Paul R. Goldin - Those Who Don’t Know Speak;

University of Hawai'i Press

Chapter Title: Those Who Don’t Know Speak: Translations of Laozi by People Who Do Not Know Chinese Book Title: After Confucius Book Subtitle: Studies in Early Chinese Philosophy Book Author(s): Paul R. Goldin Published by: University of Hawai'i Press. (2005) Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1wn0qtj.12 JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

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Those Who Don't Know Speak Translations of Laozi by People Who Do Not Know Chinese

丄、owhere are the vices of thin description m o r e a p p a r e n t t h a n in American expropriations of Daoism. It has o f t e n b e e n said that Laozi (or Daode jing) is the most f r e q u e n t l y translated work n e x t to the Bible. 1 But that exception may n o longer hold: a typical bookstore in the U n i t e d States today will have several different versions of the Daode jing o n its shelves, a n d Americans p u r c h a s e m o r e copies of that Chinese classic t h a n of Goethe, Moliere, a n d possibly Aristotle. 2 This t r e n d is n o t surprising: the r e c e n t proliferation of Daode jing translations is simply a c o n s e q u e n c e of the increasing general interest in Asian t h o u g h t . W h a t is disturbing, however, is that alongside the m a n y c o m p e t e n t works, m a r k e t e d at reasonable prices by a large assortment of publishers, t h e r e are now several offerings by p e o p l e w h o declare without e m b a r r a s s m e n t that they have n o knowledge of the Chinese language, let alone the a n c i e n t idiom of the Daode JingS It is h a r d to imagine how anyone can get the idea that it is possible to translate a Chinese text without knowing Chinese. 4 T h e requisite hubris is astounding. Chinese p e o p l e d o n o t a t t e m p t to translate Shakespeare without knowing English. In certain cases, such as w h e n a rare text has b e e n translated only into some o t h e r language, it may be defensible, as a stopgap, to publish an indirect English translation that relies on a n o t h e r translation, r a t h e r than on the original text. (For instance, the Ming novel Rou putuan 肉 蒲 團 was unavailable in English f o r m a n y years, so Grove Press published an English translation of the G e r m a n translation

by Franz K u h n . ) 5 But those are special circumstances that d o n o t apply to the Daode jing. T h e r e are plenty of serviceable English translations as it is.

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After C o n f u c i u s

T h e s t a n d a r d m o d u s o p e r a n d i of these p s e u d o t r a n s l a t o r s is to imbibe a b r o a d selection of scholarly translations, digest their i m p o r t , a n d expectorate a new r e n d i t i o n of their own. This is an objectionable p r o c e d u r e : r u m m a g i n g t h r o u g h the c o r p u s of received translations merely circumscribes oneself within the r a n g e of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t h a t they offer a n d can result only in t h e r e p a c k a g i n g of the same old ideas in a novel a n d usually gimcrack i n t e g u m e n t . 6 T o illustrate the problems, f o u r such r e n d i t i o n s are c o n s i d e r e d below: The Way of Life According to Lao Tzu, by Witter Bynner (1881-1968); 7 Tao Te Ching: A New English Version, by S t e p h e n Mitchell; Tao Te Ching: About the Way of Nature and Its Powers, by T h o m a s H . Miles; a n d Lao Tzu Tao Te Ching: A Book about the Way and the Power of the Way, by Ursula K. Le Guin ( d a u g h t e r of the a n t h r o p o l o g i s t A. L. K r o e b e r ) . 8 All f o u r writers freely a d m i t t h a t they d o n o t c o m m a n d Chinese. Only Le Guin was aided by a g e n u i n e authority (J. P. Seaton, a specialist in Chinese literature at the University of N o r t h Carolina), a n d h e r book, as m i g h t be expected, is by far t h e best of t h e lot, a l t h o u g h it too has m a j o r weaknesses. Bynner h a d consulted earlier with a r e d o u b t a b l e Chinese scholar n a m e d Kiang Kang-hu 江亢虎（1883-1954?)， 9 b u t The Way of Life According to Lao Tzu was entirely his own work. Miles asked some u n n a m e d Chinese students at West Virginia University to walk h i m t h r o u g h the text c h a r a c t e r by character.

B e f o r e considering these books in detail, it is worth observing t h a t the a u t h o r s justify their publications with apologies t h a t are revealing in themselves. 1 0 Mitchell, f o r example, a n n o u n c e s t h a t " t h e most essential p r e p a r a t i o n f o r my work was a fourteen-year-long course of Zen training, which b r o u g h t m e face to face with Lao-tzu a n d his true disciples a n d heirs, the early Chinese Zen Masters." 1 1 This devotion may b e admirable, b u t a course of Zen training, however rigorous, does n o t in itself qualify o n e to translate t h e Daode jing.12 T h e Daode jing is n o t a B u d d h i s t text. In any case, it is only in an unclarified m e t a p h o r i c a l sense t h a t Mitchell's Zen e x p e r i e n c e could have b r o u g h t h i m "face to face with Lao-tzu a n d his t r u e disciples a n d heirs.'' W h o are t h e "false" heirs? Who, f o r that matter, is Lao-tzu? (Mitchell seems to believe t h a t t h e r e was a m a n n a m e d Lao-tzu w h o lived long ago a n d wrote a g r e a t book.) Far f r o m allaying concerns, the exposition of his credentials only raises f u r t h e r questions a b o u t his peculiar c o n c e p t i o n of t h e text's history. 1 3 Bynner, for his part, writes: " T h o u g h I c a n n o t r e a d Chinese, two years s p e n t in C h i n a a n d eleven years of work with Dr. Kiang in translating The Jade Mountain have given m e a fair sense of t h e 'spirit of t h e

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C h i n e s e p e o p l e ' a n d an assiduity in finding English equivalents f o r i d i o m w h i c h literal translation fails to convey.'' 1 4 It is striking t h a t B y n n e r f e l t obliged to p u t t h e p h r a s e "spirit of t h e C h i n e s e p e o p l e ' ' in q u o t a t i o n marks; his own c o n s c i e n c e s e e m s to have b a l k e d at such a self-serving p l a t i t u d e . T o suggest, m o r e o v e r , t h a t two years s p e n t in C h i n a in t h e twentieth c e n t u r y s h o u l d p r o v i d e an a d e q u a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e Chin e s e w o r l d over two t h o u s a n d years earlier belittles o n e of t h e m o s t v i b r a n t civilizations o n t h e p l a n e t . N o o n e w o u l d p r o p o s e in e a r n e s t t h a t a s o j o u r n in Italy w o u l d constitute sufficient t r a i n i n g f o r an A m e r i c a n to discourse o n Ovid a n d Livy. If Mitchell's a n d B y n n e r ' s claims s e e m less t h a n o u t r a g e o u s , it is only b e c a u s e they m a n i p u l a t e A m e r i c a n s ' g e n e r a l unfamiliarity with t h e cultures of East Asia.

T o Miles b e l o n g s t h e m o s t l u d i c r o u s p r o n o u n c e m e n t of all. In his a c k n o w l e d g m e n t s , h e t h a n k s "several C h i n e s e s t u d e n t s , w h o m I c a n n o t n a m e b e c a u s e reprisals m i g h t b e t a k e n against t h e i r families o n t h e m a i n l a n d if t h e i r w o r k with m e b e c a m e k n o w n . C o m m u n i s t C h i n e s e b u r e a u c r a t s have, at least since t h e days of t h e R e d G u a r d s , f o r b i d d e n t h e C h i n e s e p e o p l e to possess o r r e a d t h e C o n f u c i a n a n d Taoist classics, as well as m o s t a n c i e n t C h i n e s e l i t e r a t u r e . ' ' 1 5 T h i s h e writes in 1992，long a f t e r " t h e days of t h e R e d G u a r d s , ' ' at a time w h e n state-sponsored presses in t h e P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c of C h i n a have p u b l i s h e d t h o u s a n d s of b o o k s a n d articles o n " a n c i e n t C h i n e s e literature,'' i n c l u d i n g every C o n f u c i a n a n d Daoist classic, a n d r e p r e s e n t i n g a n array of diverse a p p r o a c h e s . A writer w h o c o n t e n d s t h a t h e l p i n g a fore i g n e r r e a d t h e Daode jing w o u l d m a k e C h i n e s e citizens v u l n e r a b l e to reprisals is e i t h e r u n i n f o r m e d o r d i s i n g e n u o u s .

T o p r o c e e d n o w to t h e first of t h e faults s h a r e d by all of t h e s e p s e u d o t r a n s l a t i o n s : they cull f r o m earlier publications, b u t in a desultory m a n n e r ; usually, they take s o m e o n e else's i d e a a n d m a k e it worse. 1 6 For e x a m p l e , t h e e n d of c h a p t e r 2 of t h e received text reads: 是以聖人處無為之事，行不言之教。萬物作而不辭，生而不有，為而不恃， 成功而弗居，夫唯弗居，是以不去。17 This is r e n d e r e d by Miles as follows: T h e r e f o r e wherever t h e sage is, h e dwells a m o n g affairs by not-doing.

H e teaches without words.

T h e t e n - t h o u s a n d things arise, b u t h e d o e s n ' t i m p e l t h e m .

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H e gives birth, but he d o e s n ' t possess.

H e acts, but he d o e s n ' t rely o n what h e has d o n e .

H e has successes, but he d o e s n ' t claim credit.

So, by n o t claiming credit, he is never left empty. 1 8

T h e interesting p h r a s e h e r e is " t o claim credit,'' which Miles uses f o r ju 居 . T h e n o r m a l sense of ju is simply " t o dwell, to reside,'' which works well in several of the m o s t r e c e n t translations. Consider t h a t of Victor H .

Mail": " H e completes his work b u t does n o t dwell o n it. Now, simply because h e does n o t dwell on t h e m , his a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s never leave h i m . ' ' 1 9 O r R o b e r t G. Henricks: " H e accomplishes his tasks, b u t h e d o e s n ' t dwell on t h e m ; it is only because h e d o e s n ' t dwell on t h e m t h a t they t h e r e f o r e d o n o t leave h i m . ' ' 2 0 T a k i n g ju in this sense also explains a textual variant t h a t has t h e synonym chu 處(to reside in, to b e located in) f o r ju.21 How, t h e n , does Miles arrive at "claim credit''? T h e e x t e n d e d m e a n ings of ju include " t o occupy'' a n d h e n c e possibly " t o claim,'' as in " t o claim territory.'' T h e p h r a s e "claim credit'' m u s t go back to the f a m o u s translation by Wing-tsit C h a n : " H e accomplishes his task b u t does n o t claim credit f o r it. It is precisely because h e does n o t claim credit t h a t his a c c o m p l i s h m e n t r e m a i n s with h i m . ' ' 2 2 (Chan did n o t c o m m e n t furt h e r on this idiosyncratic translation.) Miles could n o t have known to rend e r ju in this m a n n e r without consulting C h a n . U n e q u i p p e d to resolve the philological issues, Miles simply browsed t h r o u g h t h e available translations a n d selected the r e n d e r i n g of this p h r a s e t h a t a p p e a l e d to h i m most.

T h e same clause (with chu instead of ju) a p p e a r s at the e n d of chapter 77, a n d Mitchell, w h o avoids the idea of "claiming credit'' in c h a p t e r 2, freely a p p r o p r i a t e s it h e r e : ” [she] succeeds without taking credit.，，23 Miles r e n d e r s chu in c h a p t e r 77 dubiously as " t o take advantage,'' 2 4 n o t observing t h e parallel with c h a p t e r 2. It is evident t h a t b o t h Miles a n d Mitchell have r e a d Wing-tsit C h a n a n d h e l p themselves to his p h r a s i n g as it suits t h e m . 2 5 But n e i t h e r o n e acknowledges his d e b t or reflects on t h e larger h e r m e n e u t i c c o n s e q u e n c e s of following an authority in o n e chapter a n d n o t in a n o t h e r .

Le Guin also sifts t h r o u g h earlier translations f o r help, b u t she uses t h e m with m o r e care a n d integrity. In h e r notes, she explains c h a p t e r by c h a p t e r h e r g r o u n d s f o r following various interpretations. Moreover, she usually tries to rework each passage in h e r own words, r a t h e r t h a n simply copying c o n v e n i e n t phrases f r o m those w h o have p r e c e d e d h e r . Still,

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t h e r e are times w h e n she falls short of h e r own sources. In h e r n o t e to chapter 69, f o r example, she says: "Waley is my guide to the interpretation of the second verse, b u t I m a k e very f r e e with the last two lines of it.'' 2 6 T h e passage in question reads: 是謂行無行，攘無臂，仍無敵，執無兵。禍莫大於輕敵，輕敵幾喪吾寶。

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A r t h u r Waley (1889-1966) translated this as follows: This latter is what we call to m a r c h without moving, T o roll t h e sleeve, b u t p r e s e n t n o b a r e a r m , T h e h a n d that seems to h o l d , yet has n o w e a p o n in it.

A host that can c o n f r o n t , yet p r e s e n t s n o battle-front.

Now the greatest of all calamities is to attack a n d find n o enemy.

I can have n o e n e m y only at the price of losing my treasure. 2 8

Waley's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n h a p p e n s to be a very good o n e to follow today.

For the phrase qingdi 輕 敵 , " t o take the e n e m y lightly,'' Waley, working in 1958, took a risk a n d followed the scantly attested variant wudi 無敵, " t h e r e is n o enemy.'' In 1973, a few years after Waley's death, this r e a d i n g was c o n f i r m e d in b o t h of the Mawangdui recensions. Despite his providential textual instincts, however, Waley's translation of the final line is somewhat o p a q u e , 2 9 a n d it is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e that Le Guin wished to alter it. W h a t she writes, however, is indefensible: It's called m a r c h i n g without m a r c h i n g , rolling u p y o u r sleeves without flexing your muscles, b e i n g a r m e d without weapons, giving t h e attacker n o o p p o n e n t .

N o t h i n g ' s worse t h a n attacking what yields.

T o attack what yields is to throw away t h e prize. 3 0

" T o throw away the prize'' is loose, b u t creative, f o r sang wu bao 喪吾 寶 . " T o attack what yields,'' in contrast, is simply wrong. T h e original says: " T h e r e is n o greater calamity t h a n n o t to have an e n e m y ' ' — o r , in the socalled putative construction, " T h e r e is n o greater calamity t h a n thinking that o n e has n o enemy.'' Yielding is a characteristic t h e m e of the Daode jing, so Le Guin may have felt safe to insert it h e r e . But that is a mistake.

As long as she stays close to Waley, Le Guin is o n firm g r o u n d ; once she leaves h i m a n d sets o u t o n h e r own, she stumbles.

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T h i s raises p o i n t 2: All of t h e s e p s e u d o t r a n s l a t i o n s a r e i n a c c u r a t e .

T h e i r h a n d l i n g of c h a p t e r 10, w h i c h c o n t a i n s s o m e valuable r e f e r e n c e s to m e d i t a t i o n a n d o t h e r m a c r o b i o t i c t e c h n i q u e s , is telling: 載營魄抱一，能無離乎？專氣致柔，能嬰兒乎？滌除玄覽，能無疵乎？愛人 治國，能無知乎？天門開闔，能為雌乎？明白四達，能無為乎？ 31 This is C h a n ' s t r a n s l a t i o n : 3 2 Can you keep the spirit and embrace the One without departing from them?

Can you concentrate your vital force and achieve the highest degree of weakness like an infant?

Can you clean and purify your profound insight so it will be spotless?

Can you love the people and govern the state without knowledge?

Can you play the role of the female in the opening and closing of the gates of Heaven?

Can you understand all and penetrate all without taking any action? 33 N o t o n e of t h e translations c o n s i d e r e d h e r e m a n a g e s to r e n d e r t h e s e lines w i t h o u t t r i p p i n g . Miles d o e s best; his only e r r o r s o c c u r in t h e first s e n t e n c e : ''While e n a b l i n g y o u r b o d y a n d soul to e m b r a c e o n e n e s s — a r e you able to d o it w i t h o u t n e e d i n g to b e s e c l u d e d ? ' ' 3 4 ''While e n a b l i n g y o u r b o d y a n d soul to e m b r a c e o n e n e s s ' ' is impossible f o r zai ying po bao yi 載營魄抱一•，since t h e r e is n o w o r d in t h e original t h a t c o u l d b e cons t r u e d as ''to e n a b l e . ' ' W e are asked to e m b r a c e o n e n e s s ourselves, n o t to e n a b l e o u r b o d i e s a n d souls to d o so. ' ' W i t h o u t n e e d i n g to b e sec l u d e d ' ' is also q u e s t i o n a b l e f o r neng wu li 倉 巨 無 離 . L i t e r a l l y t h a t p h r a s e m e a n s ''can you b e w i t h o u t parting?''; C h a n i n t e r p r e t s it as ' ' w i t h o u t dep a r t i n g f r o m t h e m , ' ' a n d it m i g h t also m e a n ' ' c a n you cause t h e m n o t to p a r t f r o m you?'' Miles' i m a g e of seclusion is distracting a n d i m p r e c i s e . Le G u i n also misses t h e sense of neng wu li: ' ' C a n you k e e p y o u r soul in its body, h o l d fast to t h e o n e , a n d so l e a r n to b e w h o l e ? ' ' 3 5 ' ' A n d so l e a r n to b e w h o l e ' ' may follow plausibly f r o m ' ' h o l d fast to t h e o n e , ' ' b u t it simplifies t h e original ( a n d groundlessly inserts t h e n o t i o n of l e a r n i n g ) .

H e r r e n d i t i o n of t h e t h i r d s e n t e n c e is t e n u o u s , if vivid: ' ' C a n you k e e p t h e d e e p water still a n d clear, so it reflects w i t h o u t b l u r r i n g ? ' ' Presumably, ' ' d e e p w a t e r ' ' is s u p p o s e d to translate xuanlan 玄覽，the difficult comp o u n d t h a t C h a n r e n d e r s as ' ' p r o f o u n d insight.'' B u t lan can h a r d l y m e a n ''water.''

Mitchell's translation is substantially f r e e r :

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Can you coax y o u r m i n d f r o m its w a n d e r i n g a n d k e e p to the original oneness?

Can you let y o u r body b e c o m e supple as a n e w b o r n child's?

Can you cleanse y o u r i n n e r vision until you see n o t h i n g b u t the light?

Can you love p e o p l e a n d lead t h e m without imposing y o u r will?

Can you deal with the most vital m a t t e r s by letting events take their course?

Can you step back f r o m your own m i n d a n d thus u n d e r s t a n d all things?

W h e r e Miles a n d Le Guin struggle with neng wu li, Mitchell simply ignores t h e p h r a s e . T h e n h e p r o c e e d s to r o b t h e passage of its m o s t distinctive i m a g e — p l a y i n g the p a r t of the f e m a l e in the o p e n i n g a n d closing of t h e gates of H e a v e n — r e p l a c i n g it with t h e New Age cliche "letting events take their course.'' In the final line, Mitchell employs a n o t h e r vapid locution, "step back f r o m your own m i n d , ' ' a n d defuses all the tension in the original between u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d n o t acting.

B y n n e r ' s translation is o n e of a kind: Can you h o l d the d o o r of y o u r t e n t Wide to t h e

firmament?

Can you, with t h e simple stature Of a child, b r e a t h i n g n a t u r e , B e c o m e , notwithstanding, A man?

Can you c o n t i n u e b e f r i e n d i n g With n o prejudice, n o ban?

Can you, m a t i n g with heaven, Serve as the f e m a l e part?

Can your l e a r n e d h e a d take leaven F r o m the wisdom of your h e a r t ? 3 6

This is a species of poetry all its own, so distantly r e m o v e d f r o m t h e Chinese text t h a t it would be senseless to p o i n t o u t all t h e "errors.'' T h e translations by Mitchell a n d B y n n e r take such liberties that they m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d original works in their own right. T h e most relevant criterion, in t h a t case, is n o t h o w faithfully Mitchell or B y n n e r r e p r o d u c e s t h e sense

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of t h e C h i n e s e , b u t h o w t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e i r work, t a k e n as a whole, c o m p a r e s to t h a t of t h e Daode jing.37 T h i r d , t h e p s e u d o t r a n s l a t i o n s distort a n d simplify t h e p h i l o s o p h y of t h e Daode jing. This is t h e gravest d e f e c t of all.

T h e late A. C. G r a h a m p u b l i s h e d an incisive review of B y n n e r ' s translation in 1991, a n d his specific p o i n t s n e e d n o t b e r e h e a r s e d h e r e . 3 8 G r a h a m ' s g e n e r a l criticism is t h a t B y n n e r systematically d i s b u r d e n s t h e original of its complexity. A typical e x a m p l e is f o u n d in t h e first c o u p l e t of c h a p t e r 5: 天地不仁’以萬物為芻狗；聖人不仁’以百姓為芻狗。39

T h e s e lines are straightforward: ' ' H e a v e n a n d E a r t h are i n h u m a n e ; they t r e a t t h e Myriad T h i n g s as straw dogs. T h e Sage is i n h u m a n e ; h e treats t h e H u n d r e d Clans as straw dogs.'' H e r e is B y n n e r ' s version: Nature, i m m u n e as to the sacrifice of straw dogs, Faces the decay of its fruits.

A sound m a n , i m m u n e as to the sacrifice of straw dogs, Faces the passing of h u m a n generations. 4 0

As G r a h a m notes, this is n o t so m u c h i n c o r r e c t as o v e r d e t e r m i n e d .

T h e ''straw d o g s ' ' 芻 狗 are a c c o u t e r m e n t s at a sacrifice; t h u s they are acc o r d e d a crucial f u n c t i o n at a certain time a n d p l a c e b u t are s u m m a r i l y d i s c a r d e d t h e r e a f t e r . T h e Sage, like H e a v e n a n d E a r t h , treats all things as straw dogs: h e r e c o g n i z e s t h e i r m o m e n t a r y value b u t d o e s n o t cling to t h e m a f t e r t h e i r time h a s passed. 4 1 T o q u o t e G r a h a m : T h e difference h e r e is that Bynner, accustomed to m e a n only o n e thing at a time, c a n n o t bear to risk being misunderstood, while Lao-tzu never apologises a n d never explains. T h e ''Straw dogs'' passage is n a k e d vision d e f i n e d with perfect economy …；Lao-tzu does n o t qualify it, he leaves you to go in your own direction w h e n you notice its collisions a n d interactions with o t h e r parts of the book. Bynner o n the o t h e r h a n d is anxious to make it quite plain that Lao-tzu is r e c o m m e n d i n g indifference, n o t to the welfare of o t h e r people, but to o u r c o m m o n mortality. It is as t h o u g h a translator of Blake's ''Sooner m u r d e r an infant in its cradle than nurse unacted desires'' were to a d a p t his phrasing to avoid the impression that he c o n d o n e s infanticide. 4 2

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G r a h a m m i g h t have p u r s u e d t h e m a t t e r even f u r t h e r , f o r t h e Daode jing may very well have r e c o m m e n d e d i n d i f f e r e n c e to t h e welfare of o t h e r p e o p l e a f t e r all. T h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t ' ' H e a v e n a n d E a r t h are i n h u m a n e ' ' was as m o r d a n t in t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y B.C. as it is today. A n c i e n t r e a d e r s w o u l d have b e e n well a c q u a i n t e d with n a t u r e ' s capacity f o r cruelty. If we aspiring sages are to m o d e l ourselves a f t e r t h e Way of n a t u r e , t h e n we t o o m u s t b e p r e p a r e d to b e i n h u m a n e w h e n c i r c u m s t a n c e s w a r r a n t . In Chinese, t h e implications of this little c o u p l e t a r e f e r o c i o u s . B y n n e r , in trying to clarify t h e m , m a k e s t h e m c o m f o r t a b l e , if n o t b a n a l .

Similar c o m p l a i n t s were r e g i s t e r e d s o o n a f t e r t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of Mitchell's b o o k in 1988. F r o m a p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o i n t of view, t h e m o s t serious p r o b l e m is t h a t Mitchell ''has c o m p l e t e l y e l i m i n a t e d te f r o m t h e text.'' 4 3 Mitchell's u n e a s e with t h e de in Daode jing is a p p a r e n t o n t h e very first p a g e : ''Tao Te Ching ( p r o n o u n c e d , m o r e o r less, Dow Deh Jing) can b e t r a n s l a t e d as The Book of the Immanence of the Way o r The Book of the Way and How It Manifests Itself in the World or, simply, The Book of the Way：'44 The Book of the Way w o u l d b e Dao jing, n o t Daode jing. T o b e sure, elucidating de is n o t easy; it is o n e of t h e m o s t difficult c o n c e p t s in t h e text. 4 5 B u t t h a t is precisely why a m o d e r n t r a n s l a t o r m u s t m a k e a sustained e f f o r t to c o m e to grips with it. Mitchell declines this task a n d rewrites t h e text so as to e l i m i n a t e t h e p r o b l e m . W h e r e v e r t h e original contrasts dao a n d de, Mitchell r e m o v e s t h e m o r e difficult t e r m . C o n s i d e r c h a p t e r 51: 故道生之’德畜之、長之、育之、亭之、毒之、養之、覆之。 46 Wing-tsit C h a n translates this as follows: Therefore the Tao produces them and virtue fosters them.

They rear them and develop them.

They give them security and give them peace.

They nurture them and protect them. 4 7 As t h e r e f e r e n t of ' ' t h e m ' ' 之 is left entirely u n s p e c i f i e d , c o m m e n t a tors have p r o p o s e d d o z e n s of d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . W h a t is critical, however o n e c h o o s e s to c o n s t r u e t h e s e n t e n c e , is to r e c o g n i z e t h a t dao a n d de are s e p a r a t e entities. Mitchell d o e s n o t : The Tao gives birth to all beings, nourishes them, maintains them,

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cares for them, comforts them, protects them, takes t h e m back to itself.

W h e r e t h e o r i g i n a l h a s two p r o t e a n s u b j e c t s , M i t c h e l l allows o n l y o n e . A r e a d e r of t h e original h a s m o r e to p o n d e r .

M i t c h e l l d o e s n o t h e s i t a t e t o r e w r i t e t h e t e x t as h e p l e a s e s (in h i s w o r d s : “I h a v e also p a r a p h r a s e d , e x p a n d e d , c o n t r a c t e d , w o r k e d w i t h t h e text, p l a y e d w i t h it, u n t i l it b e c a m e e m b o d i e d in a l a n g u a g e t h a t f e l t g e n u i n e t o m e ' ' ) , 4 8 a n d h i s c h a n g e s always h a v e t h e e f f e c t of m a k i n g t h e t e x t easier. C h a p t e r 39 discusses " t h e O n e ' ' ~ ‘ ( a n o t h e r c o n c e p t t h a t Mitchell c o n f l a t e s w i t h dao), t h e m y s t e r i o u s vital f o r c e t h a t p e r m e a t e s all p r o v i n c e s of t h e c o s m o s : 昔之得一者：天得一以清，地得一以寧，神得一以靈，谷得一以盈，萬物得 一以生，侯王得一以為天下貞。其致之，天無以清將恐裂，地無以寧將恐 發，神無以靈，將恐歇；谷無以盈將恐竭，萬物無以生將恐滅，侯王無以貴 高，恐將蹶。 49 T h e translation of C h a n : Of old those that obtained the One: Heaven obtained the O n e a n d became clear.

Earth obtained the O n e a n d became tranquil.

T h e spiritual beings obtained the O n e a n d became divine.

T h e valley obtained the O n e a n d became full.

T h e myriad things obtained the O n e a n d lived a n d grew.

King a n d barons obtained the O n e a n d became rulers of the empire.

What m a d e t h e m so is the O n e .

If heaven h a d not thus b e c o m e clear, It would soon crack.

If the earth h a d n o t thus b e c o m e tranquil, It would soon be shaken.

If the spiritual beings h a d n o t thus b e c o m e divine, They would soon wither away.

If the valley h a d n o t thus b e c o m e full, It would soon b e c o m e exhausted.

If the myriad things h a d n o t thus lived a n d grown, They would soon b e c o m e extinct.

If kings a n d barons h a d not thus b e c o m e h o n o r a b l e a n d high in position, They would soon fall. 5 0

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Mitchell t h e n seizes u p o n C h a n ' s w o r d " e x t i n c t ' ' 5 1 a n d revises t h e e n t i r e passage accordingly: In h a r m o n y with the Tao, the sky is clear a n d spacious, the earth is solid a n d full, all creatures flourish together, c o n t e n t with the way they are, endlessly repeating themselves, endlessly renewed.

W h e n m a n interferes with the Tao, the sky becomes filthy, the earth becomes depleted, the equilibrium crumbles, creatures b e c o m e extinct.

By t u r n i n g this i n t o a homily f o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s m , 5 2 Mitchell o n c e again simplifies t h e original. T h e g r e a t cosmic axes of " H e a v e n a n d E a r t h ' ' a r e r e d u c e d to " t h e sky'' a n d " t h e e a r t h , ' ' a n d all t h e o t h e r diverse e l e m e n t s of t h e universe, f r o m " t h e spiritual beings'' down to " t h e kings a n d b a r o n s , ' ' are c o m p r e s s e d i n t o t h e a n o d y n e categories of "equilibr i u m ' ' a n d " c r e a t u r e s . ' ' W h e r e t h e Daode jing works o n a canvas as large as t h e c o s m o s itself, Mitchell c o n f i n e s t h e text within a s t e r e o t y p e d postindustrial setting.

H e also fails to c o n f r o n t t h e stark a n d t r o u b l i n g revelation t h a t "kings a n d b a r o n s ' ' are as essential to t h e m e c h a n i c s of n a t u r e as H e a v e n a n d E a r t h themselves. This m i g h t have b e e n a n occasion to ask why t h e Daode jing s e e m s to c o n s i d e r it n a t u r a l f o r s o m e m e n to r u l e o t h e r s .

Instead, Mitchell consistently mollifies t h e notoriously sinister political p r o n o u n c e m e n t s in t h e text. 5 3 T a k e t h e f a m o u s saying in c h a p t e r 3: 聖人治’虛其心’實其腹’弱其志’強其骨。54 T h e rule of the Sage: empty their minds, fill their bellies, weaken their wills, strengthen their bones.

Mitchell writes: T h e Master leads by emptying people's m i n d s

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a n d filling their cores, by weakening their ambition a n d t o u g h e n i n g their resolve.

"By e m p t y i n g p e o p l e ' s m i n d s ' ' is fine; t h e r e s t is b e n i g n a n d s e n t i m e n t a l .

T h e o r i g i n a l is f r i g h t e n i n g . 5 5 E v e n L e G u i n , w h o is m o r e c o n c e r n e d t h a n B y n n e r a n d M i t c h e l l a b o u t staying t r u e t o t h e o r i g i n a l , o c c a s i o n a l l y p r u n e s u n t i d y p a s s a g e s t h a t d o n o t r e s o n a t e w i t h w h a t s h e calls h e r " s p i r i t u a l s e n s e . ' ' 5 6 O f t e n t h e s e t o o involve politics, as in c h a p t e r 25:

有物混成，先天地生寂漠！獨立不改，周行不殆，可以為天下母。吾不知其 名，字之曰道，吾強為之名曰大，大曰逝，逝曰遠，遠曰反。故道大，天 大’地大’王亦大。域中有四大’而王居其一焉。人法地’地法天’天法 道，道法自然。 57 Wing-tsit C h a n ' s t r a n s l a t i o n : T h e r e was something undifferentiated a n d yet complete, Which existed b e f o r e heaven a n d earth.

Soundless a n d formless, it d e p e n d s o n n o t h i n g a n d does not change.

It operates everywhere a n d is f r e e f r o m danger.

It may be considered the m o t h e r of the universe.

I d o not know its n a m e ; I call it Tao. If f o r c e d to give it a n a m e , I shall call it Great.

Now being great m e a n s f u n c t i o n i n g everywhere.

Functioning everywhere m e a n s far-reaching.

Being far-reaching m e a n s r e t u r n i n g to the original point.

T h e r e f o r e Tao is great.

Heaven is great.

Earth is great.

A n d the king is also great.

T h e r e are f o u r great things in the universe, a n d the king is o n e of them.

Man models himself after Earth.

Earth models itself after Heaven.

Heaven models itself after Tao. A n d Tao models itself after Nature. 5 8

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T h e p r o m i n e n t r e f e r e n c e to the king, t h o u g h in line with the depiction of the universe in c h a p t e r 39, appears to displease Le Guin. She truncates the c h a p t e r after the first section: T h e r e is s o m e t h i n g that c o n t a i n s everything.

Before heaven and earth it is.

O h , it is still, u n b o d i e d , all o n its own, u n c h a n g i n g , all-pervading, ever-moving.

So it can act as the m o t h e r of all things.

N o t knowing its real n a m e , we only call it the Way. If it must be n a m e d , let its n a m e be Great.

Greatness m e a n s going o n , going o n m e a n s going far, a n d going f a r m e a n s t u r n i n g back. 5 9

In a supplementary note, Le Guin explains why she has deleted the final stanza: ''I think a C o n f u c i a n copyist slipped the king in. T h e king garbles the sense of the p o e m a n d goes against the spirit of the book. I d e t h r o n e d him.'' 6 0 Re-editing an a n c i e n t text by eliminating anything that clashes with o n e ' s chimeras a b o u t ''the spirit of the b o o k ' ' — r a t h e r t h a n e n d u r i n g the agony of reconsidering o n e ' s assumptions—is anesthetized text criticism. O n c e again, the original Chinese discloses a vision that is vastly m o r e difficult to c o m p r e h e n d t h a n the translator's attenuated surrogate. 6 1 Why d o r e p u t a b l e presses c o n t i n u e to publish translations that borrow phrases uncritically f r o m previous work, fail any basic test of accuracy, a n d diminish the philosophy of the original? O n e obvious answer is that they are profitable. Precise data c o n c e r n i n g b o o k sales are h a r d to c o m e by, b u t the I n t e r n e t bookseller A m a z o n . c o m indicates sales rankings

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f o r all its p r o d u c t s a n d allows the public to share this i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e n u m b e r s , while probably unsuitable for a rigorous empirical study, p a i n t a clear e n o u g h picture to be useful f o r my p u r p o s e . 6 2 T h r e e of t h e f o u r works c o n s i d e r e d h e r e have rankings in the top 100,000. ( T o p u t this into perspective: A m a z o n sells over two million diff e r e n t titles.) T h e only exception is Miles' book, which was released by a tiny press a n d c a n n o t be e x p e c t e d to c o m p e t e ( a l t h o u g h its suggestive illustrations of w o m e n squatting in various bushy landscapes may indicate that Avery also h o p e d to m a r k e t t h e title to a wide a u d i e n c e ) . Mitchell enjoys t h e highest ranking: 3,489, extraordinary f o r a work of literature.

H e r e are, f o r t h e sake of comparison, t h e rankings of a few Western classics: The Selected Verse of Goethe ( P e n g u i n ) , 419,893; Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics ( P e n g u i n ) , 195,613; Moliere, The Miser and Other Plays ( P e n g u i n ) , 174,379; Dickens, Bleak House (Everyman), 55,116; D a n t e , The Divine Comedy (Everyman), 2,323. T h e s e figures leave little d o u b t t h a t Mitchell's six-digit a d v a n c e 6 3 has l o n g b e e n e a r n e d back. Moreover, sales seem to be only increasing, a n d t h e m a n y available translations have n o t c o m e close to saturating t h e m a r k e t . In 2001, Signet (an i m p r i n t of P e n g u i n P u t n a m , Inc.) reissued the a n t i q u e version by R. B. Blakney, u n d e t e r r e d by its obsolete i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d discredited principles of translation; 6 4 o n e year later, t h e b o o k ' s r a n k i n g has already soared to 77,864.

With so m u c h m o n e y to be m a d e , t h e central question is n o t why presses are publishing t h e m b u t why p e o p l e are buying t h e m . H e r e too A m a z o n is h e l p f u l . T h e c o m p a n y posts ratings a n d reviews voluntarily submitted by registered customers, a n d a l t h o u g h these voices r e p r e s e n t only a minuscule f r a c t i o n of A m a z o n ' s clientele, they are instructive. 6 5 T h e r e s p o n d e n t s like t h e pseudotranslations, because, of the available choices, these are the most easily a d a p t a b l e to their own e x p e r i e n c e .

Scholarly translations seem p e d a n t i c to t h e m : ''As a poet, Bynner sees t h r o u g h the 'scholarly p o o p o o ' of some translations a n d gives us what a p p e a r s to be an effortlessly simple adaptation''; ''Bynner avoids the lecture trap a n d captures the spirit of the original in a gentle way t h a t speaks subtly to the r e a d e r a n d lingers in the heart.'' T h e y explicitly p r e f e r t h e simplicity of t h e pseudotranslations: ' ' T h e bare, simple beauty of h e r language [seems] to m e very m u c h an expression of t h e Tao'' (speaking of Le G u i n ) ; ' ' T h e r e is n o t h i n g complicated, n o t h i n g intricate a b o u t Taoist wisdom I was very lucky to r e a d h e r version, which has h e l p e d m e see the beauty, t h e magic, t h e simplicity, t h e Tao''; ''With non-sexist l a n g u a g e a n d beautifully illustrating examples, [Mitchell] shows t h e m o d e r n weste r n e r h o w to truly c o m p r e h e n d a n d e m b r a c e this wise a n d simple philos-

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ophy. Mitchell sometimes strays f r o m the literal translation, b u t always f o r the better.''

Above all, these reviewers a p p l a u d language that is readily u n d e r stand able: "It is the duty of the translator to a t t e m p t to restate a classic f o r his or h e r generation, in a language that they can best u n d e r s t a n d ' ' ; "Le Guin's ' r e n d i t i o n ' startled m e with its everyday language a n d showed m e the T a o in a new light.'' J u s t what is so desirable a b o u t ''everyday language''? We d o n o t go to the t h e a t e r in o r d e r to h e a r O t h e l l o speak as t h o u g h h e were b o r n in o u r g e n e r a t i o n . Americans make statements a b o u t the Daode jing that they would think twice b e f o r e saying with regard to any o t h e r classic.

T h e Daode jing is old; it is alien; it is Chinese; a n d it is difficult. These are the recalcitrant facts that too m a n y r e a d e r s seem disinclined to accept. Instead, they seek o u t the most facile translations a n d c o n s u m e insipid a p p r o x i m a t i o n s of the original. This p h e n o m e n o n must be attributable at least in p a r t to intellectual laziness. T h e public is n o t obliged to restrict itself to academic m o n o g r a p h s , b u t r e a d e r s still have a responsibility to investigate the merit of a translation b e f o r e a d o p t i n g it. Not m u c h research is necessary to discover that t h e r e is m o r e to Daoism t h a n ''letting events take their course'' a n d that the scary political overtones c a n n o t be disregarded as the detritus of imaginary interpolators. Like any p r o f o u n d work of philosophy, the Daode jing is dangerous. We d o it n o justice by p r e t e n d i n g that it is easy to swallow. Chinese philosophy m a d e simple is n o l o n g e r Chinese philosophy.

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