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is in
the Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright
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text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014141968
Columbia THntvereitB ©dental Stu&fes EDITED BY
RICHARD
J.
H.
GOTTHEIL,
Ph.D.
THE IMPROVEMENT OF
THE MORAL QUALITIES
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY ORIENTAL STUDIES Vol.
I.
THE IMPROVEMENT OF
THE MORAL QUALITIES AN ETHICAL TREATISE OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY BY SOLOMON IBN GABIROL, PRINTED FROM AN UNIQUE ARABIC MANUSCRIPT, TOGETHER WITH A TRANS LATION, AND AN ESSAY ON THE PLACE. OF GABIROL IN THE HISTORY OF THLDEVELOPMENT OF JEWISH ETHICS :
BY
STEPHEN
S.
WISE, Ph.D.
jQeto gorfe
THE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS The Macmillan Company, Agents 66 Fifth Avenue 1901
6*7? K
31
Copyright, igoi,
BY
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
Zo
tbe /nsemore OF
MY FATHER AND TEACHER IN LOVE, REVERENCE,
GRATITUDE
AND
——
i^ma "Help
jntn
rrperini
the Celestial bodies with your souls, even as tilling and
irrigating help the seed to grow."
Ut
ns
ager,
quamvis
fertilis,
potest, sic sine doctrina animus.
Ethics of Gabirol.
sine
cultura fructuosus esse
Seneca.
non
PREFACE The
original suggestion to write on the " Ethics " of Ibn
Gabirol came from
Rev.
my
revered
Dr. Alexander Kohut.
the counsel of Dr.
Rosin in his
which strengthened
my
and teacher, the
friend
After some study
"
if
possible, publish
The Improvement
Moral Qualities," a manuscript of which,
I
of the
was con-
learned,
the treasures in the Bodleian Library at Oxford.
For a time
I
was compelled
my
to base
tographic reproduction of the manuscript, supervision of Dr. A. Neubauer. I
came upon
determination to prepare a work on
the text of Gabirol's ethical treatise,
among
late
on the same subject,
article'
the "Ethics" of Solomon ibn Gabirol, and,
tained
I
studies
upon a pho-
made under the kind
During the summer
resided in Oxford, and was enabled to
make a
of 1895
careful exami-
nation of those passages the difficulty of reading which had
been increased by the photographic process. in
Oxford
my work was
facilitated in every
bauer, of whose kindness and hospitality ful
I
During
way by
desire to
my
stay
Dr. Neu-
make
grate-
acknowledgment.
The manuscript, herewith no opportunity
published,
is
unique
a :
there being
to collate the manuscript with other texts,
it
has
Cf. "J. Q. R.." iii., p. 161. In the summer of 1S96 Professor Gottheil found, in the library of the Alliance Israelite Universefle, Paris, a copy of the " Ethics," which, upon comparison, proved to be an exact reproduction of the text of the Oxford manuscript, evidently 1
2
having been copied from
it
letter
by
letter.
"
PREFACE been reproduced with the fewest possible changes gestions, with a view
to
emending the
text,
;
a few sug-
have been em-
bodied in footnotes.
The
translator has collated four
Bodleian
(2),
Hebrew manuscripts
1
(Paris,
Jews' College) as well as the printed editions, and
he expects to edit in the near future a Hebrew version of the "
Ethics,"
2
which, while taking account of the various
manuscripts, shall more clearly reproduce, in
respects, the
Arabic.
spirit of the original
wish at this time to express
I
some
Hebrew
my
sincere gratitude to Prof.
Richard Gottheil for his unfailing kindness and valued counsel during the term of
am
I
my
study at Columbia University.
indebted to Prof.
J.
H. Hyslop for some hints
interpretation of the " Ethics,"
Jewish Encyclopedia
staff for a
and
on the Arabic text as well as the
Mr.
to
number
I.
Broyde of the
of suggestions bearing
translation. S. S.
Portland, Ore., May
2,
1
Cf. Introduction, p.
7.
"
of the
brevity,
under the
title
" Ethics.
W.
1901.
2
The Improvement
in the
Moral Qualities
" is
referred to, for the sake of
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
Introductory Essay, Translation,
Appendix Appendix
A
(Preface of the Hebrew Translator),
i
29 .
.
105
108
B,
List of Abbreviations
115
Arabic Text
119
p
IX
INTRODUCTION To first
write an history of Jewish Ethics
pages of the Bible.
The
'
is
to begin with the
doctrine that the world was
created by Deity has a purely ethical significance, which bears
upon many departments of human conduct. That Deity pronounced all that He had created good, is the sum and substance of optimism the idea that one man was the progenitor of the whole human race, implies the loftiest humanitarian principles ;
that can be conceived.
In this wise, almost
of the Bible, and, certainly, a large
number
all
the narratives
of passages in the
Pentateuch, the Prophets, and the Hagiographa, are of clear and unmistakable ethical bearing and import. But in the days of the Biblical authors the branches of learning were not as _
strictly divided as they are at present.
Jurisprudence, history
(including family and tribal traditions), and whatsoever there
was
of natural science
and speculative thought clustered around
one subject, Religion, and were intertwined with it. 2 The command, " Thou shalt not steal," was binding not because theft was a social crime, but because God prohibited
The
historical records of the
Hebrew
it.
people, as they developed
from a family and tribe into a union of tribes and a nation, were looked upon as authentic, because Moses had written them The geometrical and architectural at the command of God. principles in accordance with which the tabernacle in the desert
and, subsequently, the 1
man
Cf.
Rosin (" Maimonides,'' pp. 1-4).
edition, p. 3) 2
Cf.
Temple
is
"Die
Bibel
ist
I
Solomon were The
first
built,
jiidischen Sittenlehre " ("
387). I
were
sentence in Lazarus (Ger-
das Grundbuch der jiidischen Ethik.
H. Cohen, "Das Problem der
vol. xliii., p.
of
M.
"
G.
W.
J.,"
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL "
of divine inspiration.
sacred
command
of God.
Love thy neighbor
Medicine was practised by the
the religious law required these things.
wisdom
was
was a
priests, hygienic laws
strictly enforced, astronomical observations
of Biblical times
as thyself "
1
were made, because
Thus
the wisdom
all
The
identified in a degree with religion.
came
of the prophets
ious subject or occasion
;
to light as
were
suggested by a relig-
hence the peculiar feature of the Bible,
to wit, the interblending of all the subjects of art, science, phi-
losophy and literature, without any plan or system other than the
one predominant desire, to further the cause of religion. shared the same fate at the hands of those In the consciousness of the people ethical thoughts
Ethics
who wrote the Bible. a goodly number of
and principles became crystallized in time in
the form of sayings or adages, and
many
of these sayings or
maxims were stored up in the Book of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Ben Sira, and scattered here and there throughout the other books of the Bible.
In the
Hebrew such proverbs
or adages,
together with parables, fables, and even didactic songs, bore
common name
the
of
Mashal
mentioned we sometimes
(^b>d),
and in the collections just
find these ethical
dicta interspersed
with religious exhortations. In the period of the development of the Mishna,
mudim
the Tal-
(Jerusalem and Babylonian) and the Midrashim, some
advance had been made in the exposition of ethics. We frequently meet in these works with ethical sayings and parables of real beauty and value, and even attempts at explaining Biblical 2
injunctions on the basis of ethical principles.
seems
to
Still
no attempt
have been made to reduce the study of ethics to a
formal science or the study of ethical teachings to a system;
although the works of Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek philos1
Cf. Lazarus (pp. log,
no): "In
its
origin Jewish ethics
—
is
theologic.
.
.
.
For man's will and conduct there are standards that is, moral laws to be obeyed, and God is the law-giver. Judaism regards what is morally good and what pleasing to God. moral law and divine regulation, as inseparable concepts." 2 Cf. Back (Winter und Wiinsche, iii., pp. 627 et seq. ). 2
;
.
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON ophers were not efforts
unknown
were made
to
to the
collect
IBN GABIROL
Hebrew
Here, again,
sages.
memorable sayings and proverbs,
for instance, in the " Chapters of the Fathers," but
struct a system. of concrete ethics'
Abundant (s'0«s),
none to con-
attention was given to the matter
but no attempt was made to formulate
a systematic treatise on the subject corresponding to
During the period
of the
1
-J l
Uu<s .'
Saburaim and the Gaonim, up
to
the time of Saadya Gaon, the representatives of Jewish thought
and learning certainly could not busy themselves with the building up of a theoretical system of ethics. The chief efforts of the schools of Sura and Pumbaditha were bent upon evolving order from out the chaos of Talmudic jurisprudence, social, criminal, and religious, and upon adapting the Talmudic law to the various conditions under which the Jews lived in their dispersion the world over. In addition to the profound wisdom and untiring activity required for the performance of such a task, the rabbis must have wielded a moral power which commanded unbounded respect for their teachings and enactments but, engaged as they were in the truly herculean task of keeping a vastly dispersed constituency in
common
and that without any worldly means not think of constructing a system of law,
allegiance to the
of coercion, they could ethics,
independent of
dogmatic religious teaching.
The
undertake this task was Saadya (892-942) in According to the tenth chapter of the " Emunoth we-Deoth." first to
his theory, the higher soul
dynamic
forces, so to speak
discernment.
man
of
— inborn
manifests itself in three love,
inborn aversion, and
In the tenth chapter of his book, Saadya enumer-
ates thirteen qualities of the soul which originate in intuitive
and which must be made subservient to discernment or Although this may be considered an endeavor systematize ethical theory, it cannot by any means be regarded
love,
mental training. to
1
Cf. Lazarus (pp.
8, 9)
Cf Hyslop ("Elements of Ethics," New York, 1S95, Pearls" (p. 162, note to maxim 360), Rosin (" Maimonides," "J Q. R." (vol. iii., pp. 165, 166), and Guttmann (p. 17). 5
.
3
p. p.
1),
"Choice of
34 et seq.), and
—
"
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON
IBN-
GABIROL
Saadya makes no reference to the qualities from inborn aversion, and thus leaves us in the
as a complete work.
which
result
dark as to one-half of the system which he proposes to con-
Moreover, the principal dynamic force of the soul, dis-
struct.
cernment, by which the offshoots or qualities resultant from the other forces must be controlled and trained,
than what
less
is
is
nothing more nor
called soul in a theological sense, in a Jewish
means
theological sense, and
little
or nothing to the non-Jew
real merit of the "
The
or non-believer.
the philosophical view
Emunoth
" consists in
takes of the Jewish religion, and in
it
its
brilliant defense of the ancient faith, as interpreted by the rab-
Karaism on the one hand,
as against the onslaughts of
bis,
and of heretical rationalism on the other.
upon
entirely
Still
the writer foots
and one must read
tradition and dogmatic belief,
through the entire work and put one's self en rapport with the author's religious views before being able to read appreciatively the last chapter on the subject, of ethics.
Ibn Gabirol took a tematize
new stand
:
he made an attempt to sys-
the principles of ethics, independently of religious
'
dogma or belief. What Saadya ascribes to the higher soul of man Gabirol attributes to the lower soul and the dynamic forces ;
of Saadya's higher soul
1
Munk
he reduces to mere qualities or
(p. 169) believed that
it
was not the aim
traits of
of Gabirol to establish
"un
systeme de morale," but that he merely endeavored to write "un manuel populaire de morale." Horovitz (p. 141, notes 155-158), following Munk, argues from Gabirol's statements that the latter does not purport to set
of ethics, but merely wishes to write a practical
handbook
up an ordered system
of morals in compliance
"Er schlagt daher kein streng wissenschaftliches an jeder Definition der behandelten Begriffe, noch viel er sich auf eine psychologische Zergliederung der erorterten Tu-
with the desire of his friends.
Verfahren
weniger
ein, es fehlt
lasst
genden und Laster sehen."
ein.
.
.
.
Wir konnen seinen Versuch nur
Cf. also p. 142, note 164.
pursues a scientific method. quera," Berlin, 1894,
p. xiv.
Bacher
als
misslungen an-
(p. 51) holds that Gabirol's
"Ethics"
("Das Buch der Grade von ibn Falaconsiders "Das Buch der Grade" "die erste wissen-
L. Venetianer )
schaftliche systematische Ethik in der Literaturgeschichte der arabisch-jiidischen
Philosophie."
The "Buch
der
the ethical system of Gabirol.
"Hoboth
Grade" Hertz
is
(p.
no more streng- wissenschaftlich than makes a similar claim for Bahya's
13)
Ha-lebaboth,'' which he considers "the
according to philosophical method.
4
first
Jewish ethical treatise
V
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON the lower soul. regards
IBN GABIROL'
Discernment, again, which his
as the
balancing force of
predecessor
the higher soul, Gabirol
acknowledges to be no more than the utmost limit of perfection in the lower soul, the line, so to speak,
and the divine meet
man.
in
where the purely human
In this wise, Gabirol's system of
human
in conduct and in characbeyond the " line of intelligence," in so far as intelligence itself depends upon higher inspiration, he does not meddle. From this point of yiew his " Ethics " is unique, and must have created a considerable
ethics covers all that
With
ter.
among
stir
avoids tone,
is
truly
which
religious ethics
is
the religious thinkers of his time; but since Gabirol
all religious
questions, refers to the rabbis in reverent
and quotes the Bible
1
he could
in support of his views,
not be condemned as a heretic
— he was shunned
rather than
despised.
The life of Gabirol, sharing in this respect the fate of the Hebrew prophets and many later leaders in Jewish affairs, is little known, and the little that is known is gleaned from casual remarks which occur in his poems and from the meagre notices of authors
2
who
refer to his works.
Salomo ben Jehuda ibn Gabirol '
In the " Ethics,
"
3
(the
Arabic form of his
Gabirol refers to the Bible in order to find some additional
support for his views, but he nowhere bases his thought upon a biblical verse or In the " Fons Vita? " he went one step further and entirely refrained paragraph.
Horovitz (p. 78, notes 4, 5) alludes from citing the Bible. Munk. Cf. Schmeidl (p. 103), Bacher (p. 45), Guttmann (p. 47)
points out that Gabirol in this respect stands alone
who
,
to this, 4),
following
and Stossel
among
(p.
the Jewish-
Arabic philosophers, Saadya, Maimonides, and their successors. As proof of the attempt "Gabirol todtzuschweigen," one need but refer to " the work of a philosopher of the thirteenth century, who, in his Ya'ir Netib." re-
"Ethics."
the dil'gent study of D ,-ID10n nSD. but fails to mention Gabirol's Cf. Giidemann ("Das jud. Unter. wahr. der Span. -Arab. Per.," p.
59 of the
Hebrew
commends
part).
The mention
same author, Jehuda b Sam.
b.
Abbas,
of "The Choice of may imply that even as
Pearls,"
by the
early as the thir-
" was not acteenth century the Gabirolian authorship of the "Choice of Pearls 382-388). ("H. U.,"pp. Cf. Steinschneider cepted. !
Dukes
Cf.
(pp. 118-121).
The name may be written either Gabirol As to the form Gebirol, a diminutive, note 25). 8
vol. xliii.
,
pp. 308, 309).
5
or Gebirol cf.
;
cf.
Geiger
(p.
Kaufmann ("M. G. W.
119, J.,"
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL name being Abu Ayyub Sulaiman and philosopher,
2
was born
Yahya ibn
b.
Jabirol), poet
Malaga about 1021, lived for
in
a time at Saragossa, and died at Valencia in the year 1058 of Gabirol are "
The two philosophical works The Improvement of the Qualities
1059. "
and 1
("H.
Cf. Geiger, Sachs,
Kampf, Dukes
who
U.,'' p. 379, note 77),
or
Fons Vitae
of the
(several works), Stein
J
Soul,"
"
the
and Steinschneider
give the literature on the subject.
5 For an account of the life and the works of Gabirol, consult Munk, Gratz, Dukes, Guttmann, Geiger, Horovitz, Kaufmann, Kampf (pp. 167-191), Myer, Rosin Schmiedl, Sachs (pp. 213-248), Joel, Stossel, Bacher (pp. 45—55) ,
Lbwenthal, Kaufmann ("Attributenlehre," pp. 95115), Dukes ("Ehrensaulen," pp. 1-25 and 59-76), Karpeles (" Geschichte der jiidischen Literatur," i., pp. 465-483). Winter und Wiinsche (ii. pp. 723-730), (" Maimonides,'' pp. 11,
12),
,
Eisler (" Vorlesungen iiber die jiidischen Philosophen des Mittelalters," Wien,
1876,
i.,
pp. 57-68), Friedlander ("Geschichtsbilder," Briinn, 1S80, pp. 23-28),
Baumker ("Avencebrolis Fons Vita?,'' Miinster, 1895), Adler("Ibn Gabirol and His Influence upon Scholastic Philosophy," London, 1865), Guttmann ("Das zur jiidischen Litteratur," GottinVerhiiltniss des Thomas von Aquino .
.
gen, 1891, pp. 16-30), Muller (" ingen, 1898, pp. 90-107), 3
This
De
Kahana
latter date is uncertain,
.
Godsleer der Middeleeuwsche Joden,
(P1PET1. vol.
but
is
i.
,
"
Gron-
pp. 38-48).
accepted by Steinschneider ("H. U.,"
and Neubauer ("M. G. W. J.," vol. xxxvi. p. 498 et seq.), who base judgments upon the statements of authors nearly contemporaneous with Gab-
p. 379)
their
,
Steinschneider accepts the statement of Sa'id (circa 1070)
irol.
,
who
praises
Gabirol as a logician and makes mention of his death, February, 1058, before the
This coincides with the date given by the something over thirty quotes these words of Harizi from the Amsterdam
completion of Gabirol 's "thirties. poet Jehuda al-Harizi,
Munk
years.
(p. 157,
who
''
relates that Gabirol died at
note 1)
DntW JJBTI pi. but have died at so early an age, seeing that his works were important and revealed above all the prolonged Munk (p. 156. note 1) who accepts the meditations of a .spirit ripened by years. edition of
the Tahkemoni,
N3 nh D'E^BTI
Ijn
H33
1"0
raises the very vulnerable objection that Gabirol could not
,
Abraham Zacu"Yuhasin," publishes an extract from an Arabic work of Moses ibn Ezra (Hebrew Supplement, pp. 515-517, and French translation, pp. 263-265), whom date of Gabirol's death, 1070, in the city of Valencia, as given in to's
Harizi probably followed, which declared that "this young man, Gabirol, died in the flower of his youth, in the early part of the eighth century the present era)— he had hardly passed his thirtieth year." 191),
{i.e.,
about 1040 of
Kampf
(pp.
187-
basing his argument upon an explanation of Professor Roediger, holds that
the Arabic text of ibn Ezra bears out the interpretation that Gabirol " had already
passed the thirties."
•Kaufmann
(p.
Neubauer, Steinschneider ("H. U.,"
p. 379,
note 76), and
79, note 2) accept this date,
with Sa'id's date.
Guttmann
(p. 1,
namely, about 1057, which corresponds notf t) without giving any reasons in support
of his position, inclines to the later date of Zacuto; Gratz (note
6
*
2,
pp. 419-421)
:
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON latter
The
being ethical in character.
in the year 1045
On
io 48). (
'
IBN GABIROL " Ethics "
was written
the whole, the " Ethics
ten in a fluent and classic Arabic
Though
style.
" is writ-
excellently
must be said that the occasional obscure passages are not made less obscure by the translator. The main translated
it
difficulty in translating arose
from the
fact
that the
Hebrew
language did not compare with the Arabic in the copiousness
marked by an almost slavish
fidelity to the original.
translator has erred, in not a few passages, in the
The manuscript
Hebrew is The present
In some places the
of its philosophical terminology.
same way.
(1422,2 in the Bodleian Library)
is
a part of
the collection which was founded by Bishop Huntington during his residence in the East as chaplain to the English merchants
Aleppo. It consists of 46 pages 8vo, written in the SyrioRabbinic Hebrew characters, about the end of the fourteenth
at
century, according to Neubauer.
The
uscripts of the " Ethics " are extant
Ms.
nale,
Hebr.,
1402,2), Jews'
671,2),
College,
:
Bodleian
following
(Neubauer 2413,7, and 48,3), Leeuwarden
London (Neubauer
Neubauer, " Israelitische Letterbode,"
(cf.
Hebrew man-
Paris (Bibliotheque natio-
vol. xii., p. 83),
Miin-
chen (St. 201,1 and 327,3), Talmud Torah Library in Rome, The following are the and Casanate Library in Rome. 3 3
printed editions
Dukes ("Ehrensaulen,
likewise accepts the date 1069 or 1070.
whose calculation
is
1
'
rather far-fetched, believes that Gabirol died
p. 10, note 2),
some time be-
tween the years 1070-1080, at about the age of thirty. 1 Steinschneider and Neubauer are correct in reading the date as 828 (1068), but
it
has occurred to
me
that this date
may be merely
a reminiscence of the year
Munk admits that 1428 (Sel. of Gabirol's death, current in the days of the copyist. Steinschneider era), as he reads the manuscript, leads to an erroneous conclusion. ("
note 94) is inclined to accept the date 1045, which is given in sources and some of the Hebrew manuscripts. two manuscripts in Rome were collated by K. Pollak for the Budapest
H. U.,"
the earliest s
The
p. 381,
Hebrew
edition. 3
Cf. Steinschneider
("H. U.,"
381).
Lengthy extracts from the "Ethics" Amsterdam, 1640 (cf. Dukes, p.
are given in a Latin translation by G. Gentius, 121), in a
Latin version of Maimonides' niJTI ITD?!!
used only a Hebrew
text, for the verses, as well as the
Rosin (p. 163, note " Ethics,'' published at Wilna in 1845.
the Arabic text, are missing.
7
2)
The
translator evidently
concluding paragraphs of
mentions an edition of the
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 1550
Constantinople, 4to,
(together
with Bahya's main
rvm^n).
Riva
di
1562 (together with Honein's nDio
1
Trento, 4to,
D'SlD'tan,
and msn.f D under the general
title,
\Q3 p1J.
Luneville, 4to, 1807 (same title and contents as the Riva di
Trento edition). Lyck, i2mo, 1859 (same general
title JV3J plJ,
but only the
"Ethics").
Warsaw,
1886 (not mentioned
8vo,
by Steinschneider,
"H. U."> Budapest, 8vo, 1896. "
The
Fons Vitae
"
was attributed for centuries
Munk
Avicebron, until
lastic philosopher,
to a scho-
recognized" in 1846
that Ibn Gabirol and Avicebron were one, the
name Avicebrol
3 (Avicebron) being a corruption of Ibn Gabirol or Ibn Gebirol.
The Arabic original of
the " Fons Vitae"
is lost,
but a Latin trans-
been preserved which was made by Johannes HispaAccording to with the aid of Dominicus Gundisalvus.
lation has lensis,
Steinschneider (" H. U.
,"
translation are extant.
Munk
p.
380) four manuscript copies of this
discovered the identity of Avice-
bron and Ibn Gabirol through a comparison of the Paris manuscript of the "
"
Fons Vitas
with a Hebrew work by Shemtob
Palquera in the Paris Library, which proved to be a paraphrase of the
Arabic
likewise a translation. portance, inasmuch as
"
Fons Vitas " was evidently This discovery was of the greatest imAvicebron the Jew, Salomon ibn Gabirol,
original, of
which the
played no unimportant part in the development of scholastic phicf. " R. E. J.," xxx., p. 273. note i)and " Literaturblatt des Orients," 1846, No. 46.
1
In the Index Expurgationis
2
Cf.
3
Kampf
Guttmann
(p. 7,
(p. 175,
rally altered in
;
name Ibn Gebirol was natuname Reuben ha-Barceloni, which change occurred in the name Ibn Gebirol, through
note 11), in showing that the
time into Avicebron, cites the
The
became Bargeloni.
reverse
the transitional stages of Avengebirol, Avencebrol, and Avencebron, to Avicebron.
The change from Ibn Badsha
— Avempace.
Thomas von Aquin the form Avicebrol
The
note
is
to
Avi
is
According
not to
—
uncommon; cf. Ibn Sina Avicenna, Ibn M. Wittmann ("Die Stellung des HI.
zu Avencebrol, Ibn Gebirol," Milnster, 1900, p. 1, note 5), found as late as the time of Bradwardina, who died 1349.
is
based upon information furnished by Dr. CI. Baumker.
8
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON
IBN GABIROL
In recent years the " Fons Vitae," particularly the Latin version, has received scholarly and ample treatment in
losophy.
the works of Seyerlen, Guttmann, Baumker, and Wittmann. In setting out to write the " Ethics," Gabirol endeavored to give a
human
systematic exposition of
soul,
endowments
the
may be
the impulses, which
i.e.,
of
the
so trained as to
lead to virtue, or permitted, ungoverned or ill-governed, to
make
This task accomplished, he began to work at the "Fons Vitae,'' which was designed to explain the revelation of Deity in the world. The " Ethics " may be regarded as a work
for vice.
1
preparatory to the
"
Fons
rived in the " Ethics,"
2
Vitas."
The
results, at
which he
ar-
human
reasoning from the
senses, as he perceived them, up to the highest spiritual possibilities of man, formed the basis of his theological demonstration in " Fons
which is based upon deductive methods of reasoning. In the " Ethics " Gabirol does not 'question any of the
Vitae,"
D
God
theological or philosophical conceptions of his time."
He
has created
all
that exists;
man
highest purpose of creation, the aim of into existence.
Munk
6
1
Cf.
2
Frankel-Griin
The symmetry 4 and p. 170
(p.
"Ethics"
Gabirol's
note
(p. 43,
is:
the masterwork and
is
that has been called
all
of his form and the beauty of
et seq.). 2),
following Geiger
86
(p.
as "Vorstufe zur Metaphysick."
speaks of
et seq.),
Lowenthal
("Pseudo-
Arist.," p. 39) holds the "Ethics" to have been written demonstrably later than
the
"Fons 3
An
Vitae."
excellent,
Guttmann
though
(pp. 17, 18),
brief, analysis of the
" Ethics
ence of Saadya upon the teachings of Gabirol.
Cf.
''
of Gabirol
is
given by
my judgment, the influMunk (pp. 167-169), Dukes,
who, however, overestimates,
in
Rosin (pp. 166-1S1), and Horovitz (pp. 138-142). 4 It would undoubtedly be a fruitful task to trace the elements of Gabirol's system of ethics, in so far as these are directly related to physics and metaphysics, Nevertheless, even though we would back to their first mainly Greek sources.
—
insist in the spirit of
—
Gabirol upon viewing this work as a system of ethics rather
than as a mere compilation of moral maxims, Gabirol does not dwell sufficiently
upon 5
this aspect of his
work
to justify such a course.
This theory was held by Saadya (Emunoth we-Deoth,
edition of Slucky, Leipzig, 1864), (Fried, pp. 59
Bahya
(Briill, p. 73,
iii.
and 37) Joseph ibn Zaddik, and even by Gabirol's ,
58, iv. 75, vi. 95,
note 1), Donolo and Israeli fierce antagonist,
Abraham ibn Bau.d, but opposed by Maimonides cf. Rosin (" Maimonides," 99) Guttmann (" Saadya," pp. 83, 84, and 159-163), and Fried (p. 42). ;
,
9
p.
;
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL his construction
1
render him the peer of
all
animal creatures;
and his intelligence and the spiritual endowments, which constitute his soul,
him
raise
infinitely
above
those creatures."
This soul makes him the equal of the angels, which are the
powers intermediary between the physical world and Deity.
By
cultivating his powers for good (his virtues),
even the superior of those intermediary beings
3
cannot be any more or less than that which they plish
while
any more or
less
man becomes for the latter
accom-
are, or
than that unto which they are destined,
man may rise through
the measure of his spiritual perfec-
tion and beneficent activity to Deity himself, and even cause
At
the angels to serve him.
this point Gabirol quotes passages
from the Bible in which the angels are represented as acting in the service of man, or even dominated by him. Curiously enough, in this place, as well as in
book
this
in
which the Bible
is
all
the subsequent parts of
cited in support of his views,
the author ignores the Talmudim and Midrashim, which might have answered his purpose better and illustrated his thoughts to greater advantage.
The argument thus is
far is
a direct emanation of the
based on the assumption that Deity, and that his soul
toward reunion with the source of suggests itself
—why
is
all
man
tends
The question now man and men vary in their
being.
there any difference between
man ?
In other words, why do individual temperaments and spiritual powers? There can be but one answer to this question, and that is, the differences are due to the cultivation of the soul. is
more or
itself of
makes
In the measure in which the soul
less cultivated, in the
its
for a loftier spiritual ideal,
scale of 'Cf.
measure
which
in
it
divests
sympathies with the lower sensual impulses and
human
it
places itself higher in the
perfection and ascends nearer to Deity.
Still,
Musen(p. n).
2
Cf. Brilll (p. 73, note 2).
3
Saadya places
man above
the angels, according to
Abraham ibn Ezra cf. and Schmiedl (p. 84) This view was held as early as the ninth century— by David ben Merwan, who is quoted ad rem by Jephet ben Ali of the tenth century cf. Beer (p. 15, and notes 27-30). Guttmann
(" Saadya," p. 160, note
1)
;
.
;
10
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON the soul, as existence,
it
is
manifests
the
itself in
IBN GABIROL
life of this earth, in visible
but a creation of Deity and not Deity
not entirely free
1
own
to act of its
itself;
it is
In our time
accord.
we
would say that the powers of every individual soul are limited to a degree by the accidents of birth and environment, as well as by racial and family peculiarities heredity. In Gabirol's time it was believed that the soul was limited by the celestial
—
bodies
in principle, the ancient
:
and modern thought on
this
subject concur; the qualifications of every individual soul are
But since we cannot accurately determine our relation and know not what limits the accidents of birth and environment have destined for our souls, it is our duty to make limited.
to Deity,
for the highest ideal. " Help the celestial bodies with your souls, even as plowing and irrigating help the seed to grow." Through such efforts man can evoke the latent powers which are within him. There are numerous passages in the Talmudim in support of these views, of which our author could not have been ignorant * but ;
Gabirol,
it
appears, studiously avoided quoting these authorities
unless he had
The
some
special reason for so doing.
question next suggests
itself
— how
and when should
this helping of the celestial bodies, this cultivating of the soul,
begin ?
Gabirol answered this question in the following way
In order to cultivate his soul, peculiarities.
He must
man must
necessarily
therefore study himself as he
know
is,
:
its
closely
examine his character and inclinations, habituate himself to the abandonment of what is mean, i.e., whatsoever draws him into close contact with the physical and temporal, and aim at the Cf. Maimonides (Wolff, p. 58) who takes especial note of these limitations, which he calls "natural," but he makes light of "celestial influences." Cf. p. 48, note 1, showing that Gabirol's belief in planetary influence did not weaken his faith in man's freedom of will. 1
,
2
Cf.
Lowenthal ("Pseudo-Arist. ,"
p.
43, note 1),
who
holds, together with
Sachs, in opposition to the view of Guttmann, that Gabirol was a student of the
Talmud.
Stossel (p. 39) holds that Gabirol's Azharot, as well as the "Gebet-
stilcke verrathen
thume
ohne Zweifel seine Vertrautheit mit dem rabbinischen
"
II
Schrift-
;
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL spiritual
This
and the abiding.
and man's ability
effort in itself is blessedness,
make such an
to
effort is a proof of
divine
Passages from the Psalms are adduced in support
benevolence. of these views.
Up his
own
system.
ately avoided the
on
nothing new; he merely
to this point Gabirol has said
sums up the accepted
articles of belief in a
manner
that leads to
the conjecture be correct, that he deliber-
If
Talmud
in order to place his system of ethics
a basis independent of rabbinical dogmatism,' such
an
in-
The Talmud could not object to these Bible bears them out, and the rabbinical
troduction to his work was nothing less than ingenious.
most ardent devotee postulates,
for the
of the
Men
law contains nothing to oppose them. insight could hardly fail to see that
if
of thought
and
the author could dis-
pense with the rabbinical teachings in the exposition of ethical principles, a strong doubt arises as to the necessity or even the
Undoubtedly
at the
treatment of which he makes introductory chapter of the
In the
on.
ceremonial law.
hands of such thinkers, such rabbinists, he
received the unkind further
concerning the
teachings
validity of those
Gabirol's task has not been difficult
accepted beliefs and principles.
;
for he leaned
At
this point,
mention "Ethics,"
on generally he abandons
the beaten track and proceeds to pursue a then comparatively 1
Seyerlen (p. 25 and notes 38 and 43) compares Gabirol with Spinoza, the modern philosophy as the former introduced mediaeval philo-
latter introducing
sophy, and he emphasizes Gabirol's philosophical independence of Jewish theological
dogma
in the
words
keineswegs bloss als die delt, als
Magd
ist
z.
note 43)
41,
:
"Denn
er hat die Philosophie
und behanund den Ausbau der talden Juden so hochgefeierte Maimonides
der rabbinischen Theologie angesehen
das bloss formale Organ
mudischen Weisheit, wie
ihm
(p.
fiir
die Vertheidigung
B. der bei
die Philosophie durchaus Selbstzweck, er weist ihr eir.e souverane Stel-
lung an, eine Stellung so ganzlich unabhangig von der Theologie, dass selbst jeder Seitenblick auf diese vermieden wird." Cf. Geiger (pp. go-93), Stbssel (pp. 46-48), Sandler
("Problem der Prophetie
in der jiid.
,
Religionsph. " Bres-
note 66), and Spiegler ("Geschichte der Philosophie des Juden-
lau, 1891, p. 2g,
p. 254), who holds that Gabirol "trug nicht des Glaubens Sklavenketten " and also " attacked the authority of the 'Kalam.'" Kampf (p.
thums," Leipzig,
173) maintained that although Gabirol
was untrammelled
in his philosophic re-
search, he yet expected to reconcile his results with the teachings of theology.
12
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON unknown
He
path.
IBN GABIROL
bases his ethical system on the work of
Rabbi Shabbatai Donolo, whose words he copies 1
is
Gaiiikol.
Donolo.
(Translation o£ Jehuda ibn Tibbon.)
(Introduction to 1JdSs3 din nipjn IPWS)
Snjn oSiyn nx Ni3 nj pdij ?!
-|Sinn
av
in so far as
required for his purpose.
ma
1
:'i3i
.
.
omSkh
<3
idini
oiy30 nyaiN by
O'Dn nci>) L nja'jn nrvSni -nwtn nDiyS mn 13 novwtn -iayn nniyS n-iina>n mnni VS3S331 imix3 o ?!^ -parr ixi3i £>Nn nciyS >
mom
1
'131
B'Cin nii-cn
13
N131 -iai
Being a close and iterates Donolo's
-lDrp
"73 nn kiji ne rftun omen jd-ikdi cdi nn nniDin njmx an rfwn 1S13 n-nrw mnni norm nmVi on om -iojn
aSiyn £>ni
mm
nnnni nSi ip nmSn nai "uja mirwn mnnni .... .
.
.
nnn
njj3
ii'Nn -U13
oin
nDrmn
'Oi "isyn
1
n?
logical thinker,
idea 3 that
.
man
is
he merely sums up and
the microcosm, a counter-
part or reflex of the universe entire, macrocosm, and leaves this subject, bringing us directly to his
the five senses, whose powers of
own assumption
that
perception are manifested
through the composition and intermingling of the four elements
8
human body, constitute the links between the physical and the spiritual in the constitution of man. To impress this thought upon his readers, Gabirol allegorizes the passage of of the
4
1
2
A
physician and astronomer of the tenth century
(b. 913).
shows that Donolo, in considering the world a microcosm and man a macrocosm, and in deriving the composition of the body from four humors corresponding to the four elements, follows the work of Israeli (855Cf. Geiger (" Melo Chofnajim," 955)i which is in turn dependent upon JIT'S' D. Fried furthermore proves the dependence of Gabirol (p. Berlin, 1840, p. 29). 59), Bahya, Moses ibn Ezra, Halevi, Ibn Daud, Joseph ibn Zaddik — (cf. Jellinek, "Mikrokosmos,'' p. x., Bloch in Winter und Wilnsche, ii., p. 729, Steinschneider, " H. U.,"p. 407, Kaufmann, p. 5, note 2, Joel, i. pp. 29, 30) upon Israeli. 3 On the place of the four elements in the Cf. Horovitz (p. 129, note no). metaphysical speculation of the Middle Ages, cf. Schmiedl (pp. 282-287). 4 According to Gratz (vi. p. 47), Gabirol " allegorisirte Schriftverse urn sie Fried
(p.
59, note 1)
1
—
,
,
den Ideen seiner Philosophie anzubequemen." Dukes (p. 113), changing the opinion he had expressed in " Ehrensaulen " (p. 11), declares, in regard to this passage " Dieses ist eine philosophische Allegorie zu nennen." The critics, who :
viewed
this
" philosophical allegory" as a mere exegetical
effort,
have done an
in-
and poet. Gabirol's exegetical proofs of his ethical principles are mere mnemonics, as the Talmudists have it, or inserted for the mere justice to the great thinker
purpose of giving an apparently religious or theological coloring to his extremely This I would hold in opposition to the belief of secular and rationalistic views. Bacher and Rosin, who lay great stress upon Gabirol's theological bearing and sig-
13
"
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL Ecclesiastes
(ix.
in such a
1 1),
manner
make
as to
its
compo-
nent elements severally indicate the different points of
his
proposition.
Though he would have five
attributes the virtues to the senses,
distinctly understood that
it
take of the nature of the soul, such as
Thus he draws
Gabirol
he treats only 2
physical senses, and not of the concealed
understanding.
1
ne>J"in,
of the
which par-
senses,
perception, and nra,
a sharp line of distinction be3
tween the purely physical and the purely psychical perceptions with the latter Gabirol does not pretend to meddle, having made ;
only the qualities that depend on the former the object of his BrUll (p. 71) thinks that Gabirol's
nificance.
A confirmation
ethical writers. irol
method
of this opinion
is
is
common
to all mediaeval
to be found in the fact that
Gab-
always, or usually, states his thesis before citing biblical passages, while his
contemporaries and predecessors, excepting perhaps Saadya, of a rationalist, practise the reverse method.
700) thinks
Ages
it is
characteristic of the
who
is
much
almost as
Bloch (Winter und Wiinsche.
ii.,
p.
Jewish " religious philosophy" of the Middle
to cite the Bible only in support of propositions, the very reverse of the schol-
astic tendency,
which was to make all reasoning follow upon and be subsidiary to Schmeidl (p. 103) remarks that Gabirol in " Fons Vitae
scriptural statement.
makes no
effort to
adduce
From
noted before.
this,
biblical verses in support of his
arguments
— as has been
again, Joel infers that Gabirol placed himself entirely
was thoroughly refuted by Hence it seems that Gabirol
outside of the pale of Jewish belief. This, however,
Kaufmann
(" Attributenlehre," p. log, note ig).
failed to quote the Bible
in
his philosophical works, rather out of reverence for
Scripture than because of aversion to the " Ethics," he if
it. But in his younger days, when he wrote was not so cautious, and quoted biblical passages as mnemonics,
not in confirmation of his thought.
Hebrew
This he did in compliance with the practice
would appear from this that when Gabirol was mature enough to compose the " Fons Vita;," he felt himself so strong and secure that he no longer deemed it needful to accommodate himself to the prevalent style of writing. Cf. Guttmann (p. 4). For this additional reason his philosophy was ignored by his contemporaries and he personally was persecuted. Abraham ibn Baud-alone set forth (in his MOT ilJIOK) expressly to confute the heretical teachings of
all
the
of Gabirol.
merkungen,
writers of his age.
It
Maimonides completely ignored him.
Cf. Beer (pp. 22, 23,
and An-
xxxii. to xxxv.).
Guttmann
1
Cf.
a
Horovitz
3
Rosin
(p.
(p.
(" Saadya,'' p. 261, note
1.)
138, note 138).
174)
remarks that among the virtues enumerated by Gabirol, viz., temperance, wisdom, and justice, are
"three of the cardinal platonic virtues, omitted."
Viewing the
for such an objection.
line of distinction here laid
Only such
down, there
is
no room
left
qualities as are attributed to the physical senses
are considered by Gabirol.
14
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON The good and the
investigation.
IBN GABIROL
evil in
man
are judged on the
basis of his relations to the world without.
These
take their rise through the physical senses, for a
toward that which
is
relations
man cannot act
outside of him, save as he perceives
through coming into physical touch with
Therefore,
it.
it
the
all
must be cultivated with due regard to the part played by the senses. In addition to the distractable qualities of the soul
'
tinction between the physical and the concealed senses, Saadya
made
a further distinction between the tractable qualities of
the soul, such traits as
allowed to
mro.
B'DJn
can
be
unto the good,
trained
and the "powers
lead unto evil,
These "powers
of the
or
soul,"
of the soul," according to Saadya,
2
are natural impulses acting independently of the power of will or
even of consciousness. ence of the soul
is
manifest.
and
nixn, desire (inborn love),
two
latter
DJJ3,
wrath (inborn aversion).
powers act from impulse, so
being unconscious
of,
to
speak
;
The
their possessor
and, in a measure, irresponsible for their
discernment
Cognition or
action.
by means of these that the existThese are man, cognition,'
It is
made
power, which maintains
the
is
balance
the supreme natural
between
inborn
love
and inborn aversion. Gabirol ignored this idea of his great predecessor, for he disagreed with Saadya, as will be made clear,
but appears unwilling overtly to express his disagree-
ment.
The wise man ought
by the knowledge that the
to profit
senses, in a measure, determine the qualities (the virtues and vices), 1
For a
the last 2
note
and that these again are constituted fuller
of
and governed by
treatment of the relation of the senses to the moral qualities,
cf.
chapter of Horovitz.
Guttmann (" Saadya."
261, note
p.
1
;
p.
201,
notes 2 and 3; p.
223,
2).
8 Maimonides divides this " power of the soul " into two parts— iSfJftDrl practical intelligence, " ; e., that part of intelligence which chooses between the
73C
' '
good and the evil; and 'JVJffl guish between the true and the (cf.
tn nil. ch. 3).
The two
false.
In both cases discernment acts intuitively,
aspects of this
from the ^JJlBn f>3B', which affect man from without. tinct
"theoretical intelligence." which can distin-
?3B>,
is
"power
of the soul" are alike dis-
a clear, rational conception of the causes that
IS
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL the four humors' which represent the four physical elements.
1
The wise man ought
to make his senses serve him, and yet hold them well in check, in order to keep them from that which is not meet for them. Like the skilful physician, who determines the nature of an illness by taking account of the disproportionate division (or combination) of heat and cold, humidity and dryness in the body of the patient, and who mingles his drugs in such proportions as to respond to the wants of the sick body and restore its natural equilibrium, the wise man ought to take heed of his qualities, which are identical with his senses, and yield to them only in so far as it may be necessary. Deity has given 3
may be
these natural impulses that they
the requirements of worthy conduct
them, the object of man's being life is
attained as long as
life
is
trained according to
through rightful rule over
;
attained; that
is,
the higher
endures.
Thus we have Gabirol's theses, which may be summed up The qualities of the soul are made manifest through
as follows
:
the five senses, and these senses in turn are constituted of the four humors.
Even
as the
humors may be modified one by
the other, so can the senses be controlled and the qualities of the soul be trained unto good or evil.
One
qualification
must be noted
:
the soul here spoken of
Mikrokosmus," pp. 89, go). Logik," p. 103). In a very appreciative paper, included in the " Sitzungsberichte der konigl. bayer. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Munchen," 1866, ii., Haneberg, who is closely followed by Guttmann, shows the relationship of Ibn Gabirol to the Encyclopadie of the " Ihwan al-safa." The points of contact between the Encyclop die and the "Ethics" are less marked, except in those things common to both " Fons Vitae " and " Ethics," e.g.. Micro1
Cf. Dieterici ("
!
Cf. Dieterici ("
cosm and Macrocosm. Cf. Guttmann 29), and Horovitz (p. 91).
(p. 35,
note
7),
Seyerlen
(p.
21 and note
3 Rosin (" Maimonides," p. 12, note 2 p. 37, note 5 p. 47, note 3 pp. 77, 78 and notes) thinks that Maimonides' term for ethics nTlDn tlpD (possibly a remi;
niscence of Gabirol's designation, the
title
;
of this
book
;
in the translation)
shows
that he. too, conceived ethics to be, figuratively speaking, like the attempt of the physician to order or re-arrange the bodily elements with a view to restoring har-
mony, which is health. Cf. Guttman ("Ibn Daud," p. 217, note 1), Wolff (" Maimonides," p. 2), Guttman (" Saadya,'' p. 282), Dukes " Phil.," (p. 93, and p. 79, note 2),
Rosin
(p. 169),
and Musen
16
(p. 6).
"
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON
IBN GABIROL
does not connote the divine within man it refers only to the animal soul within man. The author is cognizant of purely ;
1
psychical qualities, which have no relation to the physical constitution, but
he does not treat of these.
Similarly, he
cog-
is
nizant of the concealed senses, which stand in no relation to
the humors and elements. Gabirol's
these.
object
But he to
is
from treating of
refrains
establish a system
of
purely
five
senses,
physio-psychological ethics. 2
In attributing the qualities of the soul to the J
Gabirol
is as original as he is ingenious. In his demonstrahe leans altogether on the Bible and avoids the Talmudim and Midrashim. To the sense of sight he attributes the vir-
tions
tues of meekness and pudency, and their opposites, pride and
impudence.
He
describes the sense of sight as the principal
one possessed by man, standing in relation to the whole human 4
1
Cf
.
Abraham °
3
Rosin (" Maimonides,"
p.
46,
note 1), also chap.
7,
KT1D TID\
of
ibn Ezra, translated by Creizenach, Frankfort, 1840.
Dukes uses the term (p. Dukes (pp. 95, 96).
Cf.
10)
" eine psychologisch-ethische Abhandlung.
Kaufmann
(" Die Theologie des
Bachya ibn Pa-
kuda, " Wien, 1874, p. 193 et seq.) argues that Bahya's failure to mention Gabirol in the enumeration of his philosophical sources, together with the fact of "eine entschiedene Verwandschaft mit Bahya in einem Punkte," compels us to the conclusion " dass Gabirol in dieser Schrift bereits aus habe " (cf. " Sinne," p. 29, note 92). Kaufmann
dem Werke Bachya's
entlehnt
note 2) gives a close comparison of Gabirol's classification of the twenty qualities with Bahya's r)13in rVDOpri-
For a thoroughly convincing
Steinschneider ("
H. U.,"
side of Gabirol's priority.
(p. 194,
refutation, cf.
Brull
(p.
71 et seq.).
note 39), while undecided, leans a little to the Dukes (p. 10) does not doubt Bahya's dependence
p. 372,
upon Gabirol. Bacher (p. 57, note 1) thinks that Bahya's arrangement (iii. 10) thus dissenting from the of the good and evil qualities follows that of Gabirol, Hertz (p. 28, note 4) regards it "questionable whether view of Kaufmann. Bahya and Gabirol at all knew each other's work." Broyde (" Les Reflexions de l'ame par Bahya ben Joseph ibn Pakouda," Paris. 1896) believes that Bahya designed this work to be a refutation of the ethical principles laid down by Gabirol. Schreiner (" II. B. ," vol. i., pp. 121-128) dissents from Broyde in this, and Gutt,
—
mann ("M. G. W. J.," vol. xli. pp. 241—256) strenuously denies the authenticity of this work, maintaining, moreover (p. 246, note 5), " Der Parallelismus zwischen ,
Bachya's und Gabirol's Schriften, den Broyde
aufstellt
(Hebr. Einleit.
,
S.
9),
entbehrt jeder wissenschaftlichen Begrundung." 4
Maimonides adopts
this idea
thought of Gabirol are traceable chap.
1
and beginning of chap. 2
in
in full
;
in
fact,
the writings of
2).
17
many resemblances
Maimonides
(jn ITD,
to the
end of
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL structure as the sun to the solar system.
Its
excellence con-
sists in that it
perceives near and distant objects within the
same time;
demerit, on the other hand, consists in the ina-
its
bility of the eye to
see
when
it
is
closed; but
the
opening
and closing of the eyes in a conscious state depend upon the power of the will, and the will power is exercised by the mind, which is an attribute of the divine soul. Hence the sense of Another proof of this sight stands nearest to the divine soul. 1
is
that the eye performs its functions only while its possessor
awake and has full control over his senses the activity of his "
mind
;
when man
is
is asleep,
a standstill, his eyes do not see.
is at
Wonderful," says Gabirol, "are the words of the philosopher,
who
said that the soul has spiritual hues, which are reflected
by the motions
of the eyebrows."
Hence the eye expresses Our author, however,
directly the qualities of the divine soul. will not
2
go a step further into the inquiry as to the nature of the animal soul with its qualities forms the
the divine soul
;
field of his research.
He
touches upon this boundary only to
prove that the sense of sight forms, so to speak, the link between the purely animal and the divine within man, and to justify his position in attributing to
it
the qualities of meekness and
pudency, pride and impudence.
From
Gabirol's discussion respecting each of the virtues, to
which the second part of the " Ethics
meekness
" is devoted,
it
appears that
occasioned by a clear perception of the insignifi-
is
man
compared with the greatness and grandeur of the world pride, on the other hand, is caused by an over-estimation of self and self's attainments. Pudency, likewise, is the effect of calm consideration and wise reflection cance of the individual
as
;
touching the fitness of action to environment, whereas impu-
dence 1
in the 2
is
a sanguine, ill-considered display of over-estimation of
For a
full exposition of the relation of the senses to the soul as understood time of Gabirol, see Kaufmann's " Sinne."
Lowenthal
("Niddah,''
f.
,
'
(
'
Pseudo-Arist. " p. 125, note 6) suggests the Talmudic allegory
30 b), showing that the sense of sight
conveying wisdom,
— even to the unborn 18
child.
is
the principal agent in
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON self,
and disregard
for the
IBN GABIROL
worth and attainments of others.
Gabirol advises the proud and impudent to contemplate the
grandeur of creation, and to ponder upon the worth of the wise and truly great men, in order that their arrogance may be mod-
He
erated.
points out, too, that pride and impudence are in-
stinctively, as
it
were, hated and despised, and that they provi-
dentially lead to disgrace and humiliation.
Next to the sense of sight is the sense of hearing, which may be said to be almost as important as the former. The " perceptions " of the sense of hearing are not as numerous and not as attractive as the "perceptions" of the sense of sight;
nor can the ear be controlled, as will
—
still,
as a
mere animal
is
the eye, by the power of the
function,
it is
tractable.
To
the
sense of hearing Gabirol attributes the qualities of love and
mercy, hatred and cruelty.
He
is
not quite explicit in giving
the reasons which lead him to attribute these qualities of the
animal soul to this sense, but he intimates that men. of understanding will find his hints quite to excuse
him
sufficient,
for failing to produce
elaborate and scientific demonstration.
why he
is
reticent at this point, and
and begs the reader
arguments which require It
is
why he
easy to perceive
here puts forward
the provocation suffered by him at the hands of adversaries.
In
attributing love and mercy, together with their opposites, to the
sense of hearing, and thus including them of animal life which can be
among
the qualities
modified by intelligent design,
Gabirol runs counter to the accepted belief of his time.
It
was
pointed out that his predecessor, Saadya, laid down as a postu-
and aversion, inborn love and inborn hate, belonged to the "powers of the soul" which work independently of the will, and for the working of which man is, in a certain Gabirol, on the other hand, classifies measure, irresponsible. qualities which are subject to change animal all other these with late that desire
and modification at the demand of human reason. This point of difference between him and Saadya was not alone sufficient to arouse against him the enmity of the disciples of Saadya, For he had ruled out but even to mark him as an heretic.
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL providential intervention in the two most important " forces of
the soul," and thus
made them out
to
be the servants of reason
or intelligence.
Love, according to Gabirol,
identical with lust,
is
and
is to
It is a quality to which most be attributed to animal passion. human beings are heir, and which only those whose reason has
perfectly mastered
their animal
the most pernicious effects of
given to
it
nature are spared. this trait
is,
that he
One who
of is
lacks consistency and does not abide by his word.
The wise man must keep himself free from this passion. The good sides of this quality come to light in the love of friends and relatives, in the love of native land, in the love of wisdom and of God, that love which prompts to good-will, to the
ment
of duty,
sister of love,
exalted that Deity.
and
and Gabirol finds no
it
Hate
to ideal pursuits.
Mercy
evil in
is
fulfil-
the noble twin Its nobility is so
it.
has even been represented as an attribute of is
the opposite of love, and, as in the case of the
marked by inconsistency and a lack of its constant companions. The worst form of hate is that which is caused by envy Love and hate merge into each other if the object or jealousy. of love be not ideal, if it be the mere satisfaction of physical Cruelty again is a quality of degraded and savage hudesire. man beings, of those whose nature i c most nearly related to Even in cases of meting out justice, cruthat of wild beasts. elty may be excusable, but is never commendable. A wise latter, its
possessor
truthfulness.
is
Sorrow and discontent are
man should abstain from it altogether. To the sense of smell are attributed
the virtues of good-will
and wide-awakedness, wrath and jealousy.
All these qualities
are revealed or expressed in the act of breathing.
In order to
exercise good-will under exasperating circumstances,
pleasure would almost be in place, an effort
unto that which
is
where
dis-
required like
expended
in holding one's breath. Wideawakedness in the doing of any work requires free breathing, and jealousy, which is related to wrath, is betrayed by strong is
or suppressed breathing.
The
critics of Gabirol,
who
pointed
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON
IBN GABIROL
out the incompleteness of the " Ethics," must have had this part of his
work
in view, for he is too laconic in his explana-
tions in this part of the treatise.
case of the sense of hearing,
it
life,
and subjecting
in this case, as in the
has been pointed out that his re-
ticence can easily be explained.
mal
But
Attributing wrath to mere ani-
unconditionally to the training of the
it
higher spiritual endowment in man, he again runs counter to the accepted belief of his time, which classed wrath among the "forces of the soul."
In the second part of the work, treating
of wrath, Gabirol plainly says that he does not follow the ac-
among the "forces the " tractable qualities of
cepted systems of ethics which classed wrath of the soul," but places
the soul,"
among
i.e.,
soul can and
must
among
it
the animal impulses, which the rational
To
control.
two rabbinical passages,
viz., "
justify his position he quotes
Pirke Aboth,"
(Babylonian Talmud)
f.
105,
where
it
is
where
v., 14,
be of four kinds or degrees, and
trait is declared to
"
said that
this
Sabbath
"
"he who
rends his garments in his wrath,
is like unto an idolater." Avoiding the Talmud wherever he could, and quoting it only when he opposed the accepted theory of Saadya, our author simply intended to disarm the animosity of the adherents of the The old doctrine, which he knew his opposition would arouse.
two passages he assumption.
If
cites are
indeed a strong refutation of Saadya's
wrath were an intuitive impulse and beyond
the control of the rational soul, the rabbis could not classify as of four degrees itself,
;
and consistent
it
a natural impulse always remains true to in all its manifestations.
Nor could they
judge so harshly the individual who yields to this impulse. That they have done so proves their agreement with the teaching of Gabirol, that wrath
is
a tractable quality of the animal
soul over which the rational soul must prevail.
Gabirol holds that contentedness identified with,
is
closely related to,
if
not
meekness or humility, and the same process of
thinking which leads to the latter must also conduce to the
Contemplating the grandeur of creation leads, as we have seen before, from pride to humility, and in the same way, former.
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL attributing every individual experience to is
the " origin of
man
all
that
is
Man
to contentedness.
life as
a whole, which
good, and the source of grace," leads
should aspire to be deserving of
honor and elevation, but he should be contented with his posi-
humble though it be, until deserved preferment is bestowed upon bim; let him never seek promotion or preferment. Trying circumstances should be accepted as a training and influence for the good, as a providential guide. Forbearance and tion
forgiveness are offshoots of the quality of contentment, for he
who
exercises this virtue will not allow provocation and dis-
Envy
pleasure to affect his demeanor toward others.
shoot of wrath
a trait
it is
;
common
few are they who can escape incentive to activity, for sesses
if
good things, he desires
off-
and
is
Primarily
pangs.
its
man
a
an
to all rational beings, it
is
an
sees that his neighbor pos-
to acquire similar things, or other
if he had not seen them, he could very well do without either the one or the other, and would never make any efforts to possess them. When jealousy
things that are equally good, although,
is
allowed to gain the upper hand
which
for
it,
develops into covetousness,
The wise man should keep himself
greatest wrong-doing.
from
it
diametrically opposed to nobility and leads to the
is
it
brings no good
;
it
aloof
causes pain and constant wor-
riment, leads to misanthropy, brings on spiritual and physical
Envy
disquietude.
is
a good quality only
noble principles. disposition,
from
is
it
conduces to
it
develops into zeal for
Wide-awakedness
is
peculiar to a sanguine
displayed at
its
best by persons
who
are free
and who are not burdened by the weight The wise man must exercise this quality in
evil inclinations
of care all
and
when
when
a desire to emulate the good,
and worry.
wisdom
his actions, in his search for
formance of his practical duties. in its turn
conduces to duplicity
as well as in the per-
Laziness ;
is
the person
its
who
opposite, is
and
too lazy to
perform his work has recourse to sly cunning in order to gain what he wants or to find excuses for not performing his duty.
When
a
man
is
active
body exhales vanish
and wide-awake, the gases which the on the other hand, when the
in the air
;
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON body
is inactive,
these gases
siness and sleep.
mount
care lest
drow-
to the brain, causing
Wide-awakedness
quality and leads to prosperity.
IBN GABIROL
is
Still the
commendable
a very
wise
man
should take
degenerate into rashness or light-mindedness, for good work can be accomplished only after calm consideration. it
The sense of taste is the least noble of all the senses, but it has an advantage in that none of the other senses can exist without it, nor can it be thought of where the other senses are missThe
ing.
control of the sense of taste requires a nobler effort
than the control of the other senses, for through it the predominance of intelligence over the purely animal inclinations is
most clearly manifested. It must not be forgotten that the man was committed as a result of the desire to grat-
first sin of
ify this sense.
To grief,
1
the sense of taste are attributed the qualities of joy and tranquillity and penitence, qualities
ment and
which imply enjoyand care. Ga-
gratification or the reverse, privation
no difficulty in connecting cheerfulness, apprehensive and intellectual calm with the sense of taste, but he uses a roundabout argument to establish the connection of penitence (remorse) with this sense. A person who is not resolute in his deeds, and regrets one day what he has done the preceding day, is always disturbed in his enjoyment of life and is never gratified by that which is, because he cannot rid himself of the thought of the mistakes, real or imaginary, of the past. Cheerbirol has
ness,
fulness
is
a quality of various aspects in different persons
peculiar to the cially to those
"warm-humid temperament," and more
whose wishes are always
gratified
;
it is
espe-
and who, for a
long time, have been spared the pangs of disappointment and It is natural that
regret.
that age
such persons be in good health, and
come not quickly upon them.
Sometimes, however,
cheerfulness comes with the attainment of a long-cherished desire.
If this
happen
to a light-minded person, his joy
fested in outbursts of merriment upon occasions
ment and laughter
are out of place. 1
" It is
Cf. Rosin (p. 174, note
23
1).
my
is
when
manimerri-
opinion, " says
"
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL "that
Gabirol,
cheerfulness
becoming
is
to those
pure and
clarified souls, which are inaccessible to flattery and exempt from hypocrisy, the souls which are 'related to dominion,' which
rise in the scale of spirituality
who have
righteous
and great delight
activity
—
I
mean
to say, the souls of the
perfect enjoyment in the object of their in their
abstinence from worldly
pleasures.
Our author emphasizes here
that rejoicing, as well as de-
spondency, belongs to the purely animal nature, and cites Galen as his authority to that effect. his
Man must
always see to
it
that
"animal soul" be in perfect submission to his "rational
soul,"
i.e.,
"that his intelligence control his natural impulses."
Apprehensiveness or grief is the opposite of cheerfulness and appears in those whose desires are not gratified, and who are disappointed in their hopes
The
which she loves."
—
"
when
the soul misses that
possession of this quality leaves visible
marks upon the features
of the countenance.
The more
a
man
more he sue and inclinations, the oftener is he subject to disappointment, and a feeling of dissatisfaction and
yields to the transient things of this world, the
cumbs
to his animal desires
On
gloom.
the other hand, the more he turns
away from the more he devotes science or the quest of moral and religdisappointment will he suffer, and the
transient things and physical enjoyments, the
himself to the study of ious wisdom, the less farther
away from him
translation
(iii.,
will
be sadness.
that Gabirol dwells
2)
sadness at some length, and says
It will
be seen in the
upon the subject
many admirable
of
things with a
view to consoling the sad at heart and the sorrow-stricken. Dr. Sachs pertinently points out that Gabirol's brooding disposition
and saddening experience seem to have dictated his utterIt is noteworthy that the optimistic of Gabirol prompts him to find a good use even for sadand this on purely pathological principles. Sadness
ances on this subject. 1 spirit
ness,
causes a person to shed tears, and by these means nature rids itself of
the used-up fluids which accumulate around the eye. 1
Cf. Sachs (p. 217, note 3).
24
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON
whom
because of this that children, in
It is
dominant, cry so often
IBN GABIROL the animal soul
is
nature adjusts itself in them, so to
:
Concerning the quality of tranquillity, our author declares that it is most praiseworthy when it develops into perfect trust and reliance upon the goodness of God. Penitence, speak.
on the other hand,
praiseworthy only when
is
it
leads to " re-
But it is most despicable if it prompt one one day, and 'nay on the next day," or to make vows and not fulfil them. It is best for man to avoid doing
pentance for sin."
"to say
'
aye
'
'
or saying anything of which he must afterward repent.
The to
sense of touch Its desire
it.
is
nearest to the sense of taste, and akin
kinship to the desired object. of
save as
it,
To
it
a " perception " of
and enjoyment spring from
The
rational soul has no need
answers the physical requirements of the body.
are attributed the qualities of liberality and valor, nig-
it
The hand is the most active instrument of the sense of touch; hence open -handedness (liberality) and close-fistedness (niggardliness), as well as the power to gardliness and cowardice.
hold fast or to strike hard (valor), and the possibility of being
weakened by fright and deterred by danger pressed in the terms of this sense.
(cowardice), are ex-
Biblical passages in
which
these four qualities are connected with the hand are cited in
support of this thesis. virtue,
if it
ness.
It
Liberality, or generosity, is a precious
does not degenerate into prodigality and wasteful-
should by
all
means be made
inclination to parsimony. tion,
and
to
compensation
It leads
at the
a
man
hand
to prevail over the
honor and recogni-
to
of Deity.
But
if
gener-
osity degenerate into wastefulness, or deteriorate into an apt-
ness to sacrifice
all
possessions for the sake of satisfying one's
desires, or to a careless surrender of self-respect it is
anything but a virtue.
Niggardliness
even greater extent than generosity ity in its worst aspects, even when gality
is it
is
and self-honor,
detestable to an
praiseworthy.
Generos-
deteriorates into prodi-
and wastefulness, affords some enjoyment and evokes
commendation
to a certain degree
liness, calls forth
;
while
its
opposite, niggard-
nothing but blame and reproach. 25
The wise
;
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL men held
that no superior traits of character are ever associated
He
with parsimony, and no trustworthiness with love of gain.
who
must part with the hope of a good reputation. The only. good side of this quality lies in the fact that its possessor takes care of that which is his own by rightful acquisition but, even here, a man must be on his guard constantly lest he become avaricious. A wise man should yields to that inclination
;
not be niggardly with his wisdom, but give
who its
desire to learn, for
wisdom
is
it
freely to those
a light which never loses of
brightness and intensity because other lights are kindled by
When
it.
man
a
perceives that a tendency toward avarice
beginning to creep over him, he should break
its
power
is
once;
at
he must begin to practise liberality toward those who are nearly
by
related to him, and, little
Valor
practise the art of war.
tised in the right time
sor exercises
it
needlessly
;
in
the quality of
men
and
It
;
a noble quality
is
when
at the right place,
when its
prac-
posses-
ward off danger that comes upon him wrong to court danger and to brave death
in order to
But
unprovoked.
is
whose hearts are large, whose veins it waxes greatest in men
of a sanguine disposition
and muscles are generously developed
who
extend his generosity to
little,
larger circles of his surroundings.
it is
such instances the quality ceases to be bravery,
becomes foolhardiness, and
is
akin to madness.
It is
noble to
display bravery in defence of a principle, but ignoble to put one's self in
danger merely to show the absence of
and death.
Valor should manifest
itself
all fear of
only
when
injury
there
is
a
and serenity ought to be its limitations and safeguards. Patience and forbearance toward those one loves, fortitude and endurance in moments of hardship, are the noblest need of
it
;
fortitude
manifestations of the quality of courage.
Cowardice
is
a quality peculiar to
the wise ought to loathe
most despicable when
it
it,
for
it
mean and
despicable souls
never brings any good.
leads an intelligent
man
dom and knowledge as a plea to hide from danger and at a time when the intelligent man is required in protect a worthy cause.
Cowardice
is
It is
to use his wis-
avoid war
order to
an offshoot of indolence.
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON One may, however,
when one
display cowardice
that strength and bravery cannot avail
IBN GABIROL is
convinced
in such a case, cowardbe cowardice and becomes discretion. The foregoing paragraphs constitute a brief, withal compre;
ice ceases to
summary
hensive,
of Gabirol's
both parts of his work.
system of ethics as contained
have deemed
I
it
in
advisable to connect
the principal thoughts on the individual traits of character, to
which he gave utterance
second part of his work, with
in the
his theses touching the senses, to in order to traits are
make apparent
which the first part is devoted, in which these individual
way
the
connected with the senses, according to the theory of
The
chief aim of the author was to guide his reader improvement of the moral qualities," and this he expected to do by citing the simplest and commonest facts of
Gabirol.
to the "
physical
life.
The organs
of perception were, according to
emblems of the life. Having attributed to impulses, which are designated as
Gabirol, not alone the instruments but also the
various manifestations of physical
each of them a number of
virtues or vices, he developed a general conception of life as is in this
world (the animal
life in
man
it
as he distinctly wishes
us to understand), which should and must be guided and gov-
erned by reason. is
Reason
and above the
life
which
cognizable through the perceptions of the sense-organs.
The
itself is over
consciousness of holding the animal impulses under control felicity.
The very
effort that a
man
puts forth to
make
is
his
animal soul subject to his rational soul affords him happiness,
Saadya and his successors, Maimonand Ha-Levi and their followers, Gabirol treats of ethics as In two or three entirely independent of the religious law. places, it is true, he mentions divine requital; but this he does but, unlike his predecessor
ides
in such general terms as istic sense, or as
may be
mere phrases
construed in a purely rational-
of
common parlance. In no incommand of the religious
stance does he refer to any particular law, that is not based
And
upon an ethical
principle.
yet Gabirol was not an unbeliever.
He
speaks of
divine grace and mercy with a sincerity which leaves no 27
room
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON for doubt in his belief.
The word
IBN GABIROL
of Scripture is to
him un-
questionable law and revelation; even to the authors of the
Talmud he refers with a reverence that is due to superior beings. Why, then, does he avoid all reference to the specific laws of the Bible and the Talmud ? The answer that suggests itself to
oral laws
me
is,
that,
according to Gabirol,
all
the written and
were designed for intellectual beings and for the
training of the rational soul.
Logical, systematic thinker that
he was, he would have insisted upon an elaborate treatise on the ethics of that soul, i.e., on the qualities of human intelli-
gence and reason, before undertaking to expatiate on the laws and regulations which bear upon it. This was not the task he set himself in writing the " Ethics," as
had
out before.
The few
intellectual soul
show
we have pointed
instances in which he that he regarded
it
alludes
to the
as altogether
exempt
from and superior to impulsive action; he would not even admit that intuitive love and aversion are integral parts of and inherent in
some
souls,
it.
He
believes in the superior
and refers to them frequently.
over, that this mystic doctrine
endowments
of
more-
It appears,
makes a sharp distinction between
the purely animal and the higher, or intellectual, qualities of
man; the former manifest themselves and work through the senses, and the latter, the inward senses, are divine endowments,
which manifest themselves in the control they exercise over the animal impulses. this control
is
The
principal agent in the exercise of
reason or intelligence.
This intelligence
mediator between the divine and animal in man, and any
is
being who makes his intelligence master over his natural nations may enjoy the bliss to which Gabirol points.
28
the
human incli-
"
TRANSLATION OF
THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE MORAL QUALITIES.' This
an essay on the improvement of the moral qualities
is
character), according to the opinion of the greatest of the
{i.e.,
ancient sages, composed by the learned, the worthy, the schol-
—
Solomon ben Gabirol, the Israelite, the philosopher may God sanctify his soul. He composed it in the city of Saragossa, in the month of Nissan, in the year 828' (?) of the Alex2
arly
andrian
era.
Blessed be God, the Mighty, the Wise, the
One who
is
Responsive, the One, the Eternal, the Primordial, the
nigh,
Creator; greatly exalted be He.
when we look
Verily,
at
man who
is
the best of
creatures of the Creator, exalted be His majesty,
we
all
the
recognize
that he is the object aimed at in the creation of all substances
and beings.
Furthermore, he
is
constitution, of all living beings
;
best proportioned, as regards and, in addition to this, most
perfect and most beautiful of form, and most completely fashioned.
He
possesses a rational soul, elemental," wise, everlast-
which does not perish with him. For all this there are clear proofs, both intellectual and Scriptural, which every ining,
telligent
man knows.
The
nent among creatures 1
Rosin renders the
2
The term "
script,
title
is,
more
surest proof that
man
is
pre-emi-
that he partakes of the state of the freely
by " The Ennoblement of the Character. Hebrew versions, printed and manu-
Israelite " is replaced in the
by " the Spaniard."
3
Cf. Introduction, p. 6, note 3,
4
Horovitz,
accepting the
" transparent," " luminous
"
and
Hebrew
(p. 108,
p. 7,
note
I.
translation,
note 65);
29
cf.
fVJ\JB,
Dukes ("
would render
this
Phil.," p. 57, note
5).
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL angels
These two
and understanding.
to speech
in regard
Nay
are divine and spiritual properties.
more,
we
be-
see,
sides this, that the angels busy themselves with the righteous
man, as we learn from the case
of Abraham, peace be unto him, him glad tidings and also warned him likewise from the case of Isaac and Jacob, our fathers. The latter
in that they brought
;
said in the course of his excellent prayer for his son (Gen. xlviii. 1
"
6),
The angel which redeemed me
him (Hos. vailed "
xii.
"
5),
and Scripture says of Yea, he had power over the angel and pre-
and Daniel said
;
(vi.
23), "
Concerning the help vouchsafed of their enemies,
"
it is
said (II
;
'
My God hath sent his angel."
to the pious
Kings
and the destruction
xix. 35),
"And
it
came
to
pass that night that the angel of the Lord went out and smote
camp
in the
of the Assyrians.'
amples, which
We know others,
men
of
I will
not go to the length of enumerating.
some men may undoubtedly be superior to nay more, that one man may be equal to a large number
— although
they be of one form and one composition, 3
except that the soul of one
ethical practice, to the higher, ical nature.
4
man
is
predisposed to worldly honor, 3
and his preference for and because the baser part of him is obedient celestial
bodies,
i.e.,
his intellect exercises control over his phys-
But
if
his
aim be low and his station unfit
to reach
In giving the English of Gabirol's biblical citations, I have quoted as
1
required to elucidate the general context.
is
ex-
that
with the help of the
as
There are many similar
-
In doing so,
I
much
depart from the
down by the author or scribe, who frequently cites no more than an word or two of the Scriptural passage, sometimes even the non-essential leaving it to the reader to recall the rest. In citing the number of chapter
precedent laid initial
and
—
—
ones,
Hebrew
verse, the
original has been followed.
2
Wolff
3
Dukes (" Ehrensaulen,"
(p.
82, note 2) cites the p.
somewhat 12,
similar idea of Maimonides.
note 1) makes mention of the Talmudic
thought respecting planetary influence upon the physical conditions of
upon
his
fate;
in his religio-metaphysical
poem,
"The Crown
man and
of Royalty,"
Gabirol treats of this in a brilliant, poetic style. that Gabirol
tury "
:
cf.
had
Ibn Ezra did not fail to note under the spell of the "astrological dreaming of his cen33) and Schmiedl (p. 308, note 3), as well as Schmiedl's entire
fallen
Stein (p.
,
chapter on this subject (pp. 2gg-3i6). 4 This thought, frequently expressed by Gabirol
with in Bahya
;
(cf.
ii.
r,
iii
1). is
often
met
the references are to the edition of the ril33^n ]"IUn. by Jellinek
3°
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL that distinction, so that he does not rise to that control of which
the bodies in their course have not given promise,
1
a sign,
i.e.,
or to which ethics have not aided him, then the wise and intelligent
man ought
expend
to
his efforts in order to reach
all
the highest dignity which he seeks, in order that
it
may
be, as
one of the sages said, " Help the celestial bodies with your souls, even as tilling and irrigating help the seed to grow " * and this occurs naturally through the instrumentality of the ;
He should endeavor to be one of the number of the exand through his zeal follow in their steps. Further, he must refine his qualities until they be improved and not employ his senses except when it appears necessary, until he becomes one (of those) who is honorably known and famed for his excellence, for that is worldly happiness. But when man reaches it, his eyes must not cease to gaze wistfully at the attainment of that which is above it, i.e. enduring happiness which he can reach in the intellectual world, the world to come. For this is the highest gift of God to His servants, in addition to the favor which is their common lot as existent creatures. The prince David, peace be unto him, had implored that he might attain to the well-being of this world, in saying earth.
cellent
,
3
lxxxvi.
(Ps.
He
17),
"Make
with
me
a covenant for goodness."
also desired to be one of those well fitted to attain the bliss
of the world to come, in that he said (Ps. xxxi. 20), (iii., 2,
p.
135;
ix.,
1,
p.
400;
ix.
note 3). Steinschneider ("Alfarabi, " 1
2
,
2, p.
p.
402;
75, note
Horovitz (pp. 127, 128, notes 105, 106).
iii.,
2,
p.
137);
cf.
"
O how
Briill
(p.
74,
5).
Maimonides holds
that to admit
human relations is to limit the freedom of man. The possibility of such limitation of human freedom by planetary influence Gabirol would not be ready to admit, except in some such way as modern freedomists Thein (" Der Talmud take account of the influences of heredity and environment. the influence of the planets upon
oder das Princip des planetarischen Einflusses," Prag, 1874, p. 65 et seq.) discusses the position of Maimonides, Albo, Ibn Ezra, and Jehuda ha-Levi in regard to this mystic and unphilosophic teaching. 3
The thought
set forth in
that existence
this passage,
Royalty," and
is,
is
is in itself
a
mark
of favor from
dwelt upon at greater length in
according to Sachs
(p.
the later moralists.
31
244,
and
note),
God
to
man, as
"The Crown
of
emphasized by many of
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL great
is
Thou hast laid up for them "They shall be abundantly
the goodness which
Thee";
(Ps.
x.xxvi.
with the fatness of
9),
Thy house."
that fear satisfied
This height cannot be reached
Thus he asked (Ps. xv. 1, by any one save through merit. " Lord, who shall abide in thy tabernacle, who shall dwell 2), And the answer is, " He that walketh in thy holy hill ? " Having arrived
uprightly and worketh righteousness."
in the
course of our remarks at this stage in the account of man's pre-
eminence,
let
us direct our attention to the statement of the
work and the method of deriving some adThis will come to pass after we shall have divided the treatise into all its sections as is incumbent upon us. Then will we realize the benefit of it. Thus Solomon the Wise, peace be unto him, has said (Eccles. vii. 27), "Beobject of this our
vantage therefrom.
hold this have
I
found, saith the Preacher, counting one by one
to find out the account "
;
by which he meant to say that when it is necessary to enumerate them.
things are brought together,
So, also, by properly ordering the discourse,
will
it
be under-
stood.
God, Mighty and Exalted, has created the expanse of the smaller world
man blood fire,
'
dependent upon four elements
corresponding to
1
:
He
places in
yellow gall corresponding to
black gall corresponding to earth, and white moisture cor-
2 responding to water.
him,
air,
i.
e.,
There
Moreover God, exalted be He, equipped
man, with perfectness of form and with every organ is
evidently an omission
in
the
Arabic
text,
p.
4,
line
5
;
the
Hebrew version includes a line omitted through the mistake of an early copyist, who skipped from the former JJ31X JPN313 "v]? to the latter, thus omitting the intervening line or lines. This Arabic omission is supplied by Kaufmann (" Sinne," pp. 37, 38). 2 " Fons Vita; " of Gabirol, Tractate iii. (Guttmann, p. 117, note 3) Dieterici, " Mikrokosmus," pp. 89, go and " Logik," p. 103 " Anthropologic der Araber im Zehnten Jahrhundert," Leipzig, 1871 (pp. 4, 42, 189) M. Friedlander, " Essays ;
;
;
;
on the Writings of Abraham ibn Ezra," London, vol. iv. (p. 24, note 4). This purely Greek conception was speedily incorporated into Jewish teachings. Gabirol's immediate successor in point of time Bahya, follows him here. (Cf. In-
—
—
troduction, p. 13, note 2.)
the four elements, found
a
poem
of
The its
teaching that
way even
Abraham ben Meir
man
is
a microcosm, constituted of
into the poetry of the
Middle Ages.
Cf.
ibn Ezra, cited by Sachs (p. 115, and p. 42 of the
32
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON complete and not wanting
in
IBN GABIROL
any respect
He
and
;
created within
him five senses, as we shall relate. Solomon the Wise alludes to them when he says (Eccl. ix. u), "I returned and saw under the sun " "seeing" here means to observe carefully, the ;
general term for " seeing
"
being here used in the place of the
specific term, " observing carefully " as in saying,
means whatever the sun
sun," he
"The
race
which
is
is
"under the
In the saying,
encircles.
not to the swift," he hints at the sense of smell,
(situated in) the nose, because running
is
impossible
except through the inhalation of air from without to cool the natural heat which
The
within man.
is
lished by the sense of the nose, and
if
inhalation
accomp-
there were no nose there
could be no breathing, which causes motion. is
is
In saying
"
Nor
the battle to the strong," he wishes to indicate the sense of
hearing; just as
we
ing in battle, as
it is
war
said (Ex. xxxii. 17),
camp."
the
in
see that war consists of crying and of hear-
wise," he refers
"Nor
In saying,
"There yet
is
is
a noise of
bread to the
the sense of taste and the meaning
to
to be taken literally.
In saying
"
Nor
derstanding," he refers to the sense of touch, which
kind with the understanding
:
'
is
yet riches to the un-
the latter
is
is
of a
of the category of
the inner senses, which are concealed in the nature of the soul, as for example, perception, thought, saying, "
Nor
is
men
there favor to
and understanding.
In
of skill," he wishes to indi-
cate the sense of sight, which does not
become knowledge except
through prolonged attention to scripture and continuous study of books.
9
Were
it
love of conciseness,
not for the great length involved and our
we would
clear arguments, (adduced)
Hebrew supplement), who
follow up these allusions with
from
syllogistic
3
reasoning and the
refers to an eleventh century exposition of this theory
in a Piut of R. Isaac ibn Giat (" Ritual of Tripoli," p. 92 b). 1 Horovitz appears to hold (p. 140, note 154) that Gabirol follows Aristotle in cf. Dukes bringing the sense of touch into relation with the understanding ;
(" Phil.," 2
p-
121, note 4).
Horovitz
(p. 138,
note 141) adduces the somewhat similar views of Aristotle
and Plato cf. Kaufmann (p. 140). 3 Kiyas is rendered by the Hebrew X"QD, "reason." ;
3
33
According to
Stein-
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL science of oral traditions, in order that they might be easily and 1
simply comprehended. the ordinary and suffice as
who
But for those whose faculties are above
are of high-minded purpose, this little will
evidence that the wise prince alluded to naught else
in this passage but the visible
senses,
(outer)
and veiled the
mention of the hidden (inner) ones. 2 If a man be wise, he will employ them in the right place and restrain them from everyLet thing in connection with which he ought not to use them.
him rather be
like a skilful physician,
tions, taking of every
who
3
prepares prescrip-
medicine a definite quantity; thus the
ingredients vary in quantity
;
he uses of one the weight of a
Danik, and of the other the weight of a Kirat schneider ("Alfarabi," pp. 26, 27, notes 21, 22),
it
is
;
and so on
ac-
usually translated by the
term E»pn. 1
1895,
M. Ehrenpreis ("Die Entwickelung p. 1,
note
1
)
der Emanationslehre, "
holds that Gabirol's use of this term
Frankfurt,
"das Vorhandensein
und 11. Jahrh. vermuten lasst," assuming word connotes " spekulativer Kabbala." Munk (p. 283, note 2) insists with much emphasis that Jellinek wrongly renders this term by " la science de la Kabbale." adding " II est evident que le mot i"IP3pn signifie ici simplement tradition, ou ce qui est admis sur l'autorite traditionelle. L'original arabe d'ailleurs ne laisse aucun doute a cet egard. " Cf Dukes (p. 103). B. Zimmels spekulativ-kabbalistischer Schriften im 10. that the Arabic
.
("Leo Hebraeus,
ein jildischer Philosoph der Renaissance," Leipzig, 1886, pp.
58, note 1 68, notes 1 and 2) maintains Munk (p. 527) was similarly 57, note 1 mistaken in believing Leo Hebraeus to be " sous les auspices de la Kabbale," the mistake arising from the use of the term !"|?3p, which Leo expressly uses as does Gabirol. in the signification, the " ancient Hebrew tradition." The term is ;
;
ntop
used with the same meaning by Saadya, Bahya, and Ibn Daud 6, note 4; page 40, note 3; p. 59, note 4; p. 145, note 2).
"Gabirol
goes so far as to say,
ist
,
vide Bacher
(p.
Stossel (p.
51)
der Fortsetzer des Buches Jezirah und der
Vorarbeiter des Zohar." the case of Isaac
Myer
This view has met with little or no acceptance, save in (author of " Qabbalah, the Philosophy of Ibn Gebirol, the
Qabbalah and the Zohar," Philadelphia, 1888), whose voluminous work is written support of the theory that Gabirol was an outspoken Kabbalist. Mr. Myer calls "The Crown of Royalty" a " kosmic Qabbalistic hymn," and the " Fons Vita; " " a philosophical Qabbalistic work," " one of the earliest exposures of the secrets of the speculative Qabbalah." 2 Quoted by Kaufmann (" Sinne," p. 47, note 32), in the chapter treating of the " inner and outer senses." 3 Guttmann (" Saadya," p. 284, note 2, and " Gabirol," p. 18, note 1) points out the similarity of this passage to " Emunoth," x. p. 159 (ed. Slucky), and " Die in
,
Propadeutik der Araber, " Berlin, 1865 (pp. 44 and 163).
34
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON
IBN GABIROL
cording to his estimate of their respective
He
effects.
will
not be satisfied until there be
mixed in with it something which will keep it from doing harm (to the person to whom it is administered), and all this must be calculated.
man ought to consider carefully the qualities which belong to his senses and not employ them except when it is necessary for God, exalted be He, has so constituted them in man that he can wisely order them, since through them he guards the normal condition of his life. By their means he Since this
is so,
;
sees colors, hears sounds, tastes food (flavors), smells odors, dis-
tinguishes between hard and
mention when we commence
now
will
and
soft,
all
many which
are necessary to his life; and
other things which
we
are useful
(the subject), please God.
will
We
describe the senses and the various advantages to be
derived from their use and the necessity of refraining from the use of them
We
when they would cause harm.
hold that the
the eye, since of the
its
first
and foremost
of the senses is that of
position with regard to the body
sun to the universe.
1
It
like that
is
a sense which never fails to
is
perceive an object without (the lapse of) time,
i.e.
,
its
percep-
which is near to it is as quick as its perception of that which is far from it nor does any time elapse between its 2 perception of the near and its perception of the far, as is the The eye alights upon its objects case with the other senses. tion of that
;
of perception as long as sible unless
it
open.
it is
be closed.
How
3
Therefore, sleep
wondrous
philosopher with regard to the sense of the eye
is
impos-
the saying of a
is !
"
The
soul has
which sometimes become apparent in the motion 4 Again he said, " Keep watch over the sense of of the eyelid." sight verily it may lead to various kinds of wrong by some of its motions it may testify to your (having) pride and haughtiness, spiritual tints,
:
:
1
Cf. Horovitz (p. 13S, note 140).
2
Cf.
Horovitz
Kaufmann (" (p. 139.
*
Horovitz
4
Platonic doctrine.
p. 78, note
Sinne, " pp. 117, 118, note 55, and p. 120, note 61), and
note 144).
(p. 139,
note 143). Cf. Horovitz
(p. 139,
1).
35
note 142), and Dukes ("Phil.,"
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL *
and by others to your possession of meekness and humility. Therefore, compel it to make the very best movements and " Furthermore," he said, restrain it from the most ignoble." "social intercourse does not exist for the pleasure of the eye,
The
but the enjoyment of the mind."
How
stand this saying.
beautiful
man will
learned
under-
the agreement of this ut-
is
terance with the word of God, exalted and magnified be
(Num.
xv. 39), "
own eyes." The sense
Do
ye not seek after your
2
man
does not heed
good training, with reference to
it
as
more
is
He
heart and your
Though
of hearing is next in point of importance.
the effect of this sense upon the soul that of sight,
own
readily felt than
Under
he does the eye.
man's
this sense, is included
refraining from listening to indecent things, and not judging in
regard to the pleasant tones which he hears according to their
One ought
sound, but according to their meaning and intent. not to be ensnared by what he hears, as the bird
by the sounds
which
is
ensnared
and one ought to know of the places where it is necessary to pay good heed and those wherein it is not fitting to listen at all, as he of whom it is said (Isa. xxxiii. 15), "that stoppeth his ears from to
it
inclines with admiration;
the hearing of blood."
The a sound
sense of smell follows the sense of hearing, because is felt
in the air
because
it
and
it is
of lesser
Accordingly, there
sense of hearing. it,
;
entails
not (the
moment than
less
is
possibility
the
need of training
of)
obedience or
revolt.
As
for taste,
mentioned,
still
though
it
below the senses afore-
be, in degree,
the manner of training
for the
body cannot
others.
The way
bidden, and give
exist without
to train it
it is,
it,
as
—keep
it
it
it
is
more important,
can exist without the
from that which
free rein with regard to that
which
is for-
is
per-
Dukes (pp. 97, 98) shows the thought, " Humility dwells in the eye," to be Aristotelian. Cf. "Ethics," 3, where two maxims of Aristotle are quoted in 1
i.
the paragraph, which restates the thesis, that pride and meekness are closely related to the sense of sight. 2
Kaufmann
(p. 141,
note
4).
36
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON
Reason' should exercise rule over desire in
missible.
The
IBN GABIROL all this.
instance wherein you can evidence your mastery over your desire is in eating and in drinking, just as it was in this first
regard that
Touch
man
first
sinned.
follows the sense of taste, 2 and
Its pleasures are peculiar
very similar to
is
members
to those
which the humors are well balanced.
There
of the
body
it.
in
no occasion for
is
the reasoning soul therein, except to guide the body. As to the manner of exercising it, thou must know that these desires are
ills
of the body,
thou must heal.
which thou must
Think not
Do
tellectual soul.
that
it
is
and diseases which
treat,
characteristic of the in-
not suppose that complete happiness and
perfect blessedness are to be attained thereby, as one attains
which man
to excellences, in virtue of
honor in matters pertaining
As we have
is
adjudged deserving of
to the intellect.
entered upon a description of the senses,
let
us
regard each of them in the light of a genus and then mention the species comprised under
Then
let
us
name every
it,
namely, the qualities of man.
individual in the species and describe
useful and harmful qualities and the method of effecting
its
improvement.
now we proceed
If
to represent the qualities of
the senses according to number, the result
We
has four qualities. sight four,
and a
like
its
is
that every sense
would
attribute, firstly, to the sense of
number
to the other senses, so that the
sum would amount to twenty qualities for the five senses. Accordingly, we assign to the eye Pride, Meekness, Pudency, and Impudence. Our reason for putting pride in connection 3
with the sense of sight
while treating of
it
;
is
clear, as
glance of the proud and boastful of that 1
such
we behold
has been remarked above,
also because thou perceivest the spirit.
in the lowly of spirit, that
The very is,
meekness.
intended to be ruled by the nobler, and
its
|;ood
vol.
Horovitz (p 140, note 151). Maimonides appears to me to have been familiar with
and
evil qualities.
Cf. Wolff (pp
6 and 10).
37
As
virtue lies consequently in
obedience to the Reason " (Ritter, "Ancient Philosophy," 3
Scrip-
" Plato looks upon the sensual desires as the baser portion of the soul. it is
5
haughty
reverse of
ii.,
this
p. 411).
enumeration of
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL ture says with reference to the unduly lofty (Isa.
men
lofty looks of
"
The
shall
n), "The
ii.
be humbled," and again
(id. v.
15),
The
eyes of the lofty shall be humbled," and so forth.
use here of (the word) " eyes " shows that the quality of pride is
Of meekness it is said humbler eyes than to behold evil,"
to be attributed to the sense of sight.
(Hab.
i.
13),
"Thou With
art of
and so forth. regard to the impudent, thou observest in most cases that his eyes stare and he is indifferent to shame; thus it is said of them (Isa. iii. 9), "The shew of their countenance doth witness against them." Thus thou wilt notice that the eyes of the unrighteous, the impudent, are troubled and restless, like those of
whom
(Jer. v.
On
3),
it is
said (Job
Again
of the wicked shall fail."
"They have made
it
is
xi.
20), "
their faces harder than a rock."
the other hand, thou wilt find that the pudent
his eyes so that
favor of
he may merit, by reason of
God and men,
grace unto the lowly "
as
The eyes
said of the impudent
it is
said (Prov.
this,
iii.
man
lowers
the abundant
34),
"
He
giveth
and as we, with the help of God,
;
ex-
alted be He, will explain very clearly in the successive chapters.
This favor can be acquired only by means of (the faculty having regard to him that sees and that which
sight,
Thus
was said of Moses our Master, peace be unto him (Num.
it
"The man Moses was
xii. 3),
said,
of)
is seen.
very meek."
corresponding to this (Ex.
xi. 3), "
Previously
it
was
The man Moses was
very great."
The sense •species,
of hearing constitutes a
namely, four qualities
heartedness (cruelty).
— Love,
One has need
genus embracing four
Hate, Mercy, and Hardof great precision in de-
termining the relation of these four qualities to the sense of
Even though we do not make our exposition
hearing.
roughly
clear, nevertheless
men
tent with hints and allusions.
tho-
of
understanding will be con-
He
ought not to be blamed who
brings forward a fraction of the truth for not gathering together
the whole. that cal
I
Perhaps the reader will admit as excuse for me, in
have not succeeded in bringing together the metaphysi-
and
logical proofs
and the Scriptural examples as
far as I
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON have gone, the fact that human power
man
who .does but
scantily realize his hopes.
Bible (a mention
who
it is
Furthermore heard
" ;
(Gen.
vi.
And
"
4, 5),
O Israel," and Lord thy God," etc. Abraham's servant
Hear,
shalt love the
xxiv.
"When
52),
the Lord, bowing himself to the earth "
In some places in the
He who
said immediately following, "
is
it
"Thou
said,
always greatly troubled and
the hearing occurs, followed by urging;
of)
thus the expression (Deut. after that
is
but slight, especially in
is
the case of a
like me,
IBN GABIROL
"
worshiped
and again (Gen.
;
xxix.
came to pass that when Laban heard the tidings," "he embraced him and kissed him." Hearing is also used in 13),
it
connection with acceptance and approval, which are at the basis of love; thus will hear."
a
man
written (Ex. xxiv. 7),
is
it
The performance
therefor; thus
voury meat, such as
When
of a thing
Sometimes
hearing
thus
:
do and
will
due
is
said (Gen. xxvii. 4),
is
love."
I
fulness follow upon "
it
"We
to the love of
"Make me
satisfaction is
it
we
(Lev.
said
sa-
and cheerx.
20),
Moses heard that he was content," just as anger ensues
in the absence of assent
and hearkening, as (Ex.
withstanding, they hearkened not unto
xvi. 20), "
Not-
..." And
Moses."
Moses was wroth with them." Hatred also results from hearing, as thou must know from the case of Esau, of whom it is said (Gen. xxvii. 34), "When Esau heard," and then follows Mercy is known to result (id. xxvii. 41), "Esau hated Jacob." from "hearing
" ;
thus
I
am
"
Whoso hearkeneth
merciful."
to this,
it is
God
said (Ex. xxii. 26), "
It is said of
unto
me
I
shall dwell safely."
said of the unrighteous (Job xv. 21),
fright is in his ears
:
will hear, for
the righteous dead (Prov.
i.
33),
In contrast
"A
in peace the despoiler shall
sound of
come upon
Hard-heartedness results from the want him," and so forth. of assent; thus it is said of Pharaoh in many places (Ex. ix. 12), "
not."
The Lord hardened
A
whose tongue thou hearken unto what
The
the heart of Pharaoh and he hearkened
hard-hearted people
it
shalt
is
called (Jer.
v.
15),
"A
nation
not understand, neither shalt thou
speaketh," and so forth.
sense of smell also
commands 39
four qualities
— Anger,
"
;
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON
IBN GABIROL Anger
Good-will, Jealousy, and Wide-awakedness. to the sense of smell, as
it is
(anger) was kindled "
anger, indignation, and
:
said (Jud. xiv. 19),
mostly in connection with the nose, as "
Then was Nebuchadnezzar
full
nose (visage) was changed." quillity of the thoughts,
altered est is
by an
among the
tenance)
is
life,
said (Dan.
iii.
and the form
19),
of his
in the brain,
and
it is
not
the sense of smell, though the near-
senses affecting
said (Prov. xvi. 15),
his nose
wrath appear
Good-will consists in the tran-
which are
" illness " of
it is
of fury,
attributed
is
"And
"In the
and his favor
Concerning good-will
it.
it
light of the king's nose (coun-
is
as a cloud of the latter rain."
Jealousy and wide-awakedness are of the sense of the nose, and is a branch of anger: thus it is written (Prov. vi. 34), For jealousy is the rage of a man." Thus becomes clear the association of the heated temperament, which is anger, with jealousy in the matter of this sense. Wide-awakedness consists in the movements of a man and results from the ordering of the organs of breathing, which are pivotal to the sense of
jealousy "
we have remarked above in the section devoted to the exposition of the passage beginning with " The race is not to smell, as
the swift.
The sense
of taste includes as its
species four qualities,
namely, Joy (Cheerfulness), Grief (Apprehensiveness), Penitence,
Dost thou not see that the greatest which is atthe sense of taste ? Hast thou not heard
and Tranquillity.
pleasure
is
derived through eating and drinking,
tained by means of
—
of the saying on the part of Isaac (Gen. xxvii. 25),
here unto
his
Speech, consisting as
kind with (the objects
thus
it is
of) taste,
Opposed
to this
we
the failure to exercise this sense, as
wept and did not 34),
He
eat."
It
is
it
does of words, which are
sometimes gives
rise to joy
A man hath joy by the
said (Prov. xv. 23), "
mouth."
"
it
;
(Ruth iii. was merry." of a
"Bring
me and I will eat of my son's venison " and also " And when Boaz had eaten and drunk, his heart 7),
answer of
find that grief follows it is
said (1
Sam.
i.
7),
upon She
"
also related of Jonathan {id. xx.
did eat no meat the second day of the month, for he 40
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON Many such As to
was grieved for David."
expressions are used with
reference to Saul and others.
the reason for referring
IBN GABIROL
the quality of penitence,
to (the sense of) taste
it
is
that contri-
tion and penitence are felt for what has gone before, and one
denies himself different kinds of enjoyment, which are rendered possible by
means
of the taste, as
The
return."
Israel,
said (Hos. xiv.
is
it
i),
"O
attributing also of the quality of tran-
quillity to (the sense of) taste is seen in the saying of Senne-
charib
(II.
Kings
xviii. 31),
"Eat ye every man
vine,
"
"
therein,
and every one of his fig-tree; And they saw the people that were
and again
own
of his
(Jud. xviii. 7),
how they dwelt
in
safety."
The
sense of touch also stands in relation to four qualities,
and these are
Liberality, Niggardliness, Valor,
Liberality in connection with touch
Liberality consists in open-handedness,
the action of the hand.
even as niggardliness giving,
it is
liness, it
is
"A
said (Prov. xviii. 16),
said (Prov.
hand
will increase."
touch
is
With regard to maketh room him." Of niggard-
but closefistedness.
is
and before great men
for him,
and Cowardice.
possible only through
is
xiii.
will lead
it
11),
man's
"He
That valor
gift
that gathereth
by
close
in connection with
is
the
evident from the connection between seizing hold of
(something) and the hand
hand she put forth
to the
;
thus
it
nail."
is
said (Jud.
v.
In opposition to
26), "
this, it is
said of cowardice (Isa. xxxv. 3), " Strengthen ye
and again (Ezek.
vii. 17),
"All hands
shall
Her
weak hands " become feeble," and ;
so forth. It
having been made clear that
all
are related to the five senses, let us
theme
—
the qualities of the soul
now
return to our
first
which we have stated to be the Seeing that most men are not sufficiently
(the elucidation of)
purpose of this book.
versed in the ruling of their qualities to enable them to regulate these according to ethical standards
we have resolved which
ways
an account in extenso of the qualities, the which to use them, and the mode in which to bring
shall contain
in
and a rational method,
to write a satisfactory treatise concerning this,
41
— THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 1
about their improvement.
In addition to this
with the persistent importunity of one of sires this as
my
have met
I
friends,
who
de-
a memorial and preparation for himself and for
me, in the event that conditions change in the course of time, places
become disturbed and men
He
alter.
desires also that
the relationship of the qualities to the senses should be set
Before explaining this at
forth.
will
all, I
make
clear to
it
him
by means of a geometrical diagram and visible proofs. Then let us first sketch a diagram of the four temperaments, which
we have mentioned
may be
drawn
figure, so
it
at the
and the senses ready
it
beginning
that the imagination
comprehend
to
have indicated with reference to every temperament
whatever are
ment
form of a
quick to grasp
We
it.
We have
above.
of our work, in the
its
elements, and then joined to every tempera-
five qualities, in accordance
We
calculation.
with the requirements of the
have joined them to whatever quality they
have, in preference to any other, after having classified
the diagram,
them
in
— giving those which are hot and cold, and to which
of the elements they belong,
and likewise those that are moist
(humid) and dry (arid) and their conjunctions and disjunctions all this
end
silence the
mouths
He may put an on the strength of
that
to the opposition (clamor) of those who,
their knowledge, enter
I
Of God we pray
in the diagram.
upon a discussion with
of those
and that
us,
who argue with us
He
in their folly.
have no reason to trust that their envy will not lead them to
attempt to humiliate us disturbance, sufficeth as
yet will
;
I
not be deterred by their
those taking refuge with
in
Him
I
Him, the
trust, for
He
it is written (Lam. good unto them that wait for Him." innocent of that wherewith they charge me
iii.
is
haughtily
:
I
am
1
Cf. the ;
words of Bahya
Brtlll (p. 79,
a shield to
25),
Verily, if
"The I am
they speak
too pious to be the victim of their pride, even
though they occupy the foremost place, for there view
is
surest protection to those
seeking after His help, as
Lord
The Lord
nor dismayed by their brutishness.
my portion, and
note
(iii.
10 and
1).
42
iii.
i),
who has
is
no iniquity
the same purpose in
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON in
my
(Ps.
hand.
xxxviii.
Therefore will 21),
"
I
IBN GABIROL
bear their attacks
They hate me only because
but
;
I
I
do say
pursue the
God knows that I have not admitted into my work anything except my own thoughts and writing, nor have I busied myself with anything outside of my own ideas. To those who good."
'
have superior souls and lofty aspirations, their strong affection for our discourse will point out that which we have in mind; and if they alight upon any mistakes in the course of it, they will allow that my excuse is clear and evident, since in its chief parts there is good sense. This is a copy of the first diagram, which represents the elements and the temperaments :
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON
IBN GABIROL
We have arranged to refer every temperament to its element and every quality to its temperament,' as required by the argument, which we shall make clear in another place with the help Having of the Almighty, the Sufficient, may He be exalted. sketched this diagram as just explained, we would say here that which we can enumerate is twenty, se, and others blameworthy per se. Whosoever wishes to attain to the improvement of his qualities must pursue in his own person the goodly course so that the praiseworthy qualities come to be to him excellences, unto which he must accustom himself, from which he must not separate from the time of his youth, and whereunto he must apply himself step by step and little by little. Thus saith the sage (Prov. xxii. 6), " Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it. " The philosopher hath said, " Intelligence is a gift, moral conduct is an acquirement, the of
sum
of the
human
qualities
which some are praiseworthy per
but habit
is
qualities of
master over all things." Know thou that all the man, of the possession of which he gives evidence
at the period of his
youth and manhood, are in him during his
infancy and boyhood
:
though
it
be not in his power to mani-
them, they are nevertheless within him in potentia,
fest
in actu.
Thou
pudency manifests
itself,
and in
ilar to
men
;
and
still
others are dis-
these qualities above mentioned and others sim-
them being among those
of the
animal soul; and when
reach unto the stage of maturity, the strength of the ra-
tional soul displays its activity it
not
;
to enjoyment, others aspire to virtue,
posed to vices
(if)
some boys the quality of others impudence some incline
wilt observe that in
and
it
directs
him
to a proper understanding with regard to the
the qualities, since
improve these.
it is
Now
that possesses
improvement
of
not the practice of the animal soul to
in addition to this proposition being sus-
has been handed down to us by tradition words of the Saint (Prov. xx. n), "Even a child is known by his doings." As to the youths whom baseness overceptible of proof,
it
in the
1
We
meet with the same thought
pp. 74 and 127, notes 2 and
in
3).
44
Jehuda ha-Levi
;
cf.
Dukes ("
Phil.,
"
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL comes,
possible to transform
it is
them
into a noble state as
long as the limits of childhood have not been passed
but
;
if
they overstep the boundaries of youth and reach maturity, and continue to remain in this condition,
them along erect before
it is
is difficult to
men when
it
becomes
full
grown
bend or move
difficult to set
may be made
a good course, just as a sprig
to stand
when it has become a tree, it From this thou seest that most
but
;
it.
they have reached maturity cannot be turned aside
from the course which in their youth they pursued, whereas most men can be directed between the periods of childhood and youth unto good habits. This is the simple meaning of " (Prov. xxii. 6), Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old," etc. Thus, too, our Rabbis say, " At twenty years of age, one dies with it." '
It is
soul
impossible that evil-doing should belong to the rational
would not be in accordance with wisThe Deity hath created the soul pure, stainless, and
by
dom.
nature, for this
simple, as saith the sage (Ecc. that
God hath made man
from that
is
not good,
the natural impulse.
vii. 29),
upright."
"
This only have
Whatever
found,
I
results there-
is
the work of the vegetative soul,
A
philosopher has said that, "
by means
clings to good qualities in order to enjoy
of
2
i.e.,
He who
them the
pleasures of his senses and (to satisfy) the necessities of his
body, does not understand their true value
;
but he understands
them who seeks after them, because he recognizes their merit and usefulness and knows that death caused by following them is
better than
life,
based upon their opposites; and he
keeps his thoughts away from the base, 1
Rosin (" Maimonides, "
parallels:
" Ueber
p. 5, note 4,
and
p. 65,
lifts
them up
who
to the
note 3) suggests the following
die ethische Bildungsfahigkeit der Jugend,"
"Arist.
.
N. E.,
im Namen Plato's nach dessen De Leg. ii.; aber auch Aristot. ohne Nennung dazu vgl. Maim, zu Abot i. 14." Plato's, N. E. ii. 1. Schl. und x. 10 2 This threefold division of the soul, vegetative, animal, and rational (cf. the preceding paragraph of the text), is discussed at greater length in the " Fons Vitse" cf. Munk (p. 200), Rosin (p. 46, note 1), and Horovitz (p. 115, note 77, and p. 117, note 82). This same division occurs in Israeli (cf. Fried, p. 37) and Kalonymos b. Kalonymos cf. J. Landsberger, " Iggereth Baale Chajjim," Darmstadt, 1882 (p. 172, and note on p. 266). ii.
2,
;
;
;
45
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL good."
man separates may He be exalted
In the measure in which
baseness does he near God,
himself from ;
and in the
measure in which he nears baseness, does he separate himself from Him.
Now
in regard to the twenty qualities of man, upon him, points to them and alludes to their David, peace be " Psalm of David " (xxxvii.) " Contend not origin in the Of some of these he with thyself because of evil-doers." clearly treats, as may be gathered from the literal interpretation of the verse; others he indicates merely by allusions viz., he enjoins serving God, by cultivating qualities that are praiseworthy, and inhibits the exercise of the blameworthy qualities. Furthermore, he condemns the course of those who depart from the right way, as it should be observed, and praises the course of those who rightly habituate themselves to good practice. In saying at first, "Contend not with thyself because of evildoers," he would put an inhibition upon envy of the wicked; for, if man does not envy them, he is necessarily bound to hate them. Moreover, he warns against envy of them and jealousy of their condition, these being his words (Ps. xxxvii. i), "Be :
not
envious against the workers of iniquity."
He
enjoins
Lord and confidence in Him, in saying {id., xxxvii. 3), "Trust in the Lord and do good." Furthermore, he alludes to the exercise of the qualities of pudency and modesty (id., xxxvii. 3), " So shalt thou dwell in the land and feed jn faithfulness." His saying, first, " So shalt thou dwell in the land," and then "and feed in faithfulness," shows that long life on earth is the result of cultivating humility and pudency, which he calls "faith," as thou knowest from the saying (Num. trustfulness in the
xii. 7),
"He
is. faithful in all
my
house," and that which pre-
ceded in the description of modesty. of the meriting of
life,
even long
expression (Ps. xxxvii. 11),
life
That which we have said on earth, corresponds to the
"The meek
shall inherit the earth."
"Delight thyself also in the Lord," he alludes to the quality of joy, which the righteous exercises in that In saying
(id., 4),
service of the Lord, wherein he delights.
where
(Ps. xxxii. 11),
"Be
Thus he says
glad in the Lord and rejoice, 46
else-
O
ye
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON
IBN GABIROL
righteous
"
(Isa.
10), " I will greatly rejoice in the
lxi.
;
again, he says of the season of gladsome tidings "
xxxvii. 4),
(Ps.
He
In saying
Lord."
shall give thee the desires of thine heart,"
he alludes to the quality of yearning which is love, for God satisfies the yearning of the righteous, as is promised them in the saying (Ps. xx. 6),
The
sires."
words,
"
"The Lord
will
from anger
Cease
fulfil
all
thy de-
are to be taken
"
they forbid giving way to violent anger and wrath. Cease from anger and forsake wrath " requires, first, the uprooting thereof, and, second, penitence for what has gone literally;
To
"
"The meek
before.
lowly,
—viewing
the
"The wicked
12),
These are the
shall inherit the earth."
verse literally.
In
saying (Ps. xxxvii.
plotteth against the just and gnasheth upon
him with his teeth," he alludes to the use which the wicked make of impudence and recklessness. In saying (id., 13),
"The Lord
shall laugh at
him," he means that
He
will destroy
the impudent one and cause the righteous to rejoice in his destruction; thus rejoice
it is
said (Ps.
lviii.
11),
"The
when he seeketh vengeance."
"The wicked have unsheathed
In
righteous shall
saying
(id.,
fervor and the daring which they (the wicked) display.
saying
(id.,
14),
"To
14),
the sword," he alludes to the In
slay such as be of upright conduct," he
alludes to the quality of hard-heartedness which prevails over all
their
it is
In saying
(other) qualities.
shall be broken,"
he hints
said of a "brazen-faced nation" (Jer.
lay hold of
bow and
"Their bows
{id., 15),
at the quality of pride;
spear."
In saying
of the wicked shall be broken," he
means
similarly
"They shall " The arms 17),
vi. 23),
(id.,
that the quality of
when their youth and strength are enfeebled, so that they cannot raise their arms In saying (id., 21), "The wicked borroweth and payeth at all. faint-heartedness takes possession of them
not," he alludes to the quality of niggardliness. 21),
"The
In saying
(id.,
righteous showeth mercy and giveth," he has in
mind the two qualities which dwell in the soul of the righteous, Concluding his enumeration of namely, mercy and liberality. these qualities, he seals them with the quality of good-will. 47
,
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL We
would say that when man pursues the right course in referi.e., in the manner in which we
ence to these twenty qualities,
have described the exercise of those that are praiseworthy, and
God be"The ordered by the Lord." Let not man " The steps of a good man are ordered
the putting aside of those that are blameworthy, then
comes well pleased with him, as
man
steps of a good
are
suppose that the passage, "
by the Lord Thus
1
it
said
is
(id.
,
23),
implies any compulsion to obedience (to God) 1
briefly Gabirol
may be
said to urge the doctrine of free-will,
and
to ex-
press his opposition to the Asharitic teachings in respect of predestination.
Maimonides (Wolff,
p. 55 et seq.
and pp.
94, 95, notes 36, 37),
Cf.
who acknowledges
by the physical temperament, which predisposes, without preMaimonides proceeds to demonstrate the futility of commanding, instructing, rewarding or punishing him who lacks " freedom of choice. " Wolff (p. 94, note 36) is right in saying that the doctrine of the freedom of the will (iTVrQ) is one of the fundathe influence exerted
determining, the soul to certain lines of action and modes of being'.
mental principles of Judaism. follows Aristotle
;*»cf.
He
cites Philo
Introduction
(p.
—
and Maimonides, the latter closely Rosin (pp. 167, 168), and
11, note 1),
Dukes (pp. 57-62). Saadya devotes the fourth chapter of his " Emunoth weDeoth " to the advocacy of the doctrine of free-will cf. Guttmann (Saadya, Bahya devotes the eighth section of the third chapter of his " Hopp. 163-174). ;
both ha-lebaboth" to an exposition of his understanding of the freedom of will with which man is endowed vide Kaufmann in loco. According to Frankel-Grun ;
(chap.
ii.
pp. 35-41, and Kusari, v. 20. 25), freedom of the will constitutes one of
the most important bases of religion in the judgment of Jehuda ha-Levi. ibn Zaddik
is
likewise an exponent of this doctrine
;
cf.
Jellinek ("
Joseph
Der Mikro-
kosmos," p. 60) and Rosin (" Maimonides," p. 18, notes 4 and 5) According to Rosin (" Maimonides,'' pp. 23, 24), Abraham ibn Daud is no less pronounced in his advocacy of the freedom of the will, as well as Abraham ibn Ezra (p. 73, note .
.
An
admirable survey of the question
is given by Rosin (" Maimonides,'' pp. According to Joel ("Die Religionsphilosophie des Lewi ben Gerson," p. 54, and " Milhamot Adonai," tractate iii., chap. 4), Gersonides was obliged, without acknowledging it, to sacrifice a part of divine omniscience in order to save
4).
62-76).
human
freedom. Hasdai may be said to be the one notable protestant against the freedom of the will cf. M. Joel, " Don Chasdai Creskas' religionsphilosophische Lehren " (Breslau, 1866, pp. 46, 47) " Or Adonai " (tractate ii., part 5, chap. 4) ;
,
and Ph. Bloch ("Die Willensfreiheit von Chasdai Kreskas," Munchen, 1879). Moses of Narbonne wrote a treatise. ,TVrnn "lOKDri, in order to disprove the fatalistic doctrine expounded in the work of a contemporary, nYTJil JTIJN cf. ;
Beer (pp. 114, 2, 3, 40-42). This entire problem has found fairly comprehensive treatment at the hands of Stein, who shows Saadya, Bahya, Jehuda ha-Levi,
Abraham
ibn Daud, Maimonides, Gersonides,
Moses
of
Narbonne, Aaron of Nico-
media, and Joseph Albo to have been at one in their acceptance of what may truly be called the Jewish dogma of the freedom of the will. Evidently overlook-
48
.
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON or disobedience
;
(it
IBN GABIROL
does point) however, to the bliss and misery
(which are their respective reward and punishment).
The
ing, "
means
steps of a good
that
thing; and
man
God created his soul perfect, not wanting in anywhen it inclines to virtue, to wholesome practice and
good conduct, the expression
" are
ordered " implies that he
merits the approval of God; and this sion
{id.,
In say-
are ordered by the Lord," he
23),
"And He
what we have
is
meant by the expres-
As
delighteth in his way."
a result
upon him, in these hints, gives a description of the way in which to improve the qualities of the human soul and to accustom it to virtuous practice in the same manner as Solomon the Wise has done in his writings, wherein he urges (men) to effect their improvement in every possible manner, as I shall indicate, please
of
said,
clear that David, peace be
it is
—
God, exalted may
He
Following our argument, we shall
be.
proceed to describe the method of the diagram, which we have
drawn, of the senses and the qualities, and the description), in the
we
will explain
senses, uniting
how
every individual
we
the course of
(in
the qualities originate to
make
its
species,
and
clear the nature
every species to
its
of the qualities
derived from the sense of sight and their
quantity;
genus,
i.e.,
will
so also those derived from the sense of
and the remaining senses tabular diagram, so that
it
in the
may
same way.
easily be grasped
hearing,
be a by beginners
It
will
in the study of this science, and those desirous of procuring
the benefit thereof, those asking help of
they
may
bring about
their
God
in
order that
improvement, with the help of
abstract (exact) and concrete (worldly) sciences.
form of the tabular diagram, which
is
This
devised in order to
is
the
illus-
ing the passage to which our note is appended, Stein confessedly omits to treat of Gabirol (p. 22), " da er in seinem einseitigen Neuplatonismus unserer Frage .
gar keine Beachtung widmet."
Problem der Willensfreiheit
in
Cf. Schmiedl (pp. 24-26).
L. Knoller
.
("Das
der alteren jiidischen Religionsphilosophie
des
same ground as Stein, taking up in turn Saadya. Bahya, ha-Levi, Ibn Zaddik, Ibn Daud, and Maimonides, but likewise Mittelalters." Leipzig, 1S84) goes over the
omits to discuss Gabirol's view with reference to the freedom of the reason for the omission
4
(p. 15,
note
I)
49
will,
giving his
.
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL trate the
branching forth of
five senses Sight. '
the twenty qualities
from the
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON my
highmindedness, excuse
my aim in composing surpasses me in talent at
for
God
book was not
to benefit
him who
do not lay claim,
I
Ver-
knowl-
I
am
have plucked from wisdom
I
not wise, that
I
would
is
must not abandon the counsel of must acknowledge to them my
I
contemporaries, and that
weakness.
who who
time, since
this
theme,
my
edge that
my
my
not having exhausted
this
forbid, to superiority in any department of science.
the fruit which
ily,
IBN GABIROL
I
be, in that case, as the saying goes, " as
when
tends a garden well
bloom
in its full
it is
one
or like one
;
heaps up brocaded stuffs boastfully in the presence of those •who make them. " The clearest ground for excusing me, in that I
have not exhausted
me
ting to blame is
we
that
my
for not
theme, and the surest reason for omit-
having completed
live at the present
time amid
to the very end,'
it
and
evil
distress,
an
uninterrupted succession of troubles and disquieting circumstances
;
but
I
complain not.
praise our Creator, exalted
Despite
may He
this, I
do not cease to
be, for the grace
which Hie
has vouchsafed to us, and for having enlightened our understanding and our judgment, causing us to find the way in which
comprehend something of the sciences. I have divided my work into five parts, every part containing four chapters, which makes a total of twenty chapters,
to
number contained
the
qualities belong to five, 1
every part
five
,"
,
loa -nxpn
D^aE'Dn an ny\
(p. 119,
it is
interesting to
;
Leipzig and Paris, 1839, Preface p.
p
to wit,
senses already mentioned.
remark of Abraham ibn Hasdai (as pointed out by Steinschneider, pTH 'JtSD. ed. J. Goldenthal, 342) respecting Gabirol's " Ethics "
" H. U.
p.
have
I
and to every sense whatever
Despite his voluntary acknowledgment of incompleteness, critical
•
it,
These are the parts of the work,
it.
corresponding to the
note the
s6i
To
in the diagram.
joined the sense belonging to
th '•Sib
u
3.
nan ^1T32
hm
p
TO^C
I pB^.l "IUJ D3niYl
e>ajn nno jipn iNnpi ind np" man i?n "nxin by tahwn Cf. Rosin (p. 166, note i) and Dukes
hv
note 2 and " Ehrensaulen, " p. 11).
51
1
PART
I.
The sense of sight, containing four Chapter
I.,
Chapter
chapters.
treating of the quality of pride.
II.,
treating of the quality of meekness, and urging
the exercise thereof.
Chapter
III., treating of
Chapter IV.
,
pudency and modesty.
treating of impudence and the refraining there-
from.
PART
II.
The sense of hearing, comprising four
treating of love and the methods of exercising
Chapter
I.,
Chapter
II.,
it.
treating of hate, the thrusting aside thereof, and
the abandonment of any leaning toward
Chapter
chapters.
III., treating of
the quality of mercy and compassion,
the praise of those possessed of to choose
it.
it,
and the encouragement
it.
Chapter IV., treating of the quality of hard-heartedness and the relinquishment of any leaning toward
PART The sense of Chapter
I.,
taste,
it.
III.
comprising four chapters.
treating of the quality of joy and the methods of ex-
ercising
it.
treating of grief and consolation for sorrow.
Chapter
II.,
Chapter
III., treating of tranquillity.
Chapter IV., treating of penitence and guarding against (the
need
of)
it.
53
"
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON
PART
IBN GABIROL
IV.
The sense of smell, containing four
chapters.
treating of the quality of anger and wrath.
Chapter
I.,
Chapter
II.,
Chapter
III.,
treating of good-will and cheerfulness.
Chapter IV.
treating of jealousy and envy.
treating of the quality of wide-awakedness.
,
PART
V.
The sense of touch, embracing four chapters: thus completing the twenty chapters of the book.
Chapter
Chapter
I.,
treating of liberality and generosity. treating of the quality of niggardliness and the
II.,
dispraise thereof.
Chapter
treating of valor and the exercise thereof.
III.,
Chapter IV., treating of cowardice and the guarding against
Having
finished
numbering the parts of the book and
now begin to explain it all, with may He be. We pray that He lead us
chapters, let us
God, exalted
"
Lead me
in
its
the help of in the paths
by His grace bring us near unto the ways
of rectitude, and of uprightness.
it.
Thus His Saint besought Him
Thy
truth.
54
(Ps. xxv. 5),
PART
I
CHAPTER
I.
Treating of Pride (Haughtiness).
How all
good
it is
that this chapter happens to be the
the chapters, as required by the connection.
seen
many
give
it
it is
it
so
much
unto themselves and make use of
needless to do so, until
their nature.
;
it
it
of
have
I
of the elect exercise this quality unnecessarily
preference over their other qualities
the masses take
where
first
For
and
so, that
in cases
gains the upper hand over
also observe this quality frequently present in
I
young men, i.e. in the child and the youth, especially if the temperament happen to be "yellow-hot." For it is character,
the yellow gall to
istic of
the nature of to exercise
Among
man
it
In
rise.
its
excitement
accustoms
to exercise this quality until he almost
amid circumstances unsuited
among
These are not
the qualities of the ancient saints, of
whom
noble virtues testified that they were opposed to them. as
we
comes
to its appearance.
the special branches of this quality are vanity (presump-
tuousness), boastfulness, and haughtiness.
cluded)
it
see,
(in-
their
Now,
some men, who were known to exercise these qualihave thereby become despicable. Others aim
ties out of place,
to exercise the praiseworthy aspects of the quality of
and are praised
therefor.
I
shall not
go to the length of
counting their names, for they are well known.
we must
carefully consider
how
to acquire the
This being
means
ing this quality in the right place, and subduing season
;
Pride, reso,
of exercisit
out of
and we must make mention of the loathing, which en-
sues as a result of
its
blameworthiness. 55
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL When we of a
man,
it
perceive this quality beginning to affect the nature
becomes necessary for us
to call his attention to
serious matters, such as lead to reflection on the origin of exist-
ent things and their end,
e.
i.
,
the coming into being of things,
their beginnings, their transitoriness, and their
When
he learns that
destruction.
existent things are changeable,
all
1
and
own being will change (waste away) and his body become extinct, then the quality of his soul, which was haughty throughout the course of his life, will become meek and penitent at (the thought of) death. Since we are forced to accept this logical conclusion and traditional reasoning, it finally that his
behooves the wise
own
man
free will, since
whatever from pursuing
many
to avoid preferring this quality of his
detestable and there results no benefit
it is
On
it.
the contrary,
it is
the cause of
man's arrogance urge him not to incline to the advice of any man and although in (seeking) advice is the essence of good counsel, he turn away from it and abide by his own opinion. Of such a man Solomon the Wise, peace be upon him, said (Prov. xii. 15), "The way of a dangers, especially
if
;
own eyes." Thou knowest also what befell Korach and Rehoboam and others like them, who cared only for their own opinion. Man must remember that if he realize fool is right in his
not his
own
sins but consider his
course correct, there will
him what befell them. Concerning this the sage "All the ways of a man are clean in his but the Lord weigheth the spirits " and he saith of
surely befall
saith (Prov. xvi. 2),
own
eyes,
;
"Pride goeth before destruction," i.e., the result of pride and pomp is overthrow and degradation. Thus it happened to Pharaoh, who said (Ex. v. 2), "Who is the pride
(id.
xvi.
18),
"
and Goliath when he spake (1 Sam. xvii. 10), "I defy the armies of Israel; " and Sennacherib for his boastfulness in
Lord?
" Who are they among all the gods and Nebuchadnezzar in that he said (Dan. iii. " that God that shall deliver you out of my hands ?
saying (II Kings xviii. 35), of the countries " 1
s),
"
Who
is
;
and others who follow them 1
Cf.
Bahya
vi.
5
(p.
in the
297), and
56
manner
Brlill (p. 75,
of their speech
note
2).
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON
IBN GABIROL
and whose end was complete abasement and utter obscurity.
Whosoever is in this state is not secure from error and sin. Thus saith the sage (Prov. xxi. 24), " Proud and haughty scorn-
He
er is his name."
mentions craftiness, because
it
is
the
Whoever acts in this wise ought to be ashamed, and remember that according to the measure of his source of boastfulness.
superciliousness will he experience contempt, and in propor-
power
tion to his
the sage saith low,"
will humiliation suddenly befall him.
(id., xxix. 23),
"A
boastfulness and arrogance are the main causes of
i.e.,
man's humiliation, and these, by the wicked, as he saith
Some
heart." of this
(id.,
my
life,
xxi. 4), "
A
are characteristic of
high look and a proud
of the proud vaunt themselves in the exercise
blameworthy
quality, because they delight therein (and
try to excuse themselves by) arguing, that the to distinction,
and finds lowliness irksome.
that domineering (supremacy) strengthens
weakens
it,
it,
(Gen. xxvii. 29),
'
They
further say that the prayers of the
"
to
out of thy loins."
when they
God
him (Gen. xxxv.
On
distinguished His prophet 1 1),
"And
kings shall come
the other hand, he punished those
deserved punishment by humbling their power; thus
foot,
said
Let people serve thee and nations bow down
Yea, in this way
when He spake
and
inclines
while submission
excellent had the attainment thereof in view
to thee."
soul
Again, they hold
and were there no domination, the world would not
be well adjusted.
(Isa. ix.
Thus
man's pride shall bring him
it is
who said
"Therefore the Lord will cut off from Israel head Simbranch and rush in one day," and so forth.
14),
pletons, discussing this superciliousness, do not consider that,
when they
resort thereto, their souls
become unduly
great, that
they overstep their bounds, become overbearing toward their away from their companions, deride the advice of
relatives, turn
1 Guttmann (" Saadya,'' pp. 276, 277, note 2, Emunoth we-Deoth, x. 9) points out that Gabirol closely follows the teaching of Saadya with respect to the it is worthy of notice that Gabirol quotes the same scriptural love of dominion ;
passages.
S.
Landauer
(pp.
xix.-xxi.
of his introduction to the Arabic text of
Saadya's work) holds that this chapter, the tenth, is a later addition to the book cf. D. S. A. Taubeles (" Saadia Gaon, " Halle, 1S8S, p. 32, note 43).
57
;
— THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL much as they rely upon their own opinions own way. But when it is so exercised as to keep
every man, for as
and one away from baseness, to enable one to rise unto the excellences, and to be firm in devotion to God, exalted be He, which is His highest gift, exalted and magnified may He be, to His servants, then this becomes the means whereby men gain Of these the grace of God and reach the everlasting kingdom. " He withdraweth not his eyes from the it is said (Job xxxvi. 7), go their
—
righteous, but with kings are they on the throne
resorts to
counsel,
forever,
him
is like
intermeddleth with
of all
whom
(Prov. xxvi. 16),
men
"The
was said (Prov.
it
wisdom."
and desire not his presence seven
yea, he doth
;
and they are exalted." But he, who superciliousness unnecessarily and takes only his own
them
establish
:
of
sluggard
is
Men
him
1),
disregard such a
"
He
man
such as these the sage saith wiser in his
that can render a reason."
his vanity impels
xviii.
to undertake
And
own
conceit than
often, moreover,
something outside of his
usual course of action, because he relies upon his opinion sav-
ing him and upon his counsel protecting him. causes him to stumble; thus
it
is
said (Job
v.
It
12),
is
"
this that
He
disap-
pointeth the devices of the crafty, so that their hands cannot
Having progressed thus far in our way in which make use thereof moderately, and to the mode of suppressing its use in the wrong place, we must now proceed to quote very sparingly a few prose utterances of the wise concerning this
perform their enterprise."
description of the quality of superciliousness, the
and whatever verses concerning it we can. The divine Socrates said " From whom doth disappointment never part ? He who seeks a rank for which his ability Again he said, " He who sets himself upas is too feeble." wise will be set down by others for a fool." I hold that bad quality,
'
:
manners are attributable " Aversion
men 1
flee
The
is
always
to superciliousness.
felt for
away from him."
him who has an Aristotle says,
Socrates said,
evil nature, so that
"As
the beauty of
appellation "divine," as applied to Socrates and other Greek philos-
ophers, was not
uncommon
;
cf.
Schmiedl (pp. 263, 264).
58
"
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON form
is
a light for the body, so
;
IBN GABIROL
beauty of character a light for
is
Again he said in his testament to Alexander his does not show much nobility of purpose on the part
the soul." pupil, " It
of a king to lord
over
it
A
fellow-man."
men
man
(the less so) for one
;
man
certain haughty
over a
have been
said to
is
journeying along with his effects; some of them fell down, whereupon he threw the others out of the wagon. The ancients say, "With him who is pleased with himself, many become displeased." A poet composed these lines concerning the blameworthiness of haughtiness and arrogance " Let him who shows great vanity concerning his beauty consider this If men would but consider what is within them, neither young nor old would feel proud. Are there not in the head of every son of man five orifices from which come forth '
_
:
!
The nose
effluvia?
exudes, the ear gives forth an unpleasant
and the mouth
odor, the eye sheds tears, earth, to be
consumed
of earth
pride, for thou wilt be food of Ardeshir,
It is told
2
O
salivates.
son of
on the morrow, desist from thy
and drink
the earth)
(to
!
the king, that he gave a book to a
man accustomed to stand at his side, and said unto him, " When thou seest me become violently angry give it to me," and in the book (was
written), " Restrain thyself, for thou art not
thou art but a body, one part of which
suming the
worm and 1
and
other,
is
in a short while
God
on the point of conit
will turn into the
dust and nothingness."
The Arabic
verses, printed in our text,
were not translated into Hebrew by
He
them untranslated, with by some Hebrew verses of Gabirol or the verses of another. Cf. Appendix A. p. 106 and Munk (note 4 to p. This purpose was never carried out cf. Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 382), 167). and " Ermahnungsschreiben, " p. 9 (through a misprint the number ix. reads xi. ),
Jehuda ibn Tibbon, the a view to making good
translator of the work.
left
at a later time the omission
;
who had Gabirol
expected to publish these verses is
The
citing of these Arabic verses
taken by Steinschneider (Introduction,
"J. Q. R.,"
xii.,
p.
by
609) to
some Jews must have been versed in this part of Arabic literature. King" in the "Choice of Pearls" (No. 538, and note Cf. Steinschneider (" H. U.,"p. 388, note 130, and p. 881, note 193), 175). also Dukes (p. 72).
show
2
that
Called an "Indian
59
"
CHAPTER
II.
1
Treating of Meekness.' This quality is more nearly a virtue than that which was mentioned just before, because the possessor of this attribute, i.e. modesty and humility, withholds his desire from seeking ,
When
gratification.
worthy character in is
one attains this precious rank, the praise-
man
is
made
This, in
perfect.
a disposition which merits praise for
my opinion,
him who acquires
it.
Dost thou not see that humility is the highest degree of the nobles and of the prophOne of them said ets, distinguished by their divine rank ? Verily, he
is
accorded the
loftiest praise.
3
(Gen. xviii. 27), "
another said (Ps. I am but dust and ashes " " and forth. They were worm and no man so am a A man of intellipraised for their actions and were honored. gence should know that lowliness and meekness cause him to rea;
xxii. 7), " I
;
lize his desire in
regard to present things, as thou knowest from
the account of what happened to the captains of Achaziah, be-
cause of their folly; and what happened to the third captain gently spake to Elijah
and the
Him
life of
(II
Kings
i.
" I pray thee let 13),
my
who life
these thy fifty servants be precious in thy sight."
there befell the reverse of what had befallen the former.
Verily, fame and glory will be the reward of whosoever
is
lowly.
The recompense of meekness is honor and prosperity, and also the deserving of honor. Thus it is said (Prov. xxii. 4), " The reward of humility and the fear of God are riches, and honor, and life. The most excellent of the ancient nobles (may God guide thee aright) were accustomed to exercise the quality of meek1
This chapter
given in a German translation, based on the
is
Winter and Wtinsche
pp. 727, 72S), being copied from
(vol. ii.,
Hebrew text, in Dukes (pp. 113-
115).
on iTOJ?, in " Emunali Raman " (ed. and 10 Briill (p. 75, note 1).
9
Cf. the chapter
s
Cf. Bahya, vi. 8
;
60
S.
Weil, Frankfort, 1852).
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON ness, and preferred
it
to their natural
IBN GABIROL
impulses.
It
is
related
an illustrious king,' that one night while a number of people were assembled about him, he arose to trim the lamp. Whereof
upon it was said to him, " Why didst thou not utter a command, which would have sufficed?" And he answered them, "As king I rose, and as king I resume my seat." He was wont to say that " Every grace (of man) is envied, except meekness."
The
said, "The fruits of lowliness Know thou that in honoring his man honors himself. Some one has
philosopher Buzurjmihr'
are love and tranquillity."
brother or his neighbor,
remarked that " lowliness consists in being beforehand with greetings to whomsoever one may meet, and in descending to the lowest rank." Contentment is of a kind with this quality. When one is gifted with its presence, he has already gained superiority. It is said, " Whomsoever the Lord loveth he inspireth with contentment."
God
(Prov.
the soul."
wicked
Scripture says of the contented servant of
"The
xiii. 25),
And
shall
it
righteous eateth to the satisfying of
says of the reverse,
want."
He who
"But
the belly of the
possesses strength, health, and
a sense of security ought never to feel sad.
The
fruit of con-
tentment is tranquillity. The greatest riches are contentment and patience. One of the sages has said, " He who desires of this world only that which is sufficient for him, will be conAnother sage was wont to tent with the very least thereof." admonish his son, " He who cannot bear with one word, will be He who esteems his rank but compelled to listen to many. In holding slightly, enhances men's estimation of his dignity." the view that it may be right (at times) to repudiate this qual3
Dukes (p. 114, note 2) points out that this tale is cited in Ibn Khallikan (i. King being there called Caliph Omar. 5 Cf. Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 382. and "J. Q. R.," xii., p. 606, note 3; the reference to the "Ethics" in the same page should be i. 2, not i. 3) Dukes (" Blumenlese, " p. 60, note 3), and Landsberger (as above cited, p. 1
526), the
;
223, note to p. 18). 3
Gabirol's demonstration that patience and contentment are the offshoots of
pudency Bahya,
is
vi.
shown by
Brull (p. 75, note 3) to have been copied almost literally
10 (p. 311).
61
by
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL mean thereby that a man should not abase himself before With reference to such a case it is said (Prov. xxv. "A righteous man, falling down before the wicked, is as a
ity, I
the wicked. 26),
was said concernwho deserves (the greatest) compassion is the
troubled fountain and a corrupt stream."
ing this, "
man
wise
(we find), "
humble
He
lost
among
When
It
In the ethical sayings of
fools. "
man
the noble
Lokman
1
forsakes the world, he becomes
the ignoble in forsaking the world becomes haughty." In the book of al-Kuti * (it is said), " Be humble without :
and manly without being arrogant. Know thou that is a wilderness and haughtiness a taking refuge therein, and, altogether, a going astray." cringing,
arrogance
1
Cf. Steinschneider
("H. U.,"
liographie des Ouvrages Arabes,"
Dukes 2
p. 853).
iii.,
In general see V. Chauvin, " Bib-
Louqmane
et les
Fabulistes, Paris, i8g8.
(" Phil.," p. 161) cites a similar passage attributed to Ibn Ahnaf.
Gabirol refers to an Arabic paraphrase of the Psalms by one IJefes al-Kuti.
Neubauer(" R. E.
J.," xxx., pp. 65-69), and Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 382, note 99, and "J. Q. R.," xiii., p. 312). Cf. also Dukes (p. 105) who (p. nf, note 2) instances a number of parallels to this maxim of Lokman in the writings
Cf.
,
of Maimonides, al-Gazzali, etc.
62
CHAPTER On the Qualities
III.
of Pudency and Modesty.
A
wise man was asked, " What is intelligence ? " and he Again he was asked, " What is modesty?" and he replied, "Intelligence." This quality, although like unto meekness and agreeing therewith, is of a nobler rank
answered, " Modesty."
than the
for
latter,
To every
kindred to intelligence.
is
it
man
of understanding the nobility of the intellect
it is
the dividing line between man and beast, in that it masman's natural impulses and subdues passion. With the
ters
help of intelligence
man
knowledge the Unity
patent, for
knowledge and
realizes the benefit of
gets to understand the true nature of things
is
he comes to ac-
;
of God, to worship his
Master, and to
bear a striking resemblance to the character of the angels.
Since this precious quality
modesty which resembles of its being thus related
man
is
is,
of so noble a kind,
almost equally
is
it
This being
so,
follows that
The
proof
that thou wilt never see a modest
lacking intelligence, or an intelligent
esty.
it
so.
1
man must
man
devoid of mod-
direct all his efforts to the
attainment of this wonderful and highly considered quality.
He must
prefer
it to all
acquires
Thus
it
many
virtues,
is said, "
The
dignity, will not be
low upon him. is
humility."
1
As ii.
to the 5 (p.
He
all
vice becomes hidden from him.
faults of him,
is
and
clothes with
Dignity and honor
fol-
said (Prov. xv. 33), "Before honor
find acceptance before
God because
brings them unto everlasting
advantages which accrue to 114),
whom modesty
remarked by men."
Thus it The meek
their modesty;
Bahya,
and
and regard it means of it he
his natural impulses,
as superior to all his other qualities, for by
Brttll (p. 74,
note
63
man by 2).
bliss.
of
Con-
reason of his intelligence,
cf.
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL who understands
cerning him
"The meek
He
will
Even
teach His way."
ways,
its
said (Ps. xxv. 9), meek will He
is
it
guide in judgment: and the as
it
is
necessary that the intelligent
man be pudent in the presence of others, so must he be pudent when alone. It was said that, " Pudency and faith are interdependent, and either cannot be complete without the other." poet said,
"
Keep guard over thy modesty
the countenance of a nobleman."
It
truly
:
said that
is
A
pudency marks
"Impudence
and a lack of pudency are offshoots of unbelief." He who wishes to acquire pudency should associate with those who are modest with respect to him. An Arab was wont to say, " Pay no regard to any man unless he show thee that he cannot do without thee, even when thou needest
if
him
most, so that,
if
thou
he will forgive and act as though he were the sinner; and,
sin,
thou wrong him, he will demean himself as though he had
been the offender." Another said, "Finally, one learns from the words of prophecy, 'If thou art not pudent, do whatsoe'er wilt.' "
thou
In the course of a characterization of modesty,
the poet said, "
Upon him
light streams
reposes the mantel of piety from between his eyes."
Al-fadil says
"
:
By reason
of belief
and
and, in truth, a
:
piety,
men
dwell
Afterward they are kept together by reason of modesty, pudency, and blamelessness." Aristotle together for a time.
said in his discourse, "
As
He was
are multiplied."
a result of modesty (one's) helpers
accustomed to
say, "
In chaste chil-
dren modesty clearly rules over their countenance."
termed pudency only because 1
Again
the
way
to eternal
It
was
life.
A
"
philosopher said, wrath."
it is
it
Modesty asserts itself in the midst of was said, "The enmity of the modest man
harmful to thee than the friendship of the fool. " He who desires to guard this quality should not trifle away his dignity when asked to serve men, for when thou hast once is
less
worn out thy thee. 1
dignity, thou wilt find no one to
To make
use of pudency (that
is,
to
renew
it
for
be overpudent),
Play upon the similarity of the words " pudency" and "life" in the Arabic.
64
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON
IBN GABIROL
in speaking the truth or enjoining good acts, in spreading re-
and devotion, is blameworthy. In such cases one must not make use of it; thus the saint said (Ps. cxix. 46), " I will speak of thy testimonies also before kings, and will not be ashamed." But it is necessary for man to cover his face with the mantle of modesty before all men, as thou knowest from the case of Saul when he hid himself, (as) it is written (1 Sam. x. 23), "Behold he is hidden among the vessels." God selected him for kingship, as it is written (1 Sam. x. 24), "Behold whom the Lord hath chosen." To sum
ligion
up, according to the opinion of the philosophers and the sages, this quality is
tion to these
one of the virtues of the noble is
soul,
as that of the spirit to the body.
said, "
and
its rela-
A
philoso-
Modesty consists in conducting affairs in the best way wherein it is possible for them to be conducted, and in He who is modest will leaving them in their best aspects." pher
attain to power.
65
CHAPTER
IV.
Treating of the Quality of Impudence.
We
had much to say on the praiseworthiness of the quality
blame which we
of pudency, but the quantity of to the quality of
impudence
small.
is
the quality of shamelessness
whom
as are those of
it
is
is
He who
shall
culpable in the eyes of God,
said (Jer.
v. 3),
"
They have made
their faces harder than a rock; they have refused
The "
mete out
possessed of
is
to return."
Saint says with reference to the impudent (Prov.
When
pride cometh, then cometh shame," which
xi. 2),
means
that
when impudence prevails over the qualities of man, he is scorned by men and not respected. He is not taken seriously, nor
is
he regarded with that consideration for his wisdom, even
though he be learned, which written
(ib.),
"But with
is
paid to the pudent.
the lowly
is
wisdom."
If
and desires to pursue the goodly course which
is
Thus one
is
it is
wise
acceptable
him abandon this quality, refrain from exercising it, and keep it afar from the character of his soul. Of him who is impudent the prince saith. (id. xxi. 24), " Proud and haughty scorner is his name," by which he means that God will unto God,
let
requite according to his doing, whosoever is
written
"
(ib.),
also that "
pudent one
Who as,
Who
is
impudent, as
dealeth in proud wrath."
It is
it
possible
dealeth in proud wrath " refers to such an im-
by reason
of the quality of
impudence, provokes
the displeasure and annoyance of others, and so forth.
When
becomes part of man's nature, whosoever is familiar with him must turn him away from it by rebuking him as much as he is able, and by annoying him, until he be rid of all that was in him. Thus it is said (id. xxi. 29), "A wicked man hardeneth his face." Yet impudence (boldness) this
disposition
66
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL may be commendable when
supporting religion, when performing " service " and speaking the truth. But to oppose thereby
the righteous and the Prophets of it
said (Ez.
is
If the
ii.
man who
constitution,
evidence of
"
God
reprehensible.
is
Impudent children and
Thus
stiff-hearted."
practises this quality be of a yellow (bilious)
and
its
4),
if
in the course of his
possession, he
youth he give strong
must oppose
to
it its
very reverse.
Let him trust in God, and he will accustom himself to avoid this
blameworthy quality and subdue
(end of part
67
it.
1.)
PART
II.
CHAPTER On the Quality It
almost impossible for any
is
O
" accident,"
I.
of Love.
man
be secure from this
to
is master over his (be found to) exist, he is any nature. Lust is a conundoubtedly one of the most excellent (men). stituent element in the nature of man, and if he desire to be master and ruler, let him cast away lust (passion), make no use .of it whatever, ignore it and do without it, for it is one of the
God, save he whose intellect
None such
baser qualities.
exists
;
It is well
and
if
known
that the qualities of the wise
are not perfected until their souls gain the mastery over their
The deeds
desires.
of
him whose
intellect prevails over his lust-
Upon
fulness are commendable.
the realization of desires,
One
there ensues the penalty of misfortune.
him,
who
restless,
overcome by his
is
and
lust, is that
he
Especially
fickle of speech.
if,
of the signs of
very changeable,
is
added to
the
this,
bloody temper prevail in his constitution and he be in the period of youth and the season of spring, then
lest
man must
Therefore the wise
him.
he make use of
connected with
it
it
proves too strong for
it
shrink from this quality
and turn away from
no inconsiderable harm.
contempt, obscurity, and abasement come upon that finally
story of
its
outcome
Amnon
after his desire.
service of
"And
is
evil.
it,
for there
is
Thou knowest how its
devotee, and
This thou knowest from the
and what happened to him when he hastened Man ought to employ this quality only in the
God and His
divine Law, as
it
is
written (Ps.
his delight is in the law of the Lord,"
68
and again
i.
2),
{id.,
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON cxix.
97),
"How
I
IBN GABIROL
love thy law," etc.
who
Necessarily, one
occupies himself with the quest of knowledge and moral science (theoretical science
and the practical
thee and no one occur to thee reference thereto, avoid for passion is an is
gains the victory."
it
And
routed, and he
is
This quality
aught befall
migbtest consult with
not near to thy passion,
of the heart."
submissive to his lust
said, " If
whom thou
and bring
it
enemy
be (so busy as to
arts), will
The wise one
be) kept from his lusts.
he
who
said, "
rebels against
ing of
it
men
preferred by foolish
is
only because of the imminence (immediateness) of
and for the sake
He who
delight
its
amusement and merriment and the hearmirthful songs which they get through it. They heed not of the
the suffering and the wretchedness that follow in
and
its train,
therefore incline in accord with their natural impulses to the
attainment of present pleasure, as
"The
desire accomplished
is
it
said (Prov.
is
sweet to the soul
"
xiii.
19),
—turning aside
from wisdom and the service of the Lord, because of what appears to be the remoteness of the delight and pleasurableness of these things.
Verily, in their opinion, these are remote.
Yet these are not remote, but near only in their mind.
Therefore
love to God, exalted
may He
"
Thou
written
(I
Sam.
xx. 17), "
" ;
is
it
"
;
are remote
devote this quality of written (Deut.
and
it is
to his offspring, as ;
it
is
own
"And
written
to his country, as
1),
it is
his
written (Gen. xxix. 18),
xxxvii. 3), " Israel loved Joseph "
xi.
to his soul, as
For he loved him as he loved
soul"; to his relatives, as
Jacob loved Rachel
be, as
Lord thy God
shalt love the
They
at hand.
man must
it is
{id.,
writ-
But I will depart to my own land and to my kindred"; to his companion, as spake David to Jonathan (II Sam. i. 26), " Very pleasant hast thou been unto me " to his ten
(Num.
x. 30), "
;
wife (Prov.
ant roe"-;
man
v.
to
" Let her 19),
wisdom, as
that loveth
wisdom
application of this quality ings) with all men.
endeared to
men
It
be as the loving hind and the pleas-
it
is
written (Prov.
xxix.
rejoiceth his father." is,
man must
has been said, "
evince
it
He who
3),
"The
The moral (in his deal-
desires to be
should conduct himself with regard to them in 69
:
:
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL Benefit occasions love even as in-
the best possible manner.
Moreover, included under this quality are
jury begets hatred."
wishes and unattainable desires.
It is right for
The
following
is
the
man
of un-
keep aloof) therefrom. part of what the poets have said concerning
derstanding that he train himself
(to
such wishes as cannot be realized, and wherefrom the soul
naught except possibly weariness of
izes
spirit,
real-
continual dis-
quietude, and protracted restlessness "
My
day
is
a day which
spent
my
brought
common
is
and then day in entertainment and
ness of the night
me
Among
is fallen,
men
to
my
until the dark-
couch wearies me.
I
in desire but the night
altogether to grief."
other things which have been said with reference to
devoting one's self wholly to pleasure and passion, the blameworthy outcome of
this,
and the trouble which
is
associated there-
with, the poet says " have drunk of the dregs of the wine as if
We
kings of the two Iraks and the sea; brightly, thou mightest
and poverty once more
When
this
have found
my
evil."
20), "
The maxim
Woe
man
is
He
of the sage
subduing the
what thou lovest est.
And
my
riches flown,
not conscious because of his is
as those of
unto them that
ders thee blind and deaf."
the subject of
with
quality obtains the mastery of the soul, the
being given over to pleasure. v.
me
we were when the sun shone
own."
senses become blunted and
said (Isa.
but
is,
One
whom
it is
good and good love of anything ren-
call evil
"Thy
sage, writing to another on
"Thou shalt not attain much from what thou loath-
lusts, said,
until thou suffer
thou shalt not be delivered from that which thou
loathest, until thou suffer
much through
70
that which thou lovest."
CHAPTER
II.
(Treating of) Hate.
Thou
shouldst
know
who
that he
hates
men
is
them, and when this quality takes firm hold of the stroys
it,
because
drink with which
hated by
soul,
de-
it
leads to the hatred of the very food and
it
man
sustains
on other than divine things,
Besides, he suffers injury
life.
When
through the hostility of men.
excessive love
is
expended
changed into the most violent
it is
As thou knowest from the expression (II Sam. xiii. " Then Amnon hated her exceedingly." He who loves thee
hatred. 15),
for
some reason
will turn his back, simultaneously
with
its dis-
Thou must not trust in the counsel of " Hater. " Thus it is written (Prov. xxvii. 6), the enemy, the "The kisses' of an enemy are deceitful." From this quality Thou knowest how the prevathere branches out fretfulness.
appearance and ending.
been censured, the blameworthiness
lence of fretfulness has
which attaches therefor. state
;
to its use
feels
has been said that the fretful cannot abide by one
It
he has not a friend
turbed,
and misery never
one of
whom
man
and the repugnance the soul
is
it
;
his circumstances are always dis-
parts
said (Prov.
He
company with him. xii.
27),
"The
is
like
slothful (listless)
roasteth not that which he took in hunting."
Thou know-
est that many men make a show of friendship in their speech and yet frequently are enemies at heart. Do not trust them, as it
is
written
his lips."
(id.,
xxvi. 24), "
do not associate with him, as speaketh
He
that hateth, dissembleth with
Even though he be gentle fair,
believe
him
it
is
not."
of kind-heartedness and affection killing them.
in discourse with thee,
written
(id., 25),
"When
he
Thus Joab also made a show for Abner and Amasa before
So also did Ismael favor Guedaliah ben Achi-
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON kam
It is said, "
ere he killed him.
He who
reap regret."
is
IBN GABIROL
He who
of this character
his fellow-man in matters concerning himself
much
sows hatred
is
and another.
the more will he be so in those affecting
He
Lord.
acts as
" Nevertheless 36),
mouth and they did
The
forth.
"
them
So
him and
his
though he were praying, but his secret
thoughts are quite different. lxxviii.
will
ill-disposed to
lie
Thus
it
they did
is
written of them (Ps.
flatter
him with
their
unto him with their tongues," and so
divine Socrates spake unto his disciples, bidding
Beware
of
whomsoever your heart hate, for the hearts of Thus the sage said (Prov. xxvii. 19),
men are " As in
water, face answereth to face, so the heart of
man."
Souls are alike, and the most harmful and persistent
like a mirror."
form of hatred "
Thou
is
man
to
by envy. The poet saith, manner of enmity except the enmity
that caused
canst cure
all
which comes to thee through envy." In the book of al-Kuti
(it
is
said), "
The very
thou canst look forward to in regard to thy enemies bring them back to the love of thee,
72
if
best that
is that
that be possible."
thou
CHAPTER
III.
Treating of the Quality of Mercy and Compassion (Pity), the Praise of its Possessors, and an Exhortation to Give Preference Thereto. This Forms the Seventh Chapter of the Book. Since tor,
this quality
may He be
is
of a kind with the nature of the Crea-
greatly praised and mightily exalted,
it is
com-
plementary to the twelve attributes especially characteristic of
Him,
i.e.
,
the thirteen qualities which are ascribed to the Lord
of Worlds,
"
viz.,
God," and so
The Lord
eternal
That which
forth.
a merciful and gracious
is
it is
possible for the wise
man
—
aim at in action is, being slow to anger, "long-suffering," and largely generous, as it is said, "abundant in loving-kindto
nesses," tolerant of sin, as
and so
forth.
as far as he
is
The
it
is said,
it
"Forgiving iniquity,"
man must emulate these man desires that he be dealt
upright and wise
able to do.
Even
as
with mercifully, when compelled to seek help, so must he be merciful to whosoever seeks his help. praiseworthy, and God, exalted
This quality
may He
is
extremely
be, has distinguished
His righteous servants through their love therefor. As thou knowest of Joseph, where it is said (Gen. xliii. 30), "His bowThe intelligent man has the els did yearn upon his brother. " implanted in his soul and ever compassion pity and qualities of " The sage said, Mercy is the result of kindpresent therein. In regard to it, Solomon the Wise spake liness and honesty. "
when he exhorted
to
mercy and compassion (Prov. xxiv. 11), them that are born unto death."
" If thou forbear to deliver
A
beautiful feature of this quality in connection with the Crea-
tor, exalted
and hallowed may
dealing with
all
His
He
creatures. 73
be, is that
Thus
it
is
He
is
merciful in
said (Ps. cxlv. 9),
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON "The Lord His works."
is
good
to
all,
IBN GABIROL
and His tender mercies are over
In the book of Al-Kuti,
all
"Spare no effort to deliver those who are confronted with death." Again he said, " Do not wrong the weak, for their Protector is God, the mighty One. " He said, " Prosperous are they whose heart is ever merciful and meek," and again we find therein, " He who is not merciful will die by the hand of one who is merciless."
74
it
is
said,
CHAPTER
IV.
Treating of Hard-heartedness. This Chapter of the Book. I
But
do not
whom
among
the Eighth
righteous or superior men.
be found) in him whose nature resembles that of for he is one who is never sated. These are the ones of
it is
a lion,
find this quality
is
(to
it is
said (Deut. xxviii. 50),
Upon my
nance."
whether
soul,
this
is
"A
nation of fierce counte-
a wholly detestable quality,
measure be) great or small.
comes into being This quality is exercised for the purpose of wreaking vengeance upon enemies. There is no harm in making use of it in this manner, although the intelligent man ought not endeavor to be avenged upon his enemies. For this is not befitting. Thus saith the sage (Prov. xxiv. 17), "Rejoice not when thy enemy fall-
when
eth."
(its
It
the spirit of wrath prevails over a man.
To make
fellow-man, to
use of
kill
it
in order that one
may do
evil to his
him, or to lay hold of the possessions of one
who has given no offence, is reprehensible. From such as may God preserve me, for of their ilk, the Saint said (Ps. cxxiv., 1 and 3), " If it had not been the Lord who was on our side, now may Israel say" "Then they had swallowed us up quick, when their wrath was kindled against us." A proof that these
:
this quality is only xii.
10),
"But
found in the wicked
is
the expression (Prov.
the tender mercies of the wicked are cruel."
Plato, the author of the laws in regard to vengeance, said, "
who
desires to be revenged
upon
his enemies should add (a de-
gree of) excellence to himself,"
END OF PART 75
He
II.
"
PART
III.
CHAPTER
I.
is
the Ninth
found to differ in various men.
Sometimes,
This Treating of Joy (Cheerfulness). Chapter of the Book. This quality it is
natural
hot as
is
that of blood
is
him whose temper is humidespecially when his hopes are well
this is the case in
;
;
ordered and never confounded, and who, in addition,
experiencing suffering
and free from
meet that in the nature
of
him who
appear the sign of this quality
is
affliction.
is far
It
from
is
but
of this character there
— that his
exterior be sound, his
health robust, and old age without haste in overtaking him.
Thus
it is
said of such an one (Prov. xvii. 22),
"A
merry heart
doeth good like a medicine, but a broken spirit dries the bones.
Sometimes
it
is
coincident with the attainment of the desire
and the realization of a wish.
Peculiar to
it
is
continual smil-
Very often lightmindedness acwritten (Eccl. vii. 6), " For as the
ing without (apparent) cause.
companies
it,
whereof
it
is
crackling of thorns under a pot, so It
is
the laughter of the fool."
has been said that one of the distinguishing marks of the
fool is his laughing
when
hold that this quality all,
who
there
is to
are free from
is
no occasion for laughter.
I
be found in the souls of those, above
defilement,
the righteous, the pious,
the pure, destined for the Heavenly Kingdom, rising to spirituality,
i.e.,
the souls of the upright, for they are in perfect
enjoyment of their condition of service and greatly rejoiced because of their worship, as in the
Lord and
rejoice,
it is
written (Ps. xxxii. 11)," Be glad
ye righteous; and shout for joy, 76
all
ye
:
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL The
that are upright in heart."
dulge in laughter
when
well-bred
man ought
seated in an assembly, for
it
not to
i\
was said that
him who laughs much, but little respect is felt. Facetiousness takes away the veil of dignity. Even as anxiety (appre-
for
when
hensiveness) ness,
when
intelligent
it
is
it is
aroused gives rise to weeping, so glad-
stirred, incites
man ought
to
to
laughter.
Therefore the
understand that this quality and some
other qualities are not of the rational soul, as Galen holds, but of the animal soul.
The
proof of this
that thou seest laugh-
is
ter break out in spite of dreadful events.
unable to refrain therefrom.
wrath and other qualities.
The same
Considering
is
this,
Often, too,
man
is
held with regard to
man
should urgent-
ly seek to render his animal soul submissive to his rational soul
When he does this, he becomes included among the most excellent men. Wherenamely, that his intellect guide his nature. fore Socrates says in
causes sorrow." states is
:
" Joy
distress
regard to joy, "Whatever
causes joy
In the ethics of Diogenes, treating of joy, he
and exaltation and destruction." is life
77
to the heart,
whereas grief
CHAPTER
II.
Treating of Grief (Apprehensiveness). This Tenth Chapter of the Book.
in establishing itself in the
This quality usually succeeds
when wishes
soul
fail of
and then the soul
realization,
when
brought to such a point as almost to be killed objects of a matter
when
it
Oh, what a quality
love.
its
when
comes
it
prevails
living death."
I
is this
into evidence, and
Thus
!
it
was
said, "
How
!
the sadness of man, so that he
because
As
becomes more
soul, so also it
God we pray that He The constitution
xii.
it
attains
afflicted
25),
"
may
it
ills
other
is
His
Of
graciousness.
cold and dry, like
can absolutely escape
in the heart of
good word maketh
relieve
it.
In
proportions, so that they thereby be-
Thus
with psychical ailments.
Gloom
His
the remedy.
difficult to find
No man
a
this takes firmer hold of the
of apprehensiveness
immense
is
healing in our discourse,
protect us therefrom in
the black gall (humor).
place
in the
little
impossible to find healing for psychical
it is
than in spiritual remedies.
some come
may find
serious
is its
will grant us
grace and inspire us with excellent words, which
is
loses the
Apprehensiveness
God
Perhaps
it
how waste
have determined to linger here a
discussion of this chapter.
the
is
glad."
Know
is
it
man maketh
it
said (Prov. stoop, but a
thou that this quality
is
generally visible in the countenance, as thou hast seen in the
who discerned what was Pharaoh," when he beheld
their austere counte-
"And
he looked upon them,
case of Joseph, servants of
nances;
it
being said (Gen.
xl. 6),
in the heart of " the
and behold they were sad," and as Artaxerxes said to Nehe-
miah (Neh.
ii.
not sick."
Thus
2),
"
Why
it is
is
thy countenance sad, seeing thou art
obvious that this quality 78
is
generally dis-
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON tinctly visible in the countenance. if
a
man be madly
de gencrationc
IBX GABIROL
Thou shouldst know
in love with this world,'
et corruptionc,
which
is
that
a world
he never omits to seek the
grati-
moving on from one thing to another. If he attain them and then lose them, gloom overcomes him. On the other hand, if he be made to forget this world, and apply himself to the world of intellect, then it becomes possible for him to escape the psychical ills, which are (occasioned by) worldly acquisitions, that is, if he turn away from vain works and incline in the fulness of the soul to ethical science and religious laws. Therefore the intellectual man ought to cast away the lowly quality of the masses and the grandiose manner of kings. If it be impossible for a man to have what he desires, he must desire what he has. Let him not prefer fication of the senses, constantly
—
continual gloom.
We
evil (disease), in the
ought to strive to cure our souls of this
same way
as
we must
suffer hardships in
trying to cure our bodies and to rid them of diseases by means of
burning and cutting
we
(fire
and
iron),
and so
Rather must
forth.
gradually accustom ourselves to improve our souls through
strength of purpose, and to endure a
little
difficulty in
order
we may pursue a praiseworthy course. if we represent to ourselves that no us, it is as though we desired not to exist
that, as a result of this,
We
know, moreover, that
misfortune will befall at
Because misfortunes are a necessary condition of the If this were not, there could be no
all.
passing of worldly things.
Ergo, to wish that no accident should come to pass
becoming. is like
wishing not to
But existence
exist.
and annihilation likewise
is
desire that this be not (a part) of nature,
who
ble; he
is (a
part) of nature,
(a part) of nature.
we
Then
if
we
desire the impossi-
desires the impossible will have his wish denied,
and he whose wish is denied is miserable. We ought to be ashamed to give the preference to this quality, grief, and we Let him who should yearn to rise unto a state of beatitude. would not mourn represent to his soul the things that lead to mourning, as though they already were thus, for example, let ;
1
Cf.
Bahya,
x. 7 (P- 45i)> i*- 7 (P- -4-5)
79
;
Briill (p. 77,
note
2).
:
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON "A certain possession
man
say,
will
mourn
for it," accounting
sidering) as already lost that
mine
of it
IBN GABIROL will be destroyed
and
I
as already destroyed, or (con-,
which he
loves.
Concerning
this,
the poet-philosopher said
The man
"
of prudence
grows up, representing to himself
if they befall him sudmishaps before they befall him denly, they will not terrify him because of the things already
his
;
pictured in his soul.
He
sees that one thing will lead to an-
and therefore he knows the end from the beginning." But not the least trace of apprehensiveness is to be found in Socrates those who are of lofty souls and noble aspirations. was asked, " Why do we never perceive in thee any sign of apAnd he answered, "Because I have never prehensiveness ? " anything over the loss of which I would grieve." possessed other,
Wherefore
let the intelligent
man consider
in this world of all that grows, save
it
that there is nothing
be insignificant at the
and afterward develops, except grief, which is greatest it comes into being, and the longer it continues the The firm and reless it becomes, until it entirely disappears. braces himself up with all his might in the solute man is he who Alexander, in order to console his mother hour of his affliction. outset,
on the day
about himself (in the event of his death), wrote to her as lows
:
when
"
My
fol-
mother, order a great and fortified city to be built
the news of Alexander's death reaches
you.
therein for eating and drinking, and gather together in
appointed day,
men from
all
the lands to eat and drink.
that has been done and all the
men
Prepare it,
on an
When
are ready to eat and drink
what the queen has prepared, let it be proclaimed at that mothat no man should enter her abode whom misfortune has befallen." And thus she did upon the death of Alexander. But when she ordered that no one whom misfortune had befal-
ment
len should enter her house, she noticed (that) no one (came).
Then she
felt
sure that he had only wished to comfort her about
himself.
Alexander had heard from Aristotle, his master, that "Grief He wished to ascertain the 80
injures the heart and destroys it."
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON
IBN GABIROL
He therefore decided upon an animal, the nature which was nearest to that of man, confined it in a dark place, and allotted to it nourishment only sufficient to sustain its body. Afterward he led it forth and slaughtered it whereupon he found its heart dissolved and melted away. Then he knew that truth of this. of
:
Aristotle had
spoken
nothing but
the
words spoken by Galen on grief (we
Among
truth.
find),
the
" Apprehensive-
consuming of the heart, and sadness is a sickness of the heart." Afterward he explained this, saying, "Sadness is felt for what is past, and apprehensiveness for what may occur.'' In another place again (he said), " Sadness (is occasioned) by what has occurred, and apprehensiveness is (felt) for what may come to pass. Therefore beware of sadness, for sadness is the end of life." Dost thou not see that when the face of man is ness
is
a
One of the overclouded (with sadness), he will perish of grief. sages said, " Drinking poison is easier (to endure) than apprehensiveness."
Now,
if
one should ask what benefit
is
derived
from choosing this quality at the occurrence of misfortune
and its appearance, I would answer that in shedding the tears which have become spoiled and stagnant, and which nature is incapable of returning to their place,
we pour
out the putrid
humors, which have become rotten, the chyme, and we remedy it through purifying drugs, and thus we cleanse the humor in such a manner as to cause
Thus
it is
excess,
known
to return to its
it
is
original
some small children there
which cannot be passed
This, then, said, "
that in
off
ills
state.
a spoiled
save through weeping.
the natural use of weeping.
Sorrows are a species of
is
Wherefore Socrates
of the heart, as diseases are
Among the words of Ptolemy on this (subof the body." ject are), " Let him who wishes to live long, prepare to meet ills
misfortunes with a patient heart."
81
CHAPTER
III.
This
Treating of Tranquillity.
the Eleventh
is
Chapter of the Book.
in
This quality is commendable when a man directs it in faith the Lord, and places his reliance and his confidence in Him.
Thus
it
is
said (Prov. xxii. 19),
This
Lord."
"That thy
trust
a praiseworthy disposition
is
:
may be
its
in the
possessor
is
worthy of very good fortune and abundant mercy from God, as it
is
written (Ps. xxxii.
mercy
shall
10),
"He
that trusteth in the Lord,
He who
compass him about."
serves to be blest, as
it
is
said (Jer. xvii.
is in this state de-
7),
" Blessed is the
man
that trusteth in the Lord and whose hope the Lord is." This quality is usually found in the upright, those who fear God and who are referred to in the command, which declares (Ps. cxv. 11),
"Ye
that fear the Lord, trust in the Lord."
excellence of this quality and
its
He,
He
(is
seen in the fact that)
his sleep, as
it
servant," and as
is
merit before God, exalted be
promised
said (Isa. xliv.
it is
The
2),
"
it
Fear
to Jacob during not,
O
Jacob,
my
said of the righteous
man who
trusts in
Him
"
He
shall not
the Lord and
who
be afraid of
evil tidings
confides in :
(Ps. cxii. 7),
his heart is fixed, trusting in the
Lord."
8r
CHAPTER
IV.
Treating of Penitence (Remorse) and Guarding Against (the Need of) It. This is the Twelfth Chapter of the Book. This quality comes into being, when a man quits a sinful and repents. When he gives evidence of the quality of penitence, then his repentance is complete. It must be preceded by three conditions, namely, penitence, seeking pardon, and guaranteeing to abandon one's wonted course. Thus our master Saadya Alfayumi, may God be gracious unto him, explained that one of the righteous was wont to say, " He who repents of his past sins is as though he had not sinned." This trait is commendable from this point of view. But the reprehensible side of it comes to light in the case of him who says " Yes " to-day in some matter and after a time regrets what he has said and retracts, or who vows to fast or to give alms and state
All this
repents of his vow.
way, in
my
opinion,
is
a position which he
men have choose
is
blameworthy.
for man to beware may be compelled
The
reasonable
of placing himself in to regret.
Although
not the power so to control themselves, that they can
(all)
their qualities, nevertheless they can desire to rise
gradually from a base to a lofty course, and from faulty qualities to
sound ones.
The acme
dle his soul, to rule
it,
of bliss for
to lead
it
man
is to
be able to
along the right way.
bri-
He
whose nature yields to his intellect becomes lordly; his merit becomes high and profitable, and his deeds are praised.
end of the third part.
33
PART
IV.
CHAPTER Treating of Wrath.
This
This is the Thirteenth Chapter of the Book.
quality, although
we have
set
down
among
the forces of the animal soul,
as one of the qualities of man, because of
Let us begin by describing
its
analogy to his other qualities.
its
useful side, although the latter
There
ful aspect.
I.
is
inseparable from
times serves a use, even as no quality that
it
when
commendable
trait,
but
Thus thou knowest it
becomes detestable
Wrath
resorted to while listening to absurdities.
reprehensible quality, but
when employed
prove, or because of indignation at
it at
so praiseworthy, but
is
frequently becomes detrimental.
that silence is a
bane-
its
no quality so reprehensible, but that
is
is
a
to correct or to re-
the performance of trans-
becomes laudable. Therefore the thoroughly wise and ethically trained man must abandon both extremes and set about the right mean. Galen said in his book on the qualities of the soul, "Wrath and anger are two words with one meaning.'' "Sometimes it appears, (to judge) from the countenance of the gressions,
it
1
wrathful, that he
heart 1
is
distressed, his
throbbing violently,
body feverishly inflamed, his
pulse beating
his
strongly
and
Rosin thinks that Maimonides followed Gabirol in his emphasis upon the
Aristotelian " middle
way "
(p. 12,
note
1
;
p. 14,
note 3
;
p. 26,
note
1
;
pp. 27,
Rosin ("J. Q. R.," iii., pp. 16S, 169), Wolff (chap, iv., pp. 15-17), Dukes (pp. 99-101, notes 2, 3 and 4, and " Phil. ," pp 66, Schmiedl (p. 268 note 1) says very truly that the Aristotelian 67. and notes). doctrine of "the golden mean," " via media," became in time " ein wahrhaft, 28,
note 2; pp. 79-82).
jlidischethisch&r Lehrsatz.
Cf. also
"
?4
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL He
becomes apparent in him But he who indulges therein unadvisedly gives evidence of stupidity." Wherefore the saying, " He who is mighty in wrath and violent in anger is not far removed from the mad." In the book of AlKuti (it is said) that the man of wrath is never seen to be joyful. We would classify the wrathful soul as of four kinds.' swiftly."
who
said again, " Dignity
indulges in wrath only after reflection.
He who
is
quickly angered and
even-balanced disposition.
man
(as)
This
is
quickly appeased
quickly angered
is
appease
difficult to
balanced disposition.
But he who
is
is
is
likewise of an even-
appease and
difficult to
in a reprehensible condition because he has
But he who
overstepped the boundaries of moderation. to
He who
possessed of a yellow (bilious) temperament.
slow to anger and
of an
is
mainly characteristic of a
anger and quickly appeased
most praiseworthy.
is
slow
is
This
is
one of the virtues of the noble and excellent men, among
whose qualities wrath rarely ever appears. Those who subdue their souls' anger and prevail upon their nature to restrain it, have been described as noble and characterized as exalted.
Thus the sage
said (Prov. xvi. 32), "
This
better than the mighty."
is
He
that
is
slow to anger
is
one of the thirteen attributes
ascribed to God, exalted is He, in the passage (Ex. xxxiv. 6), " And the Lord passed by before him," etc. It is said that as
scab
is
a disease of the body, so
is
wrath a disease of the
The moral man must not become wrathful reason of his wrath, he the
saith
sage
is
(Prov.
bear punishment."
shall
(Eccl.
"Be
vii. 9),
compelled to bear burdens.
xix.
19),
soul.
often, because,
"A man
of
great
The sage has forbidden
by
Thus wrath
it,
saying
not hasty in thy spirit to be angry."
Fur-
thermore the verse makes clear the reason for his forbidding it in the expression (ib.), "For anger resteth in the bosom of fools."
The
wrathful deserves to be called "fool."
possible in most cases for the
man
from grave sin and serious transgression. 1
Aristotelian
don, 1879,
p.
223
j
cf.
35
is
im-
Thus the sage spake
" Moral Philosophy of Aristotle," by
et seq.).
It
of violent wrath to be secure
W. M. Hatch
(Lon-
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON (Prov. xxix. 22):
Thou
IBN GABIROL
"A wrathful man aboundeth
wilt notice that
violently angry, take
in transgression."
most men, when they become wroth and no heed of the disaster which they may
incur through the violence of their anger, like is
said
hand
(id.,
(ib.),
1 1),
"
"
A fool uttereth
him
of
whom
it
his mind," and on the other
all
But a wise man keepeth
it till
afterward."
There-
upon them, sought to interdict the immoderate exercise of this quality, saying, " He who rends his garments in wrath is like unto an idolator. " Acording to this, fore our masters, peace be
a superior
man must
not be violent in wrath, for he accustoms
Nor
himself to the qualities of the wild and wicked beast.
must he be so gentle as never characteristic of little boys.
ence to this
know Thus
that
When
yield, the 1
become
The
his
is
perfected
Thou must when it subdues his wrath. "The discretion of a man
Ptolemy,
anger."
the
sage, said
thou becomest wrathful, pardon, for 2
taking of vengeance
is
i.,
Versified by Steinschneider (p. 77,
note
'
p. 83); cf.
("Manna,"
3).
86
if
of
wrath,
thou dost not
a sign of weakness."
Attributed to Aristotle in an article on
and Brull
wrathful, for this were
discreet stand with refer-
to take the intermediate course.
man's reason
aus den Tttrkischen," Diez (vol. 2
to
Scripture says (Prov. xix. 11),
deferreth "
is
'
'
Ruhmliche Denkmale der Joiner Hatch (above cited, p. 223). chap,
i.,
p.
89); cf.
Bahya,
vi.
7,
;
CHAPTER
II.
Treating of the Quality of Good-Will (Suavity). This is the Fourteenth Chapter of the Book. This is one of the praiseworthy qualities, since it is rarely met with, except in the case of a noble-minded person, who accepts things just as they come to him and looks not for to be
The
better ones.
therefrom.
This
is
I.,
the righteous
also derived
as thou knowest, reader, an excellent qual-
which we have portrayed and extolled above
ity,
chapter of Part If
is,
contentment
quality of
in the
second
whilst treating of the quality of meekness.
man
be well disposed toward his fellow-men
and the latter similarly disposed toward him, it is certain that he will be acceptable unto God. Yea, more, even his enemies will make peace with him. Thus the sage saith (Prov. xvi. 7), " When a man's ways please the Lord, he maketh even his enemies to be at peace with him," as thou knowest from the goodwill Abimelech bore Abraham, peace be upon him, and the latter's making peace with him thus also in the speech of our sainted Rabbi to R. Hiyya, and so forth. Wherefore the excel1
;
lence of good-will ity
is
related to
life,
being a source of superior-
and a fount of good fortune according
15),
"In the
favor
is
light of the king's
to the saying (id.
countenance
as a cloud of the latter rain."
is
So also
life;
,
and
in that of
xvi.
his
man
thus Pharaoh bore good-will to Joseph, even bringing him unto
Thus Ahasuerus, too, bore good-will to Mordecai. Thou seest how such a man is treated and exalted; how much more he to whom God bears good-will, therefore the saying (Isa.xlviii. 17), " I am the Lord thy God which teacheth thee kingly power.
—
1
and
Cf. Diez (vol.
Brttll (p. 76,
i.,
note
p. 18,
No.
29); cf.
1).
87
Bahya,
v. 5,
and
vii.
10 (pp. 270, 271),
"
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL which leadeth thee by the way that thou shouldst go." sage said, " Whosoever is contented is rich whosoever is
to profit,
The
:
obedient
wont
is
joyous: whosoever
to say, "
He who
is
is
rebellious
not content of his
is sad. "
He was
own accord with
his condition will be (compelled to be) satisfied despite him-
From
self."
this quality there
branch out forbearance and
for-
giveness, which are of the attributes of the Creator, exalted
He
and
" If I
blest,
and of the wise and noble man.
The
is
poet spake,
fault, and if I were to would exact vengeance from him, where then would be the superiority? And if I were to cut myself from my brethren because of their sins, I would be alone, and have
were not to pardon a brother's
say that
I
none with
whom
It is related
:
to associate. "
A
king once became angry at a company of
men and commanded them, 'Verily we have
that they be slain.
sinned grievously.
liness manifest itself in forgiveness
them and slew them
not."
88
? '
Then spake one
of
Will not thy good-
Whereupon he forgave
CHAPTER Treating of Jealousy.
This
is
III.
the Fifteenth Chapter
of the Book.
This quality
is
Most them all,
an offshoot of wrath.
are not exempt from
it
:
but
it is
in
rational beings for
we
see
men
seeking to imitate the actions of their companions.
For instance,
when one (man)
some worldly
sees that his friend has acquired
or vegetable, or other possessions, he
mineral, animal,
gain,
likewise endeavors to acquire similar things, although he be able to dispense with
them
set his heart
or compensate himself with other
Let him not protract his endeavor, nor
things in their stead.
upon attaining such possessions.
This
is
the ex-
pression to which the sage, peace be upon him, gave utterance (Eccl.
iv.
4),
"Again
work, that for this a
I
man
considered is
all
and every right He whose blameworthy, for it
travail
envied of his neighbor."
overcome by this disposition is and a noble man is never found to be envious. poetry) have been filled with the censure of envy, Books (z. e., of and every man of intelligence knows how much has been said It is necessary to turn from it, for freas to its baseness. nature leads
is
him
to envy,
quently the affairs of the envious lead him to use violence. Thus it is said of such as these (Micah ii. 2), "And they covet
and take them by violence." Enviousness is a loathsome The wise man must keep himself as far from it as he trait. on the contrary, can, for he gains no advantage through it continued depression and fatigue of the spirit through desires fields
:
and the constant hatred of men, scantiness of repose, preoccupation of the mind, apprehensiveness and the punishment of God, for transgressing that which He forbade in His revealed Man must not be jealous of unrighteous men, beScripture. 89
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL cause he sees them devote themselves to pleasure and (the gratifying of) passions.
But
let
Thus the sage
of God.
him employ
heart be envious of the sinners." 1),
"Be thou
Zeal
is
"Let not thy Again he spake (Ps. xxxvii.
not envious against the workers of iniquity."
goodly only in the service of God, as thou knowest from
he was zealous for merited thereby, as
whom
(Num. xxv. 11)," While my sake," and the good reward which he
(the case of) Phinehas, of
I
his zeal in the service
said (Prov. xxiii. 17),
it is
said
said (id., 12), " Wherefore, say, behold
him my covenant
give unto
it is
Among
of peace."
the things
which have been said with reference to the jealous and envious (we
find),
"Thou
wilt observe the envious
man
effusive in his
when he meets thee, but hating thee in His name is friend, his intention unfriendly." Again it has been said, " It appears as though the envious were Furthermore it has been said, created in order to be angered." " Let it suffice for thee that the envious man is grieved at the time of thy joy." It is incumbent upon man to mount to such an exalted rank with the aid of his powers and gifts, that he be envied therefor. " Let him ponder over this, as saith the affection (for thee)
thy absence.
poet: " Lo,
I
was envied, but God increased men's enyiousness Let man rather not live at all than live for a
touching me.
single day unenvied.
Man
is
not envied save for his excellences,
which are forbearance, scholarship,
90
nobility,
and generosity."
:
CHAPTER
IV.
Treating of Wide-awakedness. This is the Sixteenth Chapter of the Book. I is
must
preface, in treating of this quality, of
derived.
I
would hold that
it is
what nature
it
of the yellow-gall species.
This quality appears usually when the soul is free from other blamable qualities and when it is not mingled with aught of grief, and most frequently it is (found) in pure and noble souls. It is a commendable quality, and man ought to make use of it in Was it not whatsoever work of art or science he be engrossed. said of him (Prov. xii. 27), "The substance of a wide-awake man is precious," which means that the most precious virtue of the lofty is wide-awakedness, both in the present and future In the world de generatione
life.
awake and faith, and in the attempt in his quest of
With
et corruptione,
knowledge as well
affairs
has been said (Prov. xxiv. versity thy strength
is
is
wide-
to attain to the world of intellect.
reference to the reverse of this quality,
purpose in worldly
he
as goodness of service
and in the attempt 10),
i.
e.,
weakness of
to save souls,
it
"If thou faint in the day of ad-
small"; and again
(id.
,
xii. 27),
"The
man roasteth not that which he took in hunting." However, we have mentioned the languid while treating of the He who is one of the estimable, and adminquality of hatred. Thus it with alacrity, will succeed in them. affairs isters his xii. 24), "The hand of the diligent shall bear is said (Prov. Concerning rule; but the slothful shall be under tribute." slothful
this the poet
spake
" If the souls will
become too greatly ambitious, the bodies
be wearied thereby."
This
is
a beautiful
The
maxim.
sage, peace be
upon him,
exhorted to wide-awakedness in matters religious and worldly 91
:
:
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL in saying (Prov. xix.
15),
This saying
sleep."
is
" Slothfulness casteth into
a deep
very evident, for slothfulness necessa-
For when the vapors, which are designed to exude from the pores of the body through forcible movements, are motionless and do not dissolve, they mount to rily induces lethargy.
In the book the brain, and bring about constant drowsiness. " He who satisfies his it is said of wide-awakedness,
of Al-Kuti
land in respect of cultivation, will be satisfied by
The
ethical aspect of this quality
He
in his lust."
for rashness
is
"
is,
it
with bread."
Man must not display
The excellent do not make use of it. employ wide-awakedness in matters relating
But one
of the wise.
ought to
The
and law.
it
be rash through this in his wrath, blameworthy since it is not one of the qualities shall not
surest reason for the success of a
to religion
man
is (to
be
wide-awakedness with which he conducts his affairs, and the greatest sign of misfortune is his slothfulness with regard to them. The poet has said
found
"
in) the
souls are wakeful, watchful, and sound
The pure and noble
of judgment, while the stupid
and heavy souls are drowsy, mean,
and low." But that intense wide-awakedness which leads to hastiness Let the intelligent man beware of using it, for it
is culpable. is
the very worst of evils.
1
He who
and the man of hastiness
tion,
ment.
"A
A
is
is
hasty, rushes to destruc-
not secure from disappoint-
verse reads
cautious
hastens unduly
is
man
will
bound
realize his desires.
But he who
to stumble."
Man must not make undue haste in his affairs, because no good result can be obtained by haste, but through deliberation ends are (more) easily attained. The beauty of the state of wide-awakedness
lies in its
being potential in the soul and not
appearing quickly in action. 1
Attributed to Plato
;
cf.
" Denkwurdigkeiten
paraphrased by Steinschneider (" Manna," chap.
END OF PART 92
iii.
IV.
" (above cited, vol. ,
p. go).
i.,
p. 82);
PART
V.
CHAPTER
I.
Treating of the Quality of Liberality (Generosity). This is the Seventeenth Chapter of the Book. This
when
employed with moderation' and does not lapse into prodigality, is commendable. Man must quality,
it
is
prefer this quality to
its antithesis,
liness, since the great
men who
are
i.e.,
the quality of niggard-
renowned by reason
excellences are not convinced that niggardliness
is
of their
a praise-
may God guide thee aright, in how many places the sage extols the man who is generous? In one place he says that liberality brings a man to many de-
worthy quality.
Dost thou not
see,
grees of eminence in this world and in the world to come.
Thus it is said (Prov. xviii. 16), "A man's gift maketh room " in this world, for him and bringeth him before great men because it brings him near to kings whose good-will he gains through gifts as thou knowest from the respect of Ben Hadad for Asa, and Tiglath for Ahaz, because presents were made to them and in the world to come he will attain the merited (share of its) bliss, which man realizes because of his serving Thus it is said the Lord with his substance in almsgiving. (Isa. liii. 12), "Therefore will I divide him a portion with the Since liberality was a virtue of our father Abraham, great." peace be upon him, he became known thereby and it was ascribed This quality is attributed to him in the Holy Scripto him.
—
;
—
ture in several places, and thus
is
to be understood the explana-
(Wolff, p. 16) likewise holds that liberality
Maimonides between prodigality and niggardliness. 1
93
is
the golden
mean
:
:
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON tion of (Ps. xlvii. 9), "
IBN GA.BIROL
The generous of the people are gathered God of Abraham." This is a because it secures honor for him who
together, even the people of the
commendable
quality
exercises
Thus
it.
said (Prov. xix. 6), "
it is
Many will entreat man is a friend to him man merits his fellow-men's
the favor of the generous, and every
Through
that giveth gifts."
when he
praise
this a
gives generously, and he
lauded therefor.
is
Thus spake a poet
When
"
thou goest to him, thou wilt find him of pleasant
demeanor as
if
thou wert about to give him what he will give
Had he naught
thee.
Wherefore,
let
but his
life to give,
he would give
this.
God be upon whomsoever would
the fear of
ask
him."
this of
But the unseemly side of
quality appears
this
wastes his substance needlessly and mismanages stance, he
ing his
who spends This
lust.
the wise.
A gift
is
it
in devotion to pleasures
squandering and
in the right place
is
is
when man
it;
as, for in-
and
in gratify-
not characteristic of
a treasure put aside.
It
perisheth not in the course of time, but abideth with the ages.
This
is
the opinion of Solomon, peace be upon him,
who
said
1), "Cast thy bread upon the waters; for thou shalt after many days." This verse evidently exhorts to gen-
(Eccl. xi. find
it
man
erosity, for if
"
Sow thou
shall
be generous and bountiful, he will reap the
Thus spake the poet
fruit thereof.
generosity in the field of gifts, and noble deeds
be harvested by thee early."
Wherefore man ought
to
know
that
if
he be
in a prosperous
condition, then his generosity will not impair his prosperity,
and
if
he be in a straitened condition, his adversity will not
continue on that account. that he
who employs
contrary, his (Prov. lack."
xxviii.
it
abundance 27)
:
"
It is peculiar to this
noble quality,
never feels the want of anything; on the
He
is
much
increased.
Thus
it
is
said
that giveth unto the poor shall not
Furthermore, David the Saint, peace be upon him,
says of generous and liberal
men
persed, he hath given to the poor
94
(Ps. cxii. 9), " :
He
hath
dis-
his righteousness endureth
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON What
forever."
magnified
is
your opinion with reference to the use of
is
this gracious virtue
?
It is like
lending unto God, exalted and
Thus the saying
He.
IBN GABIROL
(Prov. xix. 17),
hath pity upon the poor lendeth unto the Lord.
"He
Thus
that
was book on Ethics " Bestow kindness on those who In the case of are worthy and upon those who are unworthy. the worthy, thy kindness will be in the right place; and in the case of the unworthy, prove thou thy worth. " Again it was said in the
ities to give liberally to (it is
said)
:
"
Know
things with firmness. to deny,
when
denying
is
it
:
said with reference to liberality, " It
Kuti
"
to grant
him who
is
a part of the noble qual-
asks."
In the book of Al-
thou that resolution consists in doing
Consider well when to yield and when
and when
to promise.
For a
gift after
better than denying after (promising) a gift and favor.
Setting out to do after consideration after setting out.
Know
is
better than to abandon
that thou shouldst be
more prompt
to
do what thou hast not promised, than to promise what thou wilt Therefore beware of hastily promising what thou fearnot do. Adorn thy promise est thou mayest be unable to perform. with truth and thy deed with justice."
95
CHAPTER
II.
This is the Eighteenth Treating of Niggardliness. Chapter of the Book. 1
Know thou
that this
than
is
For thou seest that he who
this.
Among
a reprehensible quality.
is
host of reprehensible qualities there
the
none more abominable is
lavishly bountiful of
his substance, although blameworthy, is satisfied with the pleas-
ure he derives and men's goodly praise which gardliness
accompanied
is
by
evil
repute without even the
attainment of pleasure; and to be of evil repute the qualities desired by the excellent.
The
not one of
is
The noble-minded man
ought to shrink from this quality and not employ sion.
But nig-
his.
is
it
on any occa-
sages are at one in thinking that manliness does not
go well with prodigality, nor religion with an inordinate desire
He who
(for gain).
good repute and a
"The
vile
is
of this character
may
well despair of a
Thus it was said (Isa. xxxii. 5), be no more called liberal, nor the churl
fair record.
person shall
This "vile person"
said to be bountiful."
wilderness of Maon,
who
said (I
Sam. xxv. and give
is
like him, in the
11),
"Shall
I
then
take my bread and my water, it unto men whom I know not whence they be? " Thou knowest the severe punishment with which he met. But the good feature of this state .
.
is
man
that
does not squander his substance, be
small, but guards
overdo
this,
which
is
.
by means
it
however,
lest
'
it
great or
must not
he pass over to the quality of greed,
Thus the sage
not of the qualities of the noble.
spake in condemning niggardliness (Prov. withholdeth corn, the people shall curse him trary, "
He
of this quality.
26), "
xi.
" ;
He
Blessing shall be on the head of him that selleth
This chapter
is
(" Ehrensaulen," pp.
given, in a 12,
German
13).
96
that
and, on the con-
translation from the
it."
Hebrew, by Dukes
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON
IBN GABIROL
This verse outwardly' refers to "charity," but its hidden implication is knowledge. 2 The wise man ought not be niggardly in dealing out his knowledge, for
knowledge
imparting
as the brightness of the fire
it
(to others), as little
away when a
dies
is
light is kindled therefrom.
with regard to the employment of this quality
not lessened by
The is
best rule
to accustom
one's self to beneficence toward kinsmen, until one gradually
habituate one's self to benevolence toward strangers, and thus train one's self to choose generosity. 1
On
sammen
Bacher (p. angegeben ist,
this point,
legorischer) Sinn
(Sanhedrin,
53,
note
fallt
unten).
91 b,
allegorische Auffassung des Verses als
der Belehrung bei
Abraham
1)
says
"
:
Was
hier als verborgener (al-
mit der agadischen Deutung des Verses zu-
Ebenso
gilt
Warnung
selbstverstandlich
als
diese
vor engherziger Zuriickhaltung
b. Chija, {^SJ |VJn. ed.
Freimann,
p.
17
a.
.*' .
.
Gabirol's use of terms in this place suggests the formal distinction between the
—
—
"outward" and "inward" manifest and hidden meanings of Scripture, made by the Islamic sect of Batiniya; cf. Haarbriicker (Th. i. p. 256). 2 The same idea is expressed in the Midrash (Bemidbar rabbah, par. 15), in reference to the prophetic powers of Moses; cf. Wolff (" Muhammedanische Eschatologie, " Leipzig, 1872, p. 207, and note 412). ,
97
—
CHAPTER Treating of Valor.
The man who nature,
who
is
III.
This is the Nineteenth Chapter of the Book.
prevails over the
temperament of the blood-
large-hearted, full- veined, and long-armed, thou
wilt generally find to be a
man
of valor, especially
is
praiseworthy (in man),
when
it is
if,
com-
This quality
bined with that, he be master of the art of war.
manifested in his strength,
and in accordance with his determination to be saved from what might befall him. But when he departs from a moderate course
and unites valor with the quality of folly and it becomes the cause of a man's throwing himself into dangerous places then it is reprehensible. Of these two dispositions the sage saith (Prov. xxviii. 14), " Happy is the man that feareth always; but he that But as regards hardeneth his heart shall fall into mischief." the great
men who
are
mentioned as possessors of
this quality,
heavenly signs gave evidence of their possessing this power, thus Joshua, Gideon, Samson, Saul, David, Jonathan, Joab, and
Abner, and others like them, whose power gave evidence of the quality of valor, were praised therefor; and those ness, in contradistinction to the former,
quality of cowardice, were not in
commended
whose weak-
gave evidence of the for
regard to them in the following chapter.
it,
as
It is
I
will
show
necessary to
devote this quality to the service of God, as thou knowest from
Moses, peace be upon him, when he retaliated upon the people by saying to the children of Levi (Ex. xxxii. 27), "Put every man his sword by his side"; and as thou knowest from Phinehas in the matter of his zeal. Thus it is said (Num. xxv. 7), "And when Phinehas, the son of Aaron the priest, saw it, he rose up from among the congregation and took (the story of)
98
"
:
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON conspicuous
With
IBN GABIROL
This quality of valor never
a javelin in his hand."
in the souls of
"
:
fails to
be
mighty men and courageous heroes.
reference to valor and patience in facing danger, the poet
spake
There came a day in the heat of which some people warmed themselves, but though there was no fire, they acted as if in the fire's midst. But we had patience until the clay "
was done.
Likewise, a case of misfortune can be brought to a
close only through patience."
Among the things which have been said in order to encourage the use of valor is " Crave death, and life will be granted The Arabs were accustomed to call the man of valor thee." "safe." Among the things which have been said on the emboldening of the spirit in combat is the word of the poet :
" I
went to the rear
found that
I
to preserve
could not preserve
my
my
life
life
unless
(in battle), but I
I
went forward.
Thus the noble man must make use of this quality in such a way as not to overstep the middle path lest he be called demented (foolhardy). But he must pursue an excellent course The philosopher spake, " The exin regard to this quality. treme limit of valor
is
what thou abhorrest. "
strength and endurance with respect to
Valor cannot go hand-in-hand with
vanity (untruth), nor firmness with absurdity, nor patience with weariness, for these are of the qualities of asses and swine.
Valor consists in persevering in the right and overcoming thy desires, until thou feel that to die in the best way thou hast
more desirable than to live in the opposite (i.e., evil) way, which the power of understanding may have revealed to found thee.
is
According
to Al-Kuti, "
Valor
is
the nature of a noble
soul, corresponding to the strength of the body.
99
:
CHAPTER
IV.
Treating of Cowardice. This is the Twentieth Chapter of the Book. This quality is generally found downcast, poor and wretched.
Let the wise use of
it,
man be on
in spirits that are abject and
It
is
a reprehensible quality.
it, let him make no away and abstain from it, since
his guard against
exert himself to keep
he derives no benefit from it; on the contrary, he reaps illMen of lofty repute, a vile record, and a diminution of praise. purpose must dread
it
when they have
learned to employ their
power of distinguishing in the use of things, so that it may be Among the offshoots of the means of escaping serious danger. this quality is slothfulness, of which we have already treated. Thou knowest what was said with regard to its ignominy and baseness. Thus the sage, peace be upon him, said (Prov. xxvi. 15), "A slothful man hideth his hand in his bosom, and will This is the utternot so much as bring it to his mouth again." most that can be said of the shame thereof. The slothful coward is known to say " I will not travel, for fear of highwaymen and wild beasts. I will not engage in business, lest I meet I will not fast, lest I become ill. with losses. I will give no alms, lest I become poor," and similar words that put an end to all activity, until there remains nothing for him to do, but living on without moving from his place, as it is said (id., xxvi. " As the door turneth upon its hinges, so doth the slothful 14), upon his bed. " A wise man should not choose this quality of :
cowardice or make use thereof in preference to his other qualities, lest he become known thereby and be as one who fancies that he will be killed before the expiration of the appointed time, as was said exaggeratedly of the slothful coward by the poet,
who spake
thus
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON " If a little bird
coward
is
as iron,
—
consumed at
merely raises
its
voice, the heart of the
(leaps with terror).
But his teeth are sharp
meal times."
But in a case where escape for the quality of cowardice to
whereupon he ing than bless
said, 'It
all
impossible, into play
is
it
— as
permissible
in the case of
"
The king dispatched him to to go. The king reviled him, better that thou revile me when liv-
is
me when
quality has been
world to
is
come
whom it is said place. He refused
him, concerning a dangerous
IBN GABIROL
:
dead.' "
made use
It
has been said that this
by those who prefer repose
of
in this
other qualities, not knowing that repose can be
enjoyed to the
full,
only after zealous care in the regulating of
and the attainment of whatsoever be needed. Thus it is said (Prov. xxiv. 27), " Prepare thy work without, and make it fit for thyself in the field." Repose in and of itself signifies slothfulness and cowardice. Thou knowest what happens to a
affairs
man by
reason of his slothfulness
:
namely, he
Thus
his honor through utter poverty.
all
33-34): "Yet
a
little sleep,
the hands to sleep
:
it
a little slumber, a
so shall thy poverty
come
is
deprived of
said
is
little
as
(id.,
xxiv.
folding of
one that
trav-
and thy want as an armed man." Again this quality engenders in the body not a few ills and diseases, thus flab-
elleth,
biness, dulness, swelling,
gout, sciatica, and elephantiasis, and
similarly whatsoever results from
indigestion;
in
fact,
this
man and he considers everything and worthless; especially if this feeble coward
quality becomes habitual to a else as faulty
be of a phlegmatic disposition and on the it
way
to old age,
then
weighs him down even more.' 1
We
have here a reminiscence of Saadya's distinction between the results of and slothfulness. between the reposeful and the indolent, as found in
tranquillity
the "
Emunoth weDeoth,"
x.
END OF PART
IOI
V.
Thus' thou hast, may God have mercy upon thee, all that was promised in the introduction. Because of our love of conciseness, our aversion to prolixity, and our fear of departing from the purpose of. the book, we have much curtailed the disWe course in the individual chapters and in the various parts. have not united every one of these qualities to
its
nature and
we referred the senses to their natures, although we ought to make clear the situation of every quality in the body and give much of the science of the temperaments,
its
sense, nor have
anatomy and physiognomy. We think, however, that this must be deferred to some other time, when it may please God, exalted may He be, for He is the One from whom to seek help. Having finished as much as we could, and having said enough in the chapters of this book, we would hold it to be possible that there exist in man qualities other than those which have been classified, and still other natures. We say yes. We have been brief with regard to the others for two reasons First, we know that among the qualities of men are those of vexation and weariness. We feared that these might occupy as much space as the whole book, and therefore we did not go to the length of collecting many verses from the Hebrew and Arabic. Furthermore, because we knew that there is no quality which we have avoided mentioning, that is not implied among those which have been mentioned. It would bear the same relation to them that the branches do to the root. If any one should happen to say, "Thou must not exhort men to improve their qualities, nor arouse them concerning the betterment of their moral status,
—
:
unless this be characteristic of thine
wouldst be as he '
is
who recommends
This concluding paragraph
is
omitted in the
appended a Hebrew poem.
I02
own
self
—because thou
piety and forgets himself
Hebrew
translations, to
"
which
!
!
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON
—we
would
IBN GABIROL
reply, "
Every vessel gives forth whatever it conhe who seeks to measure this world and does not know the value of the parasang wherewith it is measured. We have not mentioned any excellence which we have not emulated; nor have we extolled any quality which we tains."
How
foolish is
have not tried to make part adorns himself with what
is
our
of
own
nature.
He who
not in him, will find his claims laid
bare after a time.
To Him
Him
do
take
refuge
I
that giveth understanding do
triumph
:
in
against
Him
do
I
I
owe thanks: with
greatly glory: with
such things
(as
Him
do
I
those aforementioned).
Him do I praise for he is worthy of praise; to Him it belongs and Him praise behooves. Thus spake His saint, peace be upon him (Ps. cix. 30, 31), " I will greatly praise the Lord with my mouth yes, I will praise Him among the multitude. For He shall stand at the right hand of the poor to save him from ;
those that
condemn
his soul."
Thus is ended what I sought to establish in the book on " The Improvement of the Qualities," with the help of God and He is my lot and my fortune, the Helper and Flis assistance. Praise be to God, the Lord of both worlds the Giver of aid. Blessed be the Merciful
who hath helped
103
us
:
APPENDIX
A.
PREFACE OF THE HEBREW TRANSLATOR OF
THE Letter Meshullam
To
Rabbi Jehuda ibn Tibbon
of of
my
the sweet comrade and
my
palate,
comb.
lift
my
to
Rabbi Asher ben
the brother-ever-near, whose
path, and
bundle of spices,
R. Asher,
wisdom, and
'
Lunel
words are as a light to to
"ETHICS."
may God
whose memory
my
honey, and
is
my
direct thy heart in the
sweet honey-
ways
of
thee up to the inheritance of the most high
For thou art so precious in my sight, that I have the doing of thy will. I have lightened for myself the burden of translation, touching (the difficulties of) which I was warned, because of the things which I have mentioned in the introduction to my translation of the chapter on " Unity,'' made by me for our Master, the holy Rabbi, thy father (may his light shine), from out the book " The Duties of For remember when thou and I were studying the Heart." excellences.
made my aim
that chapter in his presence,
told thee in the course of con-
I
"
of the Qualities of the Soul,"
Improvement by the wise philosopher, Solomon
bar Rabbi Jehuda (may his
memory be
versation of the existence of a small
(may
his
memory be
blessed),
work on the
blessed) bar Gabirol
which contains
all
the subjects
discussed in the nine chapters of that book, and adds some-
thing concerning these things. Appended to Hebrew translation 1
His words are spoken rightly
the manuscripts (Neubauer. 1402,
2,
Michael, 401) of the
"Ethics." Steinschneider published it for the first time (pp. 366, 367, of the " Katalog der Michael'schen Bibliothek," Hamburg, 1848); it was reprinted in the Lyck edition, 1S59; Q f- St. ("H. U.," p. 381) and H. Gross, Gallia Judaica (Paris, 1S97, p. 280). I0 5 of the
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL manner
in a wise
'
2 they lean
on the words of the
sages,
Scripture, and
on
parables
the
of
The
and the ethical sayings of the philosophers.
ment
of all the chapters
are
based
the ancients, arrange-
good, the author attains his ob-
is
ject in briefest' terms, his expressions are well chosen, and
the problems he raises are wholesome.
wisdom
like pearls this,
He
fills
them with
the
of the heart, with rare ethical sayings, with thoughts
and words like sapphires. it, and
thy soul did long to behold
and thou didst say that
if
that
When to
thou didst hear
examine
work should come
it
carefully,
into our hands
it would suffice for us, as if it were the whole work on the ''Duties of the Heart," and even take its place. It would spare us the trouble of over-much elaboration, and we should be the better able to remember his words according to For such things as are long the arrangement of his chapters. good order. I promised thee drawn out, no man can master in
with that chapter,
time to translate
at that
Behold,
chapter.
my
I
after the completion of the first
it
have translated
knowledge and power,
sion, its parables, its
it
for thee, to the best of
words and its poetical expresethical maxims, and its problems. But all
its
the place of the verses which are noted therein
is left
vacant
in
every chapter because of the word of our master, thy father,
Rabbi (may
his light shine),
who urged me
to
complete the task
before undertaking to give the verses in poetic paraphrase.
should find the words of the ancient poets like unto the
If I
words of the author of this book, and the words of the Prince
(Samuel ha-Nagid), or of those who conducted themselves as these did in matters similar to and relating to them, I will write
them in the book with the names of the respective Whatever I cannot find, I shall render to the best of
authors.
my own
judgment, as well as with the aid of the opinion of a friend. will put every verse in its place
Dukes
1
Cf.
2
The
(p.
Cf.
Rosin
Thou
in thy
Tig, note i).
way shows that Ibn Tibbon regarded the Scripmere mnemonics cf. Introduction, p. 13, note 4.
use of this term in this
tural citations of Gabirol as 3
on the page.
I
(p. 166,
note
;
1).
106
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON grace, take thou the trouble to correct
terms, and to elucidate
and
error "
Who
Thus
can understand
teach us to
come
sin.
ured in our hearts.
its errors, to
meaning, for no one
its
said
our master, David
his errors? "
profit, instruct
wise, so that
IBN GABIROL
us that
explain
xix.
(Ps.
(Is. xlviii.
17),
"lam
eth thee to profit"; and, as will instruct thee
Blessed
is
He
13),
As may He we may understand and beof us
and
treas-
conduct us in the good and right
way, and enlighten our eyes with the light of the law as written
its
from
free
for our God,
wisdom become remembered
May He
is
the Lord, it
is
and teach thee
Thy God, which way thou
that giveth strength to the weary.
107
teacb-
written (Ps. xxxii. 8), in the
it is
"I
shalt go."
—
APPENDIX
B.
A COMPARISON OF SOME PROVERBS AND MAXIMS IN THE -'ETHICS" WITH PARALLEL SAYINGS IN OTHER ARABIC, MAINLY JUDyEO-ARABIC, WORKS. The
attempt has not been made to find out
all
the sources
whence Gabirol derived his maxims and apothegms, seeing according to his
that,
own
statements, these are merely cited
as illustrative of his ethical teachings.
The
parallels
between
the "Ethics" and "Choice of Pearls" are pointed out with
may
some
care,
light
on the moot question of the authorship of the
because the comparison
tend to throw some latter.
Steinschneider ("H. U.," pp. 387, 388) after pointing out the similarity between the " Choice " and " Ethics " (with some slight variants), makes mention of the surprising circumstance that in the " Choice " no authors' names nor titles are cited,
whereas in a number of cases the titles in
"
Ethics " gives authors and
connection with quotations to be found in both works.
Even though Gabirol compiled the " Choice " for his personal use when young, it is difficult, as Steinschneider remarks, to see the reason for this omission.
A tury,
work by Honein, an Arabic florilegium of the ninth centranslated into Hebrew by Harizi under the title nDlD
d'SlDl^an,
man
was published
in a
Hebrew text together with a Gerwho has performed with much
translation by Lowenthal,
maxims of Honein with those and other mediaeval collections of apothegms
diligence the task of collating the of the Ethics
hence the frequent references to Lowenthal's German transla108
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON
IBN GABIROL
tion of Honein.
Lowenthal holds that Gabirol made use of the in the Arabic original, and points out the agreement of Gabirol with Honein (PP- 33> 34) whenever Gabirol cites maxims and gives the authors' names (with occasional exceptions), and also shows that many of the anonymously given proverbs in the Ethics are identical with
Honein ibn Ishak
collection of
those cited by Honein.
Steinschneider
("
H. U.,"
350, note
p.
658) thinks that Honein's work was known to the Spanish
Jews "
"
and
30.
(xlii.
" Choice,"
common
rived from a
Page
maxims
the eleventh century, but that the
of
Ethics
and also those
of
Honein,
in
may
the
be de-
(earlier) source.
— On the question of man's preference for ethical practice,
" Choice
cf.
''
429).
Page 44. — The
saying of the philosopher, " Habit
is
master over
things "
all
;
("Erm.," p. 5 and p. xiv., Anm. 36, and " H. U.," p. 353, note 6S7), Dukes (" Blumenlese." p. 96, no. 44; p. 156, no. 275 p. 244, no. 657), " Choice " (xliii., 480), Dukes (" Phil. ," p. 75 and note 2), who quotes the words of Publius Syrus, " Gravissiminn est imperium consuetudinis," attributed by Honein to Plato (i., chap. v.. no. 7. p. 55 and note 7, and cf.
Steinschneider
;
ii.,
chap,
67);
ii
Page 45. — On good
no.
,
1,
p. 101
Honein, pp.
cf.
directing
habits,"
cf. p.
"Blumenlese," 1,
men " between 45, note
compulsion
and "Choice"
1,
to Aristotle
(i.,
chap.
.\.,
no. 59, p.
the periods of childhood and youth unto
(p. 170,
no. 3,
p. 58,
and
to
obedience and freedom of
abiding by one's
will, cf. p. 48,
note 49 1 )-
fruit plucked from wisdom, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules").
Page 56. — On Page 57. — On note
and
Dukes (" Spruchkunde,"
1,
Page 51. — The p. 97S,
5),
p. 133, no. 171).
Page 48. — Respecting note
and note
10, 11).
own
etc.
opinion,
cf.
;
cf.
Steinschneider
Burckhardt
(''
H. U.,"
(p. 102, no. 259).
the need of domination for the adjustment of affairs,
cf. p. 57,
and " Pirke Aboth." iii. 2. On the danger of stumbling because of reliance upon one's own opin" Choice "(lv. 623).
Page 58. — ion, cf.
Page 58. — The ment,"
etc.;
saying of the divine Socrates, cf.
Steinschneider
("Erm.,
"From whom
p. 20,
n. 36)
doth disappoint-
and "Choice"
(lvi.
629).
Page 58.— " He who
sets himself
up," etc.;
cf.
Honein
(ii.,
chap,
i.,
no. 6,
p. 88).
Page 58. — The chap,
i.,
saying of Socrates with respect to aversion
no. 72, p. 97).
109
;
cf.
Honein
(ii.,
"
,
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL Page cf.
59.
—
Aristotle's comparison of beauty of
"Choice"
(xliv.
and note on
551,
form with beauty of character;
178),
p.
Honein
(ii.,
chap,
iii.,
no.
9,
and Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 882). Page 59. Aristotle's testament to Alexander; cf. Honein (ii. chap. iv. no. g, p. 115 and note 4), and Journal of American Oriental Society, vol. xv. "Arabic Proverbs and Proverbial Phrases," by J. R. Jewett, p. 73, no. 130. and note
p. log,
4).
—
,
,
Page 59.— The
saying of Ardeshir; cf. p. 59. note 2 this tale is cited (together with twelve other extracts from the " Ethics ") in the Hebrew, together with a German translation in " Proben Morgenlandischer Weisheit," by D. Otten:
soser, Furth, 1851, p. 26.
Page 60. — Honor,
the recompense of meekness;
"Choice"
cf.
(xliv.
and
514),
Fleischer (p. 67. no. 32).
Page 61. — " kunde,"
Lowliness consists,"
etc.
Dukes
cf.
;
(p. 67, no. 13,
and " Spruch-
p. 17, no. 47).
Page 61. — The fruit of contentment; Page 61. — "He who desires of this
cf. p.
6i,note3, and "Choice"(x. 170). cf. "Choice" (x. 161, and
world," etc.;
note on p. 148). Honein (ii., chap, vi., no. Steinschneider (" Erm.," p. 21, no. 81).
Page 61. — " He who
19,
cannot bear with one word,"
124 and note
p.
etc.; cf.
"Choice"
5),
and
(iii.
95,
and Dukes (" Blumenlese," p. 164, no. 305). Page 62. "A wise man lost among fools " cf. " Choice " (i. 66, 67, and note 488, p. 170), and Steinschneider (" Manna," p. 90, " Erm.," p. 20, no. 46, and "H. U.," p. 978, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules"). and note
—
79, p. 145),
;
Page 62. — The
saying of
and note
and Dukes
6)
,
Lokman
cf.
;
Honein
(ii.,
chap,
xii.,
no.
13, p. 141
(p. 78).
Page 63. — On the kinship of modesty and intelligence; cf. "Choice" (iii. 78). Page 63. — " The faults of him,'' etc. cf. "Choice" (xii. 177). Page 64. — Pudency when alone cf. " Choice'' (xxxi. 328, 332 and notes on p. ;
;
159),
Honein
(ii.,
chap,
v.,
126, chap, xix., no. 23, p.
no. g, p. 118 and note 3, chap, vii., no.
«56 and
note
3),
Dukes
(''
Blumenlese,"
5,
p.
p
105,
and " Spruchkunde," p. 25, no. 78), and Steinschneider ("Erm.," and " H. U.," p. 979, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules"). Page 64. The interdependence of pudency and faith; cf. " Choice " (xii. 178 and note on p. 150), and Dukes ( Blumenlese," p. 106, no. 86). Page 64. " Pudency marks the countenance of a nobleman" cf. "Choice" (xii, 176 and note on p. 150). Page 64. "If thou art not pudent," etc. cf. Fleischer (p. gi, no. 24), and no. 86,
p. 22, no. 139,
—
'
—
;
—
;
Burckhardt
188, no. 643).
(p.
Page 64. — " Upon him reposes," etc. Page 64. — The saying of Aristotle, Honein
(i.,
;
Fleischer (p. 69, no. 54).
cf.
"as a
chap. a., no. 15, p. 65 and note
result 7)
of modesty,"
where
it
is
said
etc.;
cf.
" Through
long-suffering one's helpers are increased.
Page 64.— Modesty p.
167 and note
Page 64. — The '"
Burckhardt
midst of wrath
enmity of the modest
(p.
Haarbrucker
in the
;
cf.
Honein
(ii.,
chap, xxi., no. 57,
9).
(ii.
man";
110, no. 415), Steinschneider p. 150): this
proverb
IIO
is
to be
cf.
Fleischer
("Erm.,"
(p. 79,
p. 22, no.
found in some form
no. 175), 117)
and
in almost
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON every Arabic collection,
Page 64. — On
"Choice"
cf.
and note
nos. 47, 48, p. 167
and Honein
(xx. 266)
chap, xxi.,
(ii.,
2).
away one's dignity;
trifling
IBN GABIROL
cf.
Honein
chap, xxi., no. 24,
(ii.
165 and note 14).
p.
Page 66. — On
consideration for the wise,
cf.
Honein
(i.,
chap, x., no. 62, o.
68).
Page 68. — "None
such
exists,''
etc.;
cf.
Honein
chap,
(ii.,
xi.,
no.
50, p.
13S).
Page 68. — " The penalty of misfortune" cf. " Choice " (xv. 190). Page 68. — " Fickle of speech " cf. " Choice" (xv. 192). Page 69. — "Passion is an enemy of the heart " cf. "Choice" (xv. ;
;
195), and Honein (ii., chap, xvi., no. 12, p. 151, and note 2). Page 69. " He who is submissive to his lust," etc.; cf. "Choice" (xv. 199) and Kurckhardt (p. 9S, no. 249). Page 70. On being blind to the object of one's love, cf. Honein (ii., chap. xxi., no. 59, p. 167), and Dukes (" Blumenlese,'' p. SS, no. 13). Page 70. "Thou shalt not attain what thou lovest, " etc. cf. Honein (ii., chap, xix., no. 29, p. 157, and note 3), and Steinschneider (" Erm.," p. 22, no. 140, attributed to Gregorius in the ^Ethiopic version of Honein cf. Cornill, " Buch der Weisen l'hilosophen," Leipzig, 1S75, p. 48, and in Ger;
—
— —
;
;
man
translation, p. 24.
Page 71. — "He who
loves thee for
some reason,"
etc.
;
cf.
Honein (i.,chap.
and note 5, and ibid., nos. iS, 19, p. 57 and note 5, and nos. 23, 24, p. 58 and note 2), being attributed in these five passages to Diogenes, Apollonius. Solon, Gregorius, and Pikorus, respectively cf. Dukes (p. 45, and "Phil.," 140), " Choia- " (xxv. 2S8), and Steinschneider ( "H. U,"
v., no. 5, p. 55
;
•
from Bonsenyor's " Paraules "). sows hatred," etc.;
p. 979,
Page 72. — " He who
cf.
"Choice"
(liii.
616,
and note on
p. 1S2).
Page
72.
chap,
— "Beware
i.,
of
whomsoever your heart hate," etc.; cf. Honein (ii., and Steinschneider ("Erm., "p. 21, no.
no. 31, p. 90 and note 7),
76).
Page 72. — The
most persistent form of hatred caused by envy
;
cf.
Dukes
(" Phil.," p. 135 and note 2) and Fleischer (p. S3, no. 224). Page 72. " Thou canst cure," etc. cf. " Choice" (xlviii. 594, and note on p.
—
;
]8i).
— The
upon one's enemies cf. " Choice" (liii. 617, and Honein (ii., chap. ii. no. 47, p. 107 and note 5). Dukes " Phil.," pp 132 and 134, note 17), Steinschneider (" H. (p. 71. note 21, and U.," cited as found in Bonsenyor's " Paraules"). and Briill (vol. ix., p. 46,
Page
75.
best revenge
;
note on p. 1S2),
,
—
8, in part 21, " Spriiche des Aristoteles " of a manuscript discussed under the caption, " Beitrage zur Jiidischen Sagen- und Spruchkunde im Mittelalter"); attributed to Plomer in Shahrastani (Haarbrucker, ii., p.
no.
144)
Page 76. — Description of joyous souls; cf. Honein (i., chap, vi., p. 59). Page 77. — "For him who laughs much," etc.; cf. "Choice" (xviii. 234 note on
p.
152,
xlii.
425, and note on p. 167),
Ill
Honein
(ii.,
chap,
xiii.,
and no.
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 17, p. 145
and note
10)
,
and Dukes (" Spruchkunde,''
and
p. 70, no. 23,
p.
61, no. 12).
Page
77.
vi.,
— Diogenes
79.
— " If
it
and grief;
effects of joy
and chap.
xii.
Honein
cf.
(ii.,
no. 32, p. 143) andSteinschneider("
,
from Bonsenyor's " Paraules
p. 979,
Page
on the
no. 19, p. 124,
be impossible for a
chap.
H.U."
").
man
to
have what he
desires,'' etc.; cf.
("Erm.,"p. 20, no. 37, and " H. U.," p. 979, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules"), Dukes (p, 88) and Marcus Aurelius (vii. 27). Page 80. "Socrates was asked," etc.; cf. "Choice" (vi. 118 and note on p. 147), Honein (ii., chap, i., no. 64, p. 95 and note 3) and Dukes (p. 64, Steinschneider
—
note
6).
Page 80. —" Grief
is
greatest on the day
it
comes into being"
cf.
;
Dukes
(" Spruchkunde," p. 64, No. 9) who cites parallels from "TUffi "|?Dn )3, in which, according to Guttmann (p. 48, note 2) there are many points of agree,
,
ment with the "Ethics'' and "Sayings of Aristotle.'' Attributed to Alexcf. p. 23). ander by Honein (iii. chap, i., p. 173 and note 1 Page 80. Alexander's attempt to console his mother cf. Honein (iii. chap, i., p. 173 and note 2, p. 174 and note l) and Dukes (pp. 46, 47). Page 80. "Alexander had heard from Aristotle"; told of Alexander in Honein (ii. chap, v., no. 2, p. 117 and note 1), and of Galen (ibid., chap, a., no. 2, p. 133 and note 1). Page 81. Galen on apprehensiveness and sadness; cf. Honein (ii.,chap. i. no. 11, p. 88 and note 5), and Steinschneider (" Erm.," p. 20, nos. 28 and 38, and " H. U. " p. 979, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules"). Page 81. On the difference between sadness and apprehensiveness; cf. Honein (ii., chap, viii., no. 2, p. 128 and note 5, and chap. ix. p. 131 and ,
;
—
;
,
—
,
—
,
—
,
note
2).
Page 81. — On hensiveness
the second version of the difference between sadness and appre-
Page 81. — On (ii.,
Honein
cf.
;
chap.
(ii.,
ix.
,
p.
132 and note
1).
cf.
Honein
12, p.
88 and
the benefits to be derived from apprehensiveness;
chap, xvii., Nos. 6 and
Page 81. — Socrates
7,
on sorrows;
pp. 151, 152 and notes).
Honein
cf.
(ii.,
note 6) and Dukes (" Blumenlese," p. 68, no.
Page 81. — Saying
of Ptolemy;
cf.
Honein
(ii.,
chap,
i.,
no.
3).
chap, xi., no. 26, p. 136 and
note 9); Steinschneider (" Erm.," p. 20, no. 40), and
Briill (vol. ix., p. 47,
no. 17, as above cited).
Page 83. — On
regretting what has been said and retracting cf. " Choice " (xxx. and note on p. 159, and xxv. 290). 84. On indignation being praiseworthy at the sight of wrong-doing cf. ;
327,
Page
—
;
Frankel-Griin
(p. 25,
note
I).
Page 84. — On
the right mean, or "middle way," cf. p. 84, note 1, and Honein (ii., chap, i., no. 10, p. 88and note 4). Page 84. Galen on anger and wrath cf. Honein (p. 19). Page 85. Al Kuti on the man of wrath cf. Honein (ii., chap, iii., no. 1, p.
—
;
—
;
108).
Page 85. — " Wrath chap. A ., no.
5, p.
is
a disease of the soul," attributed to Galen in Honein
133) 1
I
2
(ii.,
"
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL Page 86.—" Nor
must he be so gentle as never to become wrathful" cf. p. 86, and Honein (ii., chap, iv., no. 5, p. 114) Ptolemy on wrath cf. p. 86, note 2, and Honein (ii., chap, xi., no. 137 and note 4). ;
note
I,
Page 86 32, p.
—
;
Page 87.— On
the acceptabJeness of the righteous
" Pirke Aboth "
Page 88.— The
—
xiii.,
"Choice"
cf.
is
never envious;
friend,
his
(i.
28,
and note on
Burckhardt
cf.
and
p. 138, iv.
(p. 98. no. 246).
unfriendly";
intention
chap,
xiii.,
in order
no. 33, p. 147 and note
Page 90. — " The (ii.,
;
and note 4). The envious man, "created
chap,
(ii.,
1,
Honein
cf.
(ii.,
no. 21, p. 146
xiii.,
Page 90. —
87, note
cf. p.
;
295).
Page 89.— The noble man Page 90 "His name is chap,
man
13).
story of the king
and xxvi.
112,
(iii.
to
be angered";
Honein
cf.
2).
man is grieved at the time of thy joy"; cf. Honein no. 34, p. 147, and note 3), and " Choice" (xlviii. 598, and
envious
note on p. 181).
Page 92. — "
Hastiness the very worst of evils"
114-116,
(v. (i.,
chap,
vi.
and
145,
lxiv.
a., no. 53, p. 67,
and
Schneider (" Erm. " p. 20, no.
ii.,
,
Derwisch," Pest, i860,
Page 92. — "The man Brtill (p. 78,
Page 92. — "On
note
cf.
;
note
p. 92,
"Choice"
1,
and note on p. 184) Honein no. 18. p. 89 and note 4) Stein-
nos. 648, 649,
,
7)
,
chap,
i.,
;
;
and Ibn Hasdai (W. A. Meisel,
'
Prinz und
'
p. 201).
of hastiness
is
not secure from disappointment";
cf.
2).
the
value of deliberation;
cf.
Honein
(i.,
chap. x.
,
no. 54,
P- 67).
Page 95. — Bestowing
kindness on the worthy and unworthy;
cf.
"Choice"
(xvi. 207).
Page 95. — "Beware
of hastily promising," etc.;
cf.
Burckhardt
(p.
243, no.
53o).
Page 96. — Religion
incompatible with inordinate desire Saadya speaks in undue greed (Emunoth we-Deoth, a.). Page 97. "Knowledge is not lessened by imparting it"; cf. p. 97, notes 1, 21 ascribed to Plato in Honein (ii., chap, ii., no. 6, p. 102 and note 3); cf. Lowenthal (" Pseudo-Arist.," chap, vi., p. 108), Dukes (" Blumenlese, p. 178, no. 370 and note 1, and " Spruchkunde," p. 31, no. 103, and p. 91, ;
similar terms of
—
;
note
f).
Page 99. — "Crave chap,
i.,
death and
life
will
be granted thee";
no. 13, p. 88 and note 7), Steinschneider ("
cf.
Erm.,"
Honein
(ii.,
p. 20, no. 43)
and Dukes ("Blumenlese," p. 180, no. 377). Every vase gives forth whatever it contains" cf. Dukes ("Blumenlese," p. 149, no. 242, and note on p. 275 p. 153, no. 255 p. 182, no.
Page 103. — "
;
;
389).
113
;
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N.
don, 1830.
*'
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jtidische Geschichte
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Choice "
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..
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von Diez, " Denkwi'irdigkeiten von Asien," Berlin. 1811. L. Dukes. " Salomo ben Gabirol aus Malaga
Diez
H.
Dukes
F.
und
Dukes
("
Blumenlese
Dukes
("
Ehrensaulen
")
die
zig,
")
ethischen
Werke
desselben
I.,"
Hannover, i860. L. Dukes, " Rabbinische Blumenlese," Leip1844.
Dukes,
L. .
.
.
"Ehrensaulen
und
Denksteine
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Wien, 1837. L. Dukes, " Philosophisches aus Jahrhundert, " Nakel, 1868.
Dukes ("Phil.";
Dukes
("
Spruchkunde
")
dem zehnten
L. Dukes, " Zur rabbinischen Spruchkunde," Wien, 1851.
" Ali's Hundert Sprilche,"
Fleischer
H. L.
Frankl-Griin
A. D. Frankl-Grlin, Halevi," Bilin.
Fried
S.
Fleischer, Leipzig, 1837.
" Die Ethik des Juda-
Geiger
Fried, nVTlDVI 1SD. "Das Buch fiber die Elemente I.," Leipzig, 1884. A. Geiger, " Salomo Gabirol und seine Dich-
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H. Gratz, " Geschichte der Juden,"
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US
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"
,
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J.
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("
Ibn
Daud
")
Guttmann, " Die Religionsphilosophie des
J.
Abraham
ibn
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aus Toledo," Gottingen,
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Guttmann
("
Saadya
")
Guttmann. " Die Religionsphilosophie des Saadya, " Gottingen, 1882.
J.
"Z. H. B."
"Zeitschrift fur Hebraische Eibliographie," Berlin
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bild
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")
"J. Q. R."
A. Jellinek, " Der Mikrokosmos Josef ibn Zadik," Leipzig. 1854. .
.
.
von R.
Joel
" Jewish Quarterly Review, " London. M. Joel. " Beitrage zur Geschichte der Phi-
Kampf
S. I.
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losophie,"
i.,
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Kampf, " Nichtandalusische Poesie an-
dalusischer Dichter
Kaufmann,
.
.
" Studien
,"
.
Prag, 1858.
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Kaufmann
(" Attributenlehre ").D.
Kaufmann
("
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Sinne
")
Gotha, 1877. D. Kaufmann, " Die Sinne," Budapest, 1884.
M
Lazarus
.
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.
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IBN GABIROL
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M. Sachs, " Die
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R. Seyerlen, " Die gegenseitigen Beziehungen zwischen abendlandischer und morgenlandischer Wissenschaft mit besonderer Riick-
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jl'idischen
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.
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brseorum
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"
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Winter und Wiinsche Wolff
M.
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D. Stossel, " Salomo ben Gebirol als Philosoph und Forderer der Kabbala, " Leipzig, 1881. Winter und Wiinsche, " Die judische Literatur" (three volumes), Trier, 1894-1896. M. Wolff. " Mose ben Maimun's acht Capitel," Leipzig,
117
1863.
CORRECTIONS OF THE ARABIC TEXT. The
editor has closely followed the
MS. and has allowed
the peculiarities of the Judaso-Arabic Script to remain un-
changed.
In the following
list
he offers a number of sug-
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A
evident errors of
to correct in a
few places his own previous readings.
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3,
6,
the
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GUI
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