathy with him, and
no compassion
mental
fulness
for his
often insisted
on with
Ch'un Ch'iu has led '
"
Truth-
distress.
was one of the subjects that Confucius his
his
disciples
countrymen
Confucianism and Taoism,'' (Society
;
but the
to conceal
for
Promoting
Christian Knowledge,) p. 146.
10
Confucianism:
149
the truth from themselves and others, wherever
they think
it
tation of the
would injuriously empire, or of
affect the repu-
But
sages.
its
I
hasten to bring the Lecture to a conclusion, and
am
v^ery sorry to have, in the interest of truth,
to leave Confucius under a cloud. further for a
remark that there
I
would only
no valid authority
is
saying often attributed to him that
west the true saint must be
" in
the
looked for and
found. "^
The admiration
of Confucius
among
his
disciples.
One
of the most
remarkable things
is
the
made upon his disciples. them were among the ablest men in
impression that the sage
(Many
of
China of their time, "superior men," mighty
word and deed
;
the practice of speaking of Confucius as greatest to
man
in
and yet with them originated had ever
that
Yao and Shun,"
"like the Ch'i-lin
quadrupeds, the phoenix
"th^
lived," " far superior
among
among
birds, the
T'ai
mountain among
mounds and ant-hills, and rivers and seas compared with rain-pools." He had gained their hearts and won their entire admiration. They began the psean which has since resounded through '
all
the intervening ages,
See Note E.
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
Estimate of Confucius, nor it
swell less loud
is its
147
and confident now than
was nearly four-and-twenty centuries ago.
Estimate of Confucius by the government
and people of China.
The "powers
that
be"
in
China joined ere
long in the chorus of the disciples. Confucius'
No
last
words,
we
Among
saw, were these,
there is no monarch arises prince in the kingdom who will take me as his master." But he had hardly passed from the "
intelligent
stage of
life
;
when
the great ones of the nation
and to build Ch'in Shih ternpl^s and ofifer^worship to him. Hwang Ti, the founder of the Ch'in dynasty to acknowledge
began
his merit,
name and followers of Confucius his greatest obstacles when he wished, after overthrowing the feudal system, to make a new empire according to his own ideas. He 221, found
in E.G.
the
wielded the sword and kindled the flame against
them, but
in vain.
death-bed, in the
Roman
INIaster
on
have said on
his
words analogous to those used by Julian,
"Thou
hast
conquered,
O
K'ung."
In A.D. ring,
He might
by
I
there began the practice of confer-
imperial
Confucius,
and
authority, in
the
honorary year
57
titles
it
enacted that sacrifices should be offered to
was him
:
Confucianism
148 in
government
the
At
country.
colleges
the present day he
twice a year on
days
certain
in state to
worshipped
is
the middle
in
the em-
Then
months of spring and autumn. peror goes
the
throughout
the imperial college in
Peking, and performs his homage, and presents the appointed offerings, before the spirit-tablets of Confucius, and four of his most famous disciples.
These are the words of the principal
prayer on the occasion this year,
I,
:
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
"
On
month
this
of
the emperor, offer sacrifice to the
philosopher K'ung, the
the
ancient Teacher,
and say, O Teacher, in virtue equal and earth, whose doctrines embrace the time past and the present, thou didst digest and transmit the six classics, and didst hand
perfect Sage,
to heaven
down
lessons for all generations
!
Now
second month of spring (or autumn),
in this
in reverent
observance of the old statutes, with victims, silks, spirits,
With
and
fruits, I
offer sacrifice to thee.
thee are associated the philosopher Yen,
continuator of exhibitor
thee
of thy
;
the philosopher Tsang,
fundamental principles
philosopher Tsze-sze, transmitter of thee the philosopher
Mang, second
thou enjoy the offerings
!
"
to thee.
So
is
;
the
;
and
Mayst
the
sage
K'ung, who was unreasonably neglected when alive, now unreasonably worshipped when dead
Teachings of Confucius.
The
imperial prayer
my
treating
the fullest vindication of of China K'ung was a
of the ancient religion
under the name
of Confucianism.
great and wonderful religion
is
149
man
;
but
I
think that the
which he found, and did so much to
transmit to posterity, was
remarkable than
he.
still
greater and
more
—
NOTES ON LECTURE Note While passing
in the
A,
p. 93.
Lecture from the subject of sacrifice
or religious worship in the Confucian
the following condensed account of
Chau
and
times,
as with
it
subjoin
religi' n, I
as
it
existed in the
some modifications
taken from the Record of Rites,
still,
II.
it
Part
I.,
exists II.
iii.
6,7:"
The son
Heaven
of
sacrificed to
heaven and earth
(the rulers of) the four quarters, to the (spirits of hills
—
and
The
to
five (domestic) sacrifices
;
feudal princes sacrificed to (the rulers of) their
several quarters
and
and offered the
;
;
the)
the course of the year.
all in
"
rivers
all
offered
;
to the (spirits of their) hills
the five
(domestic)
sacrifices
;
and
—
all
rivers in
;
the
course of the year. " Great officers offered the five (domestic) sacrifices,
the course of the year. " (Other) officers sacrificed to their forefathers. " There was no presuming to resume any sacrifice that
all in
had been discontinued (by proper authority), or to discontinue one which had been so established. A sacrifice which it is not proper to offer, and which yet is offered, is
named
a licentious sacrifice.
A
licentious sacrifice brings
no blessing."
The
student
who has read
mentary on these sentences
the
many pages
of
com-
in the imperial edition of the
Notes on Lecture 11. Li, issued in the present
151
dynasty, will have gained a
suffi.
cient acquaintance with the bones or skeleton of Chinese worship, and the differences of native scholars on various All agree in maintaining that the sacrifices to points.
forefathers
down
were open
to the
common
to
all,
"from the son of Heaven
people."
Note
B, p. 121.
In J. M. Gallery's translation of an "Expurgated Record of Rites," published in 1833, he gives for these sentences, "Tsai-wo (disciple de Confucius) dit (h, son maitre),
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
'J'ai
entendu souvent
les
noms d'Ame
et d'Esprit,
mais
Confucius dit, La respiration de I'Esprit, le corps est manifestation une est I'homme de une manifestation de I'Ame. La reunion des mots Ame (Ame-Esprit) et Esprit en une seule expression Kwei-Shan
j'ignore ce qu'ils signifient.'
est
un
'
sujet d'enseignement sublime.'
"
is not translated, as being expunged from above he has the following note :the his text. "Confucius semble distinguer dans rhomme deux substances immate'rielles ayant avec le corps des rapports
What
follows
On
â&#x20AC;˘
differents, distinction qui rappelle
spirituelles
de Jh. de Maistre sur
les
subtilites a peine
I'esprit vital.
Mais chez
ont peu le philosophe Chinois les theories psychologiques d'importance il ne les regarde que comme les bonnes \ les intimider oa h encourager le vulgaire ignorant, et ne ;
par consequent que d'une mani^re toute superC'est un s'arretant plutot aux mots qu'aux idees. I'histoire de I'esprit dans remarquables plus les des faits humain, que les Chinois n'aient jamais tente serieusement
traite,
ficielle,
d'approfonder les myst^res de Tame." told his disciple all that I have no doubt that Confucius were talking about. they subject the he himself knew of WTiatever " the mysteries of the soul " may be, Confucius
must have come to the conclusion his ken and research.
that they were
beyond
Azotes oil
152
Note
Lee here
II,
C, p. 124.
Dr. Morrison, in his Dictionary, I. i., page 710, says ihat " Confucius was a bastard son of Sliu Liang-ho, and a
daughter of the Yen family, who cohabited in the wilderness.'" His authority for this statement is the seventeenth of Sze-ma Ch'ien's Histories and Biographies but Ch'ien's language All that
it
may mean
is
was some irregularity Chiang Yung (1761) thinks
that there
in the union of the parties.
that the disparity of their age text.
A
gloss in the "
;
translated with needless harshness.
is
is
sufficient to satisfy Ch'ien's
Record of
Rites,"
par. 10, suggests that the phrase refers to
under
II.
i.
i,
some incomplete-
ness or informality in the arrangements for the marriage.
we can say
All that
Confucius.
is
that the statement
is
disrespectful to
Considering the Taoist proclivities of Ch'ien,
was only a gibe on the age of Shu Liang-ho. it has become the practice of some writers to say that "Confucius himself was born of a concubine" (Report of the Committee on C. D. Act Hong-kong, But I do not know of any authority for such 1879)." 1
think
it
Latterly,
;
a statement.
School
"
The account
in
the " Narratives
of the
says that Shu Liang-ho, having nine daughters,
and no son, by his wife, and only a son v.-ho was a cripple by his concubine, sought for another marriage, and applied to a gentleman of the Yen family, who gave him his youngest daughter to wife (Chia Yii, IX., art. 2). In order to marry the new wife, Liang-ho must have divorced the old one, and the fact of her having no son was a sufficient reason, according to the law of China, for his doing so. That he actually did so is implied in the paragraph of the " Record of Rites " which is discussed in the next note. The care which Confucius took to bur>' his mother in the same grave with his father also implies that they were husband and wife. The sage was neither a bastard, nor the son of a concubine. He miq"ht have been either
—
Notes on Lecture
II.
153
'
without any disgrace to himself, but an impartial student of history will not readily give ear to reports that will by
many
be considered discreditable to his subject.
Note "Record
In the
D,
p. 128.
of Rites," II.
par. 4,
i.
we have the
following incident of life in the Confucian family " When the mother of Tsze-shang " great-grandson of :
Confucius
—"died,
—
and he did not perform any of the
mourning rites for her, the disciples of his father Tszesze asked whether the former superior man had not performed those rites for his divorced mother. Tsze-sze having replied that he had, they asked him why he did not make his son do so for his mother. ' My predecessor, the superior man,' said he, 'failed in no proper course.
When when
was proper was proper to
it it
behave generously, he did so
to
;
restrain his generosity, he restrained
When she was my wife, when she was not my wife, she ceased to be his mother.' In this way the custom of the K'ung family not to mourn for a divorced mother But
it.
I
she was
cannot attain to
my
son's
this.
mother
;
originated with Tsze-sze." Who is meant by " the former superior
Does
passage.^
it
mean
Tsze-sze's father
.?
man
" in this
or his grand-
had divorced his then Shu Liang-ho had divorced his, as I have contended in the preceding note that he did, and the mother of Confucius was not a concubine but though a second, yet a proper wife. That "the former superior man," who always pursued the proper course, is more likely
father
?
wife
if
;
If the former, then Confucius
the
latter,
;
to be Confucius than his son Li,
may be considered
as self-
evident.
The twenty-eighth paragragh bears on the point in hand. of Po-yii "
— Confucius'
son,
•wail for her after the twelve
It
of the
says
"' :
same book
When
Li—" died, he months
''
also
the mother
continued to
—proper for
such a
Notes on Lecture II.
154
demonstration of grief—" were ended." The master heard the noise, and asked who it was that was thus wailing. Being told by the disciples that it was Li, he said, ; " Pshaw " and when Po-yii was told of it's too much !
the remark, he ceased to wail."
The attempts the assumption unnatural.
The
Li Chi say upon
to explain this
that
passage
Confucius
in
divorced
harmony with his
wife
are
editors of the
imperial edition of the
that there
nowhere any mention of
it
is
such a thing, and that the old view on the subject seems As Confucius' wife did not die till B.C. to be a mistake. 485, when he was sixty-six, and had thus been his partner for nearly fifty years, we do think that he might have had
more sympathy with the wailing of his son for her. He could show signs of excessive sorrow himself at times, as when his favourite disciple Yen Hui died ;— the " Pshaw !
it's
is
too much," does not
really
make
no evidence that he divorced
Note In "
us admire him.
The Ten Great
E,
Still
there
his wife.
p. 146.
Religions," by
James Freeman
Clarke (Boston, U.S., 1S71), page 58, the author says :— " Confucius is a star in the east, to lead his people to One of the most authentic of his sayings is this, Christ. that 'in the west the true saint must be looked for and
He had a perception, such as truly great men have often had, of some one higher than himself who was The only saying having any likeness to come after him." to this and attributed to Confucius is in the works of the philosopher Lieh, a Taoist writer not long posterior to our His fourth book has the name of "Chung-ni " after sage. Confucius (that being his cognomen) and it is related in it that a great officer of Ch'an, having come on a mission
found.'
;
was told at a private interview with the Head of family that there was a sage in the state. Shu-sun the The visitor asked, " Do you not mean K'ung Ch'iu (Con-
to Lu,
Notes on Lecture II.
155
the affirmative, he asked K'ung is sage?" The chief replied, " I have heard from Yen Hui that K'ung Ch'iii can dispense with his mind, and use (only) his body."' fucius)
?
Being answered
"
â&#x20AC;˘'How do you know
The
visitor said, " In
in
that
my
state also there is a sage.
Do
you not know it ? " and went on to say that this sage was a Kang Ts'ang, a disciple of Lao Tan, whose tao he had mastered, so that he could see with his ears and hear with his eyes. This being reported to the marquis of Lu, he was greatly excited, and sent to Ch'an and invited Kang Ts'ang to come to him. Mr. Kang accordingly came to Lu, and, when received and questioned about what had been reported of him, said that the report was incorrect that he could see and hear without using either his eyes or ears, but that one sense could not be made to ;
discharge the function of another.
how he had
explain
He
then attempted to
acquired so wonderful a
gift.
The
marquis was delighted, and by-and-by related the whole conversation to Confucius, who, it is said, smiled, and gave him no reply. Apparently without any connexion with the above story there follows an account of an interview between a high minister of the state of Sung and Confucius. The former said to the other, " Are you a sage ? " " How should I
presume
am
to
The
" but I } " was the reply and have a memory richly stored."
count myself a sage
extensively learned,
minister then asked
if
;
the three kings, the founders
and Hsia, had been and Confucius allowed them the merit of wisdom
of the dynasties of Chau, Shang,
sages
;
and valour,
yet said he did not
know
that they were sages.
The
cases of the five Ti and three
back
into the prehistoric time,
till
the visitor
Hwang,
stretching
were similarly disposed of, was struck aghast, and asked, " Who then
can be considered a sage.'"' Confucius looked moved for a time, and said, "Among the people of the western Without exercising any governregions there is a sage.
Notes
156
Lecture II.
oil
ment, he secures that there is no disorder without his speaking, faith is reposed in him as a matter of course without his transforming, transformation naturally goes ;
;
The people can find no name vast (his merit) But I doubt whether (even) he be a sage 1 do not know whether he is truly a sage, or truly not a sage."
How
on. for
I
it.
;
The
minister of Sung silently reflected in his heart, said to himself, " K'ung Ch'iu is mocking me."
This
is
the whole of the passage, from which
"most
the
authentic saying" of Confucius
And
Mr. Clarke.
inquiries
and Germany asking me "
conscious prophecy story
tao
is
have come to
for information
me
is
and
derived
quoted by from France
about " the unThe whole
of the Chinese sage.
from a Taoist mint, and intended to exalt the We may safely conclude that Con-
in the first place.
fucius never said anything of the kind.
beginning, "
Among
In the sentence
the people of the western regions,"
and the next one, the verbs may be translated in the " There is a sage," or "there present tense or the past :
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
was a sage," etc., but they cannot be construed in the Among the notes in the " General INIirror of future. History," appended to the eighth year of the emperor Ming of the Han dynasty, there is one to the effect that '"
is
the
name
Budh."
of the sage of the west mentioned in Lieh-tsze
The Buddhists have
'â&#x20AC;˘the unconscious prophecy"
have
for
claim
it.
Christ
;
that
is,
much right to claim Buddha as Christians
as
for
neither
have
any
right
to
III.
TAOISM: AS A RELTGrON AND A PHILOSOPHY.
—
—
—
"Intruding into those things which he hath not seen." Colossians u. iS.
"The
highest goodness
near to Tao.''
is
like water, the nature of
T/u Tao Teh King, ch.
"Whosoever exaheth humbleth himself
shall
which
is
8.
himselt shall be abased, and he that
be exalted.'"
Luke xw,
ii.
III.
What I.
T HAVE and
J-
in
many
I
Taoism
is
?
what Taoism
often been asked
is,
have no doubt the question is now you are hoping to
of your minds, and
receive an answer to
the question
from
it
my
a difficult one, and
is
But
lecture. I
will not
anticipate myself by attempting a definition of
the
name
at the outset.
applications
;
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
first,
to
It
has two different
a popular
and widely-
spread religion of China; and then to the system of thought in the remarkable treatise called
the
T^o Teh King,
sixth century
by Lao-tsze.
B.C.
written
the
in
In other words,
Taoism is the name both of a religion and philosophy. The author of the philosophy
a is
the chief god, or one at least of the chief gods, of the religion but there is no evidence that It was the religion grew out of his book. ;
impossible, indeed, as you will see, for
so in
many of
its
the two things
aspects.
is
Any
relation
it
to
do
between
merely external, for in
spirit
1
Taoism
60
:
I will do far as the them both, so my time will allow, and you may be able to fashion for yourselves a definition of Taoism in both the
and tendency they are antagonistic. best to describe
applications of the name, it to you became the
be able to give Before
it
if
after all I shall not
in categorical terms.
practice to transfer to
other languages the Chinese word Tao,
Taoism
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
was ordinarily called Rationalism, a name admirably calculated to lead the mind astray as to what the religion is. And in the book, ".Reason," as Dr. Chalmers says, "would be more like a quality or
than that
attribute
some conscious being
Tao is."^ You will T^o is not the name
concept or idea. to
of
its
author, as
does.
I
will
understand from this of a person, but of a
Taoism does not owe its name Buddhism or Mohammedanisiji
now endeavour
to set forth,
first,
the religion, and next, the philosophy.
Legal standing of Taoism 2.
Confucianism
former lectures)
China
;
is
(as
in China.
described
in
my
two
the religion par excellence of
but both Taoism and Buddhism have a Their suppression
legal standing in the country. '
The
Speculations of "the Old Philosopher" (Lao-tsze).
Introduction,
p. xi.
(Triibner
&
Co.)
1
Officially recognized
and endowed.
1
6
has been recommended to the government at different
and individual emperors have
times,
felt inclined
attempt
to
We
it.-^
saw how the
Manchil emperor of the ICang-hsi period prepared an edict against binding the feet of girls which he never ventured to issue.^ In the same way he wished to undertake the suppression of
Taoism, but saw reason to abandon the project.
Taoism
is
among
"
the strange principles
"
or
systems which the seventh precept of his sacred edict
commands
banished," and
to
it is
sitions of that edict;
be "discountenanced and derided in the public expo-
but nevertheless, and wisely,
tolerated.
it is
Taoism
officially
recognised and
its
Chief
endowed.
And
it
is
The
dowed.
also officially recognised late
Mr. Mayers
the Chinese Government"^ says: official
body
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
system, which allows no condition of the politic to remain, in
provided with means for '
and en-
"Manual of "The Chinese
in his
theory at its
least,
un-
control, includes
See note A.
-P. 112. ÂŤ
"
A Manual of Chinese an appendix." By William Frederick Mayers. (Triibner & Co.) See note B.
The Chinese Government.
Titles, with
P. 77.
II
1
Taoism:
62
among
administrative
its
rules
complete
a
system of ecclesiastical gradations of rank and authority in connexion with the priesthood of
Buddhist
both the
and
religion
Taoist
the
While refraining from interference with
order.
the internal
of
organisation
members
framework
to
provide a
ranks, the imperial Institutes
their
those
of
either
bodies, or with the admission of
harmon)' with the all-pervading
in
official
system, to be grafted on the hierarchy
as
it is
found
to
its
own
in either
case developed according I
have no occasion
for
Taoism provided
traditional rules."
to speak of the
framework
by the Government,
further than that
it
in the
pope or hereditary chief of the
v/hose
seat
mountain,
is
in
Chiang-hsi.
the
title
of "
centres
religion,
on the Lung-hii (Dragon-
iger)
the department of Kvvang-hsin,
His surname is Chang, and he has Heavenly Master." The headship
of Taoism has been in the
Chang
family, with
the exception of one period of interruption, since the
first
first
century of our
pope
is
The
era.
spirit of
the
supposed to have transmigrated
from one chief to another down to the present time.
Since A.D. 1015 the chiefs have possessed
large tracts of land about the tain,
which were granted
perpetual
endowment
in
for the
Lung-hu mounthat
year as a
family to
Chang
Its
Origin
and Polytheism.
163
Chang-sui by the emperpr Chan-tsung of the
Sung
dynasty.^
which
I
One
common sayhigs learned in China nearly forty years ago was this " However the empire be disordered :
of the
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
and convulsed, the Changs and the K'ungs have no occasion to be troubled." I understood that the K'ungs v/ere the descendants of Confucius, v/hose
representative has always the
of " duke,"
and
is
endowed with
title
extensive
was a considerable time before tlie Changs were the popes of Taoism.2 There are other ways in which the existence and importance of Taoism, are recognized by the Government, and I hope to estates
but
;
it
ascertained that
I
opportunity to speak at least of one of them as I proceed with the subject. What I find
have
now
religion,
said sufficiently shows that the though heterodox, has a legal standing
in the country.
Origin of Taoism as a religion. polytheism. 3.
Wc
traced
worship of '
"
Mu), ^
Confucianism and
God and
See note C.
double
of ancestors back into pre-
The General Minor ill ail.
its
Its
of History " (T'ung chien
Kan^
:
1
TAaoisni 1
64 time
historic
but Taoism as a religion did not
;
until a considerable
exist
time after the com-
There is not mencement a word in the Tao Teh King, of the sixth of our Christian era.
century
B.C.,
that savours either of superstition
In the works of Lieh-tsze and
or religion.
Chwang-tsze, followers of Lao-tsze, two or three centuries later, we find abundance of grotesque superstition,
though
A.-e
are never sure
how
far
those writers are sincere and really believed the things they relate; but their beliefs, that they had beliefs, in
any
if
we can say
had not become embodied
When we come
religious institutions.
to the founder of the Ch'in dynasty, bestriding
the Chinese world like a colossus, and waging fierce war against the memory and followers of
become aware of the powerful hold that Taoist superstition must have obtained Confucius, Ave
in
the
country.
He,
the
of
subjugator
the
feudal states, extending his dominion over all the provinces that constitute the present China,
building the great wall, and laying the foundations of the despotic rule that has continued to
the present
day,â&#x20AC;&#x201D; he
fits
out expec; Lions
and sends them
to sea in quest of Fang-lai
the other
of the Immortals,
to
isles
and
and
to bring
him from them the herb of immortality.
The
records of his brief reign do not
tell
us
whether he
and
Origin
lis
fully
Polytheism.
observed the state-worship that
had been paid to God by sovereigns of the
he offered lords
165
kingdom
the
we know
eight
to
sacrifices
;
preceding
all
but
spirits,
that eight
or
he called them, unknown before or
as
IfShih Ilwang-
since in the sacrificial canons.^
much
Ti had lived
Taoism would have
longer,
developed into a religion quite different from
what
it
has been and
When
^
is.
the dynasty of Ch'in passed away, soon
after the beginning of the third
century
and that of Han took
Confucianism
regained
its
place,
B.C.,
pre-eminence. The superstitions, Taoism had become widely diffused.
its
indeed, of
The emperor
\Vu, during the greater part of his
long reign of
from
fifty-six years,
B.C.
140 to
them; the Taoist prejudices of the historian Sze-ma Ch'ien, whose great work appeared about B.C. 100, are uniThe second and third versally acknowledged. was
85,
a
slave
to
emperors of the eastern
Chang
Tao-ling,
the
first
patriarchs of Taoism, to
'
Han dynasty of
come
the
invited
popes
to court.
or
Not-
See T^Iayers' Chinese Reader's Manual, pp. 337, 33S, remarkable that Shih Hwang-Ti's first God was
It is
called by him T'ien Chu, "Lord of Heaven," the very name for God now used, by papal authority and command,
by the
Roman
Catholic missionaries.
1
Taoism
66
withstanding
.
these
:
was
Confucianism
things,
the sole religion of China
still
;
but
the year
in
Buddhism was introduced from India. missionaries, bringing with them an image of
A.D, 65 Its
at court
Buddha, were received with distinction
;
a building was assigned to them for a temple
and monastery
many
in
felt
;
Buddhism
ere long
and Taoists were from the
by
various
that
if
made
affinities.
first
But the
itself
Buddhists
parts of the country.
drav/n together latter
saw
also
they would retain their influence with
the people, they must have temples and monasteries
and public services
like the former.
It
has not yet been clearly ascertained when they
The main body
began to erect these buildings. of the literature of China
research subjects
lying
outside
on
information
the
is
Confucian, and the
obtain
necessary to
of
point
it
information on is
hand
in
but
great; will
forthcoming when the desirableness of
it
be has
-^Of the great and all but overmastering influence of Buddhism on the development of Taoism there is no doubt,
been
and
recognized.
I will
tration of in
content myself here v/ith one it.
.^ou go
into a Buddhist
China, and what strikes you
sight
is
most
illus-
temple at first
the three gigantic images in the prin-
cipal hall, called the
San Tao
or
"Three Precious
"
lis
Origin
You know
Ones."^
and Polytheism.
167
that in the theory of Bud-
dhism "the three precious ones" are InteUigence personified in Buddha, the Law, and the Church but an attendant of the temple will tell you that the images represent Buddha past, present, and ;
The common
to come.
people, ignorant of the
esoteric view of a Trinity,
cannot understand the
logical abstractions that are thus
represented
and blindly worship what they suppose are three and when you stand, as I have often divinities ;
done, a long time before the great figures, you feel that you are sympathizing with their popular
worshippers more than with the philosophers. You go now into a Taoist temple, and are
immediately confronted by three vast images,
which you mistake at first for the precious By-and-by you see that they are Buddhas.
and understand that they are San " " the Ch'i ng, " the three Pure or Holy Ones " " the Highest Holy One Perfect Holy One
different,
:
;
;
them and "the Greatest Holy One." Each has the title of T'ien Tsun, "the Heavenly and Honoured," and also the title of Shang Ti or of
taken from the Confucian or old religion of the country. The second of the
God, the three Âť
is
See
Article
latter
"the Most High Prince Lao," the usual
Eitel's
Handbook
Triratna,
of Chinese Buddhism, p. 150,
Taoism
58
1
:
style in speaking of Lao-tsze is
"
but his
;
full title
Holy One, (the Lord) of Tao the Heavenly and Honoured."
the greatest
and
Vi:tue,
The
first
of the three, "the Perfect
Gemmeous) Holy
(literally,
One, who was at the
beginning, the Heavenly and Honoured," called " P'an-kii, or Chaos."^
P'an-ku
is
is
first
also
spoken
by the common people as " the first man, who opened up heaven and earth." It has been said to me in "pidgin" English that "he is all the same your Adam;" and in Taoist picturebooks I have seen him as a shaggy, dwarfish, of
Hercules, developing from a bear rather than
an ape, and wielding an immense chisel with
rocks.
which he
You may
think that
the representations of Taoism, but
The utmost
I
that
am I
in
hammer and
breaking the chaotic
is
am
I
this highest
caricaturing
department
not conscious of doing
can discern
in
them
is
so.
the
crude notion of a gross mind that the present
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;" the heavens and the earth and of them," â&#x20AC;&#x201D;was fashioned somehow
visible universe,
the host
all
out of a previously existing chaos.
Taoism ranks Chaos, '
Ivlorrison's Dictionar)',
I.
i.,p. 15
lary
;
"View
of China for
and Chalmers' "Collecof Taoist Words and Phrases," in DooUttle's Vocabu.ind Handbook, II., p. 235.
Philological Purposes," p. iii tion
But when one of
" anarch old," as
;
Origin and Polyihcisin.
Ifs
its
we
Trinity of great Gods,
find
what
is
69
are prepared to
and unreasonable in its any better than Chance, God and miscreator " ? The
fantastic
Is
S)-stem.
1
Chaos
"that unspiritual
"Gods of void Next to them is Yu Hwang Shang Ti, the " gemmeous sovereign, God," who has in a great measure displaced the others "three Holy Ones" are styled non-existence."
from the public mind, superintending, as he supposed to do,
all
human
affairs,
and also exer-
cising a control over the physical world.
styled "
the
God
is
He
of mysterious existence."
â&#x20AC;˘
is
The
is the same with the Shang Ti of the classics, forgetting that that Shang Ti was worshipped by the sage Shun, more than two thousand years before Taoism had assumed the form of a religion. And more
Taoists contend that he
than
this.
The
origiiial
of this
popular idol
was a magician of the Chang family that has given so many patriarchs to Taoism, whose deification
cannot be traced higher than the
T'ang dynasty, in our seventh or eighth century. The most extravagant legends are written about him.
He and
a race on
another magician called
LiCl,
rode
dragons up to heaven, which was
won by Chang.^ '
Essay by Dr. Edkins, read
ference, Shanghai, in 1S77.
at the Missionary
Con-
Taoism
70
1
:
Taoism has many more "gods," "supreme "great gods," and "celestial gods,"
gods,"
The name
"divine rulers."
Ti, or
God, which
Confucianism never abused and prostituted to an extent, never
such
indeed abused at
all
without calling forth some protest and in the
end correction of the
error,
No
of the Taoist deities.
is
given to scores
polytheism could be
more pronounced, or more grotesque, with hardly fancy or cesthetical
a single feature of poetic
beauty.
What Taoism was into China,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;a
Buddhism came
before
mass
of superstitions and
sacrifices not digested into
Illustrated
emperor It is
4.
did
much
by
the
case
Buddhism mould the form that Taoism as a
evident that the influence of to
To understand
must get some idea of what
came
or
the subject fully it
into contact with the
whom
before
I
it
system from India
this I will translate
count that we possess of the emperor dynasty,
we
was as a super-
congeries of superstitions
and that you may do
Han
Han
Wu.
religion took.
stition
any system. of the
W'ii,
;
an acof the
have already mentioned.
Having succeeded to the throne at an early age in B.C. 140, lie was admonished by a distinguished
As
a Congeries of Superstitions.
171
scholar to hold fast to Confucianism, and avoid
But the warning proved sovereign," it is said, young The of no avail. was naturally addicted to reverence and worship spiritual beings and when Li Shao-
prevalent superstitions.^ "
;
him about the sacrifice the furnace and the art
chiin discoursed to
(the
of)
spirit
keeping back
formed the
the approach
sacrifice himself,
of age,
to
of
he per-
and sent magicians
to sea to search for the isle of Fang-lai.
At
the same time he engaged in alchemical studies, and attempted to transform cinnabar and other
After a long time Shao-
substances into gold.
chun
fell
ill
and
died, but the
emperor would
not believe that he was really dead.
He
said
had simply been transformed and gone away as an Immortal, and employed men to carry on the exercise of his arts. "The year after, Shao-wang, a man of Ch'i,
that he
represented that he was possessed of wonderful arts,
and was favourably
received.
time a favourite inmate of the
Shao-wang contrived
to
make
Just at that
harem a
died,
spirit, in
and form
resembling the deceased, appear to the emperor at night, who was so pleased that he gave the
magician the rank of General with the title of " the accomplished and complete," and treated '
.See
note A.
:
Taoism
172
him
Before two years,
as an honoured guest.
however, his arts had become feeble, on which
he got an ox to swallow a piece of writing on
it
silk
with a
prepared by himself, and told the
had been made known to him document in The ox was killed, and the silk its belly. found, but the emperor recognized the hand" writing, and " the accomplished and complete
emperor that
it
that the animal had a wonderful
was put to death. "
Not daunted by
the death of this charlatan,
a former fellow-student of
his,
called
Lwan
Ta,
boasted to the emperor about his science, and affirmed that his master had said,â&#x20AC;&#x201D; That other metals might be transmuted
into
gold
;
that
the medicine of immortality might be obtained
and that
the
The emperor
appear.
;
might be made to
Immortals
raised
him
also to the
rank of General, and gave him a noble lady in marriage, so that the empire rang with the good fortune of the adventurer but having spoken ;
incautiously of seeing his master, and his arts
proving unsuccessful, he also was put to
all
death. "
In the winter of that same year there was
a Kung-sun Ch'ing, who was looking out for spirits
in
Ho-nan, and reported that he had
seen the footprint of an
Immortal on the wall
;
Asa
Congeries of Superstitions.
On
of Hau-shih.
the east, and
to
emperor repaired
the
this
sea-coast offered
the
along-
sacrifices to the eight spirits
which Shih Hwang-
He
Ti had formerly worshipped.
many
thousand men who there were
that
said
peopled by
isles
to find Fang-lai
and
also prepared
them with
and, filling
vessels,
several
ocean
the
in
them
sent
spirits,
He
inhabitants.
its
173
him-
Fang Kao and self meanwhile returned while there he raised a tumulus on mount T'ai. to
At
;
was neither wind nor rain, and the magicians said that it was just the that time there
season
to
hold
get
have
his
the
again
to
wishes
fulfilled
face
his
the
of
beings
spiritual
emperor
the
Joyfully
Fang-lai.
of
east,
full
of
turned
hope to
every hour, and from
the shore looked out for his longed-for visitors
but
it
"
was
all in
Five years
vain.
after,
on mount Tai, and
he again went and in the
sacrificed
course of twelve years
had gone all round to the five great mountains and four great rivers, sacrificing but of all that the magicians promised from their looking out for spirits and seeking on the sea for the isle ;
of Fcing-lai, not a single thing "
In
the
year
B.C.
ploughing the imperial to
mount
T'ai,
99,
came
the
to pass.
emperor, after
field at Chii-lu,
repaired
and performed the usual services
:
!
Taoism
174
there, saying at the close of them, to his atten-
dants, " Since
and
ascended the throne, by wild
I
unreasonable
practices
distressed the empire.
cannot repair
I
greatly
Henceforth, however,
errors.
its
have
I
regret the past, but
do away with everything that is injurious to the common people, and wastes the resources I will
T'ien Ch'ien-ch'iu, chief of the
of the country.
"The
court of ceremonies, said,
magicians
about
stories of the
Immortals
and
spirits
are
very numerous, but not one of them has been made good. Your majesty should make an
"Tien's words are good," said
end of them." the
His
emperor.
accordingly,
but
commands
ever
often say to his ministers with
issued
he
would
sorrow, "Alas
was so led astray by the magicians Immortal beings as
that
I
Are
there anywhere such
they speak
and
were
afterwards
folly.
Their talk
of.^
If
we
is
all
extravagance
are temperate in
our
diet,
and use medicine, we may make our illnesses ^ That is all we can attain to." few. The above is a condensed account of the Taoist practices of the emperor Wu. It might have been very much enlarged, and
I
am
sorry
Liang Yen-nien's Illustrated edition of the K'ang-hsi Sacred Edict, with a little addition from the " General '
IMirror of History."
Origin of the Present System. it
175
does not mention the astrological superstitions
His Taoist masters told
to which he gave heed.
him
that "
among
all
the spirits of heaven, the
highest in rank was the one dwelling in the star Tai-yi (in
were on
rulers
Draco) his left
;
;
that the five heavenly-
and
that, in
accordance
with ancient custom on the part of the of the State, he should
sacrifice
Head
to Tai-yi." ^
\Vu, otherwise a powerful ruler, was so infatuated
about these men, that he complied
He
request.
w^ith their
believed in their astrology, as he
did in their alchemy, their herb and elixir of immortality, their stories about Immortals, and their
communications with
The 5.
We
spiritual beings.
origin of the present Taoism.
are
now
in
a position to understand,
so far as such a subject can be understood, the
forms which a system so different from the views and worship of the state religion, as seen in
Confucianism, assumed during the
and the changes that
it
Han dynasty
has subsequently under-
gone.
The
superstitions
that
constitute
the
sub-
stance of the system were indigenous, and had See a Paper by Dr. Edkins in the " Companion to the Shanghai Almanac_" for 1S57, on the Chinese worship of '
the Stars.
:
Taoism
176
existed and been growing from a very early
Our study
date.
in the first
Lecture of a few
of the primitive written characters showed us
a belief in God, and even a monotheism, when they were formed but there were at the same ;
time ideas of which the outcome was likely to be Sabaism, and the traces of a system of divination were
still
Those
more marked.
ten-
dencies to superstition could have been checked
and corrected only by a healthy and general development of the doctrine of God and this But the effect did to some extent take place. ;
of
it
was marred by the
restriction of the divine
worship to the Head of the state as the repreReligious worship, as a sentative of the people.
power to invigorate piety and stimulate morality, was thus "cribbed, cabined, and confined." JNIen, debarred from communion with the Great resorted
more
Spirit,
eagerly to inferior spirits, to the fathers,
spirits
of
rally.
One passage
their
and
in the
spirits
to
Shu King,
gene-
referring
to a veiy early time, not later certainly than
that of the sage Shun, speaks of " communications between earth and heaven, and descents
which required the interference of
(of spirits),"^
government. The accredited worship of ancestors, with that of the departed great added to it, was '
The Shu, V.
-xxvii.
ch.
i.
Position 0/ Co7ifucius
to Tdoisvi.
177
not enough to satisfy the cravings of men's
minds.
They wanted
not
as
paying to them the cold tributes of
filial
piety and admiration, but as receiving from
to have to do with spirits,
them what they were supposed
to be able to
impart according to the activity of their nature.
As
a contemporary of Confucius, trying to ex-
plain the passage of the just alluded, said, "
Shu
to which
The people
have
I
intruded into
the functions of the regulators of the spirits and their
They abandoned
worship.
their fellow-men,
to
from above.
spirits
longer kept
made
The
tried
their
duties
to bring
spirits themselves,
check and subjected to
in
down no
rule,
appearance irregularly and disas-
their
In this explanation there was super-
trously."^
stitious error
on the part of the statesman who
shows what was the natural of the relation between the Chinese people
offered result
and
it
and the
but
;
it
religious constitution of their country.
Position of Confucius to the growing Taoism of his time.
There years '
is
many
no doubt that fantastic
for
two thousand
and gross
"Narratives of the States"
;
superstitions
see Chinese Classics,
593: 594-
12
II.
:
I
Tdoisvi
78
had been growing appeared upon its which he took up
in
in
characteristic of the
my
China, when
And
stage.
Confucius
the position
regard to them
man.
I
is
very
drew attention
in
last Lecture to his advice to " respect the
spirits
but to keep aloof from them," which has
been objected to as showing the non-religiousbut we receive a different ness of his nature ;
impression latent
from
it
Taoism of
when we know what
his
day was.
Both
it,
the
and
the other saying that "to sacrifice to a spirit
with
whom
flattery,"
one has no proper connexion, was were directed against the superstition
that was by-and-by to have so
development.
Again, the
first
portentous a
of the four sub-
on which he eschewed conversation was " extraordinary things." The account I have
jects
given you of the emperor of what
The sage
were. stition
of
it,
character those
Wu
of
Han shows
extraordinary things
evidently thought that super-
was best combated by taking no notice might be silvern, but silence
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; that speech
was golden. There are times when that is the I do not think Confucius' time was one case. Nor was he the man in whom silence them. of was justifiable when the interests of truth were concerned.
N^aiional Degeneracy after Confucius.
179
Rapid degeneracy after Confucius. After the death of Confucius, the intellectual
and social degeneracy of the nation went on more rapidly. The picture which jMencius draws of its state in the fourth and third centuries B.C.
Unemployed
scholars indulged
in unreasonable discussions."
Heresiarchs were
is
"
frightful.
numerous.
his best to hold
Mencius did
standard of Confucian truth.
up the
Lieh-tsze before
him, and Chwang-tsze, his contemporary, were not afraid to ridicule the master.
Dr. Chalmers
has happily said that they used him, as the
Samson, "to make sport for them." It is remarkable that Mencius does not mention these philosophers by name and enter the arena against them but it was probably Philistine lords used
;
their
mockery
of Confucius
which made him
pile
together the opinions of others and himself that
among
mortal
men
there had never been that
sage's equal.
From Mencius
to the rise of the dynasty.
Han
In the third century B.C. there occurred the death of Mencius, the extinction of the dynasty of Chau, the subjugation of
amid
"
all
the feudal states
hideous ruin and combustion," and the
1
Tdois?n
80
:
We
establishment of the empire of Ch'in.
seen already
was
and devoted believer
a blind
His
superstitions.
in
Taoist
happily terminated with
line
of the dynasty laid in
The foundations
his son.
have
the founder of that empire
how
the ground soft with the blood of millions of the
dates from
was
Many
B.C.
of
its
been buried
master's
tomb
A reaction
reconstruction
in B.C.
194,
was
Han
te'ious.
visited
the
and offered an ox
in
as
During
all
much
to
very
" the
all-complete and
him by the emthis time, Taoism had itself, and with what
conferred on
was
peror PMng. field
title
first "
illustrious
soon commenced,
him, nearly two centuries elapsed
sacrifice to
have seen in the histor}' of the emperor
we Wu. The
result
existence
Chang
books had been burnt.
the founder of the
before his
the
Its
Confucianism
old
most distinguished adherents had alive.
but the work of
Though
The
206.
low ebb.
at a
The Han empire
last longer.
people could not
more than 2000 years' a head and effloresced.
superstitions of
came
to
Tao-ling attracted the imperial notice
in the first
century of our era
;
and a popedom
or patriarchate of the system has existed in the line of his
descendants to the present day.
With
Taoism was not then a religion, with temples, and liturgies, and forms of public
all
this
"
How worship.
It
it
Buddhism.
free
course
representatives
^
like to call either the
do not
other
"
by the name
of priests
The
China.
in
of Buddhism,
wearers of the " yellow caps I
i8i
only became so after Buddhism
began to have shaven
copiedfrom
of
and the
Taoism
—
for
one class or the
— are now constantly
seen associated in the same service, and repeated
attempts have been made to amalgamate them into one class.^
Though Taoism,
both
sides, yet
of
worship and
its
these were resisted on in
liturgies,
organizing the forms
borrowed more from
Buddhism than Buddhism did from fessors,
it.
Its pro-
however, have always persisted, in oppo-
sition to
Buddhism, and
in spite of the efforts of
the Government, in refusing to submit to the
yoke of
celibacy.
'Dr. Chalmers says "They are called Yellow Caps, because they wear the style of caps instituted by Hwang But the thing made of yellow wood, Ti, the Yellow Ti." and helping to bind up the hair in a knot, can hardly be I had one for years in my possession, called " a cap." given to me by its owner on his receiving Christian :
—
"
baptism. is
Top " would be a much dignity.
better
name
for
it
;
crown
a term of too
related, for instance, in the "
General Mirror of under A.D. 555, that the emperor of the Ch'i dynasty, that there might no longer be two systems, commanded all " the Yellow Tops " to become shaven Shamans. Some of them refusing, it is said, four were put to death, and there was a general compliance with -It
is
History,'"
the decree
I
1
82
Tdois7n
:
Connexion of Taoism with what are called the State gods. 6.
When
Confucianism was the sole religion
of China, there
name
the
of
Ti
was no or
idolatry in
God
it
;
and while
has been given by the
Buddhists to Indra, and perhaps to other Indian deities/
who
and there are multitudes of Taoist idols supreme
are called gods, great gods, and
gods, an image has never been fashioned of the
god of the old classics. Indeed, it was not tiil after the image of Buddha was brought to the capital, in
A.D.
images or statues of
65, that
Confucius and other great
men
of the past
began
to be made.
But when Taoism and Buddhism had made good their footing in the empire, and were recognized by the Government, to multiply
idol-deities
it
was possible
indefinite!}-,
and
this
has been done in what are called the state gods.
Of
these the three principal
fathers of Medicine
{for
are
the
Fu-hsi and two others
Dr. jMedhurst, in his " Dissertation on the Theology of the Chinese," pp. 248, 249, says, " In the Buddhistic classic, Chang Tao Chi, we have Ti, frequently prefixed '
to Shih, and used in the sense of the God Shih KiaBut Ti Shih is the God Indra (Shakra). I do mun-a."
not
know
that the
tama Buddha.
name
is
given to Shakyamuni or Gau-
Connexion with the State gods.
183
are associated under this name),
Kwan Yu
hero of our third
most Hkeable
character "
century, the
romance known as
the famous
in
The History
(a
Kingdoms
of the Three
"),
the
god of war, a special favourite of the Manchu emperors and Wan-ch'ang, the god of Htera;
ture, a star deity,
whose seat
is
in
a constellation
which forms part of Ursa Major. is
Wan-ch'ang
a dangerous rival to Confucius as the patron
Kwan-Ti was in 1S56 appointed same divine honours of worship
of literature, and to receive the
that are given to the
sage,
because the year
before he had manifested himself, and
made the
imperial troops grandly successful in an engage-
ment with the first
And
T'ai-p'ings.
it
was not the
time that he had appeared turning the tide
of battle,
Romans
as at
Castor and
Lake
Pollux did for the
Regillus.
A
special
officer,
representing the emperor, with a suite of attendants, repairs
to the temples of these
twice
and on behalf of the emperor
a year,
deities
presents the appointed offerings and reads the prayers.
But while these are the principal the It
number of others
was
said to
less
exalted
is
state gods,
very great.
Judah of old time, "According
to
number of thy cities are th\-gods;" and much more than this is true of China. The cities and
the
1
Taoism:
84
smaller towns
have their tutelary
all
deities,
which are appointed by the government, and
homage
the local authorities render the imperial
The number
at the set times.
of deities and
temples, moreover, increases every year, for the
pope does not canonize on so large a scale as the emperor of China. Now the temples of all the state gods are in the hands of the ministers of Taoism its
and
;
if
you would see the system in you must visit
glory, or rather in its shame,
the temple of the tutelary deity of one of the provincial capitals.
a good day
If
your choice has
for the visit, the place
with worshippers and loungers. logers, diviners,
id genus
on
fallen
is
crowded
There are astro-
geomancers, physiognomists,
et
plying their trades, or waiting
oiiine, all
Each shrine has its visitors The whole place is grimy, and
to be asked to do so.
and
suppliants.
the air
is
loaded with odours that are anything
but perfumes from Araby the blessed. too,
you
frightful
Hades,
shall see in " the
There,
chamber of Horrors
"
representations of the punishments of
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; of
what
is
being transacted
in
the
courts of the other world.
The moral teaching 7.
But
I will
these until
I
of Taoism.
not enter on any description of
have
first
given you some idea of
.
Its
Moral
Teaching.
185
moral teaching of the system.
the
communicated
to the
what we should
call
puWic
for the
This
is
most part
in
tracts or pamphlets,
pub-
name of the They contain a
blished as exhortations under the state
gods and other
great deal
of
deities.
good advice derived from the
Confucian books, with an intermixture of what queer and grotesque.^ The most popular and
is
characteristic of all the Taoist practical
works
"The Book of Actions and their Retributions,"^ ascribed to "The most High," which is commonly taken as meaning Lao-tsze. The name is
of the treatise, however, occurs
logue of the Sung dynasty. familiar
with
the
ethics
first in
The
a cata-
was of Confucianism and writer
Buddhism as well as those of his own religion and while the teaching of the latter predominates,' ;
there
is
nothing contrary to the doctrines of the
Commencing
other two.
ment lot)
'
for
with the general state-
There are no special doors (in men's calamity and blessing, which come as
that
"
This treatise was
tive anecdotes,
by the
all
translated, with
many
late Stanislas Julien,
illustra-
and several
versions in English have since appeared, done from Julien's version more than from the original text. Julien rendered title by " Le Livre des Recompenses et des Peines." That which I have given is more correct, but " Actions"' must be taken as including thoughts and purposes though
the
unacted.
Taoism:
l86
men
themselves
call
them, and that their recom-
penses follow good and
evil,
the substance,",Uhe
follows
the shadow
as
treatise
and according to their the term of life.
gressions,
curtail
gravity,
says that
which take note of men's trans-
there are spirits
lightness or
Several of
those spirits are then enumerated, some whose seat
the stars, three that reside in the_
in
is
human body, and last four
the spirit of the furnace.
The
on certain days go up to the court of
heaven, and report the results of their observa-
Great transgressions cost a
tion.
years of
life,
man
twelve
and small ones a hundred days.
After this preamble there follows the descrip-
good man, one whose characteristics would make us all acknowledge that he sh aild be called such and the result to him is chat tion of a
;
"Men
respect him, and
Heaven
protects him,
and Spirits defend him, and whatsoever he does shall
prosper
Immortal."
;
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;he
If
may hope
to
become an
he be ambitious to be "an Im-
mortal of heaven," he must give the proof of
hundred good deeds. If he be content "an Immortal of earth," three hundred will
thirteen to be
suffice.
There
is
then given at
much
the description of a bad man.
hundred
traits
of character
greater length
More than two
are stated, which
Its
we should
better
187
Teaching.
condemn more
all
had
Others
Moral
or
have been
less severely.
and
omitted,
wrong only because they are contrary A man, of the system. to the e.g., must not sing and dance on the last day must not shout of the moon or of the year first day of tlie the passion on and get into a several are
superstitions
;
moon or
or in the morning
;
must not weep,
spit,
be guilty of other indecency towards the
north
;
must not
the furnace
;
sigh, sing, or cry in front
must not
of
spit at a shooting star,
point at a rainbow, or look long at the sun or
moon. In the case of crimes such as are enumerated, the spirit
charge of the perpetrator's
in
life,
according to a righteous decision, takes away
from
his appointed time periods of twelve years
or of a hundred days.
When
exhausted, death ensues.
remain
the term of
life is
If at death there
guilt unpunished, the
still
judgment extends
to his posterity. Finally, the treatise thus concludes
one's
mind
:
"
directed to good, though the
is
When good
be not yet done, the good spirits are in attendance on him to
evil,
spirits are in *'
If
;
and when one's mind
though the
evil
is
directed
be not yet done, the bad
attendance on him.
he has done the wicked thing, and
after-
"
1
Taoism:
88
wards
alters
way, and repents, not doing
his
anything wicked, but endeavouring to do everyis good, after a time he will obtain
thing that
good fortune and prosperity:
this
what
is
called changing calamity into blessing,
words, looks, and
"The man are
all
surely send
x
deeds of the good
If all the three are seen to
good.
be so every day,
is
after three years
down
blessing on
Heaven
will
And
the
him.
words, looks, and deeds of the bad man are all If all the three are seen to be so every evil.
Heaven
day, after three years'
down
yourself to do what
Such
One
good
?
a specimen of the moral teaching of You can form your ow^i judgment of
is
Taoism. it.
is
send
will surely
Should you not exert
calamity on him.
sentence which
at death there
still
judgment extends
I
quoted says that
" If
remain guilt unpunished, the the
to
culprit's
posterity."
This is the view of retribution of which I spoke that it in my second lecture on Confucianism, descendants the in ill or good for works itself out
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
of
the individual.
punishment
to
If
receive
he himself have any after this
Confucianism says nothing about author of equally
"
present it.
the
"
was
Actions and their Retributions
silent.
life,
And
Its
Purgatory and Hell.
The purgatory and
hell of
1
89
Taoism.
But since he wrote, Taoism has received a new and frightful development, which in great measure has come to it from Buddhism quite 8.
as evidently as
three
its
doctrine of a Trinity or the
Holy Ones.
migration gross
in
Taoist
is
in
its
It
is
the process of
now
the belief in trans-
grossest form, its
made
still
adaptation.
more
The
called on to believe in a purgatory,
consisting of ten courts of Justice situated at
the bottom of a great ocean which the depths of the earth.
in
punishments hibited
in
inflicted
in
lies
Pictures
these courts
down of the
are ex-
the temple of the spirit of
"the
Eastern Mountain," which forms a part of the temple of the greater tutelary deity of each provincial city, and receives consequently from foreigners
the
Horrors."
A
name
of
"The chamber
of
account of this purgatory
is
contained in a work, of which a translation
is
full
given by Mr. Herbert A. Giles in an appendix to his " Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio,"
published only in January this year,^ and '
"Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio.
I
Translated
and Annotated by Herbert A. Giles, of H. M.'s Consular Service (Thomas De La Rue and Co.)." I had often wished that some one would take the trouble to translate all these stories. They are mainly Taoist, though Bud-
:
I
go
freely
Taoism avail
myself of the results of his
toil.
The title of his original is-</^' The Divine Panorama, published by the mercy of Yii-Ti/ that
men and women may repent them of their faults, and make atonement for their sins."/ The description of the courts is preceded by a
recital of
which
this
day of the saviour
"
a part.
is
P'u-sa,^
as
On
the birth-
the spirits
of
purgatory were thronging round to offer their congratulations,
regions
spake
the as
ruler
follows
:
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
the
of '
My
infernal
wish
is
to
and every moon, as this day comes round, I would wholly or partially remit the punishment of erring shades, and give them life once more in one of the six Paths. ^ release all souls,
dhism and Buddhist monks frequently appear. If we had only an equal collection of the "extraordinary things" about which Confucius would not speak !
This
may
the
Sanskrit
be called the Taoist seal on the document. Yii-Ti is the Yii Hwang Shang Ti of p. 169. ^ P'u-sa is an abbreviated form of the Chinese characters â&#x20AC;˘
for
Bodhisattva, meaning one whose
essence has become intelligence, and who has only once more to pass through human existence before he attains
Buddhaship (Eitel). The name is entirely Buddhistic, it is used in Chinese generally for a deity. The P'u-sa here would seem to be the ruler of the Infernal Regions. to
but ^
The
six gati, or
paths of transmigration, the six condevas, men, asuras, beings
ditions of sentient existence in hell, pretas,
:
and animals^^ The
last three of these conditions are the " threeStates "subsequently mentioned.
Purgatory and Hell.
Its
But
alas
191
the wicked are many, and the virtuous
!
Nevertheless the punishments in the dark
few.
some modiand
region are too severe, and require fication.
Any
wicked soul that
repents
induces one or two others to do likewise shall
be allowed to
set this off against the punish-
ments which should be
inflicted.'
of the ten Courts then agreed that
The judges who lead
all
virtuous lives from their youth upwards shall
be escorted at Immortals
and
evil is
their
that
;
death to the land of the
all
whose
exact shall escape the bitterness of
the three States,
and
men
who have
that those
;
be born
again
among
repaid their debts
of gratitude and friendship, and destiny,
good
balance of
yet have a balance
of
fulfilled their
evil
against
them, shall pass through the various courts of purgatory, and then be born again rich, poor, old,
be put a second time upon
behave state
;
well,
but
if
they
may
Then,
trial.
if
they
some happy be dragged by
enter into
badly, they will
horrid devils through bitterly as
among men,
young, diseased or crippled, to
all
the courts, suffering
they go, and will again be born,
to endure in
life
the uttermost of poverty and
wretchedness, in death the everlasting tortures of hell." tion,
There follows a good deal of explana-
but this relaxation of the severity of the
:
Taoism
192
punishments, thus agreed upon by the judges of the ten Courts, was approved P'u-sa,
and then on a certain
by the whole forth
all
let
them to Yu-Ti. Yii-Ti Good Good Hencetake note of any mortal
eleven of
and
also approved
who vows
by the ruling day submitted
said, "
spirits
!
to lead a virtuous
promises to sin no more. shall be remitted to him.
life,
!
and, repenting,
Two And
punishments if,
in addition
to this, he succeeds in doing five virtuous acts,
then he shall escape
born again
in
punishment and be
all
some happy
she shall be born as a man. virtuous acts shall
state
;
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
if
a
woman,
But more than
five
enable such a soul to obtain
the salvation of others, and redeem wife and family from the tortures
of
hell.
Let these
Divine Panoon earth by the spirits of
regulations be published in the
rama, and
circulated
the City Guardian."
Thus ends the preamble of the account of the courts of purgatory. stitution
under which
We
see the lenient
men
are placed since the
con-
meetings in purgatory and heaven, which the
document
describes,
were
held,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; placed
with
regard to the purgatory and hell in the future
The day and month
in
!
which the Powers of
their counsels before Yii-Ti in
purgatory
laid
heaven are
stated, but not the year.
I
shall
be
lis
Purgatory and Hell.
anxious to know what the publication
is
it
193
was, and also whether
guaranteed by the Heavenly-
Master Chang, the pope of Taoism on well as
by
with this
earth, as
Hwang, its God in heaven. But document in circulation, Dr. Edkins Yii
did well to speak as he did at the Missionary
Conference
in
Shanghai
statements which
I
1877:
in
made
years ago and have
now
to
this,
that the Taoists have no
as
correct
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; "Among
imperfect
erroneous
or
hell,
is
but only a
heaven."
After the preamble of which
I
have spoken
there follows a description of each of the ten courts of purgatory, with their punishments
and
the crimes for which these are
The
inflicted.
ninth court, for instance, presided over Infernal Majesty, P'ing Tang,
many
gehenna,
is
by His
a vast, circular
leagues in breadth, enclosed
by
an iron net, and subdivided into sixteen wards. In the first the wicked souls have their bones 'â&#x20AC;˘
beaten
and
their
bodies
scorched.
In
the
second, their muscles are drawn out and their
bones rapped. heart and intestines
In the third,
liver.
are crushed
teeth
In
and lungs.
splashed with hot
oil.
out.
the
fifth,
they are
In the sixth, their heads
in a frame,
are drawn
ducks eat their
In the fourth, dogs eat their
and
their tongues
and
In the seventh, their 13
1
Tdotstn
94
brains
:
taken out and
are
with hedgehogfs.
In the
their
skulls
filled
eigrhth,
their
heads
are steamed and their brains scraped.
In the
they are dragged about by sheep
ninth,
they drop to pieces.
squeezed
a
in
the head.
ground
wooden
press,
and pricked on
the eleventh, their hearts
are
In the twelfth, boiling water
in a mill.
on
drips
In
till
In the tenth, they are
bodies.
In the thirteenth,
they are stung by wasps.
In the fourteenth,
to
their
they are tortured by ants and maggots are
;
they
then stewed and finally wrung out
(like
In the fifteenth, they are stung by
clothes).
scorpions.
In the sixteenth, they are tortured
by venomous snakes, crimson and scarlet." Sed oJie ! jam satis. I will not weary you with more of the horrible details of the " Divine Panorama."
I
have quoted from
it
so largely,
that there might be no doubt as to the recent
development of a purgatory and hell in the The impulse leading to system of Taoism.
was derived evidently in But for the the first place from Buddhism. Indian belief in metempsychosis or transmigration, the Taoists would never have fashioned their development
that
courts
that
of
purgatory
Buddhism
;
but
cession of transmigrations
I
am
an
maintains ;
and
not
aware
unending sucstill
less that
Its
Purgatory arid Hell.
when transmigration there
is
no good
done
has
result, there
195
its
best
and
afterwards an
is
everlasting hell to which irremediable souls are
consigned.
This seems to be a tenet peculiar
to Taoism, that the soul
which
I
on
for ever in
of the preamble,
the
many who
say that "when a man an end of him that, when he has
dies, there is
;
lost his skin
(that
Shakspearian phrase,
in
is,
shuffled off this mortal coil
suffered
live
did not quote above, deals with
unbehef of
'
must
A sentence
individuality.
its
'),
he has already
the
worst that can befal him; that living men can be tortured, but no one ever saw a man's ghost in the pillory; that after
death
all is
unknown, and so on."
such unbehevers not
know
to
life,
in the life to
Truly these
some
Taoism perhaps Christian source
certainly teaches in the " Divine
the everlasting irreclaimably
some get
men do
the same will be done
come."
derived this tenet from it
In reply to
body alone perishes, but the ever and ever; and that whatsoever
they do in this
them
said, "
that the
soul lives for evil
it is
to
through the
existence and
bad.
But
it
Panorama
;
"
misery of the says
also
that
be "Immortals" without passing fires
of purgatory, and others who,
after being subjected to them,
themselves aright
in a
have conducted
new and transmigrated
Taoism:
196
their immortality also everlasting
Is
life.
presume the system would say texts occur to
me
that
speak of any advance
so,
expressly affirm in
?
I
though no it,
or
one
eternity from
degree of brightness and happiness to another
and higher.
Taoism as
power
a magical
malevolent 10.
I
my
must bring
as a religion to a close I
;
in conflict
with
spirits.
Taoism order to do so,
description of
and
in
withdraw with you from the shades of the
and return to the realm of light and mortal life. But the system seems to dog our steps, and to let loose millions of malevolent infernal world,
spirits to trouble
them
and
not, hosts of
Though we
afflict us.
them may be
seeking opportunity to
all
about
various
inflict
see us,
injury.
They may assume the forms of snakes and foxes, of men and women, and entrap the unwary. Or they may take demoniac possession of their victims,
and produce pining
melancholy, houses,
and
wild
and frequent
weird and
eerie, are
the
frenzy.
thickets.
heard
the night, when the wind roof, or
sickness,
is
in
mooning
They haunt Their sounds,
the darkness of
howling about the
the rats and mice are holding revel on
floor,
or behind the wainscot in the crevices
"
Its
of the walls.
Power
against Spirits.
The dread
of spirits
is
197 the night-
mare of the Chinaman's life, and to this dread Taoism panders. It encourages it by its teachings, and lives in a great measure by it. This is
the prevailing characteristic of the system at
the present day.
My
impression
is
itself
that the alchemy which was
Han dynasty
cultivated in the
pretty well wore
out in five or six centuries.
the herb and preparation of the tality held their
ground longer.
the popular paraphrase of "
The
The pill
quest for
of immor-
The
writer of
sacred Edict
appeals to his hearers against the good doctors of Tao, who, in the deep recesses and caves of
occupy themselves with refining and talk about becoming Immor" Who," he asks, " ever saw them fly up
their mountains,
the vital tals,
spirit,
into the air in broad daylight sions are a farce."
may
have been modified
that about the
it
in the course of time,
men
is
as
downwards, in
magician,
powerful
is
their
now
as
pope or Heavenly every "yellow Top" is
consequence with the powers of
who with charms and
against the malevolent demons.
one
and
was, and from the
jNIaster
gifted
Their preten-
existence of spirits
interference with
ever
.''
But while other superstitions
equal to the pope.
a
liturgies fights
Of
course no
The sword
that has
198
Tdois77i:
come down from our ful. is
He
first
century
is
can even imprison the
very power-
said that about his residence on the
mountain there are thousands of tenanted by demons
whom
and
spirits,
it
Lung-hd
jars in rows, all
the great magician
has shut up in them.
But every member of the order has his own and makes more or less by writing charms and preparing amulets. The charms ability,
are figures,
drav/n
and
characters, single or combined,
and written
in
grotesque forms.
The
myriads of doors on v/hich you see them pasted
shows the thriving trade that have.
A
their writers
must
few years ago, over a large extent of
the country,
men were
startled
by the sudden
and unaccountable disappearance of or long cues.
An
their tails
invasion of cholera could not
have frightened the people more. w^ork of malevolent spirits
!
It was the There was a run
upon the charm-manufactories.
was thought woven together warded the spirits off. It
that four characters, mysteriously
and wrapped up
in the cue,
Taoism thus becomes
at times
the peace of the community.
generally be found making
Its
dangexous to adherents will
common cause against
literati. Both fear the advance and general knowledge, as threatening of science their prestige and their means of living and in
foreigners with the
;
Geomancy and Worship of the Dead. 199
Its
by Taoist
the populace, inflamed
superstitions,
a scheming scholar will find, not a host that
take arms against
will
foreign soldiers, but a will
commit the most
its
mob
own government
or
that in blind fury
frightful
deeds of violence
and outrage.
Geomancy and II.
The only other
think
I
the worship of the dead. features of
necessary
it
superstition of
to
Taoism which
mention
are
the
geomancy, and the views which
teaches the people to take of their departed
it
and the duties
relatives,
And
to
be paid to them.
even on these two features
slightly
;
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;to
treat
I
can touch but
exhaustively of
geomancy
would require more than one lecture
for itself.
The common name for the thing in Chinese is fang-shui, "wind and water." Dr. Yates says that "
it
is
never used except with reference to
the repose of the dead, or the influence of the
dead upon the happiness and welfare of the I would extend this account of it, for
living."^
has to do with the selection of
it
sites for the
habitations of the living, as well as of graves for
the dead. '
in
The aim
of the Taoists, however,
Yates's Paper on Ancestral
ShaneMi.
Worship
at the
is
Conference
200
Tdoispi
:
especially to provide the proper spots for the graves. relied
Only adepts in the system can be on to do this, and large sums are often
paid for their services. hi
If a coffin be interred
an improper spot, the
the dead
spirit of
made unhappy, and avenges
itself
sickness and other calamities to the relatives
have not taken
is
by causing
who
sufficient care for its repose.
have known bodies kept unburied, lying
I
in their
large and carefully cemented coffins, for a long time, from the difficulty of selecting the best site for the grave.
have known great excite-
I
ment and expenditure removal of a
in
connexion with the
from a grave which had
coffin
turned out unpropitious, to one that was likely to enable
its
tenant to rest in peace, and leave
his family circle unmolested.
With regard been
selected
to the in
dead whose graves have
harmony with geomantic
Taoism teaches that each one has three souls, one of which remains with the corpse, and one with the spirit-tablet, while
principles,
the third
which
I
is
carried
off
to
the purgatory, of
gave you some description
Offerings
must
be
presented
before the spirit tablet, and in
the tutelary deity of^the often very expensive,
city.
may be
^a
at
the
little
the
ago.
grave,
temple of
Special services,
held also either
Begotten by Buddhism.
by Buddhist monks or by together as
201
by both
Taoist, or
have often seen, to dehver the soul
I
Whether, when the deHver-
from purgatory.
ance has been in any case effected, the three
an ascent to the
souls are then reunited for
region of
new
of the Immortals, or for a
upon
trial
earth,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; that
career
have never found
I
discussed in any Taoist book that
have read.
I
But what a falling off in these services to the dead, and the fear of calamity if they be not from
performed,
and the
ancestors,
the filial
worship
Confucian piety
represented as the fulfilment
!
of which
/To
serve
its
it
of is
own
mercenary purposes, Taoism seems to convert the souls of
the dead into malevolent spirits,
all
and to cause what is done by their descendants for them to be done from fear and not from love./ I
have done with the religion of Taoism.
jMuch research scholars
with
it
to
is
make
still
clear
required from
everything connected
and trace the process of
its
development,
so as to satisfy the critical inquirer. satisfied that I fairly.
It
is
have given
fucius.
the
old
It
its
But
I
am
general attributes
not an ancient religion
followed, illustrated,
Chinese
like that
and transmitted by Con-
was begotten by Buddhism out of
Chinese superstitions.
Its
forms are
:
;
â&#x20AC;˘
Taoism
202 those of Buddhism are from
and
but
I
" The shape
and
have thought while setting
of Milton's description of sin
If
voice
its
spirit
mother-superstitions, fantastic, base,
its
cruel.
;
it
might be
:
shape had none
Distinguishable in member, joint, or limb
For each seemed
called that
either.
forth
other shape,
called, that
Or substance might be
it
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
Black
;
shadow seemed
it
;
stood as night,
Fierce as ten furies, terrible as hell,
And shook
a dreadful dart."
has proved too strong for
It
Confucianism,
though acknowledging to a great extent the social
system and duties enjoined by the sage
government, holding
the
be orthodox, has yet been
to
recognize and it
only
endow
it,
Confucianism
compelled
as well as
to
Buddhism
;
will long rage against the progress of Chris-
But the more that the truths of real China, the weaker time must come Taoism. A hold of the be
tianity.
science are disseminated in will
when
its
errors will exist only in dark corners
and benighted minds, as is the case in Christendom with the alchemy, astrology, palmistry, belief in witchcraft, and other superstitions which long
tried to maintain themselves
the Christian church.
(
even
in
As
Taoism as
a philosophy,
We
12.
must turn now to Taoism as a philoAfter I have done my best to describe
sophy.
to you, so far as
it
203
a Philosophy.
I
know it myself, a humbler name than
profess to
you may think that philosophy would have been more it
;
but the discussion will not
suitable for
come
lame
to so
and impotent a conclusion as the consideration of the religion has done. What I have to attempt
Tao Teh
you some idea of the contents of the King, which is our only text-book in
the case.
No
is
to give
other writing has
us from the pencil of Lao-tsze, will not take
long to put you
come down its
author.
to It
in possession of
everything about him that claims to rest on a historical foundation.
Historical account of Lao-tsze. 13.
Lao-tsze
is,
probably, a
title
of respect,
equivalent to "the Old or Venerable Philosopher." lated "
The two
characters
Old Boy," and
it
is
may
also be trans-
a popular fancy that
the philosopher was so called, because he was not born
womb
till
his
mother had carried him
in
seventy-two years, or, according to
accounts, eighty-one
years.
her
some
No wonder
that
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; an
" old
the child should have had white hair,
:
!
Taoism
204 boy is
"
of about fourscore years
an extravagant legend, and
mass of similar
That, of course,
!
stuff in the "
is
found
among
Record of
a
Spirits
Ko
Hung, a writer of our fourth century, between nine hundred and a and Immortals" by
thousand years after the birth of our subject.
Sze-ma
Ch'ien,
record of his
however, commences
life
with this
therefore have been in
century
B.C.
R, meaning
common
title,
which must
use in the second
His surname was Li, and " ear,"
brief
a
which gave place
his
name
after his
death to Tan, meaning "Flat-eared;" from which
we may conclude that in the
form of his
the east of what
is
there was
peculiarity
His birthplace was
ears.
now
some
in
the province of Ho-nan,
and he was one of the Sze, "Recorders," or Historiographers," at the royal court of Chau, his special
the year
charge being that of a
B.C.
517, as
we
librarian.^
In
saw, Confucius visited
in charge of the tsang shih, "the "house of deposit." In 1S61 I interpreted Julien this as meaning that he was "a treasury-keeper." made him "keeper of the archives." Professor Douglas has met with a statement that Confucius visited him " to hand him a book to be placed in the archives (Confucianism and Taoism, p. 176)." Chu Hsi says that Lao-tsze v.as in charge of the tien-tsi and shii-tsi, " Canons and >
Lao-tsze was
storehouse," or
Some make the Records," or generally "Writings." " Canons " to have been those of the three lines of sovereigns before Fu-hsi
Account of Lao- tsze.
205
being the capital, his object, according to Ch'ien, of subject the to make inquiries of Lao-tsze on
Whether
ceremonies.
were the motive of
this
met. the sage's journey or not, the two men then "' Lao-tsze Those whom you talk about," said the other, "are dead, and their bones are mouldered to dust ;â&#x20AC;&#x201D; only their words are left.
to
when
INIoreover,
he mounts
aloft
the superior ;
but,
man
gets his time
when the time
is
against
him, he moves as if his feet were entangled. I have heard that a good merchant, though he
has rich treasures deeply stored, appears as
if
he were poor, and that the superior man, though his virtue
is
complete,
is
yet to outward seeming
Put away your proud
stupid.
air
and many
desires, your insinuating habit and wild
These are of no advantage that
I
have to
tell
you."
you
to
;
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
this
will. is
all
Confucius at this time
was thirty-five years old, and Lao-tsze was eightyeight,
his birth, as
if
place in B.C. 604.
is commonly believed, took The difference of their age
pleaded as justifying the style that Lao-tsze employed in addressing his visitor.
may be
Confucius to
his
fishes
may flyer
is
made
disciples,
to say, after the interview,
" I
know how
swim, and animals run.
be snared, the shot
by the
birds can
fly,
But the runner
swimmer hooked, and the arrow.
But there
is
the
:
Taoism
2o6 dragon
;
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
cannot
I
tell
how he mounts on
wind through the clouds and
rises to
the
heaven.
have seen Lao-tsze, and can only
To-day I compare him
to the dragon."^ "
adds,
Ch'ien
Lao-tsze cultivated
the
tao
and virtue, the chief aim of his studies being
how
to
keep himself concealed and remain un-
He
known.
Chau,
of)
continued to reside at (the capital after
but,
a long time, seeing the
decay of the dynasty, he
left
it,
and went away
leading out of the
to the gate
state
on the
north-west. Yin Hsi, keeper of the gate, said to him, 'You are about to withdraw yourself
out of sight (first)
in
:
a book.'
pray you to compose
I
On
this
parts, setting forth his views
two
for
me
Lao-tsze wrote a book
on Tao and
more than five thousand characters. He then went away, and it is not known where he died. He was a superior man who liked to keep himself unknown,"
virtue, in
Ch'ien
down
finally
traces
Lao-tsze's descendants
to the beginning of the
first
century
B.C.,
and concludes by saying, "Those who attach themselves to the doctrine of Lao-tsze condemn '
Then
did the practice of calHng Li
with Confucius the
title
to Li's
in consequence.
?
R Lao-tsze originate
would have reference in great age, and the reverence due to him If so, the sage
Account of Ldo-tsze, and the
207 on their
that
of the
part
condemn Lao-tsze, verifying the saying, whose principles are different, cannot
'
literati,
literati
Parties,
take counsel together.'
R
Li
taught that trans-
formation as a matter of course follows the
doing nothing (to bring
and
is
all
we have
that
There
narrative about Lao-tsze. to
man
make
of historical
is
nothing
in
more than a
us think that he was
of superior character, devoted to the study
and of
of the tao for us to
There
virtue.
is
no reason
doubt that the book which he wrote at
Yin Hsi, and
the request of
benefit in the first place,
which we
possess.
still
his
for
school
distinct
from
special
was the Tao Teh King,
The
students of the
tao had in the time of Sze-ma Ch'ien a
rectifi-
still."
This morsel
it
and
about),
it
same way ensues from being pure
cation in the
become
the adherents of the
orthodox Confucianism, and opposed to and by them. But there is no account of Lao-tsze's nothing
and and learning there doctrines which he embodied in
deification,
nothing
his work.
of
his
He
of
his
travelling
pre-existence,
to
the
west
goes through the pass out of the
royal domain, alone, unattended
;
and nothing
more was ever heard of him. Doubts have been thrown on the
interview'
:
2o8
Tdois7n
between him and Confucius, and it
I
do not accept
myself with entire confidence.
Allowing
it,
however,
to
similarity
between the position and language of
be
Lao-tsze in
come
is
a
remarkable
and those of the recluses that
it
before us in the Analects.
much
sage
there
true,
They
rate the
as he did for not withdrawing
from
deride him for his unceasing attempts, " hoping against hope," to
the world altogether, and
arrest the degenerate
But
for the
tendencies of the time.^
Tao Teh King, Lao-tsze would have
been to us simply as one of them.
saw
he
as clearly as
that, if things
Confucius
went on as
they were doing, the kingdom of Chau must fall
f but he
vailed
need
for
my
" If
said,
through the
there would
A
services."
principles
right
land,
sense of duty kept
him at his abandoned
post, while Lao-tsze
obscurity.
I
the
however, to the
struggle
will
make
Ch'ien's
legends,
drawn
the legend of
and the others and withdrew into no further reference,
brief for
the
narrative,
most
-
=â&#x20AC;˘
Ana. XVIII.
Gautama Buddha,^ but
vi.
Confucianism and Taoism, See note D.
p. 17S.
nor
part
your attention to the Tao Teh King. '
pre-
be no
to
from
will call
The Tdo Teh King. Errors
in the interpretation of
Teh 14.
The preceding
209 the
Tao
King.
narrative would
seem to
fix the preparation of this treatise after the
year
more than
five
Containing but
B.C. 517,
thousand characters,^
it
{q:\^
about twice as long
is
Sermon on the Mount," though a good translation in English will take more space, as the "
owing
to the
condensed style of the
ought not to be
It
so
short
of
its
the
difficult to
and determine the meaning
a piece,
several chapters, but
Both
reverse.
it
is
to
experience proves
commentators and
native
foreigners have been
how hard
original.
analyse thoroughly
forward to acknowledge
open the
the meaning of the text.
shell
And
and bring out the errors into
which some scholars of great attainments and with the best intentions have
some of
fallen, in
regard to
most important chapters, show us with what accuracy and caution our study of it its
should be prosecuted.
two or three i.
I
will illustrate this
by
instances.
Father Premare and other
Roman
Catholic
missionaries about the beginning of last century
made '
it
their object to find in the old
In the T'ai Shang
published at Shanghai,
hwun I
yiian
books of
Tao Teh Chan King,
have counted 5330 characters. 14
3
2
:
Tdois7?i
1
China passages on which they could
insist
as
wonderful harmony with the teaching of our They did so especially in the
in
sacred scriptures.
Tao Teh King. of
Montucci of
God are so no one who has
that
doubt
"Many
in 1808, said,
book can Most Holy
read this
mystery of the
that the
on
things
clearly expressed in
about a Triune it,
writing
interpretation,
school of
their
"Chinese Studies"
Berlin, a partizan
Trinity was revealed to the Chinese five centuries before the coming of Jesus Christ."^
hardly say that there
is
nothing
in
need
I
Lao-tsze's
into a declaration of
work which can be wrested
the Christian doctrine of the Trinity.
Father Amiot, however, thought that he found such a passage in the first paragraph of ii.
the fourteenth chapter in
the
it
translated
thus
it
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; to
;
him there appeared
persons oi the Trinity.
three
:
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
"
He who
is
as
'He were
it
Kht (should who does hear and cannot whom we be i) he who is he Hi; not speak to the ears is called as it were tangible, but whom we cannot touch,
visible
and cannot be seen
is
called
;
is
called It
was reserved
in his '
Wei."
See
for
Remusat
study of this text. Julian's
Itrodnuction, p.
Translation iv.
A of
to outdo
Amiot
very considerable the
Tao Teh
King,
21
The Tdo Teh King.
£
Chinese scholar, and the first occupant of a Chinese chair in Europe, he found the Hebrew in the three syllables
word Je-ho-va
and he published in Life and Opinions of
hi,
wei
;
All Europe was
his discovery.
and vindicate
1,
1823 his "Memoir on the Lao-tsze," to make known
—
Hebrew word, the great and incommunicable name of God,— in a Chinese writing of the sixth century B.C.: how had
startled
by
To
it.
name been
the
find a
carried to the east
.^
what a part
might not the Tao Teh King yet play christianization of China!
I
in the
became acquainted
with the view in 1838 from one of archbishop
Wiseman's Lectures on the "Connexion between Science and Religion," and bought a copy of Remusat's memoir; I studied it during my voyage to the east in 1839, and for two or three years,
name Jehovah
my
v/as occasion to use the
whenever there in
Chinese tracts issued under
superintendence,
was represented by the
it
three syllables l-hi-wei. last long.
Teh
When
chair,
came
into
delusion did not
Julien's translation of the
King, published
posed the error of
The
in
his predecessor in the
my
Tao
1S42, in which he ex-
hands,
I
Chinese
was prepared
to
agree with him.
The whole
fourteenth chapter
lated as follows.
It
is
may be
trans-
a favourable specimen
:
7dois?n
2 12
and do not see
We
listen for
of
We it
is
it
:
named
named
is
qualities
gated and defined
it
(try to) grasp
it
:
With these three
it
look at
it,
the colourless.
and do not hear
it,
the soundless. get hold
it
We
"
of the contents of the book.
named
it is
:
it,
and do not
the incorporeal.
cannot be investi-
and hence we blend them
;
together and form a unity. " Its is
upper part
named.
again becomes
This
is
is
formless,
what
is
action,
its
This
lower part
its
;
(Finally)
nothing.
the form of what invisible.
not bright
Ceaseless in
not obscure.
cannot be
is
(yet)
it
and
returns,
it
what is called the image of the is
called being incapable
of determination.
"We follow
meet it,
When we
it,
but
but we do we do not
Tao
not see see
its
its
front
back
;
we
parts.
was of old so as to deal with the existences of the present, and are able to know, the old beginnings, this is what
is
grasp the
that
called having the clue of Tao."
The writer in all this was speaking of his Tao, and not of any personal being. Many of his expressions are
They promise
remarkable and tantalizing.
to conduct us to the brink of a
grand prospect, and then there a sea of mist. to express his
before us but
found
it
idea of Tao,
it
If Lao-tsze
own
is
thus difficult is
not to be
1
The Tdo Teh King. marvelled
at,
2500 years
3
that students of his book, nearly
after
him, should shrink from the
attempt to define iii.
2
it.
In his fourth lecture on "the Science of
Religion" (pp. 249, 250), professor Max Miiller the greater part of the twenty-fifth
quotes
chapter of the of the
Tao Teh King
exalted character
be found
in the
sacred books of other religions
our own.
besides version
"
is,
as an instance
of the teachings to
There
The is
an
first
sentence of his
infinite Being,
which
The
sequel
existed before heaven and earth."
shows clearly that
this
Lao-tsze's great theme. IMuller
was
translating
being was the Tao, Of course professor from Julien's
French
and that misled him word "being," instead of "thing."
version of the original, as to the
Juhen
says, " II est
"confus"
we
is
un etre confus " but when exchanged for the English "infinite,", ;
get too high an idea of the thought that was
in the
mind of Lao-tsze.
The
verb, moreover,
should be translated in the past tense.^
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
The
whole of the chapter is this " There was something chaotic and complete before the birth of heaven and earth. How still it was and :
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
Dr. Chalmers' version of the sentence is, " There was something chaotic in nature which existed before heaven '
and
earth."
:
;
Taoism
214 formless, standing
change
;
danger
alone,
proceeding
(of being exhausted)
garded as the mother of
do not know
" I
undergoing
and
and
everyAvhere, It
!
.no
no
in
may be
re-
all things.
name, but designate it the Tao^ (the Way); and forcing myself to frame a name " Great,
I
it,
passes
it
passing on,
for
its
constant flux
in
becomes remote
it
the Great.
call it
on,
so
;
when remote,
;
it
comes back. "Therefore Tao
Earth
is
great
great;
is
the (sage)
;
Heaven is great; King is also great.
In the circle of being there are four that are great, "
and the
The
(sage)
King
(sage)
man
for
its
law
;
one of them.
has for his law the earth
the earth has heaven for
Tao own
is
its
law; heaven has
and the law of Tao
is
its
spontaneity."
Things that are taught 15.
I
have dwelt
which European
in the book.
sufficiently
on errors into
scholars have fallen in their
Chalmers says here ;â&#x20AC;&#x201D; " I know not its name, but give title of Tao." Julien's version is to the same effect. The term which they translate by "title," "entitle," is Âť
it
the
that indicating the in
China on
serve
is
this
name
or designation given to a
What
his marriage.
;â&#x20AC;&#x201D; that Tao
is
it
not the
is
name
subject, but a descriptive designation of
man
important to ob-
it.
of Lao-tsze's
215
The Tdo Teh King. of what
illustration
King.
is
point
to
have ventured
I
Tao Teh them out
taught in the
for our study simply as a helpful preparation It is not teach. of what the book does really the undera feeling of the difficulty of
without
taking that
proceed to
I
you some of the
tell
conducts us. results to which such a study whose are two translations of the work,
There
merits
I
gladly acknowledge
:â&#x20AC;&#x201D; one by
the late
1842 and Stanislas Julien, published Chalmers of Canton, the other by the Rev. Dr. at Paris in
London
published here in possession
Victor von
186S.
a version in
of
also
in
Strauss,
published
at
;
I
am
in
German, by Leipzig
in
There is a second and later version, also 18-0. von Planckner, that I in German, by Reinhold last two years have not yet seen. During the the original, of versions two I have myself made a third. and advanced a considerable way with by Julien afforded succours Notwithstanding the
and Chalmers, lating
afresh
I
undertook the labour of trans-
for
myself,
transcribing
at
the
happiest portions same'time the original and the I have Chinese commentary on it, because of
such a process gives learned by experience that of the old books of mastery one most readily a spirit soak gradually China. Their meaning and My long dealing with them has into the mind.
6
2
! !
Taoism
1
me
not yet enabled
to
Tao Teh King
pains with the
more
light
make them throw open summons.
their gates at the first
for
:
many
on
After
am
I
chapters.
still
I
all
my
waiting
how-
think,
have attained to the practical drift and aim of the old moralist and mystic. Let us hear what he says of himself in ever, I
i.
contrast with the majority of other men. " If
we could
give up (constantly adding to)
we should have no anxieties. " There is not much difference between the Yes (with which we answer a question), and the Yea (with which we give a flattering assent to the views of others) but how far separate our knowledge,
;
are the
good and
evil (to
which these responses
lead)
What all fear is indeed to be feared but how immense is the number of things (which our increasing knowledge will thus make us "
;
fear) "
All
men
look pleased, as
if
enjoying a
full
mounted on a tower in spring. I alone am still and indifferent, my desires not having yet shown themselves I am like an banquet, as
if
;
infant that has not yet smiled.
as
if I
"
had nowhere to go
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
I
look forlorn,
to.
All others have enough and to spare
alone look as
if I
had
lost everything.
;
I
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; The Tdo Teh King, "
My
mind
that of a stupid
is
217
man
am
I
;
in
a state of chaos.
The common people look very intelligent I alone am very dark. The common people are "
full
;
Qi discrimination
alone have none.
I
;
I am about as on the sea carried by the wind, as if I had nowhere to rest.
am
"
I
"
All others have their amount of capacity
alone "
am
drifted
;
stupid, like a rude borderer.
(Thus)
am
alone
I
men, and what
I
value
is
I
;
.
from other
different
the nursing mother."^
The "nursing mother"
the Tao, and in
is
order to enjoy her care and nurture one must
have the emptiness of mind and freedom from desires and ambitions which the writer describes as characteristic of himself. ii.
that emptiness, or freepreoccupation, is a condition of
It is self-evident
dom
from
receptivity
emptiness
;
is
also teaches
Lao-tsze
such
that
Take
necessary to usefulness.
the following chapter in illustration of this
"The it
is
the
:
thirty spokes unite in the .one nave; but
on the empty space use
of
the
carriage
into vessels
but
(for
the axle),
depends. is
on
that
Clay its
is
empty
fashioned hollowness that the use of a vessel depends. Doors and windows are cut out to form apart'
;
Ch. 20.
it
8
2
:
Tdois7n
1
ments, but
on the empty space
is
it
them
in
that the use of an apartment depends.
There-
what has a positive existence serves for profitable adaptation, and what has' no positive fore
existence for the actual use."^ iii.
Both
the processes of nature, spoken of
in
and
as the action of heaven
and
earth,
man\what corresponds
of
activities
in the
to
this
emptiness is a freedom from all selfish motive, or purpose centering in self.V It is said, "
The sage
doing
with
deals
and
nothing,
without words.
affairs (as
performs
(In the
if;
same way,
he were teaching
his
in nature),
word summer) without a claim
things shoot up (in spring) without a
all
spoken, and grow for
processes in
They go through
production.
their
pride
(in
(in
their
autumn) without any display of
them, and
the
results
are
realized,
without any assumption of owner-
(in winter)
ship."2
So again: "Heaven and pose of) love deal with
all
(in
love
with. (in
The
they
sages have no
their action)
with the people as the dogs of straw
they deal
;
(in sacrifice)
are dealt with. '
:
things as the dogs of straw (in
sacrifice) are dealt
(purpose of)
earth have no (pur-
bestowing their favours)
Ch.
II.
2
Ch.
2.
The Tao Teh King. "
219
the space between heaven and earth
May not
forge
be compared to the bellows of a becomes empty, and yet is not exhausted
moved
(again),
?
;
.
It is
it
sends forth air the more.
and
produce speedy exhaustion (of there is nothing like keeping that
Many words
"
the breath)
which
;
within."^
is
The book
often
speaks of
nothing,
d-jing
desiring nothing, and so on, while the greatest but in all such results follow from the quietude " instances we are to understand on purpose," ;
Thus
or " with a motive."
it
by (measures (but) carried on by craft
are ruled
;
it
nothing (with design) that the
made
is
:â&#x20AC;&#x201D; "
said
of) correction
one's own.
;
States
war
is
only by doing kingdom can be
is
Therefore the sages
said,
'
We
do nothing (with purpose), and the people we will love will of themselves be transformed quietness, and the people will of themselves be
will
;
rectified
;
we
will
take no measures, and the
people will of themselv^es become rich we will will of free ourselves from desire, and the people ;
"-
themselves become simple-minded.' From the three points which I have stated we '
Ch.
5.
" Figures of straw
made
like
dogs" were used
service was at services of prayer for rain, but after the The reference to them is over, they were of no account. " Ch. 57. not very happy.
:
2
Taoism
20
begin to get an idea of the meaning of the word Tao in the treatise. Of the three English
terms that suggest themselves for
it,
—the Way,
Reason, and the Word,^— the Way, in the sense of Method, is the one that is suitable.^
/Tao
is
the
of
style
action,
which
Lao-tsze
—
recommend and inculcate, action proceeding from a mind in a state of calm
wished
to
repose
according
to
the
spontaneity of
its
nature, without bias of partiality or hypocrisy. /
Methodism and Methodist had not been so
If
well
appropriated in English,
recommended
should have
I
employment
their
for
Taoism and
Taoist. iv.
be expected from the above humility has a distinguished place
As might
principles, in the
teachings of Lao-tsze.
becomes
incomplete
He
complete
;
says the
:
—
"
The
crooked
Chalmers' Translation, p. xi. Professor Douglas (Confucianism and Taoism, p. 189), " If we in his careful account of the Tao Teh King, says, the represent to word single a adopt to compelled were Tao of Lao-tsze, we, should prefer the sense in which it But the way,' that is fxidodos." is used by Confucius, >
-
'
behind the name as Confucius uses it the same view of what constitutes the proper method. Ratio in Latin has also the meaning of method, and if the word rationalism carried in it that signification (which there does not
it
does not),
able.
lie
its
use for
Taoism would not be
objection-
Tdo Teh Kins^. i)
TJie
becomes straight
22
1
the hollow becomes full worn out becomes new; he who desires
the
much
gets
little
;
;
he who desires
;
much goes
astray. "
Therefore the sage holds
(of humility) in
He
to the world.
so he shines distinguished
a pattern
is
and
self-display,
from
self-assertion, and so he is from boasting, and so his merit
;
;
acknowledged
is
from
free
is
one thing
(this)
embrace, and
his
his superiority
is
from
;
and
self-conceit,
allowed.
It
so
because he
is
is
thus free from striving that therefore no one
can strive with him. "
That
saying
of
the
ancients,
incomplete becomes complete spoken. in
it."
Thus
is
like
benefiting
all
things
the contrary),
men
it
comprehended
(against
its
he
says
of the
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;" The
Water
water. ;
:
and without
Tao with highest
good
is
striving
at (to
occupies the (low) place, which
dislike.
that of Tao.
It
Hence is
its
because
(nature) it
is
near to
does not strive
natural tendency) that there
murmuring against is
the
was not vainly
'
is
emblem
a favourite
is
author.
goodness
all
'
^
Water the
All real completion
that
it.^
And
again:
is
no
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;"There
nothing in the world more supple and weak '
Ch.
2.
Ch.
S.
222
TdaoiS7n
than water, and yet, for dealing with things that are hard and strong, nothing can surpass it
no one try to ^change it for anything Every one in the world knows that the overcomes the hard, and the weak the
let
:
else.
soft
strong, but
none can carry
out in practice.
it
Therefore a sage has said,
He who
accepts the reproach of a state becomes the lord of its
altars;
his
state
heaven.'
he
who
accepts
becomes
the
*
the
misfortunes of
king
of
under
all
"^
There are other chapters which I should like to quote on the virtue of humility, but the want of space and time compels me to V.
them
leave
Hear our author on
out.
his three
precious things. " All in the world say that
but that it
is
I
seem
just this greatness
inferior
to
my Tao
is
to be inferior to others.
which makes
Those
others.
who
equal to others have long been
are
great,
Now
me seem deemed
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
small men. But there are three precious things which I prize and hold fast. The first is gentle com"
passion
;
the second
(humility), not
is
economy
the" third is
in
With gentle compassion I can be With economy I can be liberal. Not
the world. brave.
;
presuming to take precedence
'
Ch. 78.
The Tdo Teh Ki7ig. presuming to claim precedence can make myself a vessel
in
223 the world,
for the
fit
most
I
dis-
Now-a-days they give up
tinguished services.
gentle compassion, and cultivate (mere physical)
courage
;
they give up economy, and (try to be)
lavish (without
it)
seek to be
:
"
first
;
they give up being
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; of
all
Gentle compassion
which the end is
last, is
and
death.
sure to overcome in
and to be firm in maintaining its own. Heaven will save its possessor, protecting him by his gentleness."^ vi. But there is in the Tao Teh King someLaothing even higher and nobler than this.
fight,
Tsze had attamed to the conception of returning good for evil. I give you the whole of the chapter
in w^hich
he mentions that as an element
of his system. " (It
is
personal
the
way
motive
of Tao) not to act from any ;
to
feeling the trouble of
conduct
them
being aware of the flavour as small
;
;
affairs
without
to taste without
to account the great
and the small as great
;
to
recompense
injury with kindness. "
(The follower of Tao) anticipates things
that would
become
difficult
while they are easy,
and does things that would become great while they are
Httle.
The '
difficult things in
Ch. 67.
the world
2
Taoism:
24
arise
from what are easy, and the great things
Thus
from what are small. never does what
it
is
that the sage
and therefore can
great,
is
accomplish the greatest things.
"He who keep but
assents
little
things easily
is
lightly
takes
sure to meet with
Hence the sage
culties.
be found to
will
He who
faith.
many
many diffi-
sees difficulty in (what
seem) easy things, and therefore never has any difficulties."^
The sentiment about was new
in
We
in the
saw
returning good for evil
China, and originated with Lao-tsze.
second Lecture how Confucius
was consulted about it b}'' some of his disciples it had attracted. The sage, I am sorry to say, was not able to take it in. vii. There are other points of Lao-tsze's teachwhose notice
ing which
but
a
it
I
should
He seems
close.
of capital practice
to bring before
like
you,
high time that the lecture came to
is
condemn
to
punishment of
;
^
With
war.^
the infliction
and he deplores the the
progress of
knowledge and society, however, as we think and speak, he had no sympathy. He looked back to an early time of Arcadian innocence
and enjoyment, and '
regretting
Ch. 63.
-
^
Ch. 69.
Chh.
that Ti, 74.
it
had
The Tdo Teh
King
.225
passed away, would gladly have reproduced
on however small a but one he says
few inhabitants,
"In a small
:
state with a
would so order
(I
it
In his last chapter
scale.
that) the
it
people, though supplied with all kinds of im-
plements, would not (care to) use them;
make them
go away to a distance Though they had boats and
thing, but not it).
I
would
look on death as a most grievous (to
they should have no occasion to ride
Though they had
buff coats
escape
carriages, in
them.
and sharp weapons, I would
they should not don or use them.
make them
return to the use of knotted cords
(instead of written
think their
(coarse)
characters).
food
sweet,
They should their
(plain)
clothing beautiful, their (poor) houses places of rest,
and
their
common
(simple)
ways sources
of enjoyment. "
There should be a neighbouring state within sight, and the sounds of the fowls and dogs should be heard from ruption,
but
age, even to
it
to us without inter-
would make the people to old death, have no intercourse with
I
it."
It is
difficult to
were written
suppose that these sentences
seriously.
The thoughts
are those
of a hermit, and not of a philosopher.
Would
Lao-tsze really have been glad to abolish writing, 15
2
Taoism:
26
and go back to the use of quippos ? Would he have had neighbouring peoples live all their lives without any intercourse ? He was a dreamer, a "glorious dreamer," if you like, but after all only a dreamer. viii.
There
is
but one more point in his system
of thought, to which
I
wish to draw attention.
Does the Tao Teh King recognise the existence of
God
?
knew
Professor Douglas says that " Lio-tsze
nothing of a Personal God, so
judge from
this treatise
" ;
far as
adding,
"
we may
And
indeed
a belief in such a being would be in opposition to
the whole tenor of his philosophy."
^
To
by no means so clear. The me ancient Chinese, we saw in the first Lecture, calling the visible sky by the name t'ien, used the point
is
the same term to express their concept of a Supreme Power, under Whose rule they were.^
Now, Lao-tsze does this just in the same way as Confucius. "The way of Heaven" occ :rs five or six times with
strange in the
Shu
no adjunct that would be or the
Shih.^
'
Confucianism and Taoism,
'
Pp.
^
E.g., Chh. 47, 73> 77, 79, Si.
p.
8, 9-
211.
We
read
-
The Tdo Teh King. such expressions as
"Heaven Heaven."
" the correlate of
"governing
saves,"
ii-j
But when
it
said, as
is
in ch.
ginning of heaven and earth
things
having a name ;
"
as
or,
earth," does
prior
it
prior to
ch.
in
the abyss-mother
Tao
serving
^
i,
that "Tao,
(conceived of as) having no name,
of as)
Heaven,"
men and
and (conceived
;
is
the mother
6,
"
that
of all
door of
the
the root of heaven
is
Heaven
}
He
certainly
denoting the totality of material
and
made his makes it
not seem that Lao-tsze
heaven and earth, which
to
the be-
is
a phrase
is
existences
;
make it prior to Heaven, in the usages of that name of which I have just spoken. "Heaven and earth" seems to be used, we saw, in the Confucian books, as a dualistic name for the one Heaven, but it has not that application in the Tao Teh King, and because of such predicates of the Tao as are before us but he does not
I
do not
feel called
on to admit that Lao-tsze
did not believe in God.
There remains, however, one chapter, which has been understood as showing that " there is no room
for
That chapter
a Supreme is
God
in his
system."
the fourth, and says:
Chh. 68, 67, 59. Confucianism and Taoism, '
-
p. 211.
"Tao
is
:
Taoism
228
of
and the
the) emptiness (of a vessel),
(like it,
we may
How
author of
things
"We
all
should
must be
say,
sufficiency.
deep
it
is,
free
as
from if
all
usfe-
self-
were the
it
!
make our
sharpness blunt, and
unravel the complications of things
;
we should
attemper our brightness, and assimilate our-
by
selves to the obscurity caused
and
still
clear
(is
dust.
How
Tao), a phantasm with the
semblance of permanence
!
do not know whose son it is. appear to have been before God." " I
It
might
The term employed here for God is Ti, the personal name for the conception of Heaven as the ruling Power, a term whose origin, as we
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
saw
in the first lecture,
time.
was
in the prehistoric
Now, Lao-tsze does not say
does not believe
in
God.
On
that
he
the contrary, he
accepts the fact of His existence.
The
does not intimate any negation.
All that can
sentence
be argued from it is that our author makes God But he does posterior, and so inferior, to his Tao. not really do so. He does not say that Tao was before God, but that it might appear to have been so. In no chapter does the nature of Tao as a method or style of action appear more clearly. it
It
has
is but like the
r.o
positive existence of itself;
emptiness of a vessel, and the
The Tdo Ttk King. manifestation of
from son
it
by men
He
?
requires freedom
Whence came
self-sufficiency.
is it
229
cannot
tell
;
but
Whose
it ?
was probably
it
the perception of this quality in the processes of
nature that gave rise to the ideas of God, and led to the use of the
name
for
heaven as the
personal Ti.
Such
interpretation
the
is
of
chapter in which, after long musing,
has found
In harmony with
rest.
difficult
this
it
my mind I
reply in
the affirmative to the question whether the Tao Teh King recognizes the existence of God. 16.
But while the existence of God
denied, there
is
no inculcation of
book. /Lao-tsze's
a
way
or
Taoism
is
not
religion in the
the exhibition of
is
which men should and purest developnature/^ That the name of the
method
of living
cultivate as the highest
ment
of their
system of thought and of the man should be identified, as they are, with the base religion described in the former part of the lecture,
mystery
at present inexplicable.
a discipline for the
without its
fruit.
mind and
life
is
a
But Taoism as has not been
There have been many who under withdrawn entirely from the
influence have
world, and
many more who,
unable to do that,
have endeavoured to keep themselves, while in the world, from the vortex of its ambitions and
Taoism.
230
passions, seeking after
its
three precious things,
with the stillness of the soul, the simplicity of
and the sympathy with virtue and happiness which it commends.^ motive,
'
In a recent and excellent work,
"The
History of
Corea," by the Rev. John Ross (J. and B. Parlane, Paisley), the author says that Taoism, which divides Chinese attention with Buddhism, is almost unknown in Corea chapter he quotes from a (p. 355) ; and in the same " the Religion native treatise on religion that they have of Reason, whose teaching is summed up in the two words ' Clean' and Empty.' " Mr, Ross thinks that this Tao '
but the Taoism of Corea is meant for Buddhism simply that of the Tao Teh King, while the Taoist religion is happily unknown.
is
;
NOTES ON LECTURE Note In
B.C. 140,
A,
III.
p. i6i.
Tung Chung-shu, one
of the ablest scholars
mandate of the emperor Wu with :â&#x20AC;&#x201D;" The Ch'un Ch'iu magnifies the following counsels constant unity of rule and order to show that such is the to be right acknowledged earth, and heaven of method Now-a-days every in ancient times and the present. every man his and ways, peculiar own teacher has his own pecuhar reasoning. There are a hundred schools and with their various arts, all differing in aim and idea, uniform any pursuing of means no has Majesty your of the time, replied to a
and your regulations are frequently changed, so which to keep. that your officers and people do not know the In your servant's humble opinion, all studies not in and other arts sanctioned si.K departments of knowledge future by Confucius, should be strictly forbidden, and the perverse proposal of them interdicted. The depraved and
plan,
will then cease, your regulations may uniform, your laws and statutes will be clearly follow."â&#x20AC;&#x201D; understood, and the people will know what to " The Illustrated Explanation of the Sacred Edict," by
talk
which we hear
be made
Liang Yen-nien, 1681, on the 7th precept. Tung^s counsel, directed specially against the Taoism He raised of the^'day, did not displease the emperor. him to high office, while yet for many years he threw himself blindly into the arms
of
the
charlatans that
Notes
22,2
swarmed and he
to the court.
071
Lecture III.
His eyes
at length
were opened
bitterly deplored his folly.
Note
B,
p, i6i.
China Review for May and June last year, an able and interesting notice of a proposal for the "Reformation of Missionary enterprise in China." The plan suggested is that, taking advantage of the official arrangements for the regulation and control of heterodox religions, missionaries should become naturalized Chinese subjects, in which case the author of it thinks that " China would be found quite ready to issue In the
there
is
the strictest instructions to
all
them and to put scholars and as other
authorities to treat
with the utmost justice and consideration,
them on the same
footing as
all
priests."
Since 1842
all
missionaries have
made
"treaty rights"
These give them liberty to preach and make converts, and secure toleration for their converts, and that they shall not be persecuted simply because they have become Christians. This was agreed to by the Chinese government, of course " by Errors have been comconstraint, and not willingly." mitted occasionally by missionaries in trying to extend the protection of the treaties to men who had deceived them, and whose profession of Christianity was only a mask behind which they hoped to secure other ends ; and consuls and foreign ministers have found enforcing the basis of their operations.
compliance with the tolerating article a troublesome affair. I can conceive that some of them would hail the transference of their missionary countrymen with their Chinese converts to the kind and generous hands of the Chinese But such a reformation of the missionary government The Chinese government enterprise is a vain dream. could not be expected to deal with different societies and !
N'otes
on Lecture III.
different individuals in detail,
different churches
and
233
and the representatives of band them-
nationalities will not
Missionaries are selves together to negotiate as one body. know it, and They is. it content with their position as
make the best of it. To the promoters of "Let well alone." the proposed scheme, they will only say,
only wish to
Note
C, p. 163.
hope that some Sinologist will by-and-by, through his these researches, be able to give an account of many of I
The
popes of Taoism. course of I
my own
introduce them
following jottings,
made
in the
reading, are not without interest, but here to illustrate the extravagance of
the system.
The
first
of the
men was Chang
Tao-ling, born in A.D.
Cheh-chiang, and said to have been 34 a descendant in the eighth generation of Chang Liang, or the marquis Liu, a friend and helper of the founder of the Han dynasty. Having learned the art of prolonging at
T'ien-mu
hill in
he retired among the hills, refusing to come forth, though repeatedly invited to court by the emperors Chang and Ho (a.d. 76â&#x20AC;&#x201D;105). For a long time he wandered about, visiting famous hills, and at last came to the rivulet of "Roseate Clouds" in Hsing-an in the east, and followed it up till it brought him to the cave of the same name,â&#x20AC;&#x201D; a grotto with its rocks, fit for an
life,
Immortal.
There he prepared
his pill for three years,
while green dragons and white tigers wheeled about above him. Having eaten the pill, though he was then He also sixty years old, he looked younger than ever. got a mysterious volume from which he understood the
changes and transformations of spirits, and could drive away and destroy imps and demons. Afterwards he came to the peak of Yun-t'ai in Shii, and thence ascended to heaven, leaving his books, talismans, and charms, his
sword and
seal to his descendants.
2
Notes on Lecture III.
34 The above
of 1793.
details are
Many
from Yi's Biographical dictionary
others have been collected by Edkins
and Chalmers. The latter says (Article on Taoism in China Review, 1873): "Once he slew a million devils with one stroke of a vermilion pencil and on the humble intercession of their six kings, who were not quite dead, he raised them all to life again in the same way, on condition that they should go away to the western countries, and no longer infest China."
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
;
descendants
Tao-ling's
Taoism
member
till
A.D. 424,
enjoyed
the
presidency
of
when K'au Hsien-chih, a famous
of the body, intrigued with a favourite at the
court of the Northern Wei,
the patriarch with the
title
and got himself appointed as of " Heavenly Teacher." Of
K'au the dictionary tells us that he had met with an immortal called Ch'ang Kung-hsing, and rambled about He with him, eating the medicine of the immortals. then lived retired in Sung-yang till A.D. 424, when he went to court. One day he told a disciple that he had dreamt the night before that Kung-hsing had called him from the palace of the Immortals on the central mountain, on which he was transformed and could fly. A pure vapour, like a pillar of smoke, issued from his mouth, till he had got half-way up the sky, when it melted away, and this
body gradually contracted. People said that in this and afterwards he was got rid of his body seen on the hill of Sung, with his body of the colour of silver, bright and shining, so that people knew that he had become an Immortal.
his
way he had
;
I suppose the presidency continued in the line of this K'au till A.D. 748, when the emperor Hsiian of the T'ang dynasty, distinguished for a time for his Taoist proclivi-
ties,
restored
it
to the
Changs.
None
of
them come
prominently before us till A.D. 1015, when the Sung emperor Chan Tsung, as stated in the text of the lecture,
endowed Chang Chang-Sui
for himself
and
his posterity
235
Notes on Lecture III. with the freehold of
all their
lands about Lung-hu
hill,
and temple. and built for him The emperors of the Mongol or Yiian dynasty were likewise a hall
favourable to Taoism. Jenghiz Khan himself, indeed, sent of the for Ch'iu Ch'ang-chun, a very famous professor system, to instruct him in it, in 1220. There is a long interesting account of Ch'iu's travels to Persia, where Jenghiz was at the time, and of his return to China, with
and
and intercourse between them, in Dr. Bretschneider's Notes on Chinese Mediaeval Travellers receive a to the West (Shanghai, 1875), from which we high impression of the man. He belonged, indeed, to the school which professes to " refine the heart," and not the
all
the interviews
Jenghiz granted a decree, releasing all professors of the Tao from the payment of taxes. These would only be those belonging to "the order." Jenghiz's visitor,
pill.
however, was not a Chang.
The pope Chang Tsung-yen was
invited
by Kublai, the
he had completed the first Yiian emperor, in 1276, after province. reduction of Chiang-nan, to visit him in that said, and distinction, with him received The emperor " Formerly I sent Wang Yi-ch'ing to consult your father, returned to me for answer that in twenty years the
who
words of empire would be united under one rule. The He then fulfilled." the mysterious Immortal have been He him. feasted and seated, ordered his visitor to be of jade, ornaments with gorgeous cap a also him gave
him "the and a seamless robe of cloth of gold, styled were effidoings whose Tao, the in proficient true man, appointed him teacher cacious, the ideal of harmony," and Giving him a seal of silver, he of Taoism in Chiang-nan. of jade and the precious seal the produce to him told his ancestor. sword, which had been transmitted from ministers in his to said emperor the on these,
Looking
waiting/'
1
know
have been, but
not
this
of dynasty there have been handed
how many changes
sword and
this seal
Notes on Lecture III.
236 down from
father to son to the present day
the spiritual intelligences
;
have guarded them."
certainly
He
then
temple to the father of his visitor in the capital, and ordered him to take up his residence at it, but after a year Tsung-yen begged leave to return to his hill, where
built a
he died
in 1292. notice in the Biographies goes on to trace the history of the Changs through several successions, amid constantly repeated tokens of the imperial favour.
The
Head of Taoism was in Shanghai a few when several foreigners had interviews with him. Dr. Edkins was one of them, and asked him how long it was since the Chang deified as Yu Ti and Yii Hwang Shang Ti (p. 169) first received that title. The answer wasâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;'' From the beginning of the uniThe
present
years ago,
verse
" !
Note
D,
p. 208.
In the Fa Lun King, there is an account of nearly twenty different appearances of Lao-tsze, from the earliest prehistoric time that the Chinese imagination has con" In It says ceived down to the time of Confucius. :
the time of king K'ang (B.C. 1078â&#x20AC;&#x201D; 1053) when he was known as the philosopher Kwo Shu, he went out by the pass on the west, and returned across the desert to instruct
Confucius
monies."
It
(B.C.
then states
on the subject of cerehis teachers in heaven " When Lao-tsze was born, he
517)
who were
and among men, and adds jumped up and took nine steps in the air, while lotus Pointing to heaven flowers sprang up under his feet. with his right hand and with his left hand to the earth, :
he
said,
'
In heaven above and earth beneath only the
When Shakyamuni was born, he jumped up and took seven steps in the air, pointing with one hand to heaven and with the other to the earth, and Tao
is
honourable.'
Notes
saying,
'
071
In heaven above
honourable.'"
Lecture III. and earth beneath, only
The author then
237 I
am
naively remarks that
" the two incidents ought not to have been so much Of course they ought not. Neither of them alike " Both are legends, and that about Lao-tsze is occurred. !
modelled from the other.
IV.
THE CHINESE RELIGIONS, AS COMPARED WITH CHRISTIANITY.
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
#
iE
Ma
" Discountenance strange correct doctrine."
"God, who
at
principles
K'ang-ksi Edict,
sundry times and
3
ii -B "Jth
in order to exalt the
Precept.
in divers
manners spake
time past to the fathers by the prophets, hath in these
spoken
to us
by His Son."
Epistle to the Hebrews,
i.
last
I, 2.
in
days
IV.
Object and method of this lecture. I.
HAVE I
endeavoured
in three lectures to
describe the two indigenous reHgions of
China,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
indeed,
if,
we may say
Taoism,
that
much
which, as a rehgion, has borrowed so
from Buddhism, this
is
My
indigenous.
object in
concluding lecture will be to treat of both
Confucianism and Taoism as compared with Christianity.
I
assume, you will perceive, that
you are all acquainted with Christianity, and do not need to be instructed by me as to its The name which first facts and principles. occurred to
was
"
but
I
tion.
soon
for the course of four lectures
that
felt
required
that
was right that
It
what the
more
me
Confucianism, Taoism, and Christianity,"
should teach
I
two systems
first
than half
my
life
modifica-
are,
in
you
having spent
making
myself
acquainted with them, and in endeavouring to over
bring Christ is
it
;
but
needful
their it
adherents
to
the
faith
of
would not be congruous, nor
for
me,
to
set
forth to
you
16
in
:
and
Chinese Religions
242
Christianity
Most of the same way what Christianity is. you know your Bibles as well as I do and there are those among you at whose feet it ;
would be proper concerning the
me
for
history
as a
learner
and doctrines
of our
to
sit
religion.
conduct the argument
will
I
in this lecture,
therefore, on the assumption that you are acquainted with Christianity and I will compare ;
what you have now learned about the Chinese religions with what we have all known, more or less fully, about years.
other from our early
the
may be
It
said
my
that
reasoning
will proceed from and conduct to a foregone
To some extent it must and make my mind a tabula
conclusion.
be
so.
I
cannot
in regard
up,
and which,
little
for
At
man
b)'
will
system of or
entire
same
possesses the
governed anxious
the
which
was brought
I
mature years, and hesitancy,
with an
myself,
taint
in
speculation
truth. a
to the faith in
time,
Christian
after I
the
not a
embraced
conviction
Christian
will
rasa
of
its
more that and is the more
spirit,
principle,
he be to do justice to every other
religion,
fetter of
and
to hold his
bigotry.
on the various forms of
and including
his
own without
Looking abroad
belief in
the world,
own among them, he
will
Object
endeavour
"prove
and Method of the
to
the
fulfil
counsel
and hold
things
all
Lecture. of
Paul,
that
fast
243 to
which
good."
is
So
far as the Confucian, Taoist,
systems are concerned, this
do with you.
to
my own
Of
course
is
and Christian what I now wish
I
shall freely state
views on the various subjects on which
They
I touch.
not jar much,
will
if at all,
on
those which you have been accustomed to hold.
some of you should think that
If
gives
my
trumpet
now and then an
uncertain sound, or if sentiments shall seem here too narrow and there too wide, I ask from you the exercise
my
The
of your charity. is
very large.
There
ment of opinion
made
for differences
In this
think
I
of Christian truth
space in
it
for agree-
and round every doctrine margin where allowance can be
is
ment.
field
;
there
a
is
special
we
of conception and stateare of one
application
mind
in
this.
of his words,
we
say with Horace, "Scimus, I
will
el
hanc ve7tiam petimusque daviusque
proceed therefore to compare,
vicissim.'''-
it
may
be to contrast, various points in Confucianism and Taoism, but especially in Confucianism, with the teaching of Christianity on the same subjects.
Having done
this,
I
will
direct
attention
to
â&#x20AC;˘
:
Chinese Religions
244
and
Christianity
Christian doctrines that are peculiar, and consider whether the study of the religions of
should
make
the contrary.
the
sea
China
us thankful for such doctrines or I will
not plunge, however,
into
theology or Christology, but
of
guided, as to the topics which
the study which
I
be
take up, by
I
have pursued with you of
the two Chinese systems.
I
may
be allowed
in
conclusion to insist on two practical issues to
which our discussions should
lead.
Preliminary points of agreement
in the three
religions. 2.
trast
Before entering on the comparison or con-
which
which the
and which i.
I
propose, there are three things in
religions agree, that are yery important, it is
There
is
desirable to specify.
the existence of God.
verse of our Bible declares this
ning
We
God
:
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
"
The
created the heaven and the
discovered the divine
name
first
In the beginearth."
as familiar to
the Chinese in the earliest of their historical
documents.
We were
selves that that
able even to satisfy our-
name was
familiar to
them
at
a period long anterior to any of their written books.
Neither in our Bible nor
of Confucianism
is
in the
books
an attempt made to prove
Points of Agreement, the divine
Jehovah else.
In the book of Isaiah
existence.
says, " I
There
am
245
Jehovah, and there
no God beside me."
is
none
is
The Con-
fucian books do not contain a similar declaration
but
we saw how
time in
China has
always
without success, to assert to corrupt
the
name
it.
of
;
the monotheism of prehistoric
itself
against attempts
In Taoism, which
God
polytheistic,
is
common
of course
is
and not
striven,
;
but
Lao-tsze himself often spoke of God, so far as the term T'ien', "Heaven," employed in a non-material sense, could do occasion he used existence
of
God
and on one
so,
name God
the
assumed
is
itself.
in
the
The three
religions. ii.
The
idea of the possibility
of revelation are
familiar
epistle to the
is
also
with
common
and the them all.
:
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; "God, who
times and in divers manners spake past unto
the fathers
in these last
fact
We
opening words of the
the
Hebrews
to
at
sundry in
time
by the prophets, hath
days spoken to us by His Son."
Among
the primitive written characters of the Chinese there was one, we saw, which was the
symbol of manifestation or revelation coming That God should speak or make
from above.
known His
will to
men
did not seem strange to
the Chinese fathers, and in the
Shih we read
246
Chinese Religions
that "
God spake
to
and
Christiajiity
we God spake
king Wan," just as
read in the Old Testament that "
Hundreds of Taoist
to Moses."
:
circulated in China, each
tracts also are
one purporting to be
the teaching of this god or that, " to warn," or
"to advise mankind." therefore iii.
I
is
And
The
idea of revelation
held in the three religions. so
is
the idea of the supernatural.
do not know that
I
am
able,
and certainly
to talk learnedly
will not attempt,
We
sophically of supernaturalism.
have to do
here with the simplest conception of
occurrence of events in which
we
I
philo-
or
it,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the
recognise the
immediate presence and operation of God. I spoke in the first lecture of the view of Confucius about the ever-changing phenomena of the
material
universe.^
He
were produced by the mysterious
thought they spiritual opera-
Such a theory may be right or wrong. If it mean more than that the phenomena occur in accordance with and by means of general laws established by God and within tion of God.
the range of His omniscience,
it
seems to be
cumber us in our study of But events so happening are not super-
needless and only to nature. natural.
When, however, we read
in the
Shih
King that the mother of Hau-chi happened '
Pp. 42, 43.
to
Points of Agreement,
247
on a toe-print made by God, and in consequence became pregnant, and in due time
tread
gave birth to her wonderful
son,^
we have passed
from the region of the natural into that of the supernatural.
But so many of the things regarded and related as supernatural have, upon careful inbe
vestigation of them, been demonstrated to
the delusions of error and superstition, or the fabrications of deceit, having nothing about them, if
they really occurred, which did not admit of
natural interpretation, that
we
are often inclined
to reject the idea of the supernatural altogether.
On
the other hand,
when we have admitted the
fact of the divine existence,
that
God
and of the
retains in all
product of His power, and especially the most special
of
in
men
as
His creatures and the
intelligent of
objects
interest
His handiworks as the
His love;
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;when
we have
admitted these things, we dare not deny the possibility of God's supernatural, or rather extra-
ordinary, interference both in nature and in pro-
vidence.
we Did
When any
such interference
dare not disbelieve it
take place or not
our judgment allows of our
its
possibility
hearts suggests '
The
.-â&#x20AC;˘
Shih, III.
its ii..
is
asserted,
examination.
without
conclusion of ;
the yearning
probability.
Ode
i.
The
248
Chinese Religions
and
Christianity
question comes to be one of evidence, and
:
we
are not without sufficient tests of truth to suide
us to a conclusion in which
minds
we
feel
Confucianism,
Christianity,
assured our
At any
be able to repose.
will
and
allow the element of the supernatural, the fact of revelation,
On
ence of God.
all
all
all assert
acknowledge the
exist-
each of these points there are
great differences in the three religions
go
rate,
Taoism,
when we
but the things themselves are
into detail;
admitted by them
Comparison as
all.
to the doctrine
and worship
of God.
The
on
Confucianism was and worship of God. We were glad to find in the Shu and Shih so much about God and His government of men which we could without hesitation accept as At the same time, whatever of this kind is true. 3.
devoted to
first
its
lecture
doctrine
and the other shreds and patches.
to be found in these exists only in
classical
The
books
contrast
between them and the overflowing fulness of the Old and New Testaments on the same theme is remarkable. Our sacred writers excel themselves when they dilate on God. Very often what we read in them professes to be the word of God about Himself coming to us by them. In no
;;
The Dodrme of God. other volume does
attempts
in its
human
genius soar so grandly height of
to rise to the
Chapters
argument.
249
its
great
many of the Psalms, many other
in Job,
the fortieth chapter of Isaiah, and
portions of prophecy, cause us to be
and and
still,
that God has brought Himself nigh, speaking to us by and through His servants.
know is
We
only
can
bow our heads and
worship.
Nature and providence also seem to become alive in the Bible, and add their voices to the testimony concerning clare
God
:
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
"
The heavens
de-
His glory; the firmament showeth His Day unto day uttereth speech
handiwork.
night unto
night
showeth
declarations and doxologies of the
New
ment, briefer than those of the Old,
first epistle is
of
You
love."
two short sentences
John,â&#x20AC;&#x201D;" God
is light,"
Testa-
have yet a
depth and force peculiar and unrivalled. for instance those
The
knowledge."
Take in
the
and "God
will search in vain all the
Confu-
cian literature of China for anything approaching to them.
But as you saw,
for the fullest expression of
the Confucian doctrine of God,
we must have
recourse not to the classical writings, but to the
They are to be found in the and statutes of the empire generally
solstitial prayers.
rituals
but these are not intended
for
popular reading.
!
Chinese Religions
250
And
and
Christianity
:
the prayers occupy but a small portion
of those great collections, and,
sought
for,
if
not specially
Here
are likely to be overlooked.
and there a scholar may have made himself acquainted with them, but to the masses of the people they are as
if
They
they were not.
have not been taught them
at school,
and
it
is
improbable that their attention was called to
them
after they left
the doctrine of
That
God
doctrine
cannot read
How
it.
the chief thing
is
us,
And
claiming
possession
of
it is
with
as delivered in the Bible
many pages
without receiving more or minds.
different
of
it
less of
in
We
it.
thoughtfully it
our
into
our sacred scriptures appeal to to
be
them
read
our greatest
is
The
and studied.
privilege.
The young man is told that he should cleanse his way by taking heed to it according to them. They are intended to be to every man his delight and counsellors "
a light to his path.
;
a lamp to his feet and
Search the scriptures
" is
-an injunction that resounds through both the
Testaments. is
so
As
the Christian doctrine of
God
fuller and more exalted than the Confucian,
the provision
acquainted with
made it
in
for
men's
of the books of the two religions
parably greater.
becoming
the different character is
incom-
251
The Worship of God.
go on to speak of the worship of God in Here Confucianism is very defective. them. I
The the
formal organized worship is restricted to emperor. The occasions for it are few,
and of the people there are none with him. indeed a wonderful fact to think
is
worship of the one
of,
It
that a
God has been maintained
by the sovereigns than of China almost continuously for more
in the vicinity of their capitals
four
felt
I
years.
thousand
this
pro-
fact
morning by foundly when I stood suburb of the altar of Heaven, in the southern up It was without my shoes that I went Peking. early one
and there around the central paved, slab of the marble with which it was above, hand free of flaw as the coerulean vault
to the top of
in I
it
;
hand with the
friends
who accompanied me,
joined in singing the doxology, " Praise
God from whom
I rejoice in
all
beginningâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;
blessings flow."
the imperial worship of God, but
shaped can never sufficiently regret that this time into a repreitself even in prehistoric I
sentative
instead nation,
people.
worship by the Head of the state, of being extended throughout the
and joined
in
They know
by the multitudes that the worship
formed, but they have not seen
it,
of the is
per-
nor taken
:
!
and
Chinese Religions
252 part in
the
There
it.
reverence
inarticulate
groans and appeals to
when they other
them only
for
is
Christianity general
Heaven,
of
God
or to
It,
in
i
with
reaven,
are suffering under oppression
calamity.
have
I
seen
"the
or
upward
glancing of the eye " to the sky above, and
"the falling of the tear" grief, ;
and
I
have seen them with satisfaction
But what a pity that the
nd thankfulness.
Chinese were
taught
not
draw nigh to God, lot, i
as their
the bitterness of
in
from the
in all the
to
changes of their
King, their Shepherd, and
their
riend
The worship
of
God
in ancijint Israel
From
truly national worship.
country the
people went up
occasions to the place where
His name to
all
was a
parts of the
on their
great
God had recorded
offer their sacrifices, perform their
vows, and present their supplications.
Solomon inaugurated the "
first
When
services of the temple,
he stood before the altar of the Lord in the
presence
of
all
the
congregation
of
Israel,
and spread forth his hands towards heaven." " Hearken Thou," he said, " to the supplication of Thy servant, and of Thy people Israel, when they shall pray towards this place." Solomon's petitions
went up also
for other
not of the people Israel,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
men, who were
for the stranger wlio
The Worship of God.
253
come and pray towards the temple.
should
"Hear
he
Thou,"
dwelling-place, and do according to
Thee
the stranger calleth to
for,
Thy
heaven
"in
said,
that
that
all
all
people
may know Thy name to fear Thee From the first it as do Thy people Israel." was intimated that the house of God in of the earth
Jerusalem should be " called an house of prayer for all people,"
This intention regarding the worship of God in Israel began to be fully realized after the The time institution of the Christian Church. then came when not alone in Jerusalem, or in any other locality, should men worship God. true spirit of devotion converts every spot
A
into
an to
arise
God is
whence prayer and praise may Wherever men seek Him, heaven.
altar
is
found.
open to
The way
individuals,
of approach to to
families,
to
Him great
congregations. The worshipping sovereign will pray for his people; the worshipping people will
pray
Add
for their sovereign.
to this the
liberty of worship which Christianity proclaims the setting to all, and its various solemnities ;
apart the
one
reading
day of
in
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
seven specially for them,
the
Scriptures,
the
hymns
of praise, the exercises of prayer, the word of before all this instruction and exhortation :
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
Chinese Religions
254
the worship of into a small
God
in
and
Christianity
:
Confucianism fades away
and imperfect
thing.
Once again, on this topic. The worship of God in Confucianism is vitiated by an inferior worship paid to a multitude of
either
spirits,
by the emperor in person, or by some minister commissioned by him. It is true that this does not amount to polytheism, for those spirits do not receive the divine name, arc not called It is true also that the functions ascribed
gods. to
them
supposed
arise
to
from
be
offices
with which they are
intrusted
by God
promotion of the welfare of men.
for
And
as
the
we
saw from the prayer addressed to them by an emperor of the Ming dynasty to which I drew your special attention in the first lecture,^ they act as intercessors with
worshippers. cession
is
God on
behalf of His
But the thought that such
inter-
necessary tends to separate between
men and God, making them
think of
Him
as
severe and dwelling in too great state to be
approached by them moreover, that such
directly. spirits
The
supposition,
have the government
of parts of the world and the care of affairs
human
committed to them, prevents the Chinese
from rising to the '
full
conception of the divino
Pp. 44â&#x20AC;&#x201D;46.
Worship of Inferior
TJie
omnipotence, and
omniscience, I
always found
it
my
so in
They would say
people.
Spirits.
His ministers
in
omnipresence,
intercourse with the
God must have
that
on
places, carrying
different
His administration
255
in the spiritual sphere, just
as the officers of the emperor were distributed
Much more
throughout the nation. apparent
where the
this
is
the Taoists' account of providence,
in
spirit of the
spirits of the
furnace and the three
person repair every month to the
court of Heaven, and give in their report of the individuals under their surveillance.
Now from
the
God
worship of
Christian
free
is
depraving admixture of the worship
this
of inferior spirits. testant churches.
It
is
certainly in Pro-
so
Spiritual beings, angels,
come
before us in both the Old Testament and the
We
New.
connexion
Moses
;
have "the ministry of angels" with
giving
the
of
the
in
by
law
we have the same in connexion with many sons to glory by the Captain
the leading
of our salvation. to
But while enough
encourage trust
to gratify a prurient
make
in
God, there
curiosity,
is is
told us
nothing
and nothing to
us have recourse to angels as mediators
and
between
us
worship,
however
God, or inferior,
pay any kind to
them.
of
In this
respect, as in the former, the worship of
God
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
Chinese Religions
256
and
Christianity
by the Christian church
as taught
is
:
superior
to that practised in Confucianism.
Comparison as regards filial piety and the worship of ancestors. 4.
I
now
proceed
compare Confucianism
to
regard to their views on
and
Christianity
filial
piety and the worship of ancestors.
in
It is
a standing charge, based of course on ignorance
and prejudice, with the Chinese people against our religion that
A
name
" Unfilial
renegade."
fierce controversies
the
to
it,
filial
piety.
given to a convert I
on the subject closed by appeal,
heard
have
the fact that Christians do
missionaries
provokingly taunt their the charge that their to
show
itself
he
as
not worship their fathers and ancestors. I
is
have heard a hundred
triumphant
Confucianist's
considered
contrary to
is
it
of reproach
till
unjustly
And and
Chinese hearers with
filial
after
as
duty did not begin their
parents were
dead.
The
filial
described
it
piety taught by in
the second
Confucius, as lecture,
I
contains
much that commands our warm approval. The sage again and again, in his conversations with his disciples, protested against the view that the requirements of the duty were satis-
Filial Piety.
fied,
when a
support was
material
sufficient
He
given to the parents. in
257
did
so,
beh'eve,
I
order to correct a tendency in men's minds think
to
had
they
that
done
had
ministered
same
further that the
of
support
that
Chinese fathers when
the
was
when they
and
;
was
error
that
all
required of them for their parents
believe
I
mind
in the
they fashioned
the character which represents the word hsiao, or
filial
of
its
piety.
pointed
I
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; "an structure,
China from the very
much and many too
to
his
of
He
virtue.
language
:
"
mother."
It is
that that
honour
on,
or
subjected the son
Confucius
felt
this,
on the subject
exalt the conception of the
to
which
commandment
seated
idea of the duty
utterances
would
in
first
father.
his
were designed
man
The
supported by, his son." \w
out the peculiarity
old
have it
is
approved
of
enjoined in our
Honour thy
father
hardly necessary for
the fifth
and thy
me
to say
involved the idea of support,
was finely declared by Paul, when he wrote, Honour widows that are widows indeed. But if any widow have children or nephews, let them as
"
learn
first
to
show piety
their parents
before Itianity
;
God." enjoin
for that
at is
home, and to requite good and acceptable
Both Confucianism and Chrisfihal
piety.
The fundamenta 17
Chinese Religions
258
conception
of
ministration of support
the
in
;
The
dering of honour.
CJiristianity
former system
the
in
it
and
:
a
is
a ren-
latter,
conception
Christian
the higher of the two.
is
There that
is
another saying of the apostle Paul
throws
regard to
on
light
the
different
views
He
piety in the two religions.
filial
wrote to the Corinthians
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; "The
in
children ought
not to lay up for the parents, but the parents for the children."
never quoted these words in
I
a circle of Chinese friends without their encoun-
When
tering a storm of opposition.
tried to
I
show that the sentiment was favourable to the progress of society, and would enable each generation to start from I
found
in
it
difficult to
the
tendencies
different
Chinese and Christian races
themselves.
The
third
manifest
chapter of the
sounds a note of hope to be realized future.
Confucian literature "
readers to the past. is
the
it,
Bible in
the
only directs
its
Onwards and upwards,"
motto on the Christian banner.
The
camp
bears
Chinese banner
on
Even
obtain a hearing.
a matter like this
of the
a higher standpoint,
"Back
in
the Confucian
to the times of the early sages
that in the Taoist
camp
says,
"Back
" ;
to the early
Arcadian simplicity." Christianity
knows nothing of the outcome
Ancestral Worship. of
filial
duty which appears
in
259
the Confucian
worship of parents and of ancestors generally. It accepts with silent sorrow the fact that they
have gone from the
circle in
The thought
on earth.
which they moved
that
God
has taken
Him and
them away intensifies the worship of
the prayer to be enabled reverently to submit to
His
will
and doing
;
but as to the departed,
there remains only the
treasured
in
remembrance of them Their bodies
the loving heart.
cannot be brought back, nor their is
It
have communion with them
vain to try to
over any religious
feast,
of thcni will often
though the recollection
be most vivid
of intensest religious exercise.
no worship of the
has
spirits.
dead,
in
the hours
But Christianity
and them
belief
its
more and practice in, reference to healthy and true than those of Confucianism. I cannot but think, indeed, that Confucius himself
stood
in
are
doubt about the worship of the
dead which he inherited as an ancient instituHe was not sure about it tion of his people. ;
he strove to be sincere in his of
it;
own observance
but he had no complacency
repressed the curious questions which
awakened
in the
minds of
his
in it
it,
and
naturally
more thoughtful
disciples.
The
religion of
Taoism takes an
attitude to
26o
and
Chinese Religions
dead
the
very different
fucianism.
not what.
from
knows
it
a vast expenditure from
them
their surviving friends to secure rest for in
:
Con-
of
that
about them
believes
It
It requires
Chrisfianiiy
and to deHver them from the
their graves,
courts of the horrible purgatory through which
Of
they have to pass.
much opposed to
all this
course Christianity as
it is
to the Confucian
That worship
worship of the dead.
as
is
also
a
is
superstition, only not so repelling as the horrors
which Taoism filial
piety in
"
Inculcating
imagines howling."
its
highest and widest legitimate
meaning, Christianity keeps the abuses connected with
itself clear
in
it
the
of
all
Chinese
religions.
Comparison as regards the teaching
of
morality. 5.
At
this point
I
take up the consideration
of the merits of the three religions as regards
the morality which they inculcate.
seem more natural teach about the
sphere
a of
to treat here of
future
religion
or
to
compare
their
exhibition
the
our relations with the invisible
;
might
belonging to
as
state,
It
what they
but
I
wish
of
first
moral teaching, because the
subject of a future state will lead
me
away, for
Their Teaching of Morality.
261
a time at least, from the Chinese systems
what
to
pecuHar to Christianity.
is
human
duty has
been
regarded as the glorious distinction of
Con-
inculcation
Its
of
from
fucianism
the
Catholic missionaries
and
his lessons
him the
known
And
in wliich
there
is
"
he
much
Chinese view of
that
the
in
Roman
the
Chinese sage
Pope gave
Europe.
temple of fame because of
his place in the
way
time
made
taught
that
the
is
men
to be good."
admirable
constitution
the
in
human
of
and the duties belonging to its several relationships. Far be it from me to say a word society,
or insinuate a thought against
forward for
many
ment with
its
formed
goodness
not see
for
doctrine of
how man
system of
it
I
!
years to profess
;
human
for, if it
have been
my
agree-
nature as being
were not
so, I
do
could be exhorted, under any
religion, '*to
eschew
evil
and do good."
Confucius believed that he had a mission from
Heaven in connexion with the cause of truth, and there is no reason why we should hesitate to accept the belief He for the most part well fulfilled
the trust.
He
unfolded the moral teach-
ings of the earlier sages, bringing out the spirit
of
them while he maintained the
an inward sincerity
in all
letter
outward
;
requiring
practice,
and
pouring scorn on the pharisaism which contents
2
Chinese Religions t>
62
Christianity
:
with the cleansing of the outside of the cup
itself
and
and
Even though we are obliged
platter.
to
great deficiencies in the " S]
- ing admit his own and Autumn " annals, we need not shrink from allowing that he was a messenger from God to his countrymen for good, for it never was the way of God to reveal all truth at once by His
chosen instruments, or to
make them by
their
calling infallible, so that they should not err in
judgment or stumble
in practice.
Certainly Confucius discharged his duty as a
guardian of morality when he
golden
rule,
delivered
the
even in the negative form in which he
His countrymen are as familiar with it as we are with the form in which it is and presented in the Sermon on the Mount always gave
it.
;
from other lessons that he stand
left
them, they under-
not only as a negative, but also as a
it
positive rule. If
we
turn
now
we do not Tao Teh King, we
to Lao-tsze, while
find the golden rule in the
have there noble exhibitions of the virtue of humility, of the casting out from the breast every taint of selfish motive,
and of the power of meek-
ness to overcome evil
;
all
culminating in the
precept, which even Confucius could not receive, to return as
good
now taught
for evil.
The
in millions of
morality of Taoism, copies of the
"
Book
Tlicir
of Actions and their unaffected
263
Teaching of Morality.
Retributions," while not
by the grotesque
and
characteristics
superstitions of the religion,
still
bears on
the stamp of the "venerable philosopher."
honour
him and
to
He
contemporary
!
have the precepts that give glory to
But we the two
his
it
All
men from
the lips of the one Christ,
All things whatsoever ye would that should do unto you, do ye even so to them."
said, "
men
Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them
He
said also,
and
in the
do
take
both
and â&#x20AC;˘
discourse, "
and persecute you." crown from Confucius, his crown from Lao-tsze, and give them to Christ" On His head are many crowns, the crown of the this one among them,
that despitefully I
same
not say, "
use you
Take
his
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
best and noblest teacher of morality. rule It has been said, indeed, that Confucius'
and also Lao-tsze's precept were given sixth century before our era
;
the
in
but Christ sub-
joined to his version of the rule
the
that to
same effect was the teaching of "the law and the prophets," and we may consider it as but another form of the injunction,
"Thou
shalt
love thy neighbour as thyself," which was as old Nor was the teaching of the great as Moses. issue of the
tao
in
our Bible less ancient
;
we
;
264
Chinese Rc/igions
read
in
and
Christiajiity
enemy
the book of Proverbs, " If thine
be hungry, give him bread to eat thirsty, give
him water
and
;
to drink."
:
he be
if
refer thus
I
to the antiquity of the sentiments in our Scriptures simply as a matter of fact, and not from
any wish
detract
to
from the merit of the
Chinese philosophers in giving expression to
That we shows
them.
of them,
find their definite enunciation
what a height
to
moral
in
human nature is capable of attaining shows how deeply God has written the work
science it
of His law
in
them thereby
And
it
is
the
hearts
men, and
of
fitted
to be a law to themselves.
with no unkindly feeling that
call attention, in
connexion with
was
morality, to Confucius' confession that he
unable to take the initiative
own
rule,^
and to the
up and withdrew into acknowledgment of the
philosopher's
evils
the
of
evil
obscurity.^ his
hiding
;
his
times,
The
sage's
from
himself
that he could not remedy,
worth
sin,
our appreciation of
but nothing of the kind can be
neither '
Page
the
do not lessen
referred to in the history of Christ.
no
gave
moral feebleness, and
our regard for them and their
carrying out his
fact that Lao-tsze
struggle with
the
in
I
topic of
this
was guile found
138.
=
in
"
He
did
His mouth
Page 207.
;
TJie Place
Woman
of
in than.
265
He was reviled He reviled not again when He suffered He threatened not. He
^vhen
;
went about doing good, leaving an example He worked that we should walk in His steps. while
was day, nor ceased
it
He
came when no man can work." a
what
He
night
was both
a perfect exemplar of
teacher and
perfect
the
till
ICung and Li were good
taught.
arises of their being
men, but the thought never anything more than men.
we
the other hand,
feel
Before Christ, on that
we
are
in
the
whose participation of our do not doubt, while we are we nature human presence
one
of
often ready to exclaim,
did as
He
Place of I shall
close of
"Never man spake
or
" !
woman
in the three religions.
not find a better place than
what
I
this, at
the
have to say on their teaching of
morality, to speak of the different places in the social scale given
No
by the three
special mention
Teh King but when treating of ;
I
is
religions to
made
quoted
of her in
in
woman. the Tao
the last lecture,
the Taoist purgatory, a brief
but emphatic sentence from the " Divine Panorama," which speaks volumes as to the estimate
formed of
her.
A
woman who
escapes some
266 of
Chinese Religions
the
tortures
and
of purgatory in
of her virtuous deeds, and to
life
Chrisfianify
and the world
for
bation, " shall be born,"
:
consequence
allowed to return
is
another period of proit
is
said, " as a
man."
The sentiment and even dhistic origin, but
own.
the words are of BudTdoism has made them its
In Confucianism the position of
has always been an inferior one, and
I
woman will not
repeat the illustrations which were given of it in the second lecture. It is only Christianity that vindicates for woman a position of equality
with man.
As
in
the Christian church, in respect
of privilege, there
is
no distinction of nation or
race or rank, so also there Christ Jesus there
is
"
none of sex.
is
In
neither male nor female."
His religion, indeed, still leaves the husband the head of the family, as he is to fight the battle of life in society and be the bread-winner but ;
even the feebler frame of the wife, which renders this subordination necessary, is turned in the
New
Testament
to her advantage.
the language of Peter,
them according
How
"Ye husbands,
to knowledge, giving
fine is
dwell with
honour to
the wife, as to the weaker vessel, and as being heirs together of the grace of life, that your prayers be not hindered"! haps,
is
that
wives be subject
And
the language of Paul. in
all
still finer,
per-
Having required things
to
their
The Place
oj
Woman
husbands, as the church
267
in tJiem.
subject to Christ,
is
Husbands, love your wives, even as gave Himself Christ also loved the church, and cleanse it, and sanctify for it, that He might a glorious that He might present it to Himself any such church, not having spot or wrinkle or
he adds,
thing
;
"
but that
it
should be holy and without
blemish."
and of the formation of Eve,
The account the union of
her
and Adam, given
second chapter of Genesis, It follows from instructive.
was intended
expressive and
is it
to be the rule of
the
in
that monogamy human marriage.
ordinance was set It came to pass that this divorce and aside at a very early time, and polygamy were permitted even in the Jewish state,
to
though
testify
its
that
wife for one
prophets were commissioned Jehovah had made but one
man
at
the
first,
hated putting away." Still the but it was not permitted to
and that evil
"
He
continued,
pass
into
the
church. As He did not social institution, Christ took in other to any legislator, regard to marriage the position of a in
Christian
and
regard
should insisted that the original intention
be enforced.
Only by one act of
guilt
on the
of the part of the wife, in itself a repudiation possible. marriage bond, could divorce be made
2 68
and
Chuiese Religions
Christianity
:
Apart from that, what God had joined man must not put asunder. When Christian churches began to be formed in dilTerent Paul
places,
concerning
own
his
proclaimed marriage,
and China
wife,
husband."
In
law
the
that
"
woman
everj'
the
again,
Christ
of
man have
every
own
her
enters
wife
into the patriarchal
system of her husband's
family
servant
whereas Christ the
a
virtually
original
to
and mother, and
"A man
shall cleave to his wife."
only by Christianity that
his
honoured
this topic.
woman
to her a place of equality
husband,
leave father
shall
need not dwell longer on
I
n^other,
also proclaimed
in this respect
rule,
his
by the
and
It is
has accorded side of her
cherished
com-
panion, and the one mistress of his household. It
only,
is
she
can
moreover, under
Christianity that
move with freedom
in
society,
and
exert her legitimate influence in favour of that
is
good and beautiful and
department of morality, is
in a
pure.
all
In every
word, our religion
superior to the religions of China.
Comparison as regards the teaching about a future state. 6.
There
is
dwelt upon in
but one more of the subjects
my
former lectures on which
Teaching about a Future State.
269
compare the other two rehgions and it will be found that with Christianity I
have
to
;
the result
as favourable to
is
The
the other cases.
about a future
The about
old
The
that for the
is
this
of China
says very
soul,
manes of the deceased,^ man consisted
and
little
primitive term for spirit/ and
that,
tell
how
body when he died and the body
the fathers believed that
and
as in
their teaching
state.
religion
this.
in
it
subject
of
mingled with the dust, the soul continued to Passages in the classical books say
on.
live
further that
the
ancient sovereign, a
sagely wisdom, in
is
One
ascends on high.
soul
man
of heroic virtue and
spoken of
the Shu as being
in
heaven, and attended there by the spirits of
the
ministers
who had
served
him on
earth,
while both he and they took an interest in what
was happening left.^
in the
kingdom
had
that they
Another sovereign, whose earthly career
had been marked by every excellent quality, is represented in the Shih as ascending and descending on the
These are
left
and right of God
special cases,
and
mind any general statements
I
in
in
cannot
heaven.* call
the Confucian
classics as to the state of the dead. '
Pp.
-p. 13.
II, 12.
'Pp. 113, 114.
*The
Shih,
to
iii.
i.,
Ode
i.
270
Chinese Religions
The of the
Christianity
:
ancient belief of the continued existence soul or spirit found
prehistoric time, in
in
and
expression, even
its
the worship jf parents
and ancestors, taking, we saw, the form of a
When
symbol of a family reunion.
feast as the
Confucius appeared and devoted his to the study of antiquity,
lessons which
life
mainly
and inculcating the
he thus learned on
his disciples,
he added nothing to these scanty hints about
Connecting the worship of the dead
futurity.
with
filial
piety,
he derived additional motives
with which to enforce the cultivation of that virtue.
At
the
ciuestions that
same time he
of the dead, and avoided, as
speaking at
rather evaded the
were put to him about the state
all
much
as he could,
The
on the subject.
truth
is,
what he did not know, he could not instruct others in what he had not learned for himself. I do not blame him for jiis silence. But the Chinese are left by the he could not
Confucian
tell
religion
with a
very
limited
uncertain knowledge of futurity, with
and
merely
a hint or two that the souls of their departed friends are in
heaven
;
sort of a place or state
with no account of what
heaven
is
;
with no intima-
tion of a discriminating retribution for the
and
evil of
No
the
life
on earth
in the life
doubt the barrenness of their
good
beyond. relisrion in
Future
Teacliing about a
tion,
and
its
soul
in its courts of
We
cannot
trichotomy of the
human
the horrors of
got
Buddhism about transmigra-
to fall victims to the cruel representa-
Taoism
tions of
271
Chinese to give heed
this respect disposed the
to the teachings of
State.
hell.
cleaving to
purgatory and
tell
how Taoism with one
spirit,
the tablet of wood, another
haunting the grave, and the third hungry and naked, a starved and homeless ghost shivering
somewhere
in the air, or tortured in
purgatory;
but the care of their dead thus multiplied
too
is
And
great a burden for the living to bear.
it is
comfort they receive from the hope that
little
may have
their friends
be Immortals
got to
of heaven with three thousand good deeds at their credit, or even
Immortals of earth
low price of three hundred. about futurity
be of use
is
All
too fantastic or too horrible to
mind
in
encouragement and guidance
in
for comfort to the intelligent
distress, or for
at the
Taoism
in
the pursuit of virtue.
When we read
in
it
brought
Testament,
we and
life
the gospel." is
New
that "Jesus Christ abolished death,
turn to the
and immortality to light through The temple of Christ's own body
destroyed, and in three days
again.
While put
He
raises
it
up
to death in the llesh, in the
activity of His spiritual nature,
He
goes and
;
Chinese Religions
272
preaches to the spirits
Christianity
The
in prison.
man and Lazarus shows
of the rich
diately on death, there
good and the bad
own
and
and
place,
is
parable
that,
imme-
a separation of the
that each class goes to
;
that
also proclaimed that "the time
its
commences
retribution
according to the character of the
all
:
life.
Christ
coming when
is
that are in their graves shall hear His voice
and come
forth
:
they that have done good to
the resurrection of
the resurrection of condemnation."
evil to
Christianity future
of the
for
life
the spirit
death
and they that have done
life,
is
and
;
life
teaches
thus
man
;
interrupted
that,
according
is
a
by the event of to
the
that has been lived, there
good or
world
is
that a time
thore
that the consciousness of
not
diate experience of ;
that
evil in
coming
is
character
an imme-
the invisible
in the future
when
there will be a resurrection of the dead, to be
by a public and general judgment Lord will bring to light the hidden things of darkness, and make manifest the
followed
that " the
counsels of the hearts
" ;
and
finally, that
every
true servant of Christ shall then have his proper
meed
of praise, and every other who, weighed in
the balance of the divine judgment, has been
found v;anting shall receive according to the desert of his deeds.
ill
Disclosures of the Future by Christianity. 273
Peculiarities in the disclosures of the future
by Christianity. 7.
Such are the teachings of adduce many
will not
which
tration of the points
The time I
is
Christianity.
I
texts in proof and illus-
said at the outset that
have indicated.
I
me
not sufficient for
to
you were
all
do so
and
;
acquainted
But
with the sacred books of our religion.
in
the presence of these things about the future
which are most surely believed among feel
that there
between
longer
Christendom.
the religions
Confucianism has next to no-
deserve our regard
for the lurid light in
courts
of
Taoism would
development of
which
it
to touch here
it,
lecture to point out
I
has placed
on
its
hell.
this recent
wish at this stage
two
but
in this respect
purgatory and an everlasting
Without stopping
The
China and
of
thing to show about futurity. still less
we
us,
ceases to be comparison any
in the
things.
positive element in the Christian repre-
sentation of future blessedness.
The former element
in
of
them
which the
New
is
the
one
positive
Testament sums up
the blessedness of his future being to him 18
who
2
and
Chinese Religions
74
;â&#x20AC;&#x201D; it
in the faith of Christ
has died
How
with Christ."
Christianity
a
shall
heaven be conveyed to us
"
being
idea of
positive
Paul
?
the
is
:
us that
tells
who was caught up
he knew a man (whether in the body or out of the body he
"
in Christ,
tell)â&#x20AC;&#x201D; caught
not
could
man
Surely that glories
told
blessed
the
of
up into paradise." him much about the No what he state. ;
heard there were " unspeakable words, which it are all is not lawful for a man to utter."
We
aware how the
employed
are
of earthly things
figures
an idea of heaven by being
to give us
divested of the temporal and changing character
them
that belongs to
called, for instance, " is "
that
When
here.
incorruptible, undefiled,
not away."
An
heaven
an inheritance,"
endeavour
is
it
is
is
one
and that fadeth
made
to give us,
by means of those negations, some conception of the better world. But here is this one idea of "being
positive
with Christ."
Christ
Himself took the lead in putting this forward.
He
said
house are a
to
His
many mansions;
place for you.
place for you,
you be
I
And will
to myself, that,
also."
by His
" In
disciples,
On
Father's
go to prepare
go and prepare a and receive again come if
where
I
I
the cross
He
To-day
shalt
side, "
I
my
am, there ye
may
said to the penitent
thou be with
me
Positive Element in the Christian Picture. 275 in
"Absent from the body, present
paradise."
with the Lord," of the future if it
;
the apostle Paul's description
is
and he
tells
the Philippians that,
lay only with himself, he
rather than
live, for
and be with
would die
Christ,
Similarly, after the resurrection
we
ment,
"
great
element of the heavenly
shall
important.
It is
varieties
attainments
and the judg-
be ever with the Lord." bliss
apprehensible by
thoughts about heaven the
at once
would be "to depart which was far better."
to die
all.
is
This
most
People's
according to
will differ
of their
earthly experience and
but
the
as
hearts of all His burned within them when they communed with Jesus on earth, so all can under;
disciples
how sweet it will be to have unending companionship with Him, and to be guided and led by Him to all which infinity and
stand
eternity have to
allowed to
show and to
illustrate
case of a Chinese female convert }
"a wise woman," a professor
women
May
give.
I
be
the subject here by the
She had been
among
of Taoist superstitions.
I
her countryforget
how
she was brought to the faith of Christ, but
I
remember
a
member
clearly her earnest, useful
of the church.
Her
life
as
previous occupa-
had sharpened her faculties. Of her own accord she went about among her neighbours tion
276
Chinese Religions
telling
them
and
I
and
Christianity
:
She. was taken
of the gospel.
ill,
visited her repeatedly at the house of the
daughter with
married
she lived, and
whom
When I was refreshed by went in one forenoon, the daughter was seated on a stool with her mother in her lap, and " She was putting on her her best clothes. her conversation.
up
unconscious," she said, looking
is
on her
putting
may
be
her
clothes,
best
readiness
in
the
for
I
am
that
she
I
While
coffin."
was saying something in reply,
my
me;
at
and while her limbs are yet supple,
â&#x20AC;˘'
voice
fell
on the ear of the dying woman. She opened her eyes, turned her face to me, and tried to indistinct
said
I
could
but
speak,
;
feel
Him
}
"
sunken
"Death
murmur.
" but
you
only give
your
is
A
is
you
to
a
low,
near at hand,"
faith firm in
departing,
that,
vent
Jesus
?
be
will
Do with
light of intelligence irradiated her
features.
Again she
tried
in
vain to
speak. Turning her eyes upwards, and raising her forefinger, she pointed towards heaven
;
and while she was passed away.
You
in this attitude, the spirit will
not wonder that
my
eyes were suffused with tears, and left the house, I was thinking of the death of that, as I
Stephen, when he, looking up steadfastly to heaven, said, "Behold, I see the heavens
Results of Co7nparison thus Far. opened, and the Son of
man
277
standing at the
hand of God."
right
The
Christian revelation of futurity rests on the resurrection of Christ.
The second
thing which I wish to point out connexion with the disclosures of the
here, in
by
future
Christianity,
is,
that they
on
rest
all
the event of our Lord's resurrection, which the
New direct
Testament writers assert in the most and positive terms. The supernatural
element nently
in
cerning
our religion here comes out promi-
and
;
it
the record in our books con-
if
be admitted as true, a most important
distinction
between
Christianity on
the one
hand and Confucianism and Taoism on
the
They
are of
men and
by man,â&#x20AC;&#x201D; not without God
indeed,
but with
other
is
Him
only as
circle is
established.
of
all
things
His knowledge
of God, and
make known
by God,
are
included
the
in
and ordination
;
IT
specially revealed
to
the path of duty and the
way
of
hfe.
Results of the comparison thus far, and further pursuit of the subject. 8.
The
results
conducted have
of the all
comparison thus
far
been favourable to Chris-
278
Chinese Religions
Confucianism
tianity,
is
and
CJiristiaiiiiy
both more ancient and
of a higher type than Taoism
;
transcends Confucianism
far
but Christianity
in
What
Confucianism appears more
full
it
what
;
rected in
it
wrong
is
what
;
supplied in
is
in
and complete
Confucianism
in
points
good
is
is
cor-
defective in Confucianism
is
And now
it.
the
all
which we have considered. in
:
the train of
my
reasoning has brought us face to face with the questions
:
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Is
the
and the
tianity
difference
religions of
not merely in degree
each of them
We
shall
is
Is
?
it
between Chris-
China
THE
merely A religion
if
related
we accept in
the
New
the
do
so.
resurrection
natural is
to
religion while
?
event
;
to-
in the affirma-
the resurrection of Christ,
Testament,
And
actually taken place. hesitate
kind and
have made an important step
wards answering these questions tive,
in
I
for
Some one
would
but as
have
having
as
one do not say that
will
been a
super-
no supernatural event it must be
possible, therefore the record of
rejected
as
false.
But
I
cannot grant
postulate that no supernatural event
God
is
is
the
possible.
the author, upholder, and arranger of
The antecedents and consequents in phenomena occur in the order which He
nature. its
prescribes,
and according
to
laws which
He
Possibility
has ordained.
of the Supernatural.
He had
But when
279
finished "the
heavens and the earth and all the host of them," when He had given existence to the
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
various tribes of living things
" with,"
Chinese say, "their reproducing power," did not withdraw,
if I
may
the
as
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; He
venture so to speak,
His own being, and make a law for Himself never to reappear, and never interfere, whatever disorders might arise, to
into the solitude of
whatever danger there might seem to be of
His purposes is
in creation
God
being frustrated.
His
free to act, according to
and must be
wisdom and the resources of His nature, when and how it seems good to Him. Action on the part of God is what I call the supernatural. No argument of metaphysical reasoning and no inference from the facts of physical philosophy have ever shaken for a moment my belief in the possibility of the supernatural or
miraculous.
Confucianism and Taoism, as we saw, do not
There is no dispute deny the supernatural. between them and Christianity as to miracles. Taoism, indeed, runs
riot
in
its
multitude of
them, grotesque, unsubstantiated, aimless.
by the Confucianists,
are ridiculed
passage which
from
Wang
I
quoted
in
as
They in
the
the second Lecture
Yu-po's paraphrase of the amplifi-
2 8o
and
Chijiese Religions
cation of the K'ang-hsi edict.
ism
we
When
out the marvellous legends that grew
cast
up round the certain
:
But Confucian-
supernatural events.
asserts
itself
Christianity
life
of the sage, there are
statements
by
him
still
the
concerning
formation of the diagrams of Fu-hsi, and the
King
use of the Yi
we
that
are constrained
supernatural
to reject just
we
as
But
quarrel
with
religion,
Christianity
even the
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;a
"strange stories" of Taoism.^
reject the
neither
which bear
divination,
in
the stamp orTRe supernatural,
for
as
I
said,
allowing of
occurrence
will
the
and
possibility
supernatural
events.
Indeed, the primitive character shih, to which I
the
called attention in
symbol
of
above,^ carried
the
first
Lecture as the
or
manifestation from
belief
of such possibility
revelation
from the minds of the prehistoric fathers into those of their posterity through
The evidence
We
9.
all
time.
of the resurrection of Christ.
are free therefore, so far as the reason I
am
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; we
are
of the thing and the religions with which
comparing Christianity are concerned, free
to '
consider whether the evidence of the
See the Great Appendix to the Yi, Pp. 12,
13.
Pt.
i.
p. 73.
Evidence of the Resurrection of Christ. resurrection of Christ
is
satisfactory.
I
281
cannot
of course attempt anything approaching to a
complete exhibition of that evidence. suffice to indicate the considerations
my own
mind
rests in
It
must
on which
beheving that the event
took place. i.
and
At to
Christ, while
He was
a certain period
show
to
in
my
to lay
life
again."
It
and
how
His disciples
again the third day."
alive,
His history,
go to Jerusalem and be
it
yet
foretold both His death
killed,
He
down, and
I
expected
resurrection.
He "began He must
that
and be raised
said, " I
have power
have power
to take
was well known in Judea, to well as His friends, that Christ
His enemies as had spoken such things, and that He expected and intended to rise again after He was put to death, for when the chief priests and Pharisees went to Pilate to ask that the sepulchre should be made sure, the ground of their application
We
was, "
remember, that that deceiver
while he was yet alive, 'After three days
said, I
will
rise again.'"
That
Christ
was Himself deluded in the He would rise again, or that
expectation that
He meant to
me
to deceive others
about the matter,
equally inconceivable.
And
assumption that the supernatural
is
is
yet on the impossible,
!
282
He He
would
bring
be
this
in
"
and
the
Who
If
" The
And
pillared
" ?
If
firmament
is
the so,
rottenness,
He
He
would
did do
rise again,
so.
fact of the resurrection
event testified to
all
were
failed,
by abundant evidence.
us
it
base built on stubble."
cannot doubt that
The
pass
an inexplicable pheno-
Because Christ said that
ii.
to
the long line of
Him
His word
earth's
impossibility
did no sin
should have in
menon.
to
:
the case of Him, the greatest
of moral teachers in ages,
I
Christianity
expected what could not be, and said that
Could
we
and
Chinese Religions
is
confirmed
Never was an
by witnesses more
entitled to
who had knowing what they reor who persevered more firmly in their
credit from their general character, or
better opportunities of lated,
testimony,
notwithstanding
and even the
risk of
the disadvantages
death to which
it
exposed
them. iii.
I
cannot understand how,
rection were
not a
fact,
if
the story of
the resurit
came
to
be palmed successfully on the Christian church. I
have never read an attempt to account
this
which seemed to
When
me worthy
for
of a refutation.
an objector therefore asserts that the
resurrection of Christ was a physical impossibility,
;
'
Revealed Character of our Scriptures. and that the record of
it is
not to be believed,
reply that the declaration of Christ that
take place, and the testimony of their personal
knowledge
283
it
many
I
would
that to
did take place, and
it
the cordial acquiescence of the church in their witness, are three moral impossibilities,
Lord did not indeed
my
rise
from the dead.
if
I
our
place
three moral impossibilities against his one
physical impossibility.
I
myself acknowledge
no such physical impossibility. The objector errs in asserting it, not knowing the power of
At any
God.
believe with
rose
and
rate, I believe,
and you
all^ I
think,
me, that Christ "both died, and
revived."
The
fact of
His resurrection
accounts for the disclosure of the future state of the Christian believer as a being with Christ,
and places Christianity as a religion in a ferent category from the religions of China.
The
10.
dif-
Christian scriptures claim to contain a divine revelation.
Our acceptance
of the record in the
New
Testament concerning the resurrection of Christ will not satisfy all the
demands
as to the peculiar character of
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
it
its
of Christianity
sacred books
claims farther that as a whole they contain
a revelation from God.
Here again
is
a broad
:
284
and
Chinese Religions
distinction
Christianity
between them and the books of the
Chinese religions.
I
books of Taoism.
The Tao Teh King, which
is
need hardly speak of the
we have from Lao-
the only written document
tsze,
makes no pretension
be anything but
to
the thoughtful production of
Divine Panorama, from which
my
in
on
last lecture, carries
The
The
author.
I
quoted largely
its
front the refu-
any sense a divine
tation of its claim to be in revelation.
its
or Confucian books,
classical
from the ShO down to the Analects, extending over about 1800 years, and the product of different
have
writers,
"
no organic
unity,
internal cohesion other than belongs to
writings
course of
produced
many
the
in
for
Jesus Christ
from the
prophecy in the
and
Himself the theme of them the last. I will not speak of
in general,
though there are prophecies
Oh Testament
nations,
whom
to
about individuals,
which must have come from
"all
with
Testaments,
is
to
first
New
the
in
It is different
the writings of the Old and
cities,
Him
His works from the beginning of
the world are known." in the limits to
which
I
It is sufficient for me,-
must
restrict
my remarks,
to insist on the unity of the Bible as proved '
no
human
same nation
centuries."^
many
by
Rogers' " Superhuman Origin of the Bible, inferred
from
itself."
P. 162.
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; "
The Unity of the
285
Bible.
teaching about the person and work and
its
of our Lord,
kingdom
company
believe that
I
of the three
men
of us
all
wished that we had been
have often
travelling to
the
in
Emmaus
on the evening of the day of the resurrection, and had listened to the discourse with which one of them reproved the doubts and cheered
You remember
the hearts of the other two.
how He
said to them, "
heart to
believe
spoken
Ought not
!
all
these things, and
And
then,
"
to
O
Christ
to
enter
into
have suftered
His glory
beginning at Moses and
He expounded
prophets.
to
have
prophets
the
that
and slow of
fools
them
in
?
all
the
all
the
The
scriptures the things concerning Himself."
speaker on that occasion was the risen Lord.
He
believed in the unity of the sacred writings
through their testimony to Himself; and
assume
it
I
will
is
not
further.
In
therefore as a fact which
necessary for
me
to illustrate
contemplating the
fact,
any
we may
it
well adopt the
language of the late professor Henry Rogers "
Shall
we say
that
it is
a dream,
all
:
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; that the
book has no such unity, or that all who thought If this be thought so have gone mad together .*
incredible, then
delusion
.''
how
By chance
chances against
it
?
shall 1
By
we account
Who
for the
can compute the
concert of the writers
?
286
and
Chinese Religions
The mode
which
CJiristianiiy
:
was constructed, its gradual composition, makes this impossible."^ in
To my own mind
this unity of the Bible
always appeared "an a book
^^
proof" that
infallible
stii generis',' in
which
am
I
hand of God.
to recognize the it
it
has it is
constrained
must hold that
T
contains a revelation from Him, and that the
religion
which
it
discloses will be different from
Confucianism, Taoism, and the other religions current
among men,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
c-
as bearing the
.Terent
stamp of divine authority, and revealing truths to which we could not otherwise have attained.
Bearing of the revealed character of Christianity on the comparison between it and other religions, and on the study of its sacred books. II.
This divine stamp on Christianity must
not be supposed to imprint the brand of false-
hood on other
religions.
They
are
still
to
be
what they are in themselves. We will approve what is good we will note what is defective and we will disapprove what is wrong. The study of them continues to be a duty, full of interest and importance. The
tested according to
;
;
of
results '
it
will
throw
Superhuman Origin
light
on the religious
of the Bible, p. 171.
How
Revelation
a_ffects
nature and wants of man, and show Christianity
to supply those
is
2^7
the ArgiDuent.
how adapted
wants and satisfy
that nature.
They will even
lieve, a better
understandingof Christianity itself,
and a more
The
help to give us,
vivid apprehension of
I
be-
doctrines.
its
divine stamp, however, rebukes the view
of some that, other religions,
by the study of the Chinese and we shall find one truth of import-
ance here and another there, and these together,
we may by an
frame a universal religion that Christianity
itself.
must
I
and prove
supersede
will
think
comparative study of religions this imagination,
that, bringing
eclectic process
it
the
that
will
dissipate
to be an unsub-
stantial hope.^ It
we
must be borne
in
mind
have concluded that
also
that
Christianity
when is
the
revealed religion, this does not relieve us from
the task of searching the scriptures diligently,
and finding out their meaning by all legitimate methods of criticism and interpretation. The books of the Old and New Testaments have come down to us just as the Greek and Roman and Chinese the same '
classics
way
have
to corruption
done,
and
exposed
in
alteration, to
See two volumes on " Oriental Religions and their
Relation to Unive.sal
Religion."
(Boston, United States).
By Samuel Johnson
288
Chinese Religions
and
Christ ia7iiiy
The
additions and mutilations.
:
them
text of
has to be settled by the same canons of
all
processes
have
in
does not
by
shall
similar or corresponding
The
of construction. the
settled text has
meaning of the
criticism; the
to be determined
be told
the
method of
we
that
revelation
a
scriptures
Christian
affect
fact
their study.
I
they were inspired, and
that
were so
freely grant that they
;
but
this
I
only
and more reverent finding out what they say.
requires from us the stricter
adherence to rule I
in
have never formulated to myself a theory of know it by its effects, and I I
inspiration. fail
Lord
said to
of the Spirit,
Any
inquiry,
Nicodemus about the operation can be known in any other wayhowever, into the manner of its
it
communication I
accordance with what our
to see how, in
am
treating
lies ;
outside the subject of which
and
I
hasten to complete the
comparison, or what we must contrast, of the Chinese tianity. I
began
Some to
religions
may
of you
speak of
the
disclosures of the future
now
by
think
call
with
the
Chris-
that,
peculiarity in
since
the
Christianity, I have
been digressing from the proper business of the I had It seems otherwise to myself. lecture. taken nearly
all
the
topics
description of Confucianism
with which
the
and Taoism supplied
Doctrine of the Death of Christ.
289
me, and compared them with the teachings of The course pursued had brought Christianity. us into contact with the supernatural event of
the resurrection of Christ, as alleged in the
Testament.
It
was necessary and we were
to
New
consider the
led on to touch evidence for it, on the claim of our sacred books generally to
be received as the oracles of God. if
we accepted
that
felt
I
the fact of the resurrection and it would any other
allowed the inspiration of the Bible,
be necessary thenceforth to contrast
points in Christianity which the former lectures
suggested to
me
of the
silence
subjects.
with the silence or
but
all
Chinese religions on the same
Such has been the
logic of
my
mind
in the line of argument and illustration which I
have followed, anxious that
my
treatment
of the three religions should be perfectly as complete
and
permit.
I will
as
fair,
a single lecture would
only further
call
your attention
to the Christian doctrines of propitiatory sacrifice
and future punishment.
The
Christian doctrine of the death of Christ as a propitiatory sacrifice.
12.
Towards the
close of
my
first
lecture,
I
observed that the oblations at thejvvorship of
God
in the great religious services of the
Con-
â&#x20AC;˘
2 go
Chinese Religions
fucian
religion
and
Christianity
:
were thank-offerings, and not
and that not even the idea of self-consecration or self-dedication on the part of the worshipper was symbolised propitiatory sacrifices
by them.
It
dynasty.^
Similarly,
;
was pointed out that the idea of vicarious substitution was not unknown in very early times in China. T'ang the Successful, and Tan the duke of Chau, were both prepared to die, the former for all the people, and the latter, in lieu of his brother, for the good of their time, on their
all
along the
course
of
occasion of great calamities, a feeling of
own
feebleness has been
awakened
in
the
Chinese government and people, and a conviction that their sufferings were a punishment for their
wickedness.
The
sovereign, as the representa-
humbled himself at such times under the mighty hand of Heaven, made confession of unworthiness and guilt, declared his repentance, vowed a more complete devotion to the discharge of his duties, and asked for
tive of the people, has
forgiveness still
and
relief.
But
this
has taken place,
when broken up by
takes place, only on special occasions,
the deep places of the soul are
the blows of affliction and trouble propitiation
or expiation
is
regular worship of Confucianism. '
Pp.
54, 85.
;
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;the idea of
not found in
the
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
Doctrine of the Death of Christ.
During
the period
embraced
in
;
291
the work-
The Spring and Autumn," many covewere made among the feudal princes,
called "
nants
over the blood of a victim, with which each covenanting party smeared the corners of his mouth, while an appeal was addressed to the
made
invisible
Powers to
inflict
vengeance on
all
should violate the conditions agreed upon. a sacrifice
The
who Such
might be called imprecatory. ofi'erings
sacrificial
at
the worship
of
ancestors are simply the materials of a feast, at which the living and the dead are supposed to
meet together.
The
Taoist services to the dead
deprecatory.
Their object
is
may to
be called or
please
appease the spirits of the departed. They are not, as in Confucianism, the expression of filial piety
by surviving children and
in this
way
still
relatives,
seeking
to manifest itself to the de-
ceased and maintain communion with them but they are on the contrary sacrifices made to to give relief and t'eliverance to the avert evil,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
s,uffering
or tortured
ghosts
indeed,
but
still
more to save the offerers from the spite that task will be wreaked on them, if they do not themselves to the utmost to perform whatever may be required of them on behalf of the dead.
Thus
in
the
religions
of
China
there
is
292
Cki?iese ReIigio7is
and
nothing corresponding to tiatory sacrifice as
The
Christianiiy
the
unfolded
of propi-
idea
in
:
our scriptures.
by the laws of Moses
sacrifices prescribed
have been divided into that of self-consecration or dedication, symbolised
by the burnt-offering
;
those of thanksgiving, represented in the meat-
and peace-offering
offering
piation, in the sin-offering
There underlies
all
and those of ex-
;
and
trespass-ofl'ering.
these forms of sacrifice the
idea of a close relation between
we
Plis
are and
be living its
there
sacrifices,
far
we should
devoted to Kim.
blessings are His gift to us,
Him
due to
are
Life
and
and hence
the sacrifice of praise
continually, the fruit of our
and gratitude of our
love
men and God.
ought to serve/so that
our doings of mind and body
in all
all
Him we
lips,
and the ardent
hearts.
But we are
from loving and serving God as we ought
to do.
We
mind that
are under the dominion of a carnal is
enmity against Him, and refuses
to be subject to His law.
The more we
the consciousness of our ideal
we ought
apprehension of what
God and towards
selves,
retain
and the
to be towards
our fellow-men, the more
deeply and acutely do we realise our unworthiness
and
exclaim,
guilt, "
O
the
more
wretched
shall deliver us
men
ready are that
from the body of
we this
we
are
!
to
who
death
" }
Doctrine of the Death of Christ.
293
—
Here comes in the sacrifice of expiation, that which was symbohsed by the sin and trespass offerings of the laws of Moses, that
offered on Calvary
when
which was
Christ bore our sins
His own body on the tree and
in
just
for the
unjust, bringing us
died, the
By
God.
to
the sacrificial death of Christ the wall of sepa-
Holy God and
ration between the is
removed
;
sinful
men
the handwriting of ordinances that
was against them the cross, where
blotted out, and nailed to hangs fluttering and showing
is
it
to the moral universe
how mercy has triumphed
over justice, and justice has been glorified and
made more
august thereby.
has been said to
It
me
Paul and the
that
other apostles did indeed look on the death of Christ in this way as sacrificial and atoning,
but that they took this view of
it from their Jewish training, and could hardly avoid doing
so,
while
we need
the greatest
Bishop Butler in his " Analogy
consecration.
of Rehgion "
Whereas
— the
this "
an
it as more than and example of self-
not regard
instance
" it
has dealt with this representation. is
objected," he
reference to Christ
expiatory victim
—
"is
"
that
all
merely by way of
allusion to the sacrifices of the
apostle on
says,
as a priest and
Mosaic
the contrary affirms
law, the
that the law
and
Chinese Religions
294
Christianity
was a shadow of good things
to
:
come, and
not the very image of the things (Heb. x.
and that the
priests
i);
that offer gifts according
to the law serve unto the
example and shadow
of heavenly things, as Moses was admonished
when
of God,
'p;
tabernacle:
make
was
'
about saith
see,'
to he,
make 'that
things according to the pattern
all
the
thou
showed
mount' {Heb. viii. 4, 5) i.e., the was a shadow of the priesthood of Christ, in like manner as the tabernacle made by Moses was according to that showed
to thee in the
;
Levitical priesthood
to
him
in the
and the
mount.
The
tabernacle in
originals
priesthood of Christ
of the former of which the Levitical
;
priesthood was a type, and tabernacle
of the latter the
made by Moses was
of the
doctrine
mount were the
the
epistle,
then,
a cop}-.
plainly
is,
The that
the legal sacrifices were allusions to the great
and
final
atonement to be made by the blood
of Christ; and to
them."
substantiates
organic
not that
The view is
this
was an
allusion
that bishop Butler thus
but one conclusion from the
unity of which
I
spoke as running
through the books of Scripture, and proving
them
to be a revelation from God.^
'"The Analogy of Religion," Part II., ch. v., "Of Redemption by a Mediator."' Bishop Butler accepted the
'
;
Doctrine of the Death of Christ.
operation of this doctrine, the sacrificial
The
death of Christ,
most powerful and
is
In the strength of
it
I
Him
as vengeful
He commendeth His to die for sinners
comes
my
into
and with
;
an arbitrary
I
have ceased to
faith in Christ there
whom
through It
forgiveness
from the sense of
is
relieves
and enables
sin,
new
my
crea
most
from the
ire
in Christ
me
Adam
I
Adam,
I
:
derive a spiritual
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
I
life.
Christ, the life,
me
to rise
derived a natural
and a carnal mind, so from
cry
am
His death
Jesus;
powerful stimulus to a holy first
I
no apprehension
that
superior to the threatenings of the law
a
He
God.
peace with God, and
breast
Him, "Abba, Father."
of
to
and inexorable, for herein love, giving up His Son
of adoption
the Spirit to
draw near
beneficial.
the holy and righteous upholder
moral government, but
all
fear
me
to
is still
of
295
is
As life
second
to develope
the help of the Holy Spirit into likeness
by and
conformity to Him.
Such is an imperfect exhibition of the nature and operation of the death of Christ the little ;
that
I
have said about
it
may
suffice for
my
purpose of comparing or contrasting the ChrisHebrews as having been written by Paul but the question of its authorship does not affect the value of its evidence, so long as we receive it as canonical. Epistle to the
296
CJiinese Religions
Christianity
As
have remarked more than once, neither of
knows anything of
these religions
God
of
of
heritage
Chinese
the
people,
very
worship
has prevented the
the sovereign
to
is
the
but the restriction of
;
Him
of
has become
Confucianism, which
in
precious
propitiation
The knowledge
or expiation in their sacrifices.
a
:
system with Confucianism and Taoism.
tian I
and
growth and wide development among them of The doctrine of the goodness a sense of sin. of
human
nature, again,
may
be held so that
shall not conflict with the teaching of
tures
on the same subject, but
its
it
our scrip-
tendency
is
to lead the scholarly class to think too highly of
themselves as capable, unhelped from without, of all virtuous achievement, and to resent
suggestion that our religion
There
own.
God
men
to
is,
in
a word, no bringing
in
the
better than their
is
down
Confucianism in order to
of lift
them up to Him. Their moral^shortcomings, when brought home to them, may produce_a feeling guilt.
of shame, but^ hardly a
antagonistic professors
the
conviction
Taoism, as a system of superstitions, to
Christianity
confine
strongly
but
where
is
its
themselves to the study of
Tao Teh King, and
and abnegation
;
of
of
inculcated,
self
cultivate the humility
which
they are
are
there
so
more prepared
Dodrijie of the Death of Christ. than
Confucian
the
So
case of one Taoist dignitary
in
the
visited
me
found
I
the
receive
to
literati
message of the gospel.
297
who
,
it
Hong-kong, when he was more than four-
in
He
score years old.
of the
me
told
Lao-tsze for
tao of
study
that his fifty
years
had
convinced him of his impotency to attain to its ideal, and he had almost resigned himself
some
to despair, hopeless of finding
which
Some
his heart yearned.
truth for
Christian tracts
were brought to the monastery on the "
Lo-fau over which he presided. said, "
he
eyes."
God
of I
and
He in
was as
it
if
accepted at Christ.
met with in
my
Of
once
all
the
reminded
me
remained long
from
my
revelation
whom
long missionary experience for the
of the aged Simeon,
in
of
read them,"
fell
the Chinese
he was the one most " prepared
He
I
scales
hill
Jerusalem,
consolation of Israel, and
Lord,"
who had
waiting for the
who saw
at last the
Lord's Christ.
The sacrificial death of Christianity.
of Christ
is
of the essence
It is the disclosure of this
doc-
trine in our scriptures that constitutes the gospel
the " good tidings of great joy to It
produces at once contrition
for
all
wrong-doing,
and proclaims the promise of pardon.
men how low they have
fallen,
people."
It tells
and how high
Chinese Religions
298 they
may
It
rise.
and
Taoism teach nothing
Son
He
it
;
Confucianism and
at all akin to
love," writes the apostle
loved God, but that
:
tears but only to heal
smites but only to bind up.
is
Christianity
John
loved
;
us,
it.
"
Herein
we
" not that
and sent His
No
to be the propitiation for our sins."
Confucian or Taoist writer has ever had such facts to
make known
this respect there
religions of all
is
to
countrymen.
his
no comparison between the
China and
The advantage
ours.
Because the idea of propitiation
priests.
is
unknown
they have, as we have seen,
The emperor
religion for all the
of
is
with Christianity.
in those religions,
no
In
the
is
Chinese people
God; the "yellow Tops"
minister
jn the
of
worship
are the ministers
of superstition in the services of Taoism.
Sin-
gularly, just because of the propitiatory sacrifice in Christianity, there
or order in
it.
So
is
no peculiar priestly class
far as the
self-dedicatory sacrifices of significance
in
Mosaism have
Christianity,
priests to present
them
eucharistic
all
to God,
believers
and their
are
and the death
of Christ should ever inspire
them to be doing But the propitiatory sacrifice of Himself was offered by Christ once for all on the cross. He is our great High Priest, so with alacrity.
the only Priest of His Church, the one
Lamb
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
Doctrine of Future Punishment. of
God who was
in
our behalf.
in
the church.
ever appearing in heaven
slain,
do not despise governments
I
do not read
I
The
ministry of the word
the
in
New
ministry of the sacraments
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
function, to be discharged
order by
men
2gg
Testament of the is
a most important
becomingly and
apt to teach, but
any priesthood
of a class, distinct from the priesthood of believers,
would be a derogation from the
glory belonging to
between God and
The
Christ,
the
in
all
sole
one Mediator
n.jn.
Christian doctrine of future punishment.
13.
I
come
which it is scheme of the lecture, comparing the religions
to the last subject to
necessary, according to the to call
your attention
in
of China and Christianity.
That subject is the ]3ut for what I
doctrine of future punishment.
related, in the last lecture, of the recent teaching
Taoism concerning its purgatory and hell, I might have been tempted to avoid this topic, but I should have incurred in that case my own condemnation for not completing the task which of
I
had undertaken. Confucianism, as
future
punishment.
by Heaven and
tlie
we saw, says nothing about The good are rewarded bad are punished
;
but the
Chmese Religions and Christianiiy
300
:
reward and punishment both ta kejplace injhe spher e of tim e as the natural or pro videntia l
The good pass
results of conduct.
into
some
they
may
state of conscious
be happy, being
are occupied with
at
death
existence,
where
and they
in heaven,
same con-
the care of the
them on earth the bad, so far as we have any witness about them, have the same experience. It is with them cerns that interested
after death just as
reward due
due
floating
is
with the good.
were not
their
in
lifetime,
be paid over
away somewhere,
This
is
as a sufficient theory of
futurity.
If the
good and bad
live
world, after their places on earth
more,
we
refuse to believe that
the same with them.
The
whose seeds were so
different
It is
Confucianism
that
all
We
about future retribution. it
a Chinese saying, as
ourselves, that
to
providence to their descendants
in
respectively.
accept
remains a
there
balance of happiness and honour or
of suffering and shame, hid
teaches
If the
and the punishment all received by the
for well-doing
for ill-doing
individuals
it
;
life,
on
in
is
the spirit-
know them no it
will
be just
harvest of the crops
it
must be is
no testimony
different.
common among
"what a man sows he
reap," but there
cannot
death, and
in
shall also
Confucianism
of the operation of the law after death.
If
it
301
Doctrine of Future Punishneiit.
should loathe
We
should
would not be worth
It
life.
feel
we
operate after death,
not continue to
did
we were
that
the
living.
sport
of a
The attempt fantastic and unprincipled fate. of the issues account to supplement this lame of conduct to the individual by handing over the unsatisfied balance of his experience to his posterity affords the mind very poor satisfaction.
Confucius has no revelation of the future that satisfies the longings of the soul or the instincts of our moral nature, or that
way
our steps in the
sufficient to
is
of peace
we are upon The teaching of Taoism on
guide
and holiness
earth.
while
the subject was
the same as that of Confucianism at the time when its treatise on " Actions and their Retributions " was published, and continued to be
so until the views
Panorama
"
exhibited
were adopted.
production, there
is
now an
land of the Immortals
in
the
"
Divine
According to that easy ascent to the
by the performance
of
good deeds, and the orderly regulation of the life
;
but " the good are few and the wicked
many."
Hence
after
latter the tortures of
death there are for the purgatory and manifold
transmigrations, and to those to reclaim
there are after
torments of
hell.
all
whom
these
fail
the everlasting
Purgatory and transmigra-
302
Cliiiicse
tion were
and
and
Christianity
:
borrowed by Taoism from Buddhism
;
only say of them that the doctrine
will
I
Religions
of transmigration aiose from a wish to account for the different
human
conditions of
life,
as
happy or miserable, by the character of a former
of which, however, there
life,
oblivion
and
;
punishments of
are the
new
trial for
an entire
sin,
obliterating
the
the individual enters on
score of guilt, before his
is
the tortures of purgatory
that
The new
the eternal future.
and gentler methods of dealing with the guilty initiated
by
Yii
Hwang and "
published in the
as
by the avowal
preceded previously
which time
is
prevailing
really
the infernal Powers,
Divine Panorama," are the
that
had been
it,
men had been
dealt with unjustly.
we to think of a system tha' is make such an acknowledgnv nt
.'
and wonder that
have currency even
China.
in
His reference to a
What
not ashamed
We
despise
treatise gloats over the
details of the purgatorial torments
I
;
weak should The way in
anythin::: so
which the author of the
taken, as
severe
too
a confession that up to that
are to
methods
hell
is
revolting.
beyond was probably
said in the last lecture, from frag-
ments of Christian books that had fallen into his hands, and were understood by him accordincf
to the nature of his
mind,
filled
with the
Doctrine of Future Punishment.
303
indigenous superstitions of his system and 'the Buddhistic ravings about purgatory. What now is the teaching of Christianity
about future retribution i.
teaches that
It
He
which
ness by
?
God has appointed
a day in
judge the world in righteousHis Son, our Saviour and
will
Jesus Christ,
Lord. ii.
As
preparatory to
this
judgment there
All will be a general resurrection of the dead. of voice that are in their graves shall hear the the Son of
God and come
forth.
In what body,
with what form, they shall appear, told,
save that
it
will
be a
we
are not
spiritual body, a
fit
vehicle for the immortal spirit, afid not a natural
body
of flesh and blood like the present
in the case of those to
like
fashioned glorified iii.
to
the
be approved, glorious
it
;
and
will
be
body of the
Redeemer.
Thirdly, after the
resurrection, the judg-
be held.
will serve not only to
ment
will
It
determine and make manifest the characters of men, but will also vindicate the moral govern-
ment
of
God
in all
the course of time, and with
reference to the earthly lot of every individual, as well as to small.
dence
all
the events of history, great and
The wisdom and goodness of His will
be brought forth as the
light,
provi-
and
its
CJiinese Religions
304
and
Christianity
The
righteousness as the noonday.
of faith, which rested in things that trace or understand, as being
God,"
and for
will
now
"
it
:
reverence
could not
for the glory of
give place to the joy of sight,
what was most perplexing occasion
find in
adoring praise.
The
judgment to
result of the
gathered at the great tribunal
w^ill
all
be,
who
are
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; " glory,
honour and peace to every man that wrought good, to the Christian first, and also to the heathen
but tribulation and anguish on every
;
man
soul of
that did
evil,
and also on the heathen." the
full
revelation
of
on the Christian
first,
Christians enjoyed
God's
will
and grace;
heathens, less highly favoured, yet having the
work of God's law written a law to themselves.
in their hearts,
were
All will be accepted or
disallowed " according to what they had, and
not according to what they had not." will
There
be both heathens and those who were called
Christians in the two companies on the right
hand and the left of the judge; the approved or righteous, and the disapproved or condemned. Then finally, " these shall go away into everduring punishment, but the righteous into ever-
during
life."
Such are the words of the Judge
Himself, the faithful and true Witness, of Christ
whom we
believed
when He
testified
of His
";
Doctrine of Fittitre Punishment.
own coming
whom
and
resurrection,
similarly believe
when He
305 must
I
about the
testifies
future retribution. believe that the above
I
is
a
exhibition of
fair
the teaching of Christianity on the subject of retribution
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
different from the silence of Conand from the revelling of Taoism
;
fucianism,
purgatory and
over
its
at
now on
it
dark side
We
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;what
punishment, solemnly
future "
its
hell.
ever-during " as the
life
are looking
says about
it
declared
to
be
Not
of the righteous.
a few in our days are offended by this saying.
Some and
against
protest
intolerable,
and
walk
who
feel
no
and
it
defiantly
more
with
that they can
about reducing the gravity of
teach
necessarily
May
I
Others,
His language,
and conversed about
it,
question.''
do not
punishment."
be allowed to refer to some of
mental exercises on the
set
other,
scriptures
" ever-during
hard
go away
Christ.
go to no
and try to show that the
"
as
are ready to
I
my own
had thought
while a student at our
most northern university nearly fifty years ago but when I had finished my course there, and, while
still
the world,
very young, was launching out into it
He
told
was brought pointedly before
from a most valued friend
in a letter
me
that he
in
me
1835.
was writing on the subject 20
3o6
Chinese Religions
and
Christianity.
of future retribution, and asked
could adopt
if I
the view of universal restoration. the day when, and the desk where, reply:
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; ''The
remember
I
Him-
be the general judgment; and Christ
will
that the
said
self
during
life
my
wrote
I
end of the present dispensation of
issues
would be ever-
it
and ever-during punishment.
Until
receive an additional revelation, therefore,
am
assured that a
been
new
discussing
universal
am
precluded
future
my
view forty-five years ago, and
Some
here have read,
I
my
of
have thought about
faith, its
is
my
suppose, more books treating
or opportunity to do, but
I
it
That
ministerial brethren
of the future retribution than
What books
con-
state
trary to the generally received doctrine."
was
any
or
restoration
other speculation about the
view to-day.
and
dispensation of grace has
instituted, I consider that I
from
I
I
have had time
I
doubt whether any
more than
it
I
have done.
have read have not unsettled
or loosened the hold of
old mooring ground.
my
soul's
my
anchor in
If the resources of the
Almighty Father shall hereafter develop a scheme of universal restoration,
have reason, with hail
it
as
all
worthy of
conditional
I shall
be prepared, and
the redeemed in heaven, to
its
immortality
nor harmonize in any
The scheme of cannot away with,
Author. I
way with my reading
of
;
Doctrine of Future Punishnent. the Bible, and
my
counsel, mighty But, as I have
God
idea of
307
as wonderful in
working, and grand in love.
in
just said,
is
it
not for
me
at
the close of this lecture to discuss any view of
what the loving On the ground of that He Christ declared. exhorted His hearers, while they had the light, to walk in it, and His immediate disciples appealed to men in such words as " How
future retribution different from
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;
shall
tion
}
deep
we escape if we neglect so great salvaThe subject is both too high and too
"
for
us.
impossibilities
comprehend
There
may
in
which we are unable to
it,
at present.
be
possibilities
and
Instead of doubting or
more seemly for us to receive the God, revealed word with the meekness of faith. the Righteous and Holy, will do what is right denying,
it is
Christ, the Friend of sinners, will
processes of the judgment.
conduct the
What more would
We judge What more can we get no one, but I am sure that existence will not have an unhappy issue to any child of man
we have
who
,''
?
has not "judged himself unworthy of ever-
lasting
life."
tianity
is
For
eternity, as for
the best religion, the
that bears on
it
time, Chris-
only religion
the stamp of divine authority
and completeness. I must now draw
to a close the exposition of
308
Chinese Religions
the themes which you,
have done
I
I
Christianity,
undertook to bring before
my work
compass of four
in the
and
as fully as
lectures,
sufficiently thankful for the patience with
you have
listened
to
me.
If
I
could
I
and cannot be have
which
in
any
degree misrepresented either of the religions ot China,
can safely say that the
I
fault
has been
unintentional.
Practical Issues of the four Lectures. 13.
I
said that I
would
two practical
clusion to
lectures should lead.
do
little
have said
China
residence
issues
Let
it
con-
to which the
suffice for
me
to
more than mention them. What I about Confucianism and Taoism shows
us the need that there of
call attention in
for
is
in the great
Christianity.
among
the Chinese,
During I
empire
my
long
learned to think
more highly of them than many of our countrymen do more highly as to their actual morality, and more highly as to their intellectual capacity. ;
Their
best
attainments
in
moral excellence,
however, are not to be compared with those
made by docile learners in the school of Christ. The true Christian is the highest style of man. And now that the wall of partition that separated China from other nations has been thrown down, I
believe
it is
only their adoption of Christianity
Practical Issues of the Lectures.
309
that will enable the people to hold their own,
and
lift
them up
a chosen field,
might say
I
missionaries
there,
have, most
still
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; men
You
efficient
among
distinguished
compeers of other churches by a singular
their
tenacity of purpose
and devotedness of
You
Their success has been great.
have
thus
continued
far
well
great, but
Lord
the labourers
of
;
The
hinder your going forward.
the
is
chosen
the
of the English Presbyterian Church.
have had, and you
is
China
the social scale.
in
perhaps
field,
let
nothing
harvest truly
are few.
the harvest
that
life.
began, and
He
pray
I
by
will,
your instrumentality, send forth a multitude of labourers
into that greatest of earth's mission
fields.
The
other practical issue
should stimulate us Christianity Christ-like
earnestness
all
is
that these lectures
to prove our personal
by the untiring exhibition of the attributes of character and by our in
all
tianity have not
Christian
triumphed
work.
If
Chris-
in the past, if
not triumphing in the present, in a
way
it
be
likely
soon to bring on the state for which Christ taught us to pray,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; that the
may
be done on earth as
is
that withholdeth
it
God's
purpose
it
will of is
in
our Father
heaven, what
Let us not say that slumbers, that His hand is .''
21
3IO
and
Chinese Religions
shortened, or His ear heavy
that Christ has
us not doubt
let
authority in heaven and in
all
We must
earth.
among
;
Christianity.
blame ourselves:
Christian churches
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the divisions
the inconsistencies
;
and unrighteousnesses of professors ness and greed of our
and
commerce
selfish policy of so-called Christian nations.
cannot illustrate what
I
the selfish-
;
the ambitious
;
my
telling you, as
last
with His Excellency
I
mean
better than
Kwo
Sung-tao, the former
Chinese ambassador, soon after he arrived
"You know," he England and China. Which
London "
both
in
you say "
is
the better of the two
mean
point
at from the standpoint of bene-
country do you say
I
is
and
never saw a
man more on his
?
"
surprised. feet,
the room, and cried out, "
After some
He
!
Then how
You say is
it
on our taking her opium
Hazell, Watson, and Viney, Printers,
pushed
took a turn across that,
from the moral standpoint, England
than China insists
which
propriety,
the better
fencing, I replied again, " England."
his chair back, got
at
I replied,
"
disappointed, and added, them from the moral stand-
righteousness,
demur and
country do
He was
looking at
;â&#x20AC;&#x201D; looked
volence,
}
in
said to me,
1877.
England."
" I
by
word, of a conversation
that
is
looked better
England
" ?
London and Aylesbury.
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