Solomon Ibn Gabirol (1021-1058) - The Improvement of the Moral Qualities, 1901

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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014141968



Columbia THntvereitB ©dental Stu&fes EDITED BY

RICHARD

J.

H.

GOTTHEIL,

Ph.D.

THE IMPROVEMENT OF

THE MORAL QUALITIES



COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY ORIENTAL STUDIES Vol.

I.

THE IMPROVEMENT OF

THE MORAL QUALITIES AN ETHICAL TREATISE OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY BY SOLOMON IBN GABIROL, PRINTED FROM AN UNIQUE ARABIC MANUSCRIPT, TOGETHER WITH A TRANS LATION, AND AN ESSAY ON THE PLACE. OF GABIROL IN THE HISTORY OF THLDEVELOPMENT OF JEWISH ETHICS :

BY

STEPHEN

S.

WISE, Ph.D.

jQeto gorfe

THE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS The Macmillan Company, Agents 66 Fifth Avenue 1901


6*7? K

31

Copyright, igoi,

BY

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY


Zo

tbe /nsemore OF

MY FATHER AND TEACHER IN LOVE, REVERENCE,

GRATITUDE

AND



——

i^ma "Help

jntn

rrperini

the Celestial bodies with your souls, even as tilling and

irrigating help the seed to grow."

Ut

ns

ager,

quamvis

fertilis,

potest, sic sine doctrina animus.

Ethics of Gabirol.

sine

cultura fructuosus esse

Seneca.

non



PREFACE The

original suggestion to write on the " Ethics " of Ibn

Gabirol came from

Rev.

my

revered

Dr. Alexander Kohut.

the counsel of Dr.

Rosin in his

which strengthened

my

and teacher, the

friend

After some study

"

if

possible, publish

The Improvement

Moral Qualities," a manuscript of which,

I

of the

was con-

learned,

the treasures in the Bodleian Library at Oxford.

For a time

I

was compelled

my

to base

tographic reproduction of the manuscript, supervision of Dr. A. Neubauer. I

came upon

determination to prepare a work on

the text of Gabirol's ethical treatise,

among

late

on the same subject,

article'

the "Ethics" of Solomon ibn Gabirol, and,

tained

I

studies

upon a pho-

made under the kind

During the summer

resided in Oxford, and was enabled to

make a

of 1895

careful exami-

nation of those passages the difficulty of reading which had

been increased by the photographic process. in

Oxford

my work was

facilitated in every

bauer, of whose kindness and hospitality ful

I

During

way by

desire to

my

stay

Dr. Neu-

make

grate-

acknowledgment.

The manuscript, herewith no opportunity

published,

is

unique

a :

there being

to collate the manuscript with other texts,

it

has

Cf. "J. Q. R.." iii., p. 161. In the summer of 1S96 Professor Gottheil found, in the library of the Alliance Israelite Universefle, Paris, a copy of the " Ethics," which, upon comparison, proved to be an exact reproduction of the text of the Oxford manuscript, evidently 1

2

having been copied from

it

letter

by

letter.


"

PREFACE been reproduced with the fewest possible changes gestions, with a view

to

emending the

text,

;

a few sug-

have been em-

bodied in footnotes.

The

translator has collated four

Bodleian

(2),

Hebrew manuscripts

1

(Paris,

Jews' College) as well as the printed editions, and

he expects to edit in the near future a Hebrew version of the "

Ethics,"

2

which, while taking account of the various

manuscripts, shall more clearly reproduce, in

respects, the

Arabic.

spirit of the original

wish at this time to express

I

some

Hebrew

my

sincere gratitude to Prof.

Richard Gottheil for his unfailing kindness and valued counsel during the term of

am

I

my

study at Columbia University.

indebted to Prof.

J.

H. Hyslop for some hints

interpretation of the " Ethics,"

Jewish Encyclopedia

staff for a

and

on the Arabic text as well as the

Mr.

to

number

I.

Broyde of the

of suggestions bearing

translation. S. S.

Portland, Ore., May

2,

1

Cf. Introduction, p.

7.

"

of the

brevity,

under the

title

" Ethics.

W.

1901.

2

The Improvement

in the

Moral Qualities

" is

referred to, for the sake of


TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

Introductory Essay, Translation,

Appendix Appendix

A

(Preface of the Hebrew Translator),

i

29 .

.

105

108

B,

List of Abbreviations

115

Arabic Text

119

p

IX



INTRODUCTION To first

write an history of Jewish Ethics

pages of the Bible.

The

'

is

to begin with the

doctrine that the world was

created by Deity has a purely ethical significance, which bears

upon many departments of human conduct. That Deity pronounced all that He had created good, is the sum and substance of optimism the idea that one man was the progenitor of the whole human race, implies the loftiest humanitarian principles ;

that can be conceived.

In this wise, almost

of the Bible, and, certainly, a large

number

all

the narratives

of passages in the

Pentateuch, the Prophets, and the Hagiographa, are of clear and unmistakable ethical bearing and import. But in the days of the Biblical authors the branches of learning were not as _

strictly divided as they are at present.

Jurisprudence, history

(including family and tribal traditions), and whatsoever there

was

of natural science

and speculative thought clustered around

one subject, Religion, and were intertwined with it. 2 The command, " Thou shalt not steal," was binding not because theft was a social crime, but because God prohibited

The

historical records of the

Hebrew

it.

people, as they developed

from a family and tribe into a union of tribes and a nation, were looked upon as authentic, because Moses had written them The geometrical and architectural at the command of God. principles in accordance with which the tabernacle in the desert

and, subsequently, the 1

man

Cf.

Rosin (" Maimonides,'' pp. 1-4).

edition, p. 3) 2

Cf.

Temple

is

"Die

Bibel

ist

I

Solomon were The

first

built,

jiidischen Sittenlehre " ("

387). I

were

sentence in Lazarus (Ger-

das Grundbuch der jiidischen Ethik.

H. Cohen, "Das Problem der

vol. xliii., p.

of

M.

"

G.

W.

J.,"


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL "

of divine inspiration.

sacred

command

of God.

Love thy neighbor

Medicine was practised by the

the religious law required these things.

wisdom

was

was a

priests, hygienic laws

strictly enforced, astronomical observations

of Biblical times

as thyself "

1

were made, because

Thus

the wisdom

all

The

identified in a degree with religion.

came

of the prophets

ious subject or occasion

;

to light as

were

suggested by a relig-

hence the peculiar feature of the Bible,

to wit, the interblending of all the subjects of art, science, phi-

losophy and literature, without any plan or system other than the

one predominant desire, to further the cause of religion. shared the same fate at the hands of those In the consciousness of the people ethical thoughts

Ethics

who wrote the Bible. a goodly number of

and principles became crystallized in time in

the form of sayings or adages, and

many

of these sayings or

maxims were stored up in the Book of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Ben Sira, and scattered here and there throughout the other books of the Bible.

In the

Hebrew such proverbs

or adages,

together with parables, fables, and even didactic songs, bore

common name

the

of

Mashal

mentioned we sometimes

(^b>d),

and in the collections just

find these ethical

dicta interspersed

with religious exhortations. In the period of the development of the Mishna,

mudim

the Tal-

(Jerusalem and Babylonian) and the Midrashim, some

advance had been made in the exposition of ethics. We frequently meet in these works with ethical sayings and parables of real beauty and value, and even attempts at explaining Biblical 2

injunctions on the basis of ethical principles.

seems

to

Still

no attempt

have been made to reduce the study of ethics to a

formal science or the study of ethical teachings to a system;

although the works of Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek philos1

Cf. Lazarus (pp. log,

no): "In

its

origin Jewish ethics

is

theologic.

.

.

.

For man's will and conduct there are standards that is, moral laws to be obeyed, and God is the law-giver. Judaism regards what is morally good and what pleasing to God. moral law and divine regulation, as inseparable concepts." 2 Cf. Back (Winter und Wiinsche, iii., pp. 627 et seq. ). 2


;

.

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON ophers were not efforts

unknown

were made

to

to the

collect

IBN GABIROL

Hebrew

Here, again,

sages.

memorable sayings and proverbs,

for instance, in the " Chapters of the Fathers," but

struct a system. of concrete ethics'

Abundant (s'0«s),

none to con-

attention was given to the matter

but no attempt was made to formulate

a systematic treatise on the subject corresponding to

During the period

of the

1

-J l

Uu<s .'

Saburaim and the Gaonim, up

to

the time of Saadya Gaon, the representatives of Jewish thought

and learning certainly could not busy themselves with the building up of a theoretical system of ethics. The chief efforts of the schools of Sura and Pumbaditha were bent upon evolving order from out the chaos of Talmudic jurisprudence, social, criminal, and religious, and upon adapting the Talmudic law to the various conditions under which the Jews lived in their dispersion the world over. In addition to the profound wisdom and untiring activity required for the performance of such a task, the rabbis must have wielded a moral power which commanded unbounded respect for their teachings and enactments but, engaged as they were in the truly herculean task of keeping a vastly dispersed constituency in

common

and that without any worldly means not think of constructing a system of law,

allegiance to the

of coercion, they could ethics,

independent of

dogmatic religious teaching.

The

undertake this task was Saadya (892-942) in According to the tenth chapter of the " Emunoth we-Deoth." first to

his theory, the higher soul

dynamic

forces, so to speak

discernment.

man

of

— inborn

manifests itself in three love,

inborn aversion, and

In the tenth chapter of his book, Saadya enumer-

ates thirteen qualities of the soul which originate in intuitive

and which must be made subservient to discernment or Although this may be considered an endeavor systematize ethical theory, it cannot by any means be regarded

love,

mental training. to

1

Cf. Lazarus (pp.

8, 9)

Cf Hyslop ("Elements of Ethics," New York, 1S95, Pearls" (p. 162, note to maxim 360), Rosin (" Maimonides," "J Q. R." (vol. iii., pp. 165, 166), and Guttmann (p. 17). 5

.

3

p. p.

1),

"Choice of

34 et seq.), and


"

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON

IBN-

GABIROL

Saadya makes no reference to the qualities from inborn aversion, and thus leaves us in the

as a complete work.

which

result

dark as to one-half of the system which he proposes to con-

Moreover, the principal dynamic force of the soul, dis-

struct.

cernment, by which the offshoots or qualities resultant from the other forces must be controlled and trained,

than what

less

is

is

nothing more nor

called soul in a theological sense, in a Jewish

means

theological sense, and

little

or nothing to the non-Jew

real merit of the "

The

or non-believer.

the philosophical view

Emunoth

" consists in

takes of the Jewish religion, and in

it

its

brilliant defense of the ancient faith, as interpreted by the rab-

Karaism on the one hand,

as against the onslaughts of

bis,

and of heretical rationalism on the other.

upon

entirely

Still

the writer foots

and one must read

tradition and dogmatic belief,

through the entire work and put one's self en rapport with the author's religious views before being able to read appreciatively the last chapter on the subject, of ethics.

Ibn Gabirol took a tematize

new stand

:

he made an attempt to sys-

the principles of ethics, independently of religious

'

dogma or belief. What Saadya ascribes to the higher soul of man Gabirol attributes to the lower soul and the dynamic forces ;

of Saadya's higher soul

1

Munk

he reduces to mere qualities or

(p. 169) believed that

it

was not the aim

traits of

of Gabirol to establish

"un

systeme de morale," but that he merely endeavored to write "un manuel populaire de morale." Horovitz (p. 141, notes 155-158), following Munk, argues from Gabirol's statements that the latter does not purport to set

of ethics, but merely wishes to write a practical

handbook

up an ordered system

of morals in compliance

"Er schlagt daher kein streng wissenschaftliches an jeder Definition der behandelten Begriffe, noch viel er sich auf eine psychologische Zergliederung der erorterten Tu-

with the desire of his friends.

Verfahren

weniger

ein, es fehlt

lasst

genden und Laster sehen."

ein.

.

.

.

Wir konnen seinen Versuch nur

Cf. also p. 142, note 164.

pursues a scientific method. quera," Berlin, 1894,

p. xiv.

Bacher

als

misslungen an-

(p. 51) holds that Gabirol's

"Ethics"

("Das Buch der Grade von ibn Falaconsiders "Das Buch der Grade" "die erste wissen-

L. Venetianer )

schaftliche systematische Ethik in der Literaturgeschichte der arabisch-jiidischen

Philosophie."

The "Buch

der

the ethical system of Gabirol.

"Hoboth

Grade" Hertz

is

(p.

no more streng- wissenschaftlich than makes a similar claim for Bahya's

13)

Ha-lebaboth,'' which he considers "the

according to philosophical method.

4

first

Jewish ethical treatise


V

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON the lower soul. regards

IBN GABIROL'

Discernment, again, which his

as the

balancing force of

predecessor

the higher soul, Gabirol

acknowledges to be no more than the utmost limit of perfection in the lower soul, the line, so to speak,

and the divine meet

man.

in

where the purely human

In this wise, Gabirol's system of

human

in conduct and in characbeyond the " line of intelligence," in so far as intelligence itself depends upon higher inspiration, he does not meddle. From this point of yiew his " Ethics " is unique, and must have created a considerable

ethics covers all that

With

ter.

among

stir

avoids tone,

is

truly

which

religious ethics

is

the religious thinkers of his time; but since Gabirol

all religious

questions, refers to the rabbis in reverent

and quotes the Bible

1

he could

in support of his views,

not be condemned as a heretic

— he was shunned

rather than

despised.

The life of Gabirol, sharing in this respect the fate of the Hebrew prophets and many later leaders in Jewish affairs, is little known, and the little that is known is gleaned from casual remarks which occur in his poems and from the meagre notices of authors

2

who

refer to his works.

Salomo ben Jehuda ibn Gabirol '

In the " Ethics,

"

3

(the

Arabic form of his

Gabirol refers to the Bible in order to find some additional

support for his views, but he nowhere bases his thought upon a biblical verse or In the " Fons Vita? " he went one step further and entirely refrained paragraph.

Horovitz (p. 78, notes 4, 5) alludes from citing the Bible. Munk. Cf. Schmeidl (p. 103), Bacher (p. 45), Guttmann (p. 47)

points out that Gabirol in this respect stands alone

who

,

to this, 4),

following

and Stossel

among

(p.

the Jewish-

Arabic philosophers, Saadya, Maimonides, and their successors. As proof of the attempt "Gabirol todtzuschweigen," one need but refer to " the work of a philosopher of the thirteenth century, who, in his Ya'ir Netib." re-

"Ethics."

the dil'gent study of D ,-ID10n nSD. but fails to mention Gabirol's Cf. Giidemann ("Das jud. Unter. wahr. der Span. -Arab. Per.," p.

59 of the

Hebrew

commends

part).

The mention

same author, Jehuda b Sam.

b.

Abbas,

of "The Choice of may imply that even as

Pearls,"

by the

early as the thir-

" was not acteenth century the Gabirolian authorship of the "Choice of Pearls 382-388). ("H. U.,"pp. Cf. Steinschneider cepted. !

Dukes

Cf.

(pp. 118-121).

The name may be written either Gabirol As to the form Gebirol, a diminutive, note 25). 8

vol. xliii.

,

pp. 308, 309).

5

or Gebirol cf.

;

cf.

Geiger

(p.

Kaufmann ("M. G. W.

119, J.,"


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL name being Abu Ayyub Sulaiman and philosopher,

2

was born

Yahya ibn

b.

Jabirol), poet

Malaga about 1021, lived for

in

a time at Saragossa, and died at Valencia in the year 1058 of Gabirol are "

The two philosophical works The Improvement of the Qualities

1059. "

and 1

("H.

Cf. Geiger, Sachs,

Kampf, Dukes

who

U.,'' p. 379, note 77),

or

Fons Vitae

of the

(several works), Stein

J

Soul,"

"

the

and Steinschneider

give the literature on the subject.

5 For an account of the life and the works of Gabirol, consult Munk, Gratz, Dukes, Guttmann, Geiger, Horovitz, Kaufmann, Kampf (pp. 167-191), Myer, Rosin Schmiedl, Sachs (pp. 213-248), Joel, Stossel, Bacher (pp. 45—55) ,

Lbwenthal, Kaufmann ("Attributenlehre," pp. 95115), Dukes ("Ehrensaulen," pp. 1-25 and 59-76), Karpeles (" Geschichte der jiidischen Literatur," i., pp. 465-483). Winter und Wiinsche (ii. pp. 723-730), (" Maimonides,'' pp. 11,

12),

,

Eisler (" Vorlesungen iiber die jiidischen Philosophen des Mittelalters," Wien,

1876,

i.,

pp. 57-68), Friedlander ("Geschichtsbilder," Briinn, 1S80, pp. 23-28),

Baumker ("Avencebrolis Fons Vita?,'' Miinster, 1895), Adler("Ibn Gabirol and His Influence upon Scholastic Philosophy," London, 1865), Guttmann ("Das zur jiidischen Litteratur," GottinVerhiiltniss des Thomas von Aquino .

.

gen, 1891, pp. 16-30), Muller (" ingen, 1898, pp. 90-107), 3

This

De

Kahana

latter date is uncertain,

.

Godsleer der Middeleeuwsche Joden,

(P1PET1. vol.

but

is

i.

,

"

Gron-

pp. 38-48).

accepted by Steinschneider ("H. U.,"

and Neubauer ("M. G. W. J.," vol. xxxvi. p. 498 et seq.), who base judgments upon the statements of authors nearly contemporaneous with Gab-

p. 379)

their

,

Steinschneider accepts the statement of Sa'id (circa 1070)

irol.

,

who

praises

Gabirol as a logician and makes mention of his death, February, 1058, before the

This coincides with the date given by the something over thirty quotes these words of Harizi from the Amsterdam

completion of Gabirol 's "thirties. poet Jehuda al-Harizi,

Munk

years.

(p. 157,

who

''

relates that Gabirol died at

note 1)

DntW JJBTI pi. but have died at so early an age, seeing that his works were important and revealed above all the prolonged Munk (p. 156. note 1) who accepts the meditations of a .spirit ripened by years. edition of

the Tahkemoni,

N3 nh D'E^BTI

Ijn

H33

1"0

raises the very vulnerable objection that Gabirol could not

,

Abraham Zacu"Yuhasin," publishes an extract from an Arabic work of Moses ibn Ezra (Hebrew Supplement, pp. 515-517, and French translation, pp. 263-265), whom date of Gabirol's death, 1070, in the city of Valencia, as given in to's

Harizi probably followed, which declared that "this young man, Gabirol, died in the flower of his youth, in the early part of the eighth century the present era)— he had hardly passed his thirtieth year." 191),

{i.e.,

about 1040 of

Kampf

(pp.

187-

basing his argument upon an explanation of Professor Roediger, holds that

the Arabic text of ibn Ezra bears out the interpretation that Gabirol " had already

passed the thirties."

•Kaufmann

(p.

Neubauer, Steinschneider ("H. U.,"

p. 379,

note 76), and

79, note 2) accept this date,

with Sa'id's date.

Guttmann

(p. 1,

namely, about 1057, which corresponds notf t) without giving any reasons in support

of his position, inclines to the later date of Zacuto; Gratz (note

6

*

2,

pp. 419-421)


:

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON latter

The

being ethical in character.

in the year 1045

On

io 48). (

'

IBN GABIROL " Ethics "

was written

the whole, the " Ethics

ten in a fluent and classic Arabic

Though

style.

" is writ-

excellently

must be said that the occasional obscure passages are not made less obscure by the translator. The main translated

it

difficulty in translating arose

from the

fact

that the

Hebrew

language did not compare with the Arabic in the copiousness

marked by an almost slavish

fidelity to the original.

translator has erred, in not a few passages, in the

The manuscript

Hebrew is The present

In some places the

of its philosophical terminology.

same way.

(1422,2 in the Bodleian Library)

is

a part of

the collection which was founded by Bishop Huntington during his residence in the East as chaplain to the English merchants

Aleppo. It consists of 46 pages 8vo, written in the SyrioRabbinic Hebrew characters, about the end of the fourteenth

at

century, according to Neubauer.

The

uscripts of the " Ethics " are extant

Ms.

nale,

Hebr.,

1402,2), Jews'

671,2),

College,

:

Bodleian

following

(Neubauer 2413,7, and 48,3), Leeuwarden

London (Neubauer

Neubauer, " Israelitische Letterbode,"

(cf.

Hebrew man-

Paris (Bibliotheque natio-

vol. xii., p. 83),

Miin-

chen (St. 201,1 and 327,3), Talmud Torah Library in Rome, The following are the and Casanate Library in Rome. 3 3

printed editions

Dukes ("Ehrensaulen,

likewise accepts the date 1069 or 1070.

whose calculation

is

1

'

rather far-fetched, believes that Gabirol died

p. 10, note 2),

some time be-

tween the years 1070-1080, at about the age of thirty. 1 Steinschneider and Neubauer are correct in reading the date as 828 (1068), but

it

has occurred to

me

that this date

may be merely

a reminiscence of the year

Munk admits that 1428 (Sel. of Gabirol's death, current in the days of the copyist. Steinschneider era), as he reads the manuscript, leads to an erroneous conclusion. ("

note 94) is inclined to accept the date 1045, which is given in sources and some of the Hebrew manuscripts. two manuscripts in Rome were collated by K. Pollak for the Budapest

H. U.,"

the earliest s

The

p. 381,

Hebrew

edition. 3

Cf. Steinschneider

("H. U.,"

381).

Lengthy extracts from the "Ethics" Amsterdam, 1640 (cf. Dukes, p.

are given in a Latin translation by G. Gentius, 121), in a

Latin version of Maimonides' niJTI ITD?!!

used only a Hebrew

text, for the verses, as well as the

Rosin (p. 163, note " Ethics,'' published at Wilna in 1845.

the Arabic text, are missing.

7

2)

The

translator evidently

concluding paragraphs of

mentions an edition of the


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 1550

Constantinople, 4to,

(together

with Bahya's main

rvm^n).

Riva

di

1562 (together with Honein's nDio

1

Trento, 4to,

D'SlD'tan,

and msn.f D under the general

title,

\Q3 p1J.

Luneville, 4to, 1807 (same title and contents as the Riva di

Trento edition). Lyck, i2mo, 1859 (same general

title JV3J plJ,

but only the

"Ethics").

Warsaw,

1886 (not mentioned

8vo,

by Steinschneider,

"H. U."> Budapest, 8vo, 1896. "

The

Fons Vitae

"

was attributed for centuries

Munk

Avicebron, until

lastic philosopher,

to a scho-

recognized" in 1846

that Ibn Gabirol and Avicebron were one, the

name Avicebrol

3 (Avicebron) being a corruption of Ibn Gabirol or Ibn Gebirol.

The Arabic original of

the " Fons Vitae"

is lost,

but a Latin trans-

been preserved which was made by Johannes HispaAccording to with the aid of Dominicus Gundisalvus.

lation has lensis,

Steinschneider (" H. U.

,"

translation are extant.

Munk

p.

380) four manuscript copies of this

discovered the identity of Avice-

bron and Ibn Gabirol through a comparison of the Paris manuscript of the "

"

Fons Vitas

with a Hebrew work by Shemtob

Palquera in the Paris Library, which proved to be a paraphrase of the

Arabic

likewise a translation. portance, inasmuch as

"

Fons Vitas " was evidently This discovery was of the greatest imAvicebron the Jew, Salomon ibn Gabirol,

original, of

which the

played no unimportant part in the development of scholastic phicf. " R. E. J.," xxx., p. 273. note i)and " Literaturblatt des Orients," 1846, No. 46.

1

In the Index Expurgationis

2

Cf.

3

Kampf

Guttmann

(p. 7,

(p. 175,

rally altered in

;

name Ibn Gebirol was natuname Reuben ha-Barceloni, which change occurred in the name Ibn Gebirol, through

note 11), in showing that the

time into Avicebron, cites the

The

became Bargeloni.

reverse

the transitional stages of Avengebirol, Avencebrol, and Avencebron, to Avicebron.

The change from Ibn Badsha

— Avempace.

Thomas von Aquin the form Avicebrol

The

note

is

to

Avi

is

According

not to

uncommon; cf. Ibn Sina Avicenna, Ibn M. Wittmann ("Die Stellung des HI.

zu Avencebrol, Ibn Gebirol," Milnster, 1900, p. 1, note 5), found as late as the time of Bradwardina, who died 1349.

is

based upon information furnished by Dr. CI. Baumker.

8


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON

IBN GABIROL

In recent years the " Fons Vitae," particularly the Latin version, has received scholarly and ample treatment in

losophy.

the works of Seyerlen, Guttmann, Baumker, and Wittmann. In setting out to write the " Ethics," Gabirol endeavored to give a

human

systematic exposition of

soul,

endowments

the

may be

the impulses, which

i.e.,

of

the

so trained as to

lead to virtue, or permitted, ungoverned or ill-governed, to

make

This task accomplished, he began to work at the "Fons Vitae,'' which was designed to explain the revelation of Deity in the world. The " Ethics " may be regarded as a work

for vice.

1

preparatory to the

"

Fons

rived in the " Ethics,"

2

Vitas."

The

results, at

which he

ar-

human

reasoning from the

senses, as he perceived them, up to the highest spiritual possibilities of man, formed the basis of his theological demonstration in " Fons

which is based upon deductive methods of reasoning. In the " Ethics " Gabirol does not 'question any of the

Vitae,"

D

God

theological or philosophical conceptions of his time."

He

has created

all

that exists;

man

highest purpose of creation, the aim of into existence.

Munk

6

1

Cf.

2

Frankel-Griin

The symmetry 4 and p. 170

(p.

"Ethics"

Gabirol's

note

(p. 43,

is:

the masterwork and

is

that has been called

all

of his form and the beauty of

et seq.). 2),

following Geiger

86

(p.

as "Vorstufe zur Metaphysick."

speaks of

et seq.),

Lowenthal

("Pseudo-

Arist.," p. 39) holds the "Ethics" to have been written demonstrably later than

the

"Fons 3

An

Vitae."

excellent,

Guttmann

though

(pp. 17, 18),

brief, analysis of the

" Ethics

ence of Saadya upon the teachings of Gabirol.

Cf.

''

of Gabirol

is

given by

my judgment, the influMunk (pp. 167-169), Dukes,

who, however, overestimates,

in

Rosin (pp. 166-1S1), and Horovitz (pp. 138-142). 4 It would undoubtedly be a fruitful task to trace the elements of Gabirol's system of ethics, in so far as these are directly related to physics and metaphysics, Nevertheless, even though we would back to their first mainly Greek sources.

insist in the spirit of

Gabirol upon viewing this work as a system of ethics rather

than as a mere compilation of moral maxims, Gabirol does not dwell sufficiently

upon 5

this aspect of his

work

to justify such a course.

This theory was held by Saadya (Emunoth we-Deoth,

edition of Slucky, Leipzig, 1864), (Fried, pp. 59

Bahya

(Briill, p. 73,

iii.

and 37) Joseph ibn Zaddik, and even by Gabirol's ,

58, iv. 75, vi. 95,

note 1), Donolo and Israeli fierce antagonist,

Abraham ibn Bau.d, but opposed by Maimonides cf. Rosin (" Maimonides," 99) Guttmann (" Saadya," pp. 83, 84, and 159-163), and Fried (p. 42). ;

,

9

p.


;

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL his construction

1

render him the peer of

all

animal creatures;

and his intelligence and the spiritual endowments, which constitute his soul,

him

raise

infinitely

above

those creatures."

This soul makes him the equal of the angels, which are the

powers intermediary between the physical world and Deity.

By

cultivating his powers for good (his virtues),

even the superior of those intermediary beings

3

cannot be any more or less than that which they plish

while

any more or

less

man becomes for the latter

accom-

are, or

than that unto which they are destined,

man may rise through

the measure of his spiritual perfec-

tion and beneficent activity to Deity himself, and even cause

At

the angels to serve him.

this point Gabirol quotes passages

from the Bible in which the angels are represented as acting in the service of man, or even dominated by him. Curiously enough, in this place, as well as in

book

this

in

which the Bible

is

all

the subsequent parts of

cited in support of his views,

the author ignores the Talmudim and Midrashim, which might have answered his purpose better and illustrated his thoughts to greater advantage.

The argument thus is

far is

a direct emanation of the

based on the assumption that Deity, and that his soul

toward reunion with the source of suggests itself

—why

is

all

man

tends

The question now man and men vary in their

being.

there any difference between

man ?

In other words, why do individual temperaments and spiritual powers? There can be but one answer to this question, and that is, the differences are due to the cultivation of the soul. is

more or

itself of

makes

In the measure in which the soul

less cultivated, in the

its

for a loftier spiritual ideal,

scale of 'Cf.

measure

which

in

it

divests

sympathies with the lower sensual impulses and

human

it

places itself higher in the

perfection and ascends nearer to Deity.

Still,

Musen(p. n).

2

Cf. Brilll (p. 73, note 2).

3

Saadya places

man above

the angels, according to

Abraham ibn Ezra cf. and Schmiedl (p. 84) This view was held as early as the ninth century— by David ben Merwan, who is quoted ad rem by Jephet ben Ali of the tenth century cf. Beer (p. 15, and notes 27-30). Guttmann

(" Saadya," p. 160, note

1)

;

.

;

10


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON the soul, as existence,

it

is

manifests

the

itself in

IBN GABIROL

life of this earth, in visible

but a creation of Deity and not Deity

not entirely free

1

own

to act of its

itself;

it is

In our time

accord.

we

would say that the powers of every individual soul are limited to a degree by the accidents of birth and environment, as well as by racial and family peculiarities heredity. In Gabirol's time it was believed that the soul was limited by the celestial

bodies

in principle, the ancient

:

and modern thought on

this

subject concur; the qualifications of every individual soul are

But since we cannot accurately determine our relation and know not what limits the accidents of birth and environment have destined for our souls, it is our duty to make limited.

to Deity,

for the highest ideal. " Help the celestial bodies with your souls, even as plowing and irrigating help the seed to grow." Through such efforts man can evoke the latent powers which are within him. There are numerous passages in the Talmudim in support of these views, of which our author could not have been ignorant * but ;

Gabirol,

it

appears, studiously avoided quoting these authorities

unless he had

The

some

special reason for so doing.

question next suggests

itself

— how

and when should

this helping of the celestial bodies, this cultivating of the soul,

begin ?

Gabirol answered this question in the following way

In order to cultivate his soul, peculiarities.

He must

man must

necessarily

therefore study himself as he

know

is,

:

its

closely

examine his character and inclinations, habituate himself to the abandonment of what is mean, i.e., whatsoever draws him into close contact with the physical and temporal, and aim at the Cf. Maimonides (Wolff, p. 58) who takes especial note of these limitations, which he calls "natural," but he makes light of "celestial influences." Cf. p. 48, note 1, showing that Gabirol's belief in planetary influence did not weaken his faith in man's freedom of will. 1

,

2

Cf.

Lowenthal ("Pseudo-Arist. ,"

p.

43, note 1),

who

holds, together with

Sachs, in opposition to the view of Guttmann, that Gabirol was a student of the

Talmud.

Stossel (p. 39) holds that Gabirol's Azharot, as well as the "Gebet-

stilcke verrathen

thume

ohne Zweifel seine Vertrautheit mit dem rabbinischen

"

II

Schrift-


;

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL spiritual

This

and the abiding.

and man's ability

effort in itself is blessedness,

make such an

to

effort is a proof of

divine

Passages from the Psalms are adduced in support

benevolence. of these views.

Up his

own

system.

ately avoided the

on

nothing new; he merely

to this point Gabirol has said

sums up the accepted

articles of belief in a

manner

that leads to

the conjecture be correct, that he deliber-

If

Talmud

in order to place his system of ethics

a basis independent of rabbinical dogmatism,' such

an

in-

The Talmud could not object to these Bible bears them out, and the rabbinical

troduction to his work was nothing less than ingenious.

most ardent devotee postulates,

for the

of the

Men

law contains nothing to oppose them. insight could hardly fail to see that

if

of thought

and

the author could dis-

pense with the rabbinical teachings in the exposition of ethical principles, a strong doubt arises as to the necessity or even the

Undoubtedly

at the

treatment of which he makes introductory chapter of the

In the

on.

ceremonial law.

hands of such thinkers, such rabbinists, he

received the unkind further

concerning the

teachings

validity of those

Gabirol's task has not been difficult

accepted beliefs and principles.

;

for he leaned

At

this point,

mention "Ethics,"

on generally he abandons

the beaten track and proceeds to pursue a then comparatively 1

Seyerlen (p. 25 and notes 38 and 43) compares Gabirol with Spinoza, the modern philosophy as the former introduced mediaeval philo-

latter introducing

sophy, and he emphasizes Gabirol's philosophical independence of Jewish theological

dogma

in the

words

keineswegs bloss als die delt, als

Magd

ist

z.

note 43)

41,

:

"Denn

er hat die Philosophie

und behanund den Ausbau der talden Juden so hochgefeierte Maimonides

der rabbinischen Theologie angesehen

das bloss formale Organ

mudischen Weisheit, wie

ihm

(p.

fiir

die Vertheidigung

B. der bei

die Philosophie durchaus Selbstzweck, er weist ihr eir.e souverane Stel-

lung an, eine Stellung so ganzlich unabhangig von der Theologie, dass selbst jeder Seitenblick auf diese vermieden wird." Cf. Geiger (pp. go-93), Stbssel (pp. 46-48), Sandler

("Problem der Prophetie

in der jiid.

,

Religionsph. " Bres-

note 66), and Spiegler ("Geschichte der Philosophie des Juden-

lau, 1891, p. 2g,

p. 254), who holds that Gabirol "trug nicht des Glaubens Sklavenketten " and also " attacked the authority of the 'Kalam.'" Kampf (p.

thums," Leipzig,

173) maintained that although Gabirol

was untrammelled

in his philosophic re-

search, he yet expected to reconcile his results with the teachings of theology.

12


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON unknown

He

path.

IBN GABIROL

bases his ethical system on the work of

Rabbi Shabbatai Donolo, whose words he copies 1

is

Gaiiikol.

Donolo.

(Translation o£ Jehuda ibn Tibbon.)

(Introduction to 1JdSs3 din nipjn IPWS)

Snjn oSiyn nx Ni3 nj pdij ?!

-|Sinn

av

in so far as

required for his purpose.

ma

1

:'i3i

.

.

omSkh

<3

idini

oiy30 nyaiN by

O'Dn nci>) L nja'jn nrvSni -nwtn nDiyS mn 13 novwtn -iayn nniyS n-iina>n mnni VS3S331 imix3 o ?!^ -parr ixi3i £>Nn nciyS >

mom

1

'131

B'Cin nii-cn

13

N131 -iai

Being a close and iterates Donolo's

-lDrp

"73 nn kiji ne rftun omen jd-ikdi cdi nn nniDin njmx an rfwn 1S13 n-nrw mnni norm nmVi on om -iojn

aSiyn £>ni

mm

nnnni nSi ip nmSn nai "uja mirwn mnnni .... .

.

.

nnn

njj3

ii'Nn -U13

oin

nDrmn

'Oi "isyn

1

n?

logical thinker,

idea 3 that

.

man

is

he merely sums up and

the microcosm, a counter-

part or reflex of the universe entire, macrocosm, and leaves this subject, bringing us directly to his

the five senses, whose powers of

own assumption

that

perception are manifested

through the composition and intermingling of the four elements

8

human body, constitute the links between the physical and the spiritual in the constitution of man. To impress this thought upon his readers, Gabirol allegorizes the passage of of the

4

1

2

A

physician and astronomer of the tenth century

(b. 913).

shows that Donolo, in considering the world a microcosm and man a macrocosm, and in deriving the composition of the body from four humors corresponding to the four elements, follows the work of Israeli (855Cf. Geiger (" Melo Chofnajim," 955)i which is in turn dependent upon JIT'S' D. Fried furthermore proves the dependence of Gabirol (p. Berlin, 1840, p. 29). 59), Bahya, Moses ibn Ezra, Halevi, Ibn Daud, Joseph ibn Zaddik — (cf. Jellinek, "Mikrokosmos,'' p. x., Bloch in Winter und Wilnsche, ii., p. 729, Steinschneider, " H. U.,"p. 407, Kaufmann, p. 5, note 2, Joel, i. pp. 29, 30) upon Israeli. 3 On the place of the four elements in the Cf. Horovitz (p. 129, note no). metaphysical speculation of the Middle Ages, cf. Schmiedl (pp. 282-287). 4 According to Gratz (vi. p. 47), Gabirol " allegorisirte Schriftverse urn sie Fried

(p.

59, note 1)

1

,

,

den Ideen seiner Philosophie anzubequemen." Dukes (p. 113), changing the opinion he had expressed in " Ehrensaulen " (p. 11), declares, in regard to this passage " Dieses ist eine philosophische Allegorie zu nennen." The critics, who :

viewed

this

" philosophical allegory" as a mere exegetical

effort,

have done an

in-

and poet. Gabirol's exegetical proofs of his ethical principles are mere mnemonics, as the Talmudists have it, or inserted for the mere justice to the great thinker

purpose of giving an apparently religious or theological coloring to his extremely This I would hold in opposition to the belief of secular and rationalistic views. Bacher and Rosin, who lay great stress upon Gabirol's theological bearing and sig-

13


"

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL Ecclesiastes

(ix.

in such a

1 1),

manner

make

as to

its

compo-

nent elements severally indicate the different points of

his

proposition.

Though he would have five

attributes the virtues to the senses,

distinctly understood that

it

take of the nature of the soul, such as

Thus he draws

Gabirol

he treats only 2

physical senses, and not of the concealed

understanding.

1

ne>J"in,

of the

which par-

senses,

perception, and nra,

a sharp line of distinction be3

tween the purely physical and the purely psychical perceptions with the latter Gabirol does not pretend to meddle, having made ;

only the qualities that depend on the former the object of his BrUll (p. 71) thinks that Gabirol's

nificance.

A confirmation

ethical writers. irol

method

of this opinion

is

is

common

to all mediaeval

to be found in the fact that

Gab-

always, or usually, states his thesis before citing biblical passages, while his

contemporaries and predecessors, excepting perhaps Saadya, of a rationalist, practise the reverse method.

700) thinks

Ages

it is

characteristic of the

who

is

much

almost as

Bloch (Winter und Wiinsche.

ii.,

p.

Jewish " religious philosophy" of the Middle

to cite the Bible only in support of propositions, the very reverse of the schol-

astic tendency,

which was to make all reasoning follow upon and be subsidiary to Schmeidl (p. 103) remarks that Gabirol in " Fons Vitae

scriptural statement.

makes no

effort to

adduce

From

noted before.

this,

biblical verses in support of his

arguments

— as has been

again, Joel infers that Gabirol placed himself entirely

was thoroughly refuted by Hence it seems that Gabirol

outside of the pale of Jewish belief. This, however,

Kaufmann

(" Attributenlehre," p. log, note ig).

failed to quote the Bible

in

his philosophical works, rather out of reverence for

Scripture than because of aversion to the " Ethics," he if

it. But in his younger days, when he wrote was not so cautious, and quoted biblical passages as mnemonics,

not in confirmation of his thought.

Hebrew

This he did in compliance with the practice

would appear from this that when Gabirol was mature enough to compose the " Fons Vita;," he felt himself so strong and secure that he no longer deemed it needful to accommodate himself to the prevalent style of writing. Cf. Guttmann (p. 4). For this additional reason his philosophy was ignored by his contemporaries and he personally was persecuted. Abraham ibn Baud-alone set forth (in his MOT ilJIOK) expressly to confute the heretical teachings of

all

the

of Gabirol.

merkungen,

writers of his age.

It

Maimonides completely ignored him.

Cf. Beer (pp. 22, 23,

and An-

xxxii. to xxxv.).

Guttmann

1

Cf.

a

Horovitz

3

Rosin

(p.

(p.

(" Saadya,'' p. 261, note

1.)

138, note 138).

174)

remarks that among the virtues enumerated by Gabirol, viz., temperance, wisdom, and justice, are

"three of the cardinal platonic virtues, omitted."

Viewing the

for such an objection.

line of distinction here laid

Only such

down, there

is

no room

left

qualities as are attributed to the physical senses

are considered by Gabirol.

14


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON The good and the

investigation.

IBN GABIROL

evil in

man

are judged on the

basis of his relations to the world without.

These

take their rise through the physical senses, for a

toward that which

is

relations

man cannot act

outside of him, save as he perceives

through coming into physical touch with

Therefore,

it.

it

the

all

must be cultivated with due regard to the part played by the senses. In addition to the distractable qualities of the soul

'

tinction between the physical and the concealed senses, Saadya

made

a further distinction between the tractable qualities of

the soul, such traits as

allowed to

mro.

B'DJn

can

be

unto the good,

trained

and the "powers

lead unto evil,

These "powers

of the

or

soul,"

of the soul," according to Saadya,

2

are natural impulses acting independently of the power of will or

even of consciousness. ence of the soul

is

manifest.

and

nixn, desire (inborn love),

two

latter

DJJ3,

wrath (inborn aversion).

powers act from impulse, so

being unconscious

of,

to

speak

;

The

their possessor

and, in a measure, irresponsible for their

discernment

Cognition or

action.

by means of these that the existThese are man, cognition,'

It is

made

power, which maintains

the

is

balance

the supreme natural

between

inborn

love

and inborn aversion. Gabirol ignored this idea of his great predecessor, for he disagreed with Saadya, as will be made clear,

but appears unwilling overtly to express his disagree-

ment.

The wise man ought

by the knowledge that the

to profit

senses, in a measure, determine the qualities (the virtues and vices), 1

For a

the last 2

note

and that these again are constituted fuller

of

and governed by

treatment of the relation of the senses to the moral qualities,

cf.

chapter of Horovitz.

Guttmann (" Saadya."

261, note

p.

1

;

p.

201,

notes 2 and 3; p.

223,

2).

8 Maimonides divides this " power of the soul " into two parts— iSfJftDrl practical intelligence, " ; e., that part of intelligence which chooses between the

73C

' '

good and the evil; and 'JVJffl guish between the true and the (cf.

tn nil. ch. 3).

The two

false.

In both cases discernment acts intuitively,

aspects of this

from the ^JJlBn f>3B', which affect man from without. tinct

"theoretical intelligence." which can distin-

?3B>,

is

"power

of the soul" are alike dis-

a clear, rational conception of the causes that

IS


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL the four humors' which represent the four physical elements.

1

The wise man ought

to make his senses serve him, and yet hold them well in check, in order to keep them from that which is not meet for them. Like the skilful physician, who determines the nature of an illness by taking account of the disproportionate division (or combination) of heat and cold, humidity and dryness in the body of the patient, and who mingles his drugs in such proportions as to respond to the wants of the sick body and restore its natural equilibrium, the wise man ought to take heed of his qualities, which are identical with his senses, and yield to them only in so far as it may be necessary. Deity has given 3

may be

these natural impulses that they

the requirements of worthy conduct

them, the object of man's being life is

attained as long as

life

is

trained according to

through rightful rule over

;

attained; that

is,

the higher

endures.

Thus we have Gabirol's theses, which may be summed up The qualities of the soul are made manifest through

as follows

:

the five senses, and these senses in turn are constituted of the four humors.

Even

as the

humors may be modified one by

the other, so can the senses be controlled and the qualities of the soul be trained unto good or evil.

One

qualification

must be noted

:

the soul here spoken of

Mikrokosmus," pp. 89, go). Logik," p. 103). In a very appreciative paper, included in the " Sitzungsberichte der konigl. bayer. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Munchen," 1866, ii., Haneberg, who is closely followed by Guttmann, shows the relationship of Ibn Gabirol to the Encyclopadie of the " Ihwan al-safa." The points of contact between the Encyclop die and the "Ethics" are less marked, except in those things common to both " Fons Vitae " and " Ethics," e.g.. Micro1

Cf. Dieterici ("

!

Cf. Dieterici ("

cosm and Macrocosm. Cf. Guttmann 29), and Horovitz (p. 91).

(p. 35,

note

7),

Seyerlen

(p.

21 and note

3 Rosin (" Maimonides," p. 12, note 2 p. 37, note 5 p. 47, note 3 pp. 77, 78 and notes) thinks that Maimonides' term for ethics nTlDn tlpD (possibly a remi;

niscence of Gabirol's designation, the

title

;

of this

book

;

in the translation)

shows

that he. too, conceived ethics to be, figuratively speaking, like the attempt of the physician to order or re-arrange the bodily elements with a view to restoring har-

mony, which is health. Cf. Guttman ("Ibn Daud," p. 217, note 1), Wolff (" Maimonides," p. 2), Guttman (" Saadya,'' p. 282), Dukes " Phil.," (p. 93, and p. 79, note 2),

Rosin

(p. 169),

and Musen

16

(p. 6).


"

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON

IBN GABIROL

does not connote the divine within man it refers only to the animal soul within man. The author is cognizant of purely ;

1

psychical qualities, which have no relation to the physical constitution, but

he does not treat of these.

Similarly, he

cog-

is

nizant of the concealed senses, which stand in no relation to

the humors and elements. Gabirol's

these.

object

But he to

is

from treating of

refrains

establish a system

of

purely

five

senses,

physio-psychological ethics. 2

In attributing the qualities of the soul to the J

Gabirol

is as original as he is ingenious. In his demonstrahe leans altogether on the Bible and avoids the Talmudim and Midrashim. To the sense of sight he attributes the vir-

tions

tues of meekness and pudency, and their opposites, pride and

impudence.

He

describes the sense of sight as the principal

one possessed by man, standing in relation to the whole human 4

1

Cf

.

Abraham °

3

Rosin (" Maimonides,"

p.

46,

note 1), also chap.

7,

KT1D TID\

of

ibn Ezra, translated by Creizenach, Frankfort, 1840.

Dukes uses the term (p. Dukes (pp. 95, 96).

Cf.

10)

" eine psychologisch-ethische Abhandlung.

Kaufmann

(" Die Theologie des

Bachya ibn Pa-

kuda, " Wien, 1874, p. 193 et seq.) argues that Bahya's failure to mention Gabirol in the enumeration of his philosophical sources, together with the fact of "eine entschiedene Verwandschaft mit Bahya in einem Punkte," compels us to the conclusion " dass Gabirol in dieser Schrift bereits aus habe " (cf. " Sinne," p. 29, note 92). Kaufmann

dem Werke Bachya's

entlehnt

note 2) gives a close comparison of Gabirol's classification of the twenty qualities with Bahya's r)13in rVDOpri-

For a thoroughly convincing

Steinschneider ("

H. U.,"

side of Gabirol's priority.

(p. 194,

refutation, cf.

Brull

(p.

71 et seq.).

note 39), while undecided, leans a little to the Dukes (p. 10) does not doubt Bahya's dependence

p. 372,

upon Gabirol. Bacher (p. 57, note 1) thinks that Bahya's arrangement (iii. 10) thus dissenting from the of the good and evil qualities follows that of Gabirol, Hertz (p. 28, note 4) regards it "questionable whether view of Kaufmann. Bahya and Gabirol at all knew each other's work." Broyde (" Les Reflexions de l'ame par Bahya ben Joseph ibn Pakouda," Paris. 1896) believes that Bahya designed this work to be a refutation of the ethical principles laid down by Gabirol. Schreiner (" II. B. ," vol. i., pp. 121-128) dissents from Broyde in this, and Gutt,

mann ("M. G. W. J.," vol. xli. pp. 241—256) strenuously denies the authenticity of this work, maintaining, moreover (p. 246, note 5), " Der Parallelismus zwischen ,

Bachya's und Gabirol's Schriften, den Broyde

aufstellt

(Hebr. Einleit.

,

S.

9),

entbehrt jeder wissenschaftlichen Begrundung." 4

Maimonides adopts

this idea

thought of Gabirol are traceable chap.

1

and beginning of chap. 2

in

in full

;

in

fact,

the writings of

2).

17

many resemblances

Maimonides

(jn ITD,

to the

end of


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL structure as the sun to the solar system.

Its

excellence con-

sists in that it

perceives near and distant objects within the

same time;

demerit, on the other hand, consists in the ina-

its

bility of the eye to

see

when

it

is

closed; but

the

opening

and closing of the eyes in a conscious state depend upon the power of the will, and the will power is exercised by the mind, which is an attribute of the divine soul. Hence the sense of Another proof of this sight stands nearest to the divine soul. 1

is

that the eye performs its functions only while its possessor

awake and has full control over his senses the activity of his "

mind

;

when man

is

is asleep,

a standstill, his eyes do not see.

is at

Wonderful," says Gabirol, "are the words of the philosopher,

who

said that the soul has spiritual hues, which are reflected

by the motions

of the eyebrows."

Hence the eye expresses Our author, however,

directly the qualities of the divine soul. will not

2

go a step further into the inquiry as to the nature of the animal soul with its qualities forms the

the divine soul

;

field of his research.

He

touches upon this boundary only to

prove that the sense of sight forms, so to speak, the link between the purely animal and the divine within man, and to justify his position in attributing to

it

the qualities of meekness and

pudency, pride and impudence.

From

Gabirol's discussion respecting each of the virtues, to

which the second part of the " Ethics

meekness

" is devoted,

it

appears that

occasioned by a clear perception of the insignifi-

is

man

compared with the greatness and grandeur of the world pride, on the other hand, is caused by an over-estimation of self and self's attainments. Pudency, likewise, is the effect of calm consideration and wise reflection cance of the individual

as

;

touching the fitness of action to environment, whereas impu-

dence 1

in the 2

is

a sanguine, ill-considered display of over-estimation of

For a

full exposition of the relation of the senses to the soul as understood time of Gabirol, see Kaufmann's " Sinne."

Lowenthal

("Niddah,''

f.

,

'

(

'

Pseudo-Arist. " p. 125, note 6) suggests the Talmudic allegory

30 b), showing that the sense of sight

conveying wisdom,

— even to the unborn 18

child.

is

the principal agent in


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON self,

and disregard

for the

IBN GABIROL

worth and attainments of others.

Gabirol advises the proud and impudent to contemplate the

grandeur of creation, and to ponder upon the worth of the wise and truly great men, in order that their arrogance may be mod-

He

erated.

points out, too, that pride and impudence are in-

stinctively, as

it

were, hated and despised, and that they provi-

dentially lead to disgrace and humiliation.

Next to the sense of sight is the sense of hearing, which may be said to be almost as important as the former. The " perceptions " of the sense of hearing are not as numerous and not as attractive as the "perceptions" of the sense of sight;

nor can the ear be controlled, as will

still,

as a

mere animal

is

the eye, by the power of the

function,

it is

tractable.

To

the

sense of hearing Gabirol attributes the qualities of love and

mercy, hatred and cruelty.

He

is

not quite explicit in giving

the reasons which lead him to attribute these qualities of the

animal soul to this sense, but he intimates that men. of understanding will find his hints quite to excuse

him

sufficient,

for failing to produce

elaborate and scientific demonstration.

why he

is

reticent at this point, and

and begs the reader

arguments which require It

is

why he

easy to perceive

here puts forward

the provocation suffered by him at the hands of adversaries.

In

attributing love and mercy, together with their opposites, to the

sense of hearing, and thus including them of animal life which can be

among

the qualities

modified by intelligent design,

Gabirol runs counter to the accepted belief of his time.

It

was

pointed out that his predecessor, Saadya, laid down as a postu-

and aversion, inborn love and inborn hate, belonged to the "powers of the soul" which work independently of the will, and for the working of which man is, in a certain Gabirol, on the other hand, classifies measure, irresponsible. qualities which are subject to change animal all other these with late that desire

and modification at the demand of human reason. This point of difference between him and Saadya was not alone sufficient to arouse against him the enmity of the disciples of Saadya, For he had ruled out but even to mark him as an heretic.


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL providential intervention in the two most important " forces of

the soul," and thus

made them out

to

be the servants of reason

or intelligence.

Love, according to Gabirol,

identical with lust,

is

and

is to

It is a quality to which most be attributed to animal passion. human beings are heir, and which only those whose reason has

perfectly mastered

their animal

the most pernicious effects of

given to

it

nature are spared. this trait

is,

that he

One who

of is

lacks consistency and does not abide by his word.

The wise man must keep himself free from this passion. The good sides of this quality come to light in the love of friends and relatives, in the love of native land, in the love of wisdom and of God, that love which prompts to good-will, to the

ment

of duty,

sister of love,

exalted that Deity.

and

and Gabirol finds no

it

Hate

to ideal pursuits.

Mercy

evil in

is

fulfil-

the noble twin Its nobility is so

it.

has even been represented as an attribute of is

the opposite of love, and, as in the case of the

marked by inconsistency and a lack of its constant companions. The worst form of hate is that which is caused by envy Love and hate merge into each other if the object or jealousy. of love be not ideal, if it be the mere satisfaction of physical Cruelty again is a quality of degraded and savage hudesire. man beings, of those whose nature i c most nearly related to Even in cases of meting out justice, cruthat of wild beasts. elty may be excusable, but is never commendable. A wise latter, its

possessor

truthfulness.

is

Sorrow and discontent are

man should abstain from it altogether. To the sense of smell are attributed

the virtues of good-will

and wide-awakedness, wrath and jealousy.

All these qualities

are revealed or expressed in the act of breathing.

In order to

exercise good-will under exasperating circumstances,

pleasure would almost be in place, an effort

unto that which

is

where

dis-

required like

expended

in holding one's breath. Wideawakedness in the doing of any work requires free breathing, and jealousy, which is related to wrath, is betrayed by strong is

or suppressed breathing.

The

critics of Gabirol,

who

pointed


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON

IBN GABIROL

out the incompleteness of the " Ethics," must have had this part of his

work

in view, for he is too laconic in his explana-

tions in this part of the treatise.

case of the sense of hearing,

it

life,

and subjecting

in this case, as in the

has been pointed out that his re-

ticence can easily be explained.

mal

But

Attributing wrath to mere ani-

unconditionally to the training of the

it

higher spiritual endowment in man, he again runs counter to the accepted belief of his time, which classed wrath among the "forces of the soul."

In the second part of the work, treating

of wrath, Gabirol plainly says that he does not follow the ac-

among the "forces the " tractable qualities of

cepted systems of ethics which classed wrath of the soul," but places

the soul,"

among

i.e.,

soul can and

must

among

it

the animal impulses, which the rational

To

control.

two rabbinical passages,

viz., "

justify his position he quotes

Pirke Aboth,"

(Babylonian Talmud)

f.

105,

where

it

is

where

v., 14,

be of four kinds or degrees, and

trait is declared to

"

said that

this

Sabbath

"

"he who

rends his garments in his wrath,

is like unto an idolater." Avoiding the Talmud wherever he could, and quoting it only when he opposed the accepted theory of Saadya, our author simply intended to disarm the animosity of the adherents of the The old doctrine, which he knew his opposition would arouse.

two passages he assumption.

If

cites are

indeed a strong refutation of Saadya's

wrath were an intuitive impulse and beyond

the control of the rational soul, the rabbis could not classify as of four degrees itself,

;

and consistent

it

a natural impulse always remains true to in all its manifestations.

Nor could they

judge so harshly the individual who yields to this impulse. That they have done so proves their agreement with the teaching of Gabirol, that wrath

is

a tractable quality of the animal

soul over which the rational soul must prevail.

Gabirol holds that contentedness identified with,

is

closely related to,

if

not

meekness or humility, and the same process of

thinking which leads to the latter must also conduce to the

Contemplating the grandeur of creation leads, as we have seen before, from pride to humility, and in the same way, former.


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL attributing every individual experience to is

the " origin of

man

all

that

is

Man

to contentedness.

life as

a whole, which

good, and the source of grace," leads

should aspire to be deserving of

honor and elevation, but he should be contented with his posi-

humble though it be, until deserved preferment is bestowed upon bim; let him never seek promotion or preferment. Trying circumstances should be accepted as a training and influence for the good, as a providential guide. Forbearance and tion

forgiveness are offshoots of the quality of contentment, for he

who

exercises this virtue will not allow provocation and dis-

Envy

pleasure to affect his demeanor toward others.

shoot of wrath

a trait

it is

;

common

few are they who can escape incentive to activity, for sesses

if

good things, he desires

off-

and

is

Primarily

pangs.

its

man

a

an

to all rational beings, it

is

an

sees that his neighbor pos-

to acquire similar things, or other

if he had not seen them, he could very well do without either the one or the other, and would never make any efforts to possess them. When jealousy

things that are equally good, although,

is

allowed to gain the upper hand

which

for

it,

develops into covetousness,

The wise man should keep himself

greatest wrong-doing.

from

it

diametrically opposed to nobility and leads to the

is

it

brings no good

;

it

aloof

causes pain and constant wor-

riment, leads to misanthropy, brings on spiritual and physical

Envy

disquietude.

is

a good quality only

noble principles. disposition,

from

is

it

conduces to

it

develops into zeal for

Wide-awakedness

is

peculiar to a sanguine

displayed at

its

best by persons

who

are free

and who are not burdened by the weight The wise man must exercise this quality in

evil inclinations

of care all

and

when

when

a desire to emulate the good,

and worry.

wisdom

his actions, in his search for

formance of his practical duties. in its turn

conduces to duplicity

as well as in the per-

Laziness ;

is

the person

its

who

opposite, is

and

too lazy to

perform his work has recourse to sly cunning in order to gain what he wants or to find excuses for not performing his duty.

When

a

man

is

active

body exhales vanish

and wide-awake, the gases which the on the other hand, when the

in the air

;


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON body

is inactive,

these gases

siness and sleep.

mount

care lest

drow-

to the brain, causing

Wide-awakedness

quality and leads to prosperity.

IBN GABIROL

is

Still the

commendable

a very

wise

man

should take

degenerate into rashness or light-mindedness, for good work can be accomplished only after calm consideration. it

The sense of taste is the least noble of all the senses, but it has an advantage in that none of the other senses can exist without it, nor can it be thought of where the other senses are missThe

ing.

control of the sense of taste requires a nobler effort

than the control of the other senses, for through it the predominance of intelligence over the purely animal inclinations is

most clearly manifested. It must not be forgotten that the man was committed as a result of the desire to grat-

first sin of

ify this sense.

To grief,

1

the sense of taste are attributed the qualities of joy and tranquillity and penitence, qualities

ment and

which imply enjoyand care. Ga-

gratification or the reverse, privation

no difficulty in connecting cheerfulness, apprehensive and intellectual calm with the sense of taste, but he uses a roundabout argument to establish the connection of penitence (remorse) with this sense. A person who is not resolute in his deeds, and regrets one day what he has done the preceding day, is always disturbed in his enjoyment of life and is never gratified by that which is, because he cannot rid himself of the thought of the mistakes, real or imaginary, of the past. Cheerbirol has

ness,

fulness

is

a quality of various aspects in different persons

peculiar to the cially to those

"warm-humid temperament," and more

whose wishes are always

gratified

;

it is

espe-

and who, for a

long time, have been spared the pangs of disappointment and It is natural that

regret.

that age

such persons be in good health, and

come not quickly upon them.

Sometimes, however,

cheerfulness comes with the attainment of a long-cherished desire.

If this

happen

to a light-minded person, his joy

fested in outbursts of merriment upon occasions

ment and laughter

are out of place. 1

" It is

Cf. Rosin (p. 174, note

23

1).

my

is

when

manimerri-

opinion, " says


"

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL "that

Gabirol,

cheerfulness

becoming

is

to those

pure and

clarified souls, which are inaccessible to flattery and exempt from hypocrisy, the souls which are 'related to dominion,' which

rise in the scale of spirituality

who have

righteous

and great delight

activity

I

mean

to say, the souls of the

perfect enjoyment in the object of their in their

abstinence from worldly

pleasures.

Our author emphasizes here

that rejoicing, as well as de-

spondency, belongs to the purely animal nature, and cites Galen as his authority to that effect. his

Man must

always see to

it

that

"animal soul" be in perfect submission to his "rational

soul,"

i.e.,

"that his intelligence control his natural impulses."

Apprehensiveness or grief is the opposite of cheerfulness and appears in those whose desires are not gratified, and who are disappointed in their hopes

The

which she loves."

"

when

the soul misses that

possession of this quality leaves visible

marks upon the features

of the countenance.

The more

a

man

more he sue and inclinations, the oftener is he subject to disappointment, and a feeling of dissatisfaction and

yields to the transient things of this world, the

cumbs

to his animal desires

On

gloom.

the other hand, the more he turns

away from the more he devotes science or the quest of moral and religdisappointment will he suffer, and the

transient things and physical enjoyments, the

himself to the study of ious wisdom, the less farther

away from him

translation

(iii.,

will

be sadness.

that Gabirol dwells

2)

sadness at some length, and says

It will

be seen in the

upon the subject

many admirable

of

things with a

view to consoling the sad at heart and the sorrow-stricken. Dr. Sachs pertinently points out that Gabirol's brooding disposition

and saddening experience seem to have dictated his utterIt is noteworthy that the optimistic of Gabirol prompts him to find a good use even for sadand this on purely pathological principles. Sadness

ances on this subject. 1 spirit

ness,

causes a person to shed tears, and by these means nature rids itself of

the used-up fluids which accumulate around the eye. 1

Cf. Sachs (p. 217, note 3).

24


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON

whom

because of this that children, in

It is

dominant, cry so often

IBN GABIROL the animal soul

is

nature adjusts itself in them, so to

:

Concerning the quality of tranquillity, our author declares that it is most praiseworthy when it develops into perfect trust and reliance upon the goodness of God. Penitence, speak.

on the other hand,

praiseworthy only when

is

it

leads to " re-

But it is most despicable if it prompt one one day, and 'nay on the next day," or to make vows and not fulfil them. It is best for man to avoid doing

pentance for sin."

"to say

'

aye

'

'

or saying anything of which he must afterward repent.

The to

sense of touch Its desire

it.

is

nearest to the sense of taste, and akin

kinship to the desired object. of

save as

it,

To

it

a " perception " of

and enjoyment spring from

The

rational soul has no need

answers the physical requirements of the body.

are attributed the qualities of liberality and valor, nig-

it

The hand is the most active instrument of the sense of touch; hence open -handedness (liberality) and close-fistedness (niggardliness), as well as the power to gardliness and cowardice.

hold fast or to strike hard (valor), and the possibility of being

weakened by fright and deterred by danger pressed in the terms of this sense.

(cowardice), are ex-

Biblical passages in

which

these four qualities are connected with the hand are cited in

support of this thesis. virtue,

if it

ness.

It

Liberality, or generosity, is a precious

does not degenerate into prodigality and wasteful-

should by

all

means be made

inclination to parsimony. tion,

and

to

compensation

It leads

at the

a

man

hand

to prevail over the

honor and recogni-

to

of Deity.

But

if

gener-

osity degenerate into wastefulness, or deteriorate into an apt-

ness to sacrifice

all

possessions for the sake of satisfying one's

desires, or to a careless surrender of self-respect it is

anything but a virtue.

Niggardliness

even greater extent than generosity ity in its worst aspects, even when gality

is it

is

and self-honor,

detestable to an

praiseworthy.

Generos-

deteriorates into prodi-

and wastefulness, affords some enjoyment and evokes

commendation

to a certain degree

liness, calls forth

;

while

its

opposite, niggard-

nothing but blame and reproach. 25

The wise


;

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL men held

that no superior traits of character are ever associated

He

with parsimony, and no trustworthiness with love of gain.

who

must part with the hope of a good reputation. The only. good side of this quality lies in the fact that its possessor takes care of that which is his own by rightful acquisition but, even here, a man must be on his guard constantly lest he become avaricious. A wise man should yields to that inclination

;

not be niggardly with his wisdom, but give

who its

desire to learn, for

wisdom

is

it

freely to those

a light which never loses of

brightness and intensity because other lights are kindled by

When

it.

man

a

perceives that a tendency toward avarice

beginning to creep over him, he should break

its

power

is

once;

at

he must begin to practise liberality toward those who are nearly

by

related to him, and, little

Valor

practise the art of war.

tised in the right time

sor exercises

it

needlessly

;

in

the quality of

men

and

It

;

a noble quality

is

when

at the right place,

when its

prac-

posses-

ward off danger that comes upon him wrong to court danger and to brave death

in order to

But

unprovoked.

is

whose hearts are large, whose veins it waxes greatest in men

of a sanguine disposition

and muscles are generously developed

who

extend his generosity to

little,

larger circles of his surroundings.

it is

such instances the quality ceases to be bravery,

becomes foolhardiness, and

is

akin to madness.

It is

noble to

display bravery in defence of a principle, but ignoble to put one's self in

danger merely to show the absence of

and death.

Valor should manifest

itself

all fear of

only

when

injury

there

is

a

and serenity ought to be its limitations and safeguards. Patience and forbearance toward those one loves, fortitude and endurance in moments of hardship, are the noblest need of

it

;

fortitude

manifestations of the quality of courage.

Cowardice

is

a quality peculiar to

the wise ought to loathe

most despicable when

it

it,

for

it

mean and

despicable souls

never brings any good.

leads an intelligent

man

dom and knowledge as a plea to hide from danger and at a time when the intelligent man is required in protect a worthy cause.

Cowardice

is

It is

to use his wis-

avoid war

order to

an offshoot of indolence.


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON One may, however,

when one

display cowardice

that strength and bravery cannot avail

IBN GABIROL is

convinced

in such a case, cowardbe cowardice and becomes discretion. The foregoing paragraphs constitute a brief, withal compre;

ice ceases to

summary

hensive,

of Gabirol's

both parts of his work.

system of ethics as contained

have deemed

I

it

in

advisable to connect

the principal thoughts on the individual traits of character, to

which he gave utterance

second part of his work, with

in the

his theses touching the senses, to in order to traits are

make apparent

which the first part is devoted, in which these individual

way

the

connected with the senses, according to the theory of

The

chief aim of the author was to guide his reader improvement of the moral qualities," and this he expected to do by citing the simplest and commonest facts of

Gabirol.

to the "

physical

life.

The organs

of perception were, according to

emblems of the life. Having attributed to impulses, which are designated as

Gabirol, not alone the instruments but also the

various manifestations of physical

each of them a number of

virtues or vices, he developed a general conception of life as is in this

world (the animal

life in

man

it

as he distinctly wishes

us to understand), which should and must be guided and gov-

erned by reason. is

Reason

and above the

life

which

cognizable through the perceptions of the sense-organs.

The

itself is over

consciousness of holding the animal impulses under control felicity.

The very

effort that a

man

puts forth to

make

is

his

animal soul subject to his rational soul affords him happiness,

Saadya and his successors, Maimonand Ha-Levi and their followers, Gabirol treats of ethics as In two or three entirely independent of the religious law. places, it is true, he mentions divine requital; but this he does but, unlike his predecessor

ides

in such general terms as istic sense, or as

may be

mere phrases

construed in a purely rational-

of

common parlance. In no incommand of the religious

stance does he refer to any particular law, that is not based

And

upon an ethical

principle.

yet Gabirol was not an unbeliever.

He

speaks of

divine grace and mercy with a sincerity which leaves no 27

room


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON for doubt in his belief.

The word

IBN GABIROL

of Scripture is to

him un-

questionable law and revelation; even to the authors of the

Talmud he refers with a reverence that is due to superior beings. Why, then, does he avoid all reference to the specific laws of the Bible and the Talmud ? The answer that suggests itself to

oral laws

me

is,

that,

according to Gabirol,

all

the written and

were designed for intellectual beings and for the

training of the rational soul.

Logical, systematic thinker that

he was, he would have insisted upon an elaborate treatise on the ethics of that soul, i.e., on the qualities of human intelli-

gence and reason, before undertaking to expatiate on the laws and regulations which bear upon it. This was not the task he set himself in writing the " Ethics," as

had

out before.

The few

intellectual soul

show

we have pointed

instances in which he that he regarded

it

alludes

to the

as altogether

exempt

from and superior to impulsive action; he would not even admit that intuitive love and aversion are integral parts of and inherent in

some

souls,

it.

He

believes in the superior

and refers to them frequently.

over, that this mystic doctrine

endowments

of

more-

It appears,

makes a sharp distinction between

the purely animal and the higher, or intellectual, qualities of

man; the former manifest themselves and work through the senses, and the latter, the inward senses, are divine endowments,

which manifest themselves in the control they exercise over the animal impulses. this control

is

The

principal agent in the exercise of

reason or intelligence.

This intelligence

mediator between the divine and animal in man, and any

is

being who makes his intelligence master over his natural nations may enjoy the bliss to which Gabirol points.

28

the

human incli-


"

TRANSLATION OF

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE MORAL QUALITIES.' This

an essay on the improvement of the moral qualities

is

character), according to the opinion of the greatest of the

{i.e.,

ancient sages, composed by the learned, the worthy, the schol-

Solomon ben Gabirol, the Israelite, the philosopher may God sanctify his soul. He composed it in the city of Saragossa, in the month of Nissan, in the year 828' (?) of the Alex2

arly

andrian

era.

Blessed be God, the Mighty, the Wise, the

One who

is

Responsive, the One, the Eternal, the Primordial, the

nigh,

Creator; greatly exalted be He.

when we look

Verily,

at

man who

is

the best of

creatures of the Creator, exalted be His majesty,

we

all

the

recognize

that he is the object aimed at in the creation of all substances

and beings.

Furthermore, he

is

constitution, of all living beings

;

best proportioned, as regards and, in addition to this, most

perfect and most beautiful of form, and most completely fashioned.

He

possesses a rational soul, elemental," wise, everlast-

which does not perish with him. For all this there are clear proofs, both intellectual and Scriptural, which every ining,

telligent

man knows.

The

nent among creatures 1

Rosin renders the

2

The term "

script,

title

is,

more

surest proof that

man

is

pre-emi-

that he partakes of the state of the freely

by " The Ennoblement of the Character. Hebrew versions, printed and manu-

Israelite " is replaced in the

by " the Spaniard."

3

Cf. Introduction, p. 6, note 3,

4

Horovitz,

accepting the

" transparent," " luminous

"

and

Hebrew

(p. 108,

p. 7,

note

I.

translation,

note 65);

29

cf.

fVJ\JB,

Dukes ("

would render

this

Phil.," p. 57, note

5).


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL angels

These two

and understanding.

to speech

in regard

Nay

are divine and spiritual properties.

more,

we

be-

see,

sides this, that the angels busy themselves with the righteous

man, as we learn from the case

of Abraham, peace be unto him, him glad tidings and also warned him likewise from the case of Isaac and Jacob, our fathers. The latter

in that they brought

;

said in the course of his excellent prayer for his son (Gen. xlviii. 1

"

6),

The angel which redeemed me

him (Hos. vailed "

xii.

"

5),

and Scripture says of Yea, he had power over the angel and pre-

and Daniel said

;

(vi.

23), "

Concerning the help vouchsafed of their enemies,

"

it is

said (II

;

'

My God hath sent his angel."

to the pious

Kings

and the destruction

xix. 35),

"And

it

came

to

pass that night that the angel of the Lord went out and smote

camp

in the

of the Assyrians.'

amples, which

We know others,

men

of

I will

not go to the length of enumerating.

some men may undoubtedly be superior to nay more, that one man may be equal to a large number

— although

they be of one form and one composition, 3

except that the soul of one

ethical practice, to the higher, ical nature.

4

man

is

predisposed to worldly honor, 3

and his preference for and because the baser part of him is obedient celestial

bodies,

i.e.,

his intellect exercises control over his phys-

But

if

his

aim be low and his station unfit

to reach

In giving the English of Gabirol's biblical citations, I have quoted as

1

required to elucidate the general context.

is

ex-

that

with the help of the

as

There are many similar

-

In doing so,

I

much

depart from the

down by the author or scribe, who frequently cites no more than an word or two of the Scriptural passage, sometimes even the non-essential leaving it to the reader to recall the rest. In citing the number of chapter

precedent laid initial

and

ones,

Hebrew

verse, the

original has been followed.

2

Wolff

3

Dukes (" Ehrensaulen,"

(p.

82, note 2) cites the p.

somewhat 12,

similar idea of Maimonides.

note 1) makes mention of the Talmudic

thought respecting planetary influence upon the physical conditions of

upon

his

fate;

in his religio-metaphysical

poem,

"The Crown

man and

of Royalty,"

Gabirol treats of this in a brilliant, poetic style. that Gabirol

tury "

:

cf.

had

Ibn Ezra did not fail to note under the spell of the "astrological dreaming of his cen33) and Schmiedl (p. 308, note 3), as well as Schmiedl's entire

fallen

Stein (p.

,

chapter on this subject (pp. 2gg-3i6). 4 This thought, frequently expressed by Gabirol

with in Bahya

;

(cf.

ii.

r,

iii

1). is

often

met

the references are to the edition of the ril33^n ]"IUn. by Jellinek


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL that distinction, so that he does not rise to that control of which

the bodies in their course have not given promise,

1

a sign,

i.e.,

or to which ethics have not aided him, then the wise and intelligent

man ought

expend

to

his efforts in order to reach

all

the highest dignity which he seeks, in order that

it

may

be, as

one of the sages said, " Help the celestial bodies with your souls, even as tilling and irrigating help the seed to grow " * and this occurs naturally through the instrumentality of the ;

He should endeavor to be one of the number of the exand through his zeal follow in their steps. Further, he must refine his qualities until they be improved and not employ his senses except when it appears necessary, until he becomes one (of those) who is honorably known and famed for his excellence, for that is worldly happiness. But when man reaches it, his eyes must not cease to gaze wistfully at the attainment of that which is above it, i.e. enduring happiness which he can reach in the intellectual world, the world to come. For this is the highest gift of God to His servants, in addition to the favor which is their common lot as existent creatures. The prince David, peace be unto him, had implored that he might attain to the well-being of this world, in saying earth.

cellent

,

3

lxxxvi.

(Ps.

He

17),

"Make

with

me

a covenant for goodness."

also desired to be one of those well fitted to attain the bliss

of the world to come, in that he said (Ps. xxxi. 20), (iii., 2,

p.

135;

ix.,

1,

p.

400;

ix.

note 3). Steinschneider ("Alfarabi, " 1

2

,

2, p.

p.

402;

75, note

Horovitz (pp. 127, 128, notes 105, 106).

iii.,

2,

p.

137);

cf.

"

O how

Briill

(p.

74,

5).

Maimonides holds

that to admit

human relations is to limit the freedom of man. The possibility of such limitation of human freedom by planetary influence Gabirol would not be ready to admit, except in some such way as modern freedomists Thein (" Der Talmud take account of the influences of heredity and environment. the influence of the planets upon

oder das Princip des planetarischen Einflusses," Prag, 1874, p. 65 et seq.) discusses the position of Maimonides, Albo, Ibn Ezra, and Jehuda ha-Levi in regard to this mystic and unphilosophic teaching. 3

The thought

set forth in

that existence

this passage,

Royalty," and

is,

is

is in itself

a

mark

of favor from

dwelt upon at greater length in

according to Sachs

(p.

the later moralists.

31

244,

and

note),

God

to

man, as

"The Crown

of

emphasized by many of


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL great

is

Thou hast laid up for them "They shall be abundantly

the goodness which

Thee";

(Ps.

x.xxvi.

with the fatness of

9),

Thy house."

that fear satisfied

This height cannot be reached

Thus he asked (Ps. xv. 1, by any one save through merit. " Lord, who shall abide in thy tabernacle, who shall dwell 2), And the answer is, " He that walketh in thy holy hill ? " Having arrived

uprightly and worketh righteousness."

in the

course of our remarks at this stage in the account of man's pre-

eminence,

let

us direct our attention to the statement of the

work and the method of deriving some adThis will come to pass after we shall have divided the treatise into all its sections as is incumbent upon us. Then will we realize the benefit of it. Thus Solomon the Wise, peace be unto him, has said (Eccles. vii. 27), "Beobject of this our

vantage therefrom.

hold this have

I

found, saith the Preacher, counting one by one

to find out the account "

;

by which he meant to say that when it is necessary to enumerate them.

things are brought together,

So, also, by properly ordering the discourse,

will

it

be under-

stood.

God, Mighty and Exalted, has created the expanse of the smaller world

man blood fire,

'

dependent upon four elements

corresponding to

1

:

He

places in

yellow gall corresponding to

black gall corresponding to earth, and white moisture cor-

2 responding to water.

him,

air,

i.

e.,

There

Moreover God, exalted be He, equipped

man, with perfectness of form and with every organ is

evidently an omission

in

the

Arabic

text,

p.

4,

line

5

;

the

Hebrew version includes a line omitted through the mistake of an early copyist, who skipped from the former JJ31X JPN313 "v]? to the latter, thus omitting the intervening line or lines. This Arabic omission is supplied by Kaufmann (" Sinne," pp. 37, 38). 2 " Fons Vita; " of Gabirol, Tractate iii. (Guttmann, p. 117, note 3) Dieterici, " Mikrokosmus," pp. 89, go and " Logik," p. 103 " Anthropologic der Araber im Zehnten Jahrhundert," Leipzig, 1871 (pp. 4, 42, 189) M. Friedlander, " Essays ;

;

;

;

on the Writings of Abraham ibn Ezra," London, vol. iv. (p. 24, note 4). This purely Greek conception was speedily incorporated into Jewish teachings. Gabirol's immediate successor in point of time Bahya, follows him here. (Cf. In-

troduction, p. 13, note 2.)

the four elements, found

a

poem

of

The its

teaching that

way even

Abraham ben Meir

man

is

a microcosm, constituted of

into the poetry of the

Middle Ages.

Cf.

ibn Ezra, cited by Sachs (p. 115, and p. 42 of the

32


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON complete and not wanting

in

IBN GABIROL

any respect

He

and

;

created within

him five senses, as we shall relate. Solomon the Wise alludes to them when he says (Eccl. ix. u), "I returned and saw under the sun " "seeing" here means to observe carefully, the ;

general term for " seeing

"

being here used in the place of the

specific term, " observing carefully " as in saying,

means whatever the sun

sun," he

"The

race

which

is

is

"under the

In the saying,

encircles.

not to the swift," he hints at the sense of smell,

(situated in) the nose, because running

is

impossible

except through the inhalation of air from without to cool the natural heat which

The

within man.

is

lished by the sense of the nose, and

if

inhalation

accomp-

there were no nose there

could be no breathing, which causes motion. is

is

In saying

"

Nor

the battle to the strong," he wishes to indicate the sense of

hearing; just as

we

ing in battle, as

it is

war

said (Ex. xxxii. 17),

camp."

the

in

see that war consists of crying and of hear-

wise," he refers

"Nor

In saying,

"There yet

is

is

a noise of

bread to the

the sense of taste and the meaning

to

to be taken literally.

In saying

"

Nor

derstanding," he refers to the sense of touch, which

kind with the understanding

:

'

is

yet riches to the un-

the latter

is

is

of a

of the category of

the inner senses, which are concealed in the nature of the soul, as for example, perception, thought, saying, "

Nor

is

men

there favor to

and understanding.

In

of skill," he wishes to indi-

cate the sense of sight, which does not

become knowledge except

through prolonged attention to scripture and continuous study of books.

9

Were

it

love of conciseness,

not for the great length involved and our

we would

clear arguments, (adduced)

Hebrew supplement), who

follow up these allusions with

from

syllogistic

3

reasoning and the

refers to an eleventh century exposition of this theory

in a Piut of R. Isaac ibn Giat (" Ritual of Tripoli," p. 92 b). 1 Horovitz appears to hold (p. 140, note 154) that Gabirol follows Aristotle in cf. Dukes bringing the sense of touch into relation with the understanding ;

(" Phil.," 2

p-

121, note 4).

Horovitz

(p. 138,

note 141) adduces the somewhat similar views of Aristotle

and Plato cf. Kaufmann (p. 140). 3 Kiyas is rendered by the Hebrew X"QD, "reason." ;

3

33

According to

Stein-


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL science of oral traditions, in order that they might be easily and 1

simply comprehended. the ordinary and suffice as

who

But for those whose faculties are above

are of high-minded purpose, this little will

evidence that the wise prince alluded to naught else

in this passage but the visible

senses,

(outer)

and veiled the

mention of the hidden (inner) ones. 2 If a man be wise, he will employ them in the right place and restrain them from everyLet thing in connection with which he ought not to use them.

him rather be

like a skilful physician,

tions, taking of every

who

3

prepares prescrip-

medicine a definite quantity; thus the

ingredients vary in quantity

;

he uses of one the weight of a

Danik, and of the other the weight of a Kirat schneider ("Alfarabi," pp. 26, 27, notes 21, 22),

it

is

;

and so on

ac-

usually translated by the

term E»pn. 1

1895,

M. Ehrenpreis ("Die Entwickelung p. 1,

note

1

)

der Emanationslehre, "

holds that Gabirol's use of this term

Frankfurt,

"das Vorhandensein

und 11. Jahrh. vermuten lasst," assuming word connotes " spekulativer Kabbala." Munk (p. 283, note 2) insists with much emphasis that Jellinek wrongly renders this term by " la science de la Kabbale." adding " II est evident que le mot i"IP3pn signifie ici simplement tradition, ou ce qui est admis sur l'autorite traditionelle. L'original arabe d'ailleurs ne laisse aucun doute a cet egard. " Cf Dukes (p. 103). B. Zimmels spekulativ-kabbalistischer Schriften im 10. that the Arabic

.

("Leo Hebraeus,

ein jildischer Philosoph der Renaissance," Leipzig, 1886, pp.

58, note 1 68, notes 1 and 2) maintains Munk (p. 527) was similarly 57, note 1 mistaken in believing Leo Hebraeus to be " sous les auspices de la Kabbale," the mistake arising from the use of the term !"|?3p, which Leo expressly uses as does Gabirol. in the signification, the " ancient Hebrew tradition." The term is ;

;

ntop

used with the same meaning by Saadya, Bahya, and Ibn Daud 6, note 4; page 40, note 3; p. 59, note 4; p. 145, note 2).

"Gabirol

goes so far as to say,

ist

,

vide Bacher

(p.

Stossel (p.

51)

der Fortsetzer des Buches Jezirah und der

Vorarbeiter des Zohar." the case of Isaac

Myer

This view has met with little or no acceptance, save in (author of " Qabbalah, the Philosophy of Ibn Gebirol, the

Qabbalah and the Zohar," Philadelphia, 1888), whose voluminous work is written support of the theory that Gabirol was an outspoken Kabbalist. Mr. Myer calls "The Crown of Royalty" a " kosmic Qabbalistic hymn," and the " Fons Vita; " " a philosophical Qabbalistic work," " one of the earliest exposures of the secrets of the speculative Qabbalah." 2 Quoted by Kaufmann (" Sinne," p. 47, note 32), in the chapter treating of the " inner and outer senses." 3 Guttmann (" Saadya," p. 284, note 2, and " Gabirol," p. 18, note 1) points out the similarity of this passage to " Emunoth," x. p. 159 (ed. Slucky), and " Die in

,

Propadeutik der Araber, " Berlin, 1865 (pp. 44 and 163).

34


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON

IBN GABIROL

cording to his estimate of their respective

He

effects.

will

not be satisfied until there be

mixed in with it something which will keep it from doing harm (to the person to whom it is administered), and all this must be calculated.

man ought to consider carefully the qualities which belong to his senses and not employ them except when it is necessary for God, exalted be He, has so constituted them in man that he can wisely order them, since through them he guards the normal condition of his life. By their means he Since this

is so,

;

sees colors, hears sounds, tastes food (flavors), smells odors, dis-

tinguishes between hard and

mention when we commence

now

will

and

soft,

all

many which

are necessary to his life; and

other things which

we

are useful

(the subject), please God.

will

We

describe the senses and the various advantages to be

derived from their use and the necessity of refraining from the use of them

We

when they would cause harm.

hold that the

the eye, since of the

its

first

and foremost

of the senses is that of

position with regard to the body

sun to the universe.

1

It

like that

is

a sense which never fails to

is

perceive an object without (the lapse of) time,

i.e.

,

its

percep-

which is near to it is as quick as its perception of that which is far from it nor does any time elapse between its 2 perception of the near and its perception of the far, as is the The eye alights upon its objects case with the other senses. tion of that

;

of perception as long as sible unless

it

open.

it is

be closed.

How

3

Therefore, sleep

wondrous

philosopher with regard to the sense of the eye

is

impos-

the saying of a

is !

"

The

soul has

which sometimes become apparent in the motion 4 Again he said, " Keep watch over the sense of of the eyelid." sight verily it may lead to various kinds of wrong by some of its motions it may testify to your (having) pride and haughtiness, spiritual tints,

:

:

1

Cf. Horovitz (p. 13S, note 140).

2

Cf.

Horovitz

Kaufmann (" (p. 139.

*

Horovitz

4

Platonic doctrine.

p. 78, note

Sinne, " pp. 117, 118, note 55, and p. 120, note 61), and

note 144).

(p. 139,

note 143). Cf. Horovitz

(p. 139,

1).

35

note 142), and Dukes ("Phil.,"


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL *

and by others to your possession of meekness and humility. Therefore, compel it to make the very best movements and " Furthermore," he said, restrain it from the most ignoble." "social intercourse does not exist for the pleasure of the eye,

The

but the enjoyment of the mind."

How

stand this saying.

beautiful

man will

learned

under-

the agreement of this ut-

is

terance with the word of God, exalted and magnified be

(Num.

xv. 39), "

own eyes." The sense

Do

ye not seek after your

2

man

does not heed

good training, with reference to

it

as

more

is

He

heart and your

Though

of hearing is next in point of importance.

the effect of this sense upon the soul that of sight,

own

readily felt than

Under

he does the eye.

man's

this sense, is included

refraining from listening to indecent things, and not judging in

regard to the pleasant tones which he hears according to their

One ought

sound, but according to their meaning and intent. not to be ensnared by what he hears, as the bird

by the sounds

which

is

ensnared

and one ought to know of the places where it is necessary to pay good heed and those wherein it is not fitting to listen at all, as he of whom it is said (Isa. xxxiii. 15), "that stoppeth his ears from to

it

inclines with admiration;

the hearing of blood."

The a sound

sense of smell follows the sense of hearing, because is felt

in the air

because

it

and

it is

of lesser

Accordingly, there

sense of hearing. it,

;

entails

not (the

moment than

less

is

possibility

the

need of training

of)

obedience or

revolt.

As

for taste,

mentioned,

still

though

it

below the senses afore-

be, in degree,

the manner of training

for the

body cannot

others.

The way

bidden, and give

exist without

to train it

it is,

it,

as

—keep

it

it

it

is

more important,

can exist without the

from that which

free rein with regard to that

which

is for-

is

per-

Dukes (pp. 97, 98) shows the thought, " Humility dwells in the eye," to be Aristotelian. Cf. "Ethics," 3, where two maxims of Aristotle are quoted in 1

i.

the paragraph, which restates the thesis, that pride and meekness are closely related to the sense of sight. 2

Kaufmann

(p. 141,

note

4).

36


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON

Reason' should exercise rule over desire in

missible.

The

IBN GABIROL all this.

instance wherein you can evidence your mastery over your desire is in eating and in drinking, just as it was in this first

regard that

Touch

man

first

sinned.

follows the sense of taste, 2 and

Its pleasures are peculiar

very similar to

is

members

to those

which the humors are well balanced.

There

of the

body

it.

in

no occasion for

is

the reasoning soul therein, except to guide the body. As to the manner of exercising it, thou must know that these desires are

ills

of the body,

thou must heal.

which thou must

Think not

Do

tellectual soul.

that

it

is

and diseases which

treat,

characteristic of the in-

not suppose that complete happiness and

perfect blessedness are to be attained thereby, as one attains

which man

to excellences, in virtue of

honor in matters pertaining

As we have

is

adjudged deserving of

to the intellect.

entered upon a description of the senses,

let

us

regard each of them in the light of a genus and then mention the species comprised under

Then

let

us

name every

it,

namely, the qualities of man.

individual in the species and describe

useful and harmful qualities and the method of effecting

its

improvement.

now we proceed

If

to represent the qualities of

the senses according to number, the result

We

has four qualities. sight four,

and a

like

its

is

that every sense

would

attribute, firstly, to the sense of

number

to the other senses, so that the

sum would amount to twenty qualities for the five senses. Accordingly, we assign to the eye Pride, Meekness, Pudency, and Impudence. Our reason for putting pride in connection 3

with the sense of sight

while treating of

it

;

is

clear, as

glance of the proud and boastful of that 1

such

we behold

has been remarked above,

also because thou perceivest the spirit.

in the lowly of spirit, that

The very is,

meekness.

intended to be ruled by the nobler, and

its

|;ood

vol.

Horovitz (p 140, note 151). Maimonides appears to me to have been familiar with

and

evil qualities.

Cf. Wolff (pp

6 and 10).

37

As

virtue lies consequently in

obedience to the Reason " (Ritter, "Ancient Philosophy," 3

Scrip-

" Plato looks upon the sensual desires as the baser portion of the soul. it is

5

haughty

reverse of

ii.,

this

p. 411).

enumeration of


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL ture says with reference to the unduly lofty (Isa.

men

lofty looks of

"

The

shall

n), "The

ii.

be humbled," and again

(id. v.

15),

The

eyes of the lofty shall be humbled," and so forth.

use here of (the word) " eyes " shows that the quality of pride is

Of meekness it is said humbler eyes than to behold evil,"

to be attributed to the sense of sight.

(Hab.

i.

13),

"Thou With

art of

and so forth. regard to the impudent, thou observest in most cases that his eyes stare and he is indifferent to shame; thus it is said of them (Isa. iii. 9), "The shew of their countenance doth witness against them." Thus thou wilt notice that the eyes of the unrighteous, the impudent, are troubled and restless, like those of

whom

(Jer. v.

On

3),

it is

said (Job

Again

of the wicked shall fail."

"They have made

it

is

xi.

20), "

their faces harder than a rock."

the other hand, thou wilt find that the pudent

his eyes so that

favor of

he may merit, by reason of

God and men,

grace unto the lowly "

as

The eyes

said of the impudent

it is

said (Prov.

this,

iii.

man

lowers

the abundant

34),

"

He

giveth

and as we, with the help of God,

;

ex-

alted be He, will explain very clearly in the successive chapters.

This favor can be acquired only by means of (the faculty having regard to him that sees and that which

sight,

Thus

was said of Moses our Master, peace be unto him (Num.

it

"The man Moses was

xii. 3),

said,

of)

is seen.

very meek."

corresponding to this (Ex.

xi. 3), "

Previously

it

was

The man Moses was

very great."

The sense •species,

of hearing constitutes a

namely, four qualities

heartedness (cruelty).

— Love,

One has need

genus embracing four

Hate, Mercy, and Hardof great precision in de-

termining the relation of these four qualities to the sense of

Even though we do not make our exposition

hearing.

roughly

clear, nevertheless

men

tent with hints and allusions.

tho-

of

understanding will be con-

He

ought not to be blamed who

brings forward a fraction of the truth for not gathering together

the whole. that cal

I

Perhaps the reader will admit as excuse for me, in

have not succeeded in bringing together the metaphysi-

and

logical proofs

and the Scriptural examples as

far as I


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON have gone, the fact that human power

man

who .does but

scantily realize his hopes.

Bible (a mention

who

it is

Furthermore heard

" ;

(Gen.

vi.

And

"

4, 5),

O Israel," and Lord thy God," etc. Abraham's servant

Hear,

shalt love the

xxiv.

"When

52),

the Lord, bowing himself to the earth "

In some places in the

He who

said immediately following, "

is

it

"Thou

said,

always greatly troubled and

the hearing occurs, followed by urging;

of)

thus the expression (Deut. after that

is

but slight, especially in

is

the case of a

like me,

IBN GABIROL

"

worshiped

and again (Gen.

;

xxix.

came to pass that when Laban heard the tidings," "he embraced him and kissed him." Hearing is also used in 13),

it

connection with acceptance and approval, which are at the basis of love; thus will hear."

a

man

written (Ex. xxiv. 7),

is

it

The performance

therefor; thus

voury meat, such as

When

of a thing

Sometimes

hearing

thus

:

do and

will

due

is

said (Gen. xxvii. 4),

is

love."

I

fulness follow upon "

it

"We

to the love of

"Make me

satisfaction is

it

we

(Lev.

said

sa-

and cheerx.

20),

Moses heard that he was content," just as anger ensues

in the absence of assent

and hearkening, as (Ex.

withstanding, they hearkened not unto

xvi. 20), "

Not-

..." And

Moses."

Moses was wroth with them." Hatred also results from hearing, as thou must know from the case of Esau, of whom it is said (Gen. xxvii. 34), "When Esau heard," and then follows Mercy is known to result (id. xxvii. 41), "Esau hated Jacob." from "hearing

" ;

thus

I

am

"

Whoso hearkeneth

merciful."

to this,

it is

God

said (Ex. xxii. 26), "

It is said of

unto

me

I

shall dwell safely."

said of the unrighteous (Job xv. 21),

fright is in his ears

:

will hear, for

the righteous dead (Prov.

i.

33),

In contrast

"A

in peace the despoiler shall

sound of

come upon

Hard-heartedness results from the want him," and so forth. of assent; thus it is said of Pharaoh in many places (Ex. ix. 12), "

not."

The Lord hardened

A

whose tongue thou hearken unto what

The

the heart of Pharaoh and he hearkened

hard-hearted people

it

shalt

is

called (Jer.

v.

15),

"A

nation

not understand, neither shalt thou

speaketh," and so forth.

sense of smell also

commands 39

four qualities

— Anger,


"

;

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON

IBN GABIROL Anger

Good-will, Jealousy, and Wide-awakedness. to the sense of smell, as

it is

(anger) was kindled "

anger, indignation, and

:

said (Jud. xiv. 19),

mostly in connection with the nose, as "

Then was Nebuchadnezzar

full

nose (visage) was changed." quillity of the thoughts,

altered est is

by an

among the

tenance)

is

life,

said (Dan.

iii.

and the form

19),

of his

in the brain,

and

it is

not

the sense of smell, though the near-

senses affecting

said (Prov. xvi. 15),

his nose

wrath appear

Good-will consists in the tran-

which are

" illness " of

it is

of fury,

attributed

is

"And

"In the

and his favor

Concerning good-will

it.

it

light of the king's nose (coun-

is

as a cloud of the latter rain."

Jealousy and wide-awakedness are of the sense of the nose, and is a branch of anger: thus it is written (Prov. vi. 34), For jealousy is the rage of a man." Thus becomes clear the association of the heated temperament, which is anger, with jealousy in the matter of this sense. Wide-awakedness consists in the movements of a man and results from the ordering of the organs of breathing, which are pivotal to the sense of

jealousy "

we have remarked above in the section devoted to the exposition of the passage beginning with " The race is not to smell, as

the swift.

The sense

of taste includes as its

species four qualities,

namely, Joy (Cheerfulness), Grief (Apprehensiveness), Penitence,

Dost thou not see that the greatest which is atthe sense of taste ? Hast thou not heard

and Tranquillity.

pleasure

is

derived through eating and drinking,

tained by means of

of the saying on the part of Isaac (Gen. xxvii. 25),

here unto

his

Speech, consisting as

kind with (the objects

thus

it is

of) taste,

Opposed

to this

we

the failure to exercise this sense, as

wept and did not 34),

He

eat."

It

is

it

does of words, which are

sometimes gives

rise to joy

A man hath joy by the

said (Prov. xv. 23), "

mouth."

"

it

;

(Ruth iii. was merry." of a

"Bring

me and I will eat of my son's venison " and also " And when Boaz had eaten and drunk, his heart 7),

answer of

find that grief follows it is

said (1

Sam.

i.

7),

upon She

"

also related of Jonathan {id. xx.

did eat no meat the second day of the month, for he 40


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON Many such As to

was grieved for David."

expressions are used with

reference to Saul and others.

the reason for referring

IBN GABIROL

the quality of penitence,

to (the sense of) taste

it

is

that contri-

tion and penitence are felt for what has gone before, and one

denies himself different kinds of enjoyment, which are rendered possible by

means

of the taste, as

The

return."

Israel,

said (Hos. xiv.

is

it

i),

"O

attributing also of the quality of tran-

quillity to (the sense of) taste is seen in the saying of Senne-

charib

(II.

Kings

xviii. 31),

"Eat ye every man

vine,

"

"

therein,

and every one of his fig-tree; And they saw the people that were

and again

own

of his

(Jud. xviii. 7),

how they dwelt

in

safety."

The

sense of touch also stands in relation to four qualities,

and these are

Liberality, Niggardliness, Valor,

Liberality in connection with touch

Liberality consists in open-handedness,

the action of the hand.

even as niggardliness giving,

it is

liness, it

is

"A

said (Prov. xviii. 16),

said (Prov.

hand

will increase."

touch

is

With regard to maketh room him." Of niggard-

but closefistedness.

is

and before great men

for him,

and Cowardice.

possible only through

is

xiii.

will lead

it

11),

man's

"He

That valor

gift

that gathereth

by

close

in connection with

is

the

evident from the connection between seizing hold of

(something) and the hand

hand she put forth

to the

;

thus

it

nail."

is

said (Jud.

v.

In opposition to

26), "

this, it is

said of cowardice (Isa. xxxv. 3), " Strengthen ye

and again (Ezek.

vii. 17),

"All hands

shall

Her

weak hands " become feeble," and ;

so forth. It

having been made clear that

all

are related to the five senses, let us

theme

the qualities of the soul

now

return to our

first

which we have stated to be the Seeing that most men are not sufficiently

(the elucidation of)

purpose of this book.

versed in the ruling of their qualities to enable them to regulate these according to ethical standards

we have resolved which

ways

an account in extenso of the qualities, the which to use them, and the mode in which to bring

shall contain

in

and a rational method,

to write a satisfactory treatise concerning this,

41


— THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 1

about their improvement.

In addition to this

with the persistent importunity of one of sires this as

my

have met

I

friends,

who

de-

a memorial and preparation for himself and for

me, in the event that conditions change in the course of time, places

become disturbed and men

He

alter.

desires also that

the relationship of the qualities to the senses should be set

Before explaining this at

forth.

will

all, I

make

clear to

it

him

by means of a geometrical diagram and visible proofs. Then let us first sketch a diagram of the four temperaments, which

we have mentioned

may be

drawn

figure, so

it

at the

and the senses ready

it

beginning

that the imagination

comprehend

to

have indicated with reference to every temperament

whatever are

ment

form of a

quick to grasp

We

it.

We have

above.

of our work, in the

its

elements, and then joined to every tempera-

five qualities, in accordance

We

calculation.

with the requirements of the

have joined them to whatever quality they

have, in preference to any other, after having classified

the diagram,

them

in

— giving those which are hot and cold, and to which

of the elements they belong,

and likewise those that are moist

(humid) and dry (arid) and their conjunctions and disjunctions all this

end

silence the

mouths

He may put an on the strength of

that

to the opposition (clamor) of those who,

their knowledge, enter

I

Of God we pray

in the diagram.

upon a discussion with

of those

and that

us,

who argue with us

He

in their folly.

have no reason to trust that their envy will not lead them to

attempt to humiliate us disturbance, sufficeth as

yet will

;

I

not be deterred by their

those taking refuge with

in

Him

I

Him, the

trust, for

He

it is written (Lam. good unto them that wait for Him." innocent of that wherewith they charge me

iii.

is

haughtily

:

I

am

1

Cf. the ;

words of Bahya

Brtlll (p. 79,

a shield to

25),

Verily, if

"The I am

they speak

too pious to be the victim of their pride, even

though they occupy the foremost place, for there view

is

surest protection to those

seeking after His help, as

Lord

The Lord

nor dismayed by their brutishness.

my portion, and

note

(iii.

10 and

1).

42

iii.

i),

who has

is

no iniquity

the same purpose in


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON in

my

(Ps.

hand.

xxxviii.

Therefore will 21),

"

I

IBN GABIROL

bear their attacks

They hate me only because

but

;

I

I

do say

pursue the

God knows that I have not admitted into my work anything except my own thoughts and writing, nor have I busied myself with anything outside of my own ideas. To those who good."

'

have superior souls and lofty aspirations, their strong affection for our discourse will point out that which we have in mind; and if they alight upon any mistakes in the course of it, they will allow that my excuse is clear and evident, since in its chief parts there is good sense. This is a copy of the first diagram, which represents the elements and the temperaments :


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON

IBN GABIROL

We have arranged to refer every temperament to its element and every quality to its temperament,' as required by the argument, which we shall make clear in another place with the help Having of the Almighty, the Sufficient, may He be exalted. sketched this diagram as just explained, we would say here that which we can enumerate is twenty, se, and others blameworthy per se. Whosoever wishes to attain to the improvement of his qualities must pursue in his own person the goodly course so that the praiseworthy qualities come to be to him excellences, unto which he must accustom himself, from which he must not separate from the time of his youth, and whereunto he must apply himself step by step and little by little. Thus saith the sage (Prov. xxii. 6), " Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it. " The philosopher hath said, " Intelligence is a gift, moral conduct is an acquirement, the of

sum

of the

human

qualities

which some are praiseworthy per

but habit

is

qualities of

master over all things." Know thou that all the man, of the possession of which he gives evidence

at the period of his

youth and manhood, are in him during his

infancy and boyhood

:

though

it

be not in his power to mani-

them, they are nevertheless within him in potentia,

fest

in actu.

Thou

pudency manifests

itself,

and in

ilar to

men

;

and

still

others are dis-

these qualities above mentioned and others sim-

them being among those

of the

animal soul; and when

reach unto the stage of maturity, the strength of the ra-

tional soul displays its activity it

not

;

to enjoyment, others aspire to virtue,

posed to vices

(if)

some boys the quality of others impudence some incline

wilt observe that in

and

it

directs

him

to a proper understanding with regard to the

the qualities, since

improve these.

it is

Now

that possesses

improvement

of

not the practice of the animal soul to

in addition to this proposition being sus-

has been handed down to us by tradition words of the Saint (Prov. xx. n), "Even a child is known by his doings." As to the youths whom baseness overceptible of proof,

it

in the

1

We

meet with the same thought

pp. 74 and 127, notes 2 and

in

3).

44

Jehuda ha-Levi

;

cf.

Dukes ("

Phil.,

"


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL comes,

possible to transform

it is

them

into a noble state as

long as the limits of childhood have not been passed

but

;

if

they overstep the boundaries of youth and reach maturity, and continue to remain in this condition,

them along erect before

it is

is difficult to

men when

it

becomes

full

grown

bend or move

difficult to set

may be made

a good course, just as a sprig

to stand

when it has become a tree, it From this thou seest that most

but

;

it.

they have reached maturity cannot be turned aside

from the course which in their youth they pursued, whereas most men can be directed between the periods of childhood and youth unto good habits. This is the simple meaning of " (Prov. xxii. 6), Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old," etc. Thus, too, our Rabbis say, " At twenty years of age, one dies with it." '

It is

soul

impossible that evil-doing should belong to the rational

would not be in accordance with wisThe Deity hath created the soul pure, stainless, and

by

dom.

nature, for this

simple, as saith the sage (Ecc. that

God hath made man

from that

is

not good,

the natural impulse.

vii. 29),

upright."

"

This only have

Whatever

found,

I

results there-

is

the work of the vegetative soul,

A

philosopher has said that, "

by means

clings to good qualities in order to enjoy

of

2

i.e.,

He who

them the

pleasures of his senses and (to satisfy) the necessities of his

body, does not understand their true value

;

but he understands

them who seeks after them, because he recognizes their merit and usefulness and knows that death caused by following them is

better than

life,

based upon their opposites; and he

keeps his thoughts away from the base, 1

Rosin (" Maimonides, "

parallels:

" Ueber

p. 5, note 4,

and

p. 65,

lifts

them up

who

to the

note 3) suggests the following

die ethische Bildungsfahigkeit der Jugend,"

"Arist.

.

N. E.,

im Namen Plato's nach dessen De Leg. ii.; aber auch Aristot. ohne Nennung dazu vgl. Maim, zu Abot i. 14." Plato's, N. E. ii. 1. Schl. und x. 10 2 This threefold division of the soul, vegetative, animal, and rational (cf. the preceding paragraph of the text), is discussed at greater length in the " Fons Vitse" cf. Munk (p. 200), Rosin (p. 46, note 1), and Horovitz (p. 115, note 77, and p. 117, note 82). This same division occurs in Israeli (cf. Fried, p. 37) and Kalonymos b. Kalonymos cf. J. Landsberger, " Iggereth Baale Chajjim," Darmstadt, 1882 (p. 172, and note on p. 266). ii.

2,

;

;

;

45


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL good."

man separates may He be exalted

In the measure in which

baseness does he near God,

himself from ;

and in the

measure in which he nears baseness, does he separate himself from Him.

Now

in regard to the twenty qualities of man, upon him, points to them and alludes to their David, peace be " Psalm of David " (xxxvii.) " Contend not origin in the Of some of these he with thyself because of evil-doers." clearly treats, as may be gathered from the literal interpretation of the verse; others he indicates merely by allusions viz., he enjoins serving God, by cultivating qualities that are praiseworthy, and inhibits the exercise of the blameworthy qualities. Furthermore, he condemns the course of those who depart from the right way, as it should be observed, and praises the course of those who rightly habituate themselves to good practice. In saying at first, "Contend not with thyself because of evildoers," he would put an inhibition upon envy of the wicked; for, if man does not envy them, he is necessarily bound to hate them. Moreover, he warns against envy of them and jealousy of their condition, these being his words (Ps. xxxvii. i), "Be :

not

envious against the workers of iniquity."

He

enjoins

Lord and confidence in Him, in saying {id., xxxvii. 3), "Trust in the Lord and do good." Furthermore, he alludes to the exercise of the qualities of pudency and modesty (id., xxxvii. 3), " So shalt thou dwell in the land and feed jn faithfulness." His saying, first, " So shalt thou dwell in the land," and then "and feed in faithfulness," shows that long life on earth is the result of cultivating humility and pudency, which he calls "faith," as thou knowest from the saying (Num. trustfulness in the

xii. 7),

"He

is. faithful in all

my

house," and that which pre-

ceded in the description of modesty. of the meriting of

life,

even long

expression (Ps. xxxvii. 11),

life

That which we have said on earth, corresponds to the

"The meek

shall inherit the earth."

"Delight thyself also in the Lord," he alludes to the quality of joy, which the righteous exercises in that In saying

(id., 4),

service of the Lord, wherein he delights.

where

(Ps. xxxii. 11),

"Be

Thus he says

glad in the Lord and rejoice, 46

else-

O

ye


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON

IBN GABIROL

righteous

"

(Isa.

10), " I will greatly rejoice in the

lxi.

;

again, he says of the season of gladsome tidings "

xxxvii. 4),

(Ps.

He

In saying

Lord."

shall give thee the desires of thine heart,"

he alludes to the quality of yearning which is love, for God satisfies the yearning of the righteous, as is promised them in the saying (Ps. xx. 6),

The

sires."

words,

"

"The Lord

will

from anger

Cease

fulfil

all

thy de-

are to be taken

"

they forbid giving way to violent anger and wrath. Cease from anger and forsake wrath " requires, first, the uprooting thereof, and, second, penitence for what has gone literally;

To

"

"The meek

before.

lowly,

—viewing

the

"The wicked

12),

These are the

shall inherit the earth."

verse literally.

In

saying (Ps. xxxvii.

plotteth against the just and gnasheth upon

him with his teeth," he alludes to the use which the wicked make of impudence and recklessness. In saying (id., 13),

"The Lord

shall laugh at

him," he means that

He

will destroy

the impudent one and cause the righteous to rejoice in his destruction; thus rejoice

it is

said (Ps.

lviii.

11),

"The

when he seeketh vengeance."

"The wicked have unsheathed

In

righteous shall

saying

(id.,

fervor and the daring which they (the wicked) display.

saying

(id.,

14),

"To

14),

the sword," he alludes to the In

slay such as be of upright conduct," he

alludes to the quality of hard-heartedness which prevails over all

their

it is

In saying

(other) qualities.

shall be broken,"

he hints

said of a "brazen-faced nation" (Jer.

lay hold of

bow and

"Their bows

{id., 15),

at the quality of pride;

spear."

In saying

of the wicked shall be broken," he

means

similarly

"They shall " The arms 17),

vi. 23),

(id.,

that the quality of

when their youth and strength are enfeebled, so that they cannot raise their arms In saying (id., 21), "The wicked borroweth and payeth at all. faint-heartedness takes possession of them

not," he alludes to the quality of niggardliness. 21),

"The

In saying

(id.,

righteous showeth mercy and giveth," he has in

mind the two qualities which dwell in the soul of the righteous, Concluding his enumeration of namely, mercy and liberality. these qualities, he seals them with the quality of good-will. 47


,

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL We

would say that when man pursues the right course in referi.e., in the manner in which we

ence to these twenty qualities,

have described the exercise of those that are praiseworthy, and

God be"The ordered by the Lord." Let not man " The steps of a good man are ordered

the putting aside of those that are blameworthy, then

comes well pleased with him, as

man

steps of a good

are

suppose that the passage, "

by the Lord Thus

1

it

said

is

(id.

,

23),

implies any compulsion to obedience (to God) 1

briefly Gabirol

may be

said to urge the doctrine of free-will,

and

to ex-

press his opposition to the Asharitic teachings in respect of predestination.

Maimonides (Wolff,

p. 55 et seq.

and pp.

94, 95, notes 36, 37),

Cf.

who acknowledges

by the physical temperament, which predisposes, without preMaimonides proceeds to demonstrate the futility of commanding, instructing, rewarding or punishing him who lacks " freedom of choice. " Wolff (p. 94, note 36) is right in saying that the doctrine of the freedom of the will (iTVrQ) is one of the fundathe influence exerted

determining, the soul to certain lines of action and modes of being'.

mental principles of Judaism. follows Aristotle

;*»cf.

He

cites Philo

Introduction

(p.

and Maimonides, the latter closely Rosin (pp. 167, 168), and

11, note 1),

Dukes (pp. 57-62). Saadya devotes the fourth chapter of his " Emunoth weDeoth " to the advocacy of the doctrine of free-will cf. Guttmann (Saadya, Bahya devotes the eighth section of the third chapter of his " Hopp. 163-174). ;

both ha-lebaboth" to an exposition of his understanding of the freedom of will with which man is endowed vide Kaufmann in loco. According to Frankel-Grun ;

(chap.

ii.

pp. 35-41, and Kusari, v. 20. 25), freedom of the will constitutes one of

the most important bases of religion in the judgment of Jehuda ha-Levi. ibn Zaddik

is

likewise an exponent of this doctrine

;

cf.

Jellinek ("

Joseph

Der Mikro-

kosmos," p. 60) and Rosin (" Maimonides," p. 18, notes 4 and 5) According to Rosin (" Maimonides,'' pp. 23, 24), Abraham ibn Daud is no less pronounced in his advocacy of the freedom of the will, as well as Abraham ibn Ezra (p. 73, note .

.

An

admirable survey of the question

is given by Rosin (" Maimonides,'' pp. According to Joel ("Die Religionsphilosophie des Lewi ben Gerson," p. 54, and " Milhamot Adonai," tractate iii., chap. 4), Gersonides was obliged, without acknowledging it, to sacrifice a part of divine omniscience in order to save

4).

62-76).

human

freedom. Hasdai may be said to be the one notable protestant against the freedom of the will cf. M. Joel, " Don Chasdai Creskas' religionsphilosophische Lehren " (Breslau, 1866, pp. 46, 47) " Or Adonai " (tractate ii., part 5, chap. 4) ;

,

and Ph. Bloch ("Die Willensfreiheit von Chasdai Kreskas," Munchen, 1879). Moses of Narbonne wrote a treatise. ,TVrnn "lOKDri, in order to disprove the fatalistic doctrine expounded in the work of a contemporary, nYTJil JTIJN cf. ;

Beer (pp. 114, 2, 3, 40-42). This entire problem has found fairly comprehensive treatment at the hands of Stein, who shows Saadya, Bahya, Jehuda ha-Levi,

Abraham

ibn Daud, Maimonides, Gersonides,

Moses

of

Narbonne, Aaron of Nico-

media, and Joseph Albo to have been at one in their acceptance of what may truly be called the Jewish dogma of the freedom of the will. Evidently overlook-

48


.

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON or disobedience

;

(it

IBN GABIROL

does point) however, to the bliss and misery

(which are their respective reward and punishment).

The

ing, "

means

steps of a good

that

thing; and

man

God created his soul perfect, not wanting in anywhen it inclines to virtue, to wholesome practice and

good conduct, the expression

" are

ordered " implies that he

merits the approval of God; and this sion

{id.,

In say-

are ordered by the Lord," he

23),

"And He

what we have

is

meant by the expres-

As

delighteth in his way."

a result

upon him, in these hints, gives a description of the way in which to improve the qualities of the human soul and to accustom it to virtuous practice in the same manner as Solomon the Wise has done in his writings, wherein he urges (men) to effect their improvement in every possible manner, as I shall indicate, please

of

said,

clear that David, peace be

it is

God, exalted may

He

Following our argument, we shall

be.

proceed to describe the method of the diagram, which we have

drawn, of the senses and the qualities, and the description), in the

we

will explain

senses, uniting

how

every individual

we

the course of

(in

the qualities originate to

make

its

species,

and

clear the nature

every species to

its

of the qualities

derived from the sense of sight and their

quantity;

genus,

i.e.,

will

so also those derived from the sense of

and the remaining senses tabular diagram, so that

it

in the

may

same way.

easily be grasped

hearing,

be a by beginners

It

will

in the study of this science, and those desirous of procuring

the benefit thereof, those asking help of

they

may

bring about

their

God

in

order that

improvement, with the help of

abstract (exact) and concrete (worldly) sciences.

form of the tabular diagram, which

is

This

devised in order to

is

the

illus-

ing the passage to which our note is appended, Stein confessedly omits to treat of Gabirol (p. 22), " da er in seinem einseitigen Neuplatonismus unserer Frage .

gar keine Beachtung widmet."

Problem der Willensfreiheit

in

Cf. Schmiedl (pp. 24-26).

L. Knoller

.

("Das

der alteren jiidischen Religionsphilosophie

des

same ground as Stein, taking up in turn Saadya. Bahya, ha-Levi, Ibn Zaddik, Ibn Daud, and Maimonides, but likewise Mittelalters." Leipzig, 1S84) goes over the

omits to discuss Gabirol's view with reference to the freedom of the reason for the omission

4

(p. 15,

note

I)

49

will,

giving his


.

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL trate the

branching forth of

five senses Sight. '

the twenty qualities

from the


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON my

highmindedness, excuse

my aim in composing surpasses me in talent at

for

God

book was not

to benefit

him who

do not lay claim,

I

Ver-

knowl-

I

am

have plucked from wisdom

I

not wise, that

I

would

is

must not abandon the counsel of must acknowledge to them my

I

contemporaries, and that

weakness.

who who

time, since

this

theme,

my

edge that

my

my

not having exhausted

this

forbid, to superiority in any department of science.

the fruit which

ily,

IBN GABIROL

I

be, in that case, as the saying goes, " as

when

tends a garden well

bloom

in its full

it is

one

or like one

;

heaps up brocaded stuffs boastfully in the presence of those •who make them. " The clearest ground for excusing me, in that I

have not exhausted

me

ting to blame is

we

that

my

for not

theme, and the surest reason for omit-

having completed

live at the present

time amid

to the very end,'

it

and

evil

distress,

an

uninterrupted succession of troubles and disquieting circumstances

;

but

I

complain not.

praise our Creator, exalted

Despite

may He

this, I

do not cease to

be, for the grace

which Hie

has vouchsafed to us, and for having enlightened our understanding and our judgment, causing us to find the way in which

comprehend something of the sciences. I have divided my work into five parts, every part containing four chapters, which makes a total of twenty chapters,

to

number contained

the

qualities belong to five, 1

every part

five

,"

,

loa -nxpn

D^aE'Dn an ny\

(p. 119,

it is

interesting to

;

Leipzig and Paris, 1839, Preface p.

p

to wit,

senses already mentioned.

remark of Abraham ibn Hasdai (as pointed out by Steinschneider, pTH 'JtSD. ed. J. Goldenthal, 342) respecting Gabirol's " Ethics "

" H. U.

p.

have

I

and to every sense whatever

Despite his voluntary acknowledgment of incompleteness, critical

it,

These are the parts of the work,

it.

corresponding to the

note the

s6i

To

in the diagram.

joined the sense belonging to

th '•Sib

u

3.

nan ^1T32

hm

p

TO^C

I pB^.l "IUJ D3niYl

e>ajn nno jipn iNnpi ind np" man i?n "nxin by tahwn Cf. Rosin (p. 166, note i) and Dukes

hv

note 2 and " Ehrensaulen, " p. 11).

51

1



PART

I.

The sense of sight, containing four Chapter

I.,

Chapter

chapters.

treating of the quality of pride.

II.,

treating of the quality of meekness, and urging

the exercise thereof.

Chapter

III., treating of

Chapter IV.

,

pudency and modesty.

treating of impudence and the refraining there-

from.

PART

II.

The sense of hearing, comprising four

treating of love and the methods of exercising

Chapter

I.,

Chapter

II.,

it.

treating of hate, the thrusting aside thereof, and

the abandonment of any leaning toward

Chapter

chapters.

III., treating of

the quality of mercy and compassion,

the praise of those possessed of to choose

it.

it,

and the encouragement

it.

Chapter IV., treating of the quality of hard-heartedness and the relinquishment of any leaning toward

PART The sense of Chapter

I.,

taste,

it.

III.

comprising four chapters.

treating of the quality of joy and the methods of ex-

ercising

it.

treating of grief and consolation for sorrow.

Chapter

II.,

Chapter

III., treating of tranquillity.

Chapter IV., treating of penitence and guarding against (the

need

of)

it.

53


"

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON

PART

IBN GABIROL

IV.

The sense of smell, containing four

chapters.

treating of the quality of anger and wrath.

Chapter

I.,

Chapter

II.,

Chapter

III.,

treating of good-will and cheerfulness.

Chapter IV.

treating of jealousy and envy.

treating of the quality of wide-awakedness.

,

PART

V.

The sense of touch, embracing four chapters: thus completing the twenty chapters of the book.

Chapter

Chapter

I.,

treating of liberality and generosity. treating of the quality of niggardliness and the

II.,

dispraise thereof.

Chapter

treating of valor and the exercise thereof.

III.,

Chapter IV., treating of cowardice and the guarding against

Having

finished

numbering the parts of the book and

now begin to explain it all, with may He be. We pray that He lead us

chapters, let us

God, exalted

"

Lead me

in

its

the help of in the paths

by His grace bring us near unto the ways

of rectitude, and of uprightness.

it.

Thus His Saint besought Him

Thy

truth.

54

(Ps. xxv. 5),


PART

I

CHAPTER

I.

Treating of Pride (Haughtiness).

How all

good

it is

that this chapter happens to be the

the chapters, as required by the connection.

seen

many

give

it

it is

it

so

much

unto themselves and make use of

needless to do so, until

their nature.

;

it

it

of

have

I

of the elect exercise this quality unnecessarily

preference over their other qualities

the masses take

where

first

For

and

so, that

in cases

gains the upper hand over

also observe this quality frequently present in

I

young men, i.e. in the child and the youth, especially if the temperament happen to be "yellow-hot." For it is character,

the yellow gall to

istic of

the nature of to exercise

Among

man

it

In

rise.

its

excitement

accustoms

to exercise this quality until he almost

amid circumstances unsuited

among

These are not

the qualities of the ancient saints, of

whom

noble virtues testified that they were opposed to them. as

we

comes

to its appearance.

the special branches of this quality are vanity (presump-

tuousness), boastfulness, and haughtiness.

cluded)

it

see,

(in-

their

Now,

some men, who were known to exercise these qualihave thereby become despicable. Others aim

ties out of place,

to exercise the praiseworthy aspects of the quality of

and are praised

therefor.

I

shall not

go to the length of

counting their names, for they are well known.

we must

carefully consider

how

to acquire the

This being

means

ing this quality in the right place, and subduing season

;

Pride, reso,

of exercisit

out of

and we must make mention of the loathing, which en-

sues as a result of

its

blameworthiness. 55


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL When we of a

man,

it

perceive this quality beginning to affect the nature

becomes necessary for us

to call his attention to

serious matters, such as lead to reflection on the origin of exist-

ent things and their end,

e.

i.

,

the coming into being of things,

their beginnings, their transitoriness, and their

When

he learns that

destruction.

existent things are changeable,

all

1

and

own being will change (waste away) and his body become extinct, then the quality of his soul, which was haughty throughout the course of his life, will become meek and penitent at (the thought of) death. Since we are forced to accept this logical conclusion and traditional reasoning, it finally that his

behooves the wise

own

man

free will, since

whatever from pursuing

many

to avoid preferring this quality of his

detestable and there results no benefit

it is

On

it.

the contrary,

it is

the cause of

man's arrogance urge him not to incline to the advice of any man and although in (seeking) advice is the essence of good counsel, he turn away from it and abide by his own opinion. Of such a man Solomon the Wise, peace be upon him, said (Prov. xii. 15), "The way of a dangers, especially

if

;

own eyes." Thou knowest also what befell Korach and Rehoboam and others like them, who cared only for their own opinion. Man must remember that if he realize fool is right in his

not his

own

sins but consider his

course correct, there will

him what befell them. Concerning this the sage "All the ways of a man are clean in his but the Lord weigheth the spirits " and he saith of

surely befall

saith (Prov. xvi. 2),

own

eyes,

;

"Pride goeth before destruction," i.e., the result of pride and pomp is overthrow and degradation. Thus it happened to Pharaoh, who said (Ex. v. 2), "Who is the pride

(id.

xvi.

18),

"

and Goliath when he spake (1 Sam. xvii. 10), "I defy the armies of Israel; " and Sennacherib for his boastfulness in

Lord?

" Who are they among all the gods and Nebuchadnezzar in that he said (Dan. iii. " that God that shall deliver you out of my hands ?

saying (II Kings xviii. 35), of the countries " 1

s),

"

Who

is

;

and others who follow them 1

Cf.

Bahya

vi.

5

(p.

in the

297), and

56

manner

Brlill (p. 75,

of their speech

note

2).


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON

IBN GABIROL

and whose end was complete abasement and utter obscurity.

Whosoever is in this state is not secure from error and sin. Thus saith the sage (Prov. xxi. 24), " Proud and haughty scorn-

He

er is his name."

mentions craftiness, because

it

is

the

Whoever acts in this wise ought to be ashamed, and remember that according to the measure of his source of boastfulness.

superciliousness will he experience contempt, and in propor-

power

tion to his

the sage saith low,"

will humiliation suddenly befall him.

(id., xxix. 23),

"A

boastfulness and arrogance are the main causes of

i.e.,

man's humiliation, and these, by the wicked, as he saith

Some

heart." of this

(id.,

my

life,

xxi. 4), "

A

are characteristic of

high look and a proud

of the proud vaunt themselves in the exercise

blameworthy

quality, because they delight therein (and

try to excuse themselves by) arguing, that the to distinction,

and finds lowliness irksome.

that domineering (supremacy) strengthens

weakens

it,

it,

(Gen. xxvii. 29),

'

They

further say that the prayers of the

"

to

out of thy loins."

when they

God

him (Gen. xxxv.

On

distinguished His prophet 1 1),

"And

kings shall come

the other hand, he punished those

deserved punishment by humbling their power; thus

foot,

said

Let people serve thee and nations bow down

Yea, in this way

when He spake

and

inclines

while submission

excellent had the attainment thereof in view

to thee."

soul

Again, they hold

and were there no domination, the world would not

be well adjusted.

(Isa. ix.

Thus

man's pride shall bring him

it is

who said

"Therefore the Lord will cut off from Israel head Simbranch and rush in one day," and so forth.

14),

pletons, discussing this superciliousness, do not consider that,

when they

resort thereto, their souls

become unduly

great, that

they overstep their bounds, become overbearing toward their away from their companions, deride the advice of

relatives, turn

1 Guttmann (" Saadya,'' pp. 276, 277, note 2, Emunoth we-Deoth, x. 9) points out that Gabirol closely follows the teaching of Saadya with respect to the it is worthy of notice that Gabirol quotes the same scriptural love of dominion ;

passages.

S.

Landauer

(pp.

xix.-xxi.

of his introduction to the Arabic text of

Saadya's work) holds that this chapter, the tenth, is a later addition to the book cf. D. S. A. Taubeles (" Saadia Gaon, " Halle, 1S8S, p. 32, note 43).

57

;


— THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL much as they rely upon their own opinions own way. But when it is so exercised as to keep

every man, for as

and one away from baseness, to enable one to rise unto the excellences, and to be firm in devotion to God, exalted be He, which is His highest gift, exalted and magnified may He be, to His servants, then this becomes the means whereby men gain Of these the grace of God and reach the everlasting kingdom. " He withdraweth not his eyes from the it is said (Job xxxvi. 7), go their

righteous, but with kings are they on the throne

resorts to

counsel,

forever,

him

is like

intermeddleth with

of all

whom

(Prov. xxvi. 16),

men

"The

was said (Prov.

it

wisdom."

and desire not his presence seven

yea, he doth

;

and they are exalted." But he, who superciliousness unnecessarily and takes only his own

them

establish

:

of

sluggard

is

Men

him

1),

disregard such a

"

He

man

such as these the sage saith wiser in his

that can render a reason."

his vanity impels

xviii.

to undertake

And

own

conceit than

often, moreover,

something outside of his

usual course of action, because he relies upon his opinion sav-

ing him and upon his counsel protecting him. causes him to stumble; thus

it

is

said (Job

v.

It

12),

is

"

this that

He

disap-

pointeth the devices of the crafty, so that their hands cannot

Having progressed thus far in our way in which make use thereof moderately, and to the mode of suppressing its use in the wrong place, we must now proceed to quote very sparingly a few prose utterances of the wise concerning this

perform their enterprise."

description of the quality of superciliousness, the

and whatever verses concerning it we can. The divine Socrates said " From whom doth disappointment never part ? He who seeks a rank for which his ability Again he said, " He who sets himself upas is too feeble." wise will be set down by others for a fool." I hold that bad quality,

'

:

manners are attributable " Aversion

men 1

flee

The

is

always

to superciliousness.

felt for

away from him."

him who has an Aristotle says,

Socrates said,

evil nature, so that

"As

the beauty of

appellation "divine," as applied to Socrates and other Greek philos-

ophers, was not

uncommon

;

cf.

Schmiedl (pp. 263, 264).

58


"

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON form

is

a light for the body, so

;

IBN GABIROL

beauty of character a light for

is

Again he said in his testament to Alexander his does not show much nobility of purpose on the part

the soul." pupil, " It

of a king to lord

over

it

A

fellow-man."

men

man

(the less so) for one

;

man

certain haughty

over a

have been

said to

is

journeying along with his effects; some of them fell down, whereupon he threw the others out of the wagon. The ancients say, "With him who is pleased with himself, many become displeased." A poet composed these lines concerning the blameworthiness of haughtiness and arrogance " Let him who shows great vanity concerning his beauty consider this If men would but consider what is within them, neither young nor old would feel proud. Are there not in the head of every son of man five orifices from which come forth '

_

:

!

The nose

effluvia?

exudes, the ear gives forth an unpleasant

and the mouth

odor, the eye sheds tears, earth, to be

consumed

of earth

pride, for thou wilt be food of Ardeshir,

It is told

2

O

salivates.

son of

on the morrow, desist from thy

and drink

the earth)

(to

!

the king, that he gave a book to a

man accustomed to stand at his side, and said unto him, " When thou seest me become violently angry give it to me," and in the book (was

written), " Restrain thyself, for thou art not

thou art but a body, one part of which

suming the

worm and 1

and

other,

is

in a short while

God

on the point of conit

will turn into the

dust and nothingness."

The Arabic

verses, printed in our text,

were not translated into Hebrew by

He

them untranslated, with by some Hebrew verses of Gabirol or the verses of another. Cf. Appendix A. p. 106 and Munk (note 4 to p. This purpose was never carried out cf. Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 382), 167). and " Ermahnungsschreiben, " p. 9 (through a misprint the number ix. reads xi. ),

Jehuda ibn Tibbon, the a view to making good

translator of the work.

left

at a later time the omission

;

who had Gabirol

expected to publish these verses is

The

citing of these Arabic verses

taken by Steinschneider (Introduction,

"J. Q. R.,"

xii.,

p.

by

609) to

some Jews must have been versed in this part of Arabic literature. King" in the "Choice of Pearls" (No. 538, and note Cf. Steinschneider (" H. U.,"p. 388, note 130, and p. 881, note 193), 175). also Dukes (p. 72).

show

2

that

Called an "Indian

59


"

CHAPTER

II.

1

Treating of Meekness.' This quality is more nearly a virtue than that which was mentioned just before, because the possessor of this attribute, i.e. modesty and humility, withholds his desire from seeking ,

When

gratification.

worthy character in is

one attains this precious rank, the praise-

man

is

made

This, in

perfect.

a disposition which merits praise for

my opinion,

him who acquires

it.

Dost thou not see that humility is the highest degree of the nobles and of the prophOne of them said ets, distinguished by their divine rank ? Verily, he

is

accorded the

loftiest praise.

3

(Gen. xviii. 27), "

another said (Ps. I am but dust and ashes " " and forth. They were worm and no man so am a A man of intellipraised for their actions and were honored. gence should know that lowliness and meekness cause him to rea;

xxii. 7), " I

;

lize his desire in

regard to present things, as thou knowest from

the account of what happened to the captains of Achaziah, be-

cause of their folly; and what happened to the third captain gently spake to Elijah

and the

Him

life of

(II

Kings

i.

" I pray thee let 13),

my

who life

these thy fifty servants be precious in thy sight."

there befell the reverse of what had befallen the former.

Verily, fame and glory will be the reward of whosoever

is

lowly.

The recompense of meekness is honor and prosperity, and also the deserving of honor. Thus it is said (Prov. xxii. 4), " The reward of humility and the fear of God are riches, and honor, and life. The most excellent of the ancient nobles (may God guide thee aright) were accustomed to exercise the quality of meek1

This chapter

given in a German translation, based on the

is

Winter and Wtinsche

pp. 727, 72S), being copied from

(vol. ii.,

Hebrew text, in Dukes (pp. 113-

115).

on iTOJ?, in " Emunali Raman " (ed. and 10 Briill (p. 75, note 1).

9

Cf. the chapter

s

Cf. Bahya, vi. 8

;

60

S.

Weil, Frankfort, 1852).


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON ness, and preferred

it

to their natural

IBN GABIROL

impulses.

It

is

related

an illustrious king,' that one night while a number of people were assembled about him, he arose to trim the lamp. Whereof

upon it was said to him, " Why didst thou not utter a command, which would have sufficed?" And he answered them, "As king I rose, and as king I resume my seat." He was wont to say that " Every grace (of man) is envied, except meekness."

The

said, "The fruits of lowliness Know thou that in honoring his man honors himself. Some one has

philosopher Buzurjmihr'

are love and tranquillity."

brother or his neighbor,

remarked that " lowliness consists in being beforehand with greetings to whomsoever one may meet, and in descending to the lowest rank." Contentment is of a kind with this quality. When one is gifted with its presence, he has already gained superiority. It is said, " Whomsoever the Lord loveth he inspireth with contentment."

God

(Prov.

the soul."

wicked

Scripture says of the contented servant of

"The

xiii. 25),

And

shall

it

righteous eateth to the satisfying of

says of the reverse,

want."

He who

"But

the belly of the

possesses strength, health, and

a sense of security ought never to feel sad.

The

fruit of con-

tentment is tranquillity. The greatest riches are contentment and patience. One of the sages has said, " He who desires of this world only that which is sufficient for him, will be conAnother sage was wont to tent with the very least thereof." admonish his son, " He who cannot bear with one word, will be He who esteems his rank but compelled to listen to many. In holding slightly, enhances men's estimation of his dignity." the view that it may be right (at times) to repudiate this qual3

Dukes (p. 114, note 2) points out that this tale is cited in Ibn Khallikan (i. King being there called Caliph Omar. 5 Cf. Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 382. and "J. Q. R.," xii., p. 606, note 3; the reference to the "Ethics" in the same page should be i. 2, not i. 3) Dukes (" Blumenlese, " p. 60, note 3), and Landsberger (as above cited, p. 1

526), the

;

223, note to p. 18). 3

Gabirol's demonstration that patience and contentment are the offshoots of

pudency Bahya,

is

vi.

shown by

Brull (p. 75, note 3) to have been copied almost literally

10 (p. 311).

61

by


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL mean thereby that a man should not abase himself before With reference to such a case it is said (Prov. xxv. "A righteous man, falling down before the wicked, is as a

ity, I

the wicked. 26),

was said concernwho deserves (the greatest) compassion is the

troubled fountain and a corrupt stream."

ing this, "

man

wise

(we find), "

humble

He

lost

among

When

It

In the ethical sayings of

fools. "

man

the noble

Lokman

1

forsakes the world, he becomes

the ignoble in forsaking the world becomes haughty." In the book of al-Kuti * (it is said), " Be humble without :

and manly without being arrogant. Know thou that is a wilderness and haughtiness a taking refuge therein, and, altogether, a going astray." cringing,

arrogance

1

Cf. Steinschneider

("H. U.,"

liographie des Ouvrages Arabes,"

Dukes 2

p. 853).

iii.,

In general see V. Chauvin, " Bib-

Louqmane

et les

Fabulistes, Paris, i8g8.

(" Phil.," p. 161) cites a similar passage attributed to Ibn Ahnaf.

Gabirol refers to an Arabic paraphrase of the Psalms by one IJefes al-Kuti.

Neubauer(" R. E.

J.," xxx., pp. 65-69), and Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 382, note 99, and "J. Q. R.," xiii., p. 312). Cf. also Dukes (p. 105) who (p. nf, note 2) instances a number of parallels to this maxim of Lokman in the writings

Cf.

,

of Maimonides, al-Gazzali, etc.

62


CHAPTER On the Qualities

III.

of Pudency and Modesty.

A

wise man was asked, " What is intelligence ? " and he Again he was asked, " What is modesty?" and he replied, "Intelligence." This quality, although like unto meekness and agreeing therewith, is of a nobler rank

answered, " Modesty."

than the

for

latter,

To every

kindred to intelligence.

is

it

man

of understanding the nobility of the intellect

it is

the dividing line between man and beast, in that it masman's natural impulses and subdues passion. With the

ters

help of intelligence

man

knowledge the Unity

patent, for

knowledge and

realizes the benefit of

gets to understand the true nature of things

is

he comes to ac-

;

of God, to worship his

Master, and to

bear a striking resemblance to the character of the angels.

Since this precious quality

modesty which resembles of its being thus related

man

is

is,

of so noble a kind,

almost equally

is

it

This being

so,

follows that

The

proof

that thou wilt never see a modest

lacking intelligence, or an intelligent

esty.

it

so.

1

man must

man

devoid of mod-

direct all his efforts to the

attainment of this wonderful and highly considered quality.

He must

prefer

it to all

acquires

Thus

it

many

virtues,

is said, "

The

dignity, will not be

low upon him. is

humility."

1

As ii.

to the 5 (p.

He

all

vice becomes hidden from him.

faults of him,

is

and

clothes with

Dignity and honor

fol-

said (Prov. xv. 33), "Before honor

find acceptance before

God because

brings them unto everlasting

advantages which accrue to 114),

whom modesty

remarked by men."

Thus it The meek

their modesty;

Bahya,

and

and regard it means of it he

his natural impulses,

as superior to all his other qualities, for by

Brttll (p. 74,

note

63

man by 2).

bliss.

of

Con-

reason of his intelligence,

cf.


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL who understands

cerning him

"The meek

He

will

Even

teach His way."

ways,

its

said (Ps. xxv. 9), meek will He

is

it

guide in judgment: and the as

it

is

necessary that the intelligent

man be pudent in the presence of others, so must he be pudent when alone. It was said that, " Pudency and faith are interdependent, and either cannot be complete without the other." poet said,

"

Keep guard over thy modesty

the countenance of a nobleman."

It

truly

:

said that

is

A

pudency marks

"Impudence

and a lack of pudency are offshoots of unbelief." He who wishes to acquire pudency should associate with those who are modest with respect to him. An Arab was wont to say, " Pay no regard to any man unless he show thee that he cannot do without thee, even when thou needest

if

him

most, so that,

if

thou

he will forgive and act as though he were the sinner; and,

sin,

thou wrong him, he will demean himself as though he had

been the offender." Another said, "Finally, one learns from the words of prophecy, 'If thou art not pudent, do whatsoe'er wilt.' "

thou

In the course of a characterization of modesty,

the poet said, "

Upon him

light streams

reposes the mantel of piety from between his eyes."

Al-fadil says

"

:

By reason

of belief

and

and, in truth, a

:

piety,

men

dwell

Afterward they are kept together by reason of modesty, pudency, and blamelessness." Aristotle together for a time.

said in his discourse, "

As

He was

are multiplied."

a result of modesty (one's) helpers

accustomed to

say, "

In chaste chil-

dren modesty clearly rules over their countenance."

termed pudency only because 1

Again

the

way

to eternal

It

was

life.

A

"

philosopher said, wrath."

it is

it

Modesty asserts itself in the midst of was said, "The enmity of the modest man

harmful to thee than the friendship of the fool. " He who desires to guard this quality should not trifle away his dignity when asked to serve men, for when thou hast once is

less

worn out thy thee. 1

dignity, thou wilt find no one to

To make

use of pudency (that

is,

to

renew

it

for

be overpudent),

Play upon the similarity of the words " pudency" and "life" in the Arabic.

64


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON

IBN GABIROL

in speaking the truth or enjoining good acts, in spreading re-

and devotion, is blameworthy. In such cases one must not make use of it; thus the saint said (Ps. cxix. 46), " I will speak of thy testimonies also before kings, and will not be ashamed." But it is necessary for man to cover his face with the mantle of modesty before all men, as thou knowest from the case of Saul when he hid himself, (as) it is written (1 Sam. x. 23), "Behold he is hidden among the vessels." God selected him for kingship, as it is written (1 Sam. x. 24), "Behold whom the Lord hath chosen." To sum

ligion

up, according to the opinion of the philosophers and the sages, this quality is

tion to these

one of the virtues of the noble is

soul,

as that of the spirit to the body.

said, "

and

its rela-

A

philoso-

Modesty consists in conducting affairs in the best way wherein it is possible for them to be conducted, and in He who is modest will leaving them in their best aspects." pher

attain to power.

65


CHAPTER

IV.

Treating of the Quality of Impudence.

We

had much to say on the praiseworthiness of the quality

blame which we

of pudency, but the quantity of to the quality of

impudence

small.

is

the quality of shamelessness

whom

as are those of

it

is

is

He who

shall

culpable in the eyes of God,

said (Jer.

v. 3),

"

They have made

their faces harder than a rock; they have refused

The "

mete out

possessed of

is

to return."

Saint says with reference to the impudent (Prov.

When

pride cometh, then cometh shame," which

xi. 2),

means

that

when impudence prevails over the qualities of man, he is scorned by men and not respected. He is not taken seriously, nor

is

he regarded with that consideration for his wisdom, even

though he be learned, which written

(ib.),

"But with

is

paid to the pudent.

the lowly

is

wisdom."

If

and desires to pursue the goodly course which

is

Thus one

is

it is

wise

acceptable

him abandon this quality, refrain from exercising it, and keep it afar from the character of his soul. Of him who is impudent the prince saith. (id. xxi. 24), " Proud and haughty scorner is his name," by which he means that God will unto God,

let

requite according to his doing, whosoever is

written

"

(ib.),

also that "

pudent one

Who as,

Who

is

impudent, as

dealeth in proud wrath."

It is

it

possible

dealeth in proud wrath " refers to such an im-

by reason

of the quality of

impudence, provokes

the displeasure and annoyance of others, and so forth.

When

becomes part of man's nature, whosoever is familiar with him must turn him away from it by rebuking him as much as he is able, and by annoying him, until he be rid of all that was in him. Thus it is said (id. xxi. 29), "A wicked man hardeneth his face." Yet impudence (boldness) this

disposition

66


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL may be commendable when

supporting religion, when performing " service " and speaking the truth. But to oppose thereby

the righteous and the Prophets of it

said (Ez.

is

If the

ii.

man who

constitution,

evidence of

"

God

reprehensible.

is

Impudent children and

Thus

stiff-hearted."

practises this quality be of a yellow (bilious)

and

its

4),

if

in the course of his

possession, he

youth he give strong

must oppose

to

it its

very reverse.

Let him trust in God, and he will accustom himself to avoid this

blameworthy quality and subdue

(end of part

67

it.

1.)


PART

II.

CHAPTER On the Quality It

almost impossible for any

is

O

" accident,"

I.

of Love.

man

be secure from this

to

is master over his (be found to) exist, he is any nature. Lust is a conundoubtedly one of the most excellent (men). stituent element in the nature of man, and if he desire to be master and ruler, let him cast away lust (passion), make no use .of it whatever, ignore it and do without it, for it is one of the

God, save he whose intellect

None such

baser qualities.

exists

;

It is well

and

if

known

that the qualities of the wise

are not perfected until their souls gain the mastery over their

The deeds

desires.

of

him whose

intellect prevails over his lust-

Upon

fulness are commendable.

the realization of desires,

One

there ensues the penalty of misfortune.

him,

who

restless,

overcome by his

is

and

lust, is that

he

Especially

fickle of speech.

if,

of the signs of

very changeable,

is

added to

the

this,

bloody temper prevail in his constitution and he be in the period of youth and the season of spring, then

lest

man must

Therefore the wise

him.

he make use of

connected with

it

it

proves too strong for

it

shrink from this quality

and turn away from

no inconsiderable harm.

contempt, obscurity, and abasement come upon that finally

story of

its

outcome

Amnon

after his desire.

service of

"And

is

evil.

it,

for there

is

Thou knowest how its

devotee, and

This thou knowest from the

and what happened to him when he hastened Man ought to employ this quality only in the

God and His

divine Law, as

it

is

written (Ps.

his delight is in the law of the Lord,"

68

and again

i.

2),

{id.,


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON cxix.

97),

"How

I

IBN GABIROL

love thy law," etc.

who

Necessarily, one

occupies himself with the quest of knowledge and moral science (theoretical science

and the practical

thee and no one occur to thee reference thereto, avoid for passion is an is

gains the victory."

it

And

routed, and he

is

This quality

aught befall

migbtest consult with

not near to thy passion,

of the heart."

submissive to his lust

said, " If

whom thou

and bring

it

enemy

be (so busy as to

arts), will

The wise one

be) kept from his lusts.

he

who

said, "

rebels against

ing of

it

men

preferred by foolish

is

only because of the imminence (immediateness) of

and for the sake

He who

delight

its

amusement and merriment and the hearmirthful songs which they get through it. They heed not of the

the suffering and the wretchedness that follow in

and

its train,

therefore incline in accord with their natural impulses to the

attainment of present pleasure, as

"The

desire accomplished

is

it

said (Prov.

is

sweet to the soul

"

xiii.

19),

—turning aside

from wisdom and the service of the Lord, because of what appears to be the remoteness of the delight and pleasurableness of these things.

Verily, in their opinion, these are remote.

Yet these are not remote, but near only in their mind.

Therefore

love to God, exalted

may He

"

Thou

written

(I

Sam.

xx. 17), "

" ;

is

it

"

;

are remote

devote this quality of written (Deut.

and

it is

to his offspring, as ;

it

is

own

"And

written

to his country, as

1),

it is

his

written (Gen. xxix. 18),

xxxvii. 3), " Israel loved Joseph "

xi.

to his soul, as

For he loved him as he loved

soul"; to his relatives, as

Jacob loved Rachel

be, as

Lord thy God

shalt love the

They

at hand.

man must

it is

{id.,

writ-

But I will depart to my own land and to my kindred"; to his companion, as spake David to Jonathan (II Sam. i. 26), " Very pleasant hast thou been unto me " to his ten

(Num.

x. 30), "

;

wife (Prov.

ant roe"-;

man

v.

to

" Let her 19),

wisdom, as

that loveth

wisdom

application of this quality ings) with all men.

endeared to

men

It

be as the loving hind and the pleas-

it

is

written (Prov.

xxix.

rejoiceth his father." is,

man must

has been said, "

evince

it

He who

3),

"The

The moral (in his deal-

desires to be

should conduct himself with regard to them in 69


:

:

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL Benefit occasions love even as in-

the best possible manner.

Moreover, included under this quality are

jury begets hatred."

wishes and unattainable desires.

It is right for

The

following

is

the

man

of un-

keep aloof) therefrom. part of what the poets have said concerning

derstanding that he train himself

(to

such wishes as cannot be realized, and wherefrom the soul

naught except possibly weariness of

izes

spirit,

real-

continual dis-

quietude, and protracted restlessness "

My

day

is

a day which

spent

my

brought

common

is

and then day in entertainment and

ness of the night

me

Among

is fallen,

men

to

my

until the dark-

couch wearies me.

I

in desire but the night

altogether to grief."

other things which have been said with reference to

devoting one's self wholly to pleasure and passion, the blameworthy outcome of

this,

and the trouble which

is

associated there-

with, the poet says " have drunk of the dregs of the wine as if

We

kings of the two Iraks and the sea; brightly, thou mightest

and poverty once more

When

this

have found

my

evil."

20), "

The maxim

Woe

man

is

He

of the sage

subduing the

what thou lovest est.

And

my

riches flown,

not conscious because of his is

as those of

unto them that

ders thee blind and deaf."

the subject of

with

quality obtains the mastery of the soul, the

being given over to pleasure. v.

me

we were when the sun shone

own."

senses become blunted and

said (Isa.

but

is,

One

whom

it is

good and good love of anything ren-

call evil

"Thy

sage, writing to another on

"Thou shalt not attain much from what thou loath-

lusts, said,

until thou suffer

thou shalt not be delivered from that which thou

loathest, until thou suffer

much through

70

that which thou lovest."


CHAPTER

II.

(Treating of) Hate.

Thou

shouldst

know

who

that he

hates

men

is

them, and when this quality takes firm hold of the stroys

it,

because

drink with which

hated by

soul,

de-

it

leads to the hatred of the very food and

it

man

sustains

on other than divine things,

Besides, he suffers injury

life.

When

through the hostility of men.

excessive love

is

expended

changed into the most violent

it is

As thou knowest from the expression (II Sam. xiii. " Then Amnon hated her exceedingly." He who loves thee

hatred. 15),

for

some reason

will turn his back, simultaneously

with

its dis-

Thou must not trust in the counsel of " Hater. " Thus it is written (Prov. xxvii. 6), the enemy, the "The kisses' of an enemy are deceitful." From this quality Thou knowest how the prevathere branches out fretfulness.

appearance and ending.

been censured, the blameworthiness

lence of fretfulness has

which attaches therefor. state

;

to its use

feels

has been said that the fretful cannot abide by one

It

he has not a friend

turbed,

and misery never

one of

whom

man

and the repugnance the soul

is

it

;

his circumstances are always dis-

parts

said (Prov.

He

company with him. xii.

27),

"The

is

like

slothful (listless)

roasteth not that which he took in hunting."

Thou know-

est that many men make a show of friendship in their speech and yet frequently are enemies at heart. Do not trust them, as it

is

written

his lips."

(id.,

xxvi. 24), "

do not associate with him, as speaketh

He

that hateth, dissembleth with

Even though he be gentle fair,

believe

him

it

is

not."

of kind-heartedness and affection killing them.

in discourse with thee,

written

(id., 25),

"When

he

Thus Joab also made a show for Abner and Amasa before

So also did Ismael favor Guedaliah ben Achi-


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON kam

It is said, "

ere he killed him.

He who

reap regret."

is

IBN GABIROL

He who

of this character

his fellow-man in matters concerning himself

much

sows hatred

is

and another.

the more will he be so in those affecting

He

Lord.

acts as

" Nevertheless 36),

mouth and they did

The

forth.

"

them

So

him and

his

though he were praying, but his secret

thoughts are quite different. lxxviii.

will

ill-disposed to

lie

Thus

it

they did

is

written of them (Ps.

flatter

him with

their

unto him with their tongues," and so

divine Socrates spake unto his disciples, bidding

Beware

of

whomsoever your heart hate, for the hearts of Thus the sage said (Prov. xxvii. 19),

men are " As in

water, face answereth to face, so the heart of

man."

Souls are alike, and the most harmful and persistent

like a mirror."

form of hatred "

Thou

is

man

to

by envy. The poet saith, manner of enmity except the enmity

that caused

canst cure

all

which comes to thee through envy." In the book of al-Kuti

(it

is

said), "

The very

thou canst look forward to in regard to thy enemies bring them back to the love of thee,

72

if

best that

is that

that be possible."

thou


CHAPTER

III.

Treating of the Quality of Mercy and Compassion (Pity), the Praise of its Possessors, and an Exhortation to Give Preference Thereto. This Forms the Seventh Chapter of the Book. Since tor,

this quality

may He be

is

of a kind with the nature of the Crea-

greatly praised and mightily exalted,

it is

com-

plementary to the twelve attributes especially characteristic of

Him,

i.e.

,

the thirteen qualities which are ascribed to the Lord

of Worlds,

"

viz.,

God," and so

The Lord

eternal

That which

forth.

a merciful and gracious

is

it is

possible for the wise

man

aim at in action is, being slow to anger, "long-suffering," and largely generous, as it is said, "abundant in loving-kindto

nesses," tolerant of sin, as

and so

forth.

as far as he

is

The

it

is said,

it

"Forgiving iniquity,"

man must emulate these man desires that he be dealt

upright and wise

able to do.

Even

as

with mercifully, when compelled to seek help, so must he be merciful to whosoever seeks his help. praiseworthy, and God, exalted

This quality

may He

is

extremely

be, has distinguished

His righteous servants through their love therefor. As thou knowest of Joseph, where it is said (Gen. xliii. 30), "His bowThe intelligent man has the els did yearn upon his brother. " implanted in his soul and ever compassion pity and qualities of " The sage said, Mercy is the result of kindpresent therein. In regard to it, Solomon the Wise spake liness and honesty. "

when he exhorted

to

mercy and compassion (Prov. xxiv. 11), them that are born unto death."

" If thou forbear to deliver

A

beautiful feature of this quality in connection with the Crea-

tor, exalted

and hallowed may

dealing with

all

His

He

creatures. 73

be, is that

Thus

it

is

He

is

merciful in

said (Ps. cxlv. 9),


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON "The Lord His works."

is

good

to

all,

IBN GABIROL

and His tender mercies are over

In the book of Al-Kuti,

all

"Spare no effort to deliver those who are confronted with death." Again he said, " Do not wrong the weak, for their Protector is God, the mighty One. " He said, " Prosperous are they whose heart is ever merciful and meek," and again we find therein, " He who is not merciful will die by the hand of one who is merciless."

74

it

is

said,


CHAPTER

IV.

Treating of Hard-heartedness. This Chapter of the Book. I

But

do not

whom

among

the Eighth

righteous or superior men.

be found) in him whose nature resembles that of for he is one who is never sated. These are the ones of

it is

a lion,

find this quality

is

(to

it is

said (Deut. xxviii. 50),

Upon my

nance."

whether

soul,

this

is

"A

nation of fierce counte-

a wholly detestable quality,

measure be) great or small.

comes into being This quality is exercised for the purpose of wreaking vengeance upon enemies. There is no harm in making use of it in this manner, although the intelligent man ought not endeavor to be avenged upon his enemies. For this is not befitting. Thus saith the sage (Prov. xxiv. 17), "Rejoice not when thy enemy fall-

when

eth."

(its

It

the spirit of wrath prevails over a man.

To make

fellow-man, to

use of

kill

it

in order that one

may do

evil to his

him, or to lay hold of the possessions of one

who has given no offence, is reprehensible. From such as may God preserve me, for of their ilk, the Saint said (Ps. cxxiv., 1 and 3), " If it had not been the Lord who was on our side, now may Israel say" "Then they had swallowed us up quick, when their wrath was kindled against us." A proof that these

:

this quality is only xii.

10),

"But

found in the wicked

is

the expression (Prov.

the tender mercies of the wicked are cruel."

Plato, the author of the laws in regard to vengeance, said, "

who

desires to be revenged

upon

his enemies should add (a de-

gree of) excellence to himself,"

END OF PART 75

He

II.


"

PART

III.

CHAPTER

I.

is

the Ninth

found to differ in various men.

Sometimes,

This Treating of Joy (Cheerfulness). Chapter of the Book. This quality it is

natural

hot as

is

that of blood

is

him whose temper is humidespecially when his hopes are well

this is the case in

;

;

ordered and never confounded, and who, in addition,

experiencing suffering

and free from

meet that in the nature

of

him who

appear the sign of this quality

is

affliction.

is far

It

from

is

but

of this character there

— that his

exterior be sound, his

health robust, and old age without haste in overtaking him.

Thus

it is

said of such an one (Prov. xvii. 22),

"A

merry heart

doeth good like a medicine, but a broken spirit dries the bones.

Sometimes

it

is

coincident with the attainment of the desire

and the realization of a wish.

Peculiar to

it

is

continual smil-

Very often lightmindedness acwritten (Eccl. vii. 6), " For as the

ing without (apparent) cause.

companies

it,

whereof

it

is

crackling of thorns under a pot, so It

is

the laughter of the fool."

has been said that one of the distinguishing marks of the

fool is his laughing

when

hold that this quality all,

who

there

is to

are free from

is

no occasion for laughter.

I

be found in the souls of those, above

defilement,

the righteous, the pious,

the pure, destined for the Heavenly Kingdom, rising to spirituality,

i.e.,

the souls of the upright, for they are in perfect

enjoyment of their condition of service and greatly rejoiced because of their worship, as in the

Lord and

rejoice,

it is

written (Ps. xxxii. 11)," Be glad

ye righteous; and shout for joy, 76

all

ye


:

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL The

that are upright in heart."

dulge in laughter

when

well-bred

man ought

seated in an assembly, for

it

not to

i\

was said that

him who laughs much, but little respect is felt. Facetiousness takes away the veil of dignity. Even as anxiety (appre-

for

when

hensiveness) ness,

when

intelligent

it

is

it is

aroused gives rise to weeping, so glad-

stirred, incites

man ought

to

to

laughter.

Therefore the

understand that this quality and some

other qualities are not of the rational soul, as Galen holds, but of the animal soul.

The

proof of this

that thou seest laugh-

is

ter break out in spite of dreadful events.

unable to refrain therefrom.

wrath and other qualities.

The same

Considering

is

this,

Often, too,

man

is

held with regard to

man

should urgent-

ly seek to render his animal soul submissive to his rational soul

When he does this, he becomes included among the most excellent men. Wherenamely, that his intellect guide his nature. fore Socrates says in

causes sorrow." states is

:

" Joy

distress

regard to joy, "Whatever

causes joy

In the ethics of Diogenes, treating of joy, he

and exaltation and destruction." is life

77

to the heart,

whereas grief


CHAPTER

II.

Treating of Grief (Apprehensiveness). This Tenth Chapter of the Book.

in establishing itself in the

This quality usually succeeds

when wishes

soul

fail of

and then the soul

realization,

when

brought to such a point as almost to be killed objects of a matter

when

it

Oh, what a quality

love.

its

when

comes

it

prevails

living death."

I

is this

into evidence, and

Thus

!

it

was

said, "

How

!

the sadness of man, so that he

because

As

becomes more

soul, so also it

God we pray that He The constitution

xii.

it

attains

afflicted

25),

"

may

it

ills

other

is

His

Of

graciousness.

cold and dry, like

can absolutely escape

in the heart of

good word maketh

relieve

it.

In

proportions, so that they thereby be-

Thus

with psychical ailments.

Gloom

His

the remedy.

difficult to find

No man

a

this takes firmer hold of the

of apprehensiveness

immense

is

healing in our discourse,

protect us therefrom in

the black gall (humor).

place

in the

little

impossible to find healing for psychical

it is

than in spiritual remedies.

some come

may find

serious

is its

will grant us

grace and inspire us with excellent words, which

is

loses the

Apprehensiveness

God

Perhaps

it

how waste

have determined to linger here a

discussion of this chapter.

the

is

glad."

Know

is

it

man maketh

it

said (Prov. stoop, but a

thou that this quality

is

generally visible in the countenance, as thou hast seen in the

who discerned what was Pharaoh," when he beheld

their austere counte-

"And

he looked upon them,

case of Joseph, servants of

nances;

it

being said (Gen.

xl. 6),

in the heart of " the

and behold they were sad," and as Artaxerxes said to Nehe-

miah (Neh.

ii.

not sick."

Thus

2),

"

Why

it is

is

thy countenance sad, seeing thou art

obvious that this quality 78

is

generally dis-


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON tinctly visible in the countenance. if

a

man be madly

de gencrationc

IBX GABIROL

Thou shouldst know

in love with this world,'

et corruptionc,

which

is

that

a world

he never omits to seek the

grati-

moving on from one thing to another. If he attain them and then lose them, gloom overcomes him. On the other hand, if he be made to forget this world, and apply himself to the world of intellect, then it becomes possible for him to escape the psychical ills, which are (occasioned by) worldly acquisitions, that is, if he turn away from vain works and incline in the fulness of the soul to ethical science and religious laws. Therefore the intellectual man ought to cast away the lowly quality of the masses and the grandiose manner of kings. If it be impossible for a man to have what he desires, he must desire what he has. Let him not prefer fication of the senses, constantly

continual gloom.

We

evil (disease), in the

ought to strive to cure our souls of this

same way

as

we must

suffer hardships in

trying to cure our bodies and to rid them of diseases by means of

burning and cutting

we

(fire

and

iron),

and so

Rather must

forth.

gradually accustom ourselves to improve our souls through

strength of purpose, and to endure a

little

difficulty in

order

we may pursue a praiseworthy course. if we represent to ourselves that no us, it is as though we desired not to exist

that, as a result of this,

We

know, moreover, that

misfortune will befall at

Because misfortunes are a necessary condition of the If this were not, there could be no

all.

passing of worldly things.

Ergo, to wish that no accident should come to pass

becoming. is like

wishing not to

But existence

exist.

and annihilation likewise

is

desire that this be not (a part) of nature,

who

ble; he

is (a

part) of nature,

(a part) of nature.

we

Then

if

we

desire the impossi-

desires the impossible will have his wish denied,

and he whose wish is denied is miserable. We ought to be ashamed to give the preference to this quality, grief, and we Let him who should yearn to rise unto a state of beatitude. would not mourn represent to his soul the things that lead to mourning, as though they already were thus, for example, let ;

1

Cf.

Bahya,

x. 7 (P- 45i)> i*- 7 (P- -4-5)

79

;

Briill (p. 77,

note

2).


:

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON "A certain possession

man

say,

will

mourn

for it," accounting

sidering) as already lost that

mine

of it

IBN GABIROL will be destroyed

and

I

as already destroyed, or (con-,

which he

loves.

Concerning

this,

the poet-philosopher said

The man

"

of prudence

grows up, representing to himself

if they befall him sudmishaps before they befall him denly, they will not terrify him because of the things already

his

;

pictured in his soul.

He

sees that one thing will lead to an-

and therefore he knows the end from the beginning." But not the least trace of apprehensiveness is to be found in Socrates those who are of lofty souls and noble aspirations. was asked, " Why do we never perceive in thee any sign of apAnd he answered, "Because I have never prehensiveness ? " anything over the loss of which I would grieve." possessed other,

Wherefore

let the intelligent

man consider

in this world of all that grows, save

it

that there is nothing

be insignificant at the

and afterward develops, except grief, which is greatest it comes into being, and the longer it continues the The firm and reless it becomes, until it entirely disappears. braces himself up with all his might in the solute man is he who Alexander, in order to console his mother hour of his affliction. outset,

on the day

about himself (in the event of his death), wrote to her as lows

:

when

"

My

fol-

mother, order a great and fortified city to be built

the news of Alexander's death reaches

you.

therein for eating and drinking, and gather together in

appointed day,

men from

all

the lands to eat and drink.

that has been done and all the

men

Prepare it,

on an

When

are ready to eat and drink

what the queen has prepared, let it be proclaimed at that mothat no man should enter her abode whom misfortune has befallen." And thus she did upon the death of Alexander. But when she ordered that no one whom misfortune had befal-

ment

len should enter her house, she noticed (that) no one (came).

Then she

felt

sure that he had only wished to comfort her about

himself.

Alexander had heard from Aristotle, his master, that "Grief He wished to ascertain the 80

injures the heart and destroys it."


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON

IBN GABIROL

He therefore decided upon an animal, the nature which was nearest to that of man, confined it in a dark place, and allotted to it nourishment only sufficient to sustain its body. Afterward he led it forth and slaughtered it whereupon he found its heart dissolved and melted away. Then he knew that truth of this. of

:

Aristotle had

spoken

nothing but

the

words spoken by Galen on grief (we

Among

truth.

find),

the

" Apprehensive-

consuming of the heart, and sadness is a sickness of the heart." Afterward he explained this, saying, "Sadness is felt for what is past, and apprehensiveness for what may occur.'' In another place again (he said), " Sadness (is occasioned) by what has occurred, and apprehensiveness is (felt) for what may come to pass. Therefore beware of sadness, for sadness is the end of life." Dost thou not see that when the face of man is ness

is

a

One of the overclouded (with sadness), he will perish of grief. sages said, " Drinking poison is easier (to endure) than apprehensiveness."

Now,

if

one should ask what benefit

is

derived

from choosing this quality at the occurrence of misfortune

and its appearance, I would answer that in shedding the tears which have become spoiled and stagnant, and which nature is incapable of returning to their place,

we pour

out the putrid

humors, which have become rotten, the chyme, and we remedy it through purifying drugs, and thus we cleanse the humor in such a manner as to cause

Thus

it is

excess,

known

to return to its

it

is

original

some small children there

which cannot be passed

This, then, said, "

that in

off

ills

state.

a spoiled

save through weeping.

the natural use of weeping.

Sorrows are a species of

is

Wherefore Socrates

of the heart, as diseases are

Among the words of Ptolemy on this (subof the body." ject are), " Let him who wishes to live long, prepare to meet ills

misfortunes with a patient heart."

81


CHAPTER

III.

This

Treating of Tranquillity.

the Eleventh

is

Chapter of the Book.

in

This quality is commendable when a man directs it in faith the Lord, and places his reliance and his confidence in Him.

Thus

it

is

said (Prov. xxii. 19),

This

Lord."

"That thy

trust

a praiseworthy disposition

is

:

may be

its

in the

possessor

is

worthy of very good fortune and abundant mercy from God, as it

is

written (Ps. xxxii.

mercy

shall

10),

"He

that trusteth in the Lord,

He who

compass him about."

serves to be blest, as

it

is

said (Jer. xvii.

is in this state de-

7),

" Blessed is the

man

that trusteth in the Lord and whose hope the Lord is." This quality is usually found in the upright, those who fear God and who are referred to in the command, which declares (Ps. cxv. 11),

"Ye

that fear the Lord, trust in the Lord."

excellence of this quality and

its

He,

He

(is

seen in the fact that)

his sleep, as

it

servant," and as

is

merit before God, exalted be

promised

said (Isa. xliv.

it is

The

2),

"

it

Fear

to Jacob during not,

O

Jacob,

my

said of the righteous

man who

trusts in

Him

"

He

shall not

the Lord and

who

be afraid of

evil tidings

confides in :

(Ps. cxii. 7),

his heart is fixed, trusting in the

Lord."

8r


CHAPTER

IV.

Treating of Penitence (Remorse) and Guarding Against (the Need of) It. This is the Twelfth Chapter of the Book. This quality comes into being, when a man quits a sinful and repents. When he gives evidence of the quality of penitence, then his repentance is complete. It must be preceded by three conditions, namely, penitence, seeking pardon, and guaranteeing to abandon one's wonted course. Thus our master Saadya Alfayumi, may God be gracious unto him, explained that one of the righteous was wont to say, " He who repents of his past sins is as though he had not sinned." This trait is commendable from this point of view. But the reprehensible side of it comes to light in the case of him who says " Yes " to-day in some matter and after a time regrets what he has said and retracts, or who vows to fast or to give alms and state

All this

repents of his vow.

way, in

my

opinion,

is

a position which he

men have choose

is

blameworthy.

for man to beware may be compelled

The

reasonable

of placing himself in to regret.

Although

not the power so to control themselves, that they can

(all)

their qualities, nevertheless they can desire to rise

gradually from a base to a lofty course, and from faulty qualities to

sound ones.

The acme

dle his soul, to rule

it,

of bliss for

to lead

it

man

is to

be able to

along the right way.

bri-

He

whose nature yields to his intellect becomes lordly; his merit becomes high and profitable, and his deeds are praised.

end of the third part.

33


PART

IV.

CHAPTER Treating of Wrath.

This

This is the Thirteenth Chapter of the Book.

quality, although

we have

set

down

among

the forces of the animal soul,

as one of the qualities of man, because of

Let us begin by describing

its

analogy to his other qualities.

its

useful side, although the latter

There

ful aspect.

I.

is

inseparable from

times serves a use, even as no quality that

it

when

commendable

trait,

but

Thus thou knowest it

becomes detestable

Wrath

resorted to while listening to absurdities.

reprehensible quality, but

when employed

prove, or because of indignation at

it at

so praiseworthy, but

is

frequently becomes detrimental.

that silence is a

bane-

its

no quality so reprehensible, but that

is

is

a

to correct or to re-

the performance of trans-

becomes laudable. Therefore the thoroughly wise and ethically trained man must abandon both extremes and set about the right mean. Galen said in his book on the qualities of the soul, "Wrath and anger are two words with one meaning.'' "Sometimes it appears, (to judge) from the countenance of the gressions,

it

1

wrathful, that he

heart 1

is

distressed, his

throbbing violently,

body feverishly inflamed, his

pulse beating

his

strongly

and

Rosin thinks that Maimonides followed Gabirol in his emphasis upon the

Aristotelian " middle

way "

(p. 12,

note

1

;

p. 14,

note 3

;

p. 26,

note

1

;

pp. 27,

Rosin ("J. Q. R.," iii., pp. 16S, 169), Wolff (chap, iv., pp. 15-17), Dukes (pp. 99-101, notes 2, 3 and 4, and " Phil. ," pp 66, Schmiedl (p. 268 note 1) says very truly that the Aristotelian 67. and notes). doctrine of "the golden mean," " via media," became in time " ein wahrhaft, 28,

note 2; pp. 79-82).

jlidischethisch&r Lehrsatz.

Cf. also

"

?4


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL He

becomes apparent in him But he who indulges therein unadvisedly gives evidence of stupidity." Wherefore the saying, " He who is mighty in wrath and violent in anger is not far removed from the mad." In the book of AlKuti (it is said) that the man of wrath is never seen to be joyful. We would classify the wrathful soul as of four kinds.' swiftly."

who

said again, " Dignity

indulges in wrath only after reflection.

He who

is

quickly angered and

even-balanced disposition.

man

(as)

This

is

quickly appeased

quickly angered

is

appease

difficult to

balanced disposition.

But he who

is

is

is

likewise of an even-

appease and

difficult to

in a reprehensible condition because he has

But he who

overstepped the boundaries of moderation. to

He who

possessed of a yellow (bilious) temperament.

slow to anger and

of an

is

mainly characteristic of a

anger and quickly appeased

most praiseworthy.

is

slow

is

This

is

one of the virtues of the noble and excellent men, among

whose qualities wrath rarely ever appears. Those who subdue their souls' anger and prevail upon their nature to restrain it, have been described as noble and characterized as exalted.

Thus the sage

said (Prov. xvi. 32), "

This

better than the mighty."

is

He

that

is

slow to anger

is

one of the thirteen attributes

ascribed to God, exalted is He, in the passage (Ex. xxxiv. 6), " And the Lord passed by before him," etc. It is said that as

scab

is

a disease of the body, so

is

wrath a disease of the

The moral man must not become wrathful reason of his wrath, he the

saith

sage

is

(Prov.

bear punishment."

shall

(Eccl.

"Be

vii. 9),

compelled to bear burdens.

xix.

19),

soul.

often, because,

"A man

of

great

The sage has forbidden

by

Thus wrath

it,

saying

not hasty in thy spirit to be angry."

Fur-

thermore the verse makes clear the reason for his forbidding it in the expression (ib.), "For anger resteth in the bosom of fools."

The

wrathful deserves to be called "fool."

possible in most cases for the

man

from grave sin and serious transgression. 1

Aristotelian

don, 1879,

p.

223

j

cf.

35

is

im-

Thus the sage spake

" Moral Philosophy of Aristotle," by

et seq.).

It

of violent wrath to be secure

W. M. Hatch

(Lon-


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON (Prov. xxix. 22):

Thou

IBN GABIROL

"A wrathful man aboundeth

wilt notice that

violently angry, take

in transgression."

most men, when they become wroth and no heed of the disaster which they may

incur through the violence of their anger, like is

said

hand

(id.,

(ib.),

1 1),

"

"

A fool uttereth

him

of

whom

it

his mind," and on the other

all

But a wise man keepeth

it till

afterward."

There-

upon them, sought to interdict the immoderate exercise of this quality, saying, " He who rends his garments in wrath is like unto an idolator. " Acording to this, fore our masters, peace be

a superior

man must

not be violent in wrath, for he accustoms

Nor

himself to the qualities of the wild and wicked beast.

must he be so gentle as never characteristic of little boys.

ence to this

know Thus

that

When

yield, the 1

become

The

his

is

perfected

Thou must when it subdues his wrath. "The discretion of a man

Ptolemy,

anger."

the

sage, said

thou becomest wrathful, pardon, for 2

taking of vengeance

is

i.,

Versified by Steinschneider (p. 77,

note

'

p. 83); cf.

("Manna,"

3).

86

if

of

wrath,

thou dost not

a sign of weakness."

Attributed to Aristotle in an article on

and Brull

wrathful, for this were

discreet stand with refer-

to take the intermediate course.

man's reason

aus den Tttrkischen," Diez (vol. 2

to

Scripture says (Prov. xix. 11),

deferreth "

is

'

'

Ruhmliche Denkmale der Joiner Hatch (above cited, p. 223). chap,

i.,

p.

89); cf.

Bahya,

vi.

7,


;

CHAPTER

II.

Treating of the Quality of Good-Will (Suavity). This is the Fourteenth Chapter of the Book. This is one of the praiseworthy qualities, since it is rarely met with, except in the case of a noble-minded person, who accepts things just as they come to him and looks not for to be

The

better ones.

therefrom.

This

is

I.,

the righteous

also derived

as thou knowest, reader, an excellent qual-

which we have portrayed and extolled above

ity,

chapter of Part If

is,

contentment

quality of

in the

second

whilst treating of the quality of meekness.

man

be well disposed toward his fellow-men

and the latter similarly disposed toward him, it is certain that he will be acceptable unto God. Yea, more, even his enemies will make peace with him. Thus the sage saith (Prov. xvi. 7), " When a man's ways please the Lord, he maketh even his enemies to be at peace with him," as thou knowest from the goodwill Abimelech bore Abraham, peace be upon him, and the latter's making peace with him thus also in the speech of our sainted Rabbi to R. Hiyya, and so forth. Wherefore the excel1

;

lence of good-will ity

is

related to

life,

being a source of superior-

and a fount of good fortune according

15),

"In the

favor

is

light of the king's

to the saying (id.

countenance

as a cloud of the latter rain."

is

So also

life;

,

and

in that of

xvi.

his

man

thus Pharaoh bore good-will to Joseph, even bringing him unto

Thus Ahasuerus, too, bore good-will to Mordecai. Thou seest how such a man is treated and exalted; how much more he to whom God bears good-will, therefore the saying (Isa.xlviii. 17), " I am the Lord thy God which teacheth thee kingly power.

1

and

Cf. Diez (vol.

Brttll (p. 76,

i.,

note

p. 18,

No.

29); cf.

1).

87

Bahya,

v. 5,

and

vii.

10 (pp. 270, 271),


"

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL which leadeth thee by the way that thou shouldst go." sage said, " Whosoever is contented is rich whosoever is

to profit,

The

:

obedient

wont

is

joyous: whosoever

to say, "

He who

is

is

rebellious

not content of his

is sad. "

He was

own accord with

his condition will be (compelled to be) satisfied despite him-

From

self."

this quality there

branch out forbearance and

for-

giveness, which are of the attributes of the Creator, exalted

He

and

" If I

blest,

and of the wise and noble man.

The

is

poet spake,

fault, and if I were to would exact vengeance from him, where then would be the superiority? And if I were to cut myself from my brethren because of their sins, I would be alone, and have

were not to pardon a brother's

say that

I

none with

whom

It is related

:

to associate. "

A

king once became angry at a company of

men and commanded them, 'Verily we have

that they be slain.

sinned grievously.

liness manifest itself in forgiveness

them and slew them

not."

88

? '

Then spake one

of

Will not thy good-

Whereupon he forgave


CHAPTER Treating of Jealousy.

This

is

III.

the Fifteenth Chapter

of the Book.

This quality

is

Most them all,

an offshoot of wrath.

are not exempt from

it

:

but

it is

in

rational beings for

we

see

men

seeking to imitate the actions of their companions.

For instance,

when one (man)

some worldly

sees that his friend has acquired

or vegetable, or other possessions, he

mineral, animal,

gain,

likewise endeavors to acquire similar things, although he be able to dispense with

them

set his heart

or compensate himself with other

Let him not protract his endeavor, nor

things in their stead.

upon attaining such possessions.

This

is

the ex-

pression to which the sage, peace be upon him, gave utterance (Eccl.

iv.

4),

"Again

work, that for this a

I

man

considered is

all

and every right He whose blameworthy, for it

travail

envied of his neighbor."

overcome by this disposition is and a noble man is never found to be envious. poetry) have been filled with the censure of envy, Books (z. e., of and every man of intelligence knows how much has been said It is necessary to turn from it, for freas to its baseness. nature leads

is

him

to envy,

quently the affairs of the envious lead him to use violence. Thus it is said of such as these (Micah ii. 2), "And they covet

and take them by violence." Enviousness is a loathsome The wise man must keep himself as far from it as he trait. on the contrary, can, for he gains no advantage through it continued depression and fatigue of the spirit through desires fields

:

and the constant hatred of men, scantiness of repose, preoccupation of the mind, apprehensiveness and the punishment of God, for transgressing that which He forbade in His revealed Man must not be jealous of unrighteous men, beScripture. 89


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL cause he sees them devote themselves to pleasure and (the gratifying of) passions.

But

let

Thus the sage

of God.

him employ

heart be envious of the sinners." 1),

"Be thou

Zeal

is

"Let not thy Again he spake (Ps. xxxvii.

not envious against the workers of iniquity."

goodly only in the service of God, as thou knowest from

he was zealous for merited thereby, as

whom

(Num. xxv. 11)," While my sake," and the good reward which he

(the case of) Phinehas, of

I

his zeal in the service

said (Prov. xxiii. 17),

it is

said

said (id., 12), " Wherefore, say, behold

him my covenant

give unto

it is

Among

of peace."

the things

which have been said with reference to the jealous and envious (we

find),

"Thou

wilt observe the envious

man

effusive in his

when he meets thee, but hating thee in His name is friend, his intention unfriendly." Again it has been said, " It appears as though the envious were Furthermore it has been said, created in order to be angered." " Let it suffice for thee that the envious man is grieved at the time of thy joy." It is incumbent upon man to mount to such an exalted rank with the aid of his powers and gifts, that he be envied therefor. " Let him ponder over this, as saith the affection (for thee)

thy absence.

poet: " Lo,

I

was envied, but God increased men's enyiousness Let man rather not live at all than live for a

touching me.

single day unenvied.

Man

is

not envied save for his excellences,

which are forbearance, scholarship,

90

nobility,

and generosity."


:

CHAPTER

IV.

Treating of Wide-awakedness. This is the Sixteenth Chapter of the Book. I is

must

preface, in treating of this quality, of

derived.

I

would hold that

it is

what nature

it

of the yellow-gall species.

This quality appears usually when the soul is free from other blamable qualities and when it is not mingled with aught of grief, and most frequently it is (found) in pure and noble souls. It is a commendable quality, and man ought to make use of it in Was it not whatsoever work of art or science he be engrossed. said of him (Prov. xii. 27), "The substance of a wide-awake man is precious," which means that the most precious virtue of the lofty is wide-awakedness, both in the present and future In the world de generatione

life.

awake and faith, and in the attempt in his quest of

With

et corruptione,

knowledge as well

affairs

has been said (Prov. xxiv. versity thy strength

is

is

wide-

to attain to the world of intellect.

reference to the reverse of this quality,

purpose in worldly

he

as goodness of service

and in the attempt 10),

i.

e.,

weakness of

to save souls,

it

"If thou faint in the day of ad-

small"; and again

(id.

,

xii. 27),

"The

man roasteth not that which he took in hunting." However, we have mentioned the languid while treating of the He who is one of the estimable, and adminquality of hatred. Thus it with alacrity, will succeed in them. affairs isters his xii. 24), "The hand of the diligent shall bear is said (Prov. Concerning rule; but the slothful shall be under tribute." slothful

this the poet

spake

" If the souls will

become too greatly ambitious, the bodies

be wearied thereby."

This

is

a beautiful

The

maxim.

sage, peace be

upon him,

exhorted to wide-awakedness in matters religious and worldly 91


:

:

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL in saying (Prov. xix.

15),

This saying

sleep."

is

" Slothfulness casteth into

a deep

very evident, for slothfulness necessa-

For when the vapors, which are designed to exude from the pores of the body through forcible movements, are motionless and do not dissolve, they mount to rily induces lethargy.

In the book the brain, and bring about constant drowsiness. " He who satisfies his it is said of wide-awakedness,

of Al-Kuti

land in respect of cultivation, will be satisfied by

The

ethical aspect of this quality

He

in his lust."

for rashness

is

"

is,

it

with bread."

Man must not display

The excellent do not make use of it. employ wide-awakedness in matters relating

But one

of the wise.

ought to

The

and law.

it

be rash through this in his wrath, blameworthy since it is not one of the qualities shall not

surest reason for the success of a

to religion

man

is (to

be

wide-awakedness with which he conducts his affairs, and the greatest sign of misfortune is his slothfulness with regard to them. The poet has said

found

"

in) the

souls are wakeful, watchful, and sound

The pure and noble

of judgment, while the stupid

and heavy souls are drowsy, mean,

and low." But that intense wide-awakedness which leads to hastiness Let the intelligent man beware of using it, for it

is culpable. is

the very worst of evils.

1

He who

and the man of hastiness

tion,

ment.

"A

A

is

is

hasty, rushes to destruc-

not secure from disappoint-

verse reads

cautious

hastens unduly

is

man

will

bound

realize his desires.

But he who

to stumble."

Man must not make undue haste in his affairs, because no good result can be obtained by haste, but through deliberation ends are (more) easily attained. The beauty of the state of wide-awakedness

lies in its

being potential in the soul and not

appearing quickly in action. 1

Attributed to Plato

;

cf.

" Denkwurdigkeiten

paraphrased by Steinschneider (" Manna," chap.

END OF PART 92

iii.

IV.

" (above cited, vol. ,

p. go).

i.,

p. 82);


PART

V.

CHAPTER

I.

Treating of the Quality of Liberality (Generosity). This is the Seventeenth Chapter of the Book. This

when

employed with moderation' and does not lapse into prodigality, is commendable. Man must quality,

it

is

prefer this quality to

its antithesis,

liness, since the great

men who

are

i.e.,

the quality of niggard-

renowned by reason

excellences are not convinced that niggardliness

is

of their

a praise-

may God guide thee aright, in how many places the sage extols the man who is generous? In one place he says that liberality brings a man to many de-

worthy quality.

Dost thou not

see,

grees of eminence in this world and in the world to come.

Thus it is said (Prov. xviii. 16), "A man's gift maketh room " in this world, for him and bringeth him before great men because it brings him near to kings whose good-will he gains through gifts as thou knowest from the respect of Ben Hadad for Asa, and Tiglath for Ahaz, because presents were made to them and in the world to come he will attain the merited (share of its) bliss, which man realizes because of his serving Thus it is said the Lord with his substance in almsgiving. (Isa. liii. 12), "Therefore will I divide him a portion with the Since liberality was a virtue of our father Abraham, great." peace be upon him, he became known thereby and it was ascribed This quality is attributed to him in the Holy Scripto him.

;

ture in several places, and thus

is

to be understood the explana-

(Wolff, p. 16) likewise holds that liberality

Maimonides between prodigality and niggardliness. 1

93

is

the golden

mean


:

:

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON tion of (Ps. xlvii. 9), "

IBN GA.BIROL

The generous of the people are gathered God of Abraham." This is a because it secures honor for him who

together, even the people of the

commendable

quality

exercises

Thus

it.

said (Prov. xix. 6), "

it is

Many will entreat man is a friend to him man merits his fellow-men's

the favor of the generous, and every

Through

that giveth gifts."

when he

praise

this a

gives generously, and he

lauded therefor.

is

Thus spake a poet

When

"

thou goest to him, thou wilt find him of pleasant

demeanor as

if

thou wert about to give him what he will give

Had he naught

thee.

Wherefore,

let

but his

life to give,

he would give

this.

God be upon whomsoever would

the fear of

ask

him."

this of

But the unseemly side of

quality appears

this

wastes his substance needlessly and mismanages stance, he

ing his

who spends This

lust.

the wise.

A gift

is

it

in devotion to pleasures

squandering and

in the right place

is

is

when man

it;

as, for in-

and

in gratify-

not characteristic of

a treasure put aside.

It

perisheth not in the course of time, but abideth with the ages.

This

is

the opinion of Solomon, peace be upon him,

who

said

1), "Cast thy bread upon the waters; for thou shalt after many days." This verse evidently exhorts to gen-

(Eccl. xi. find

it

man

erosity, for if

"

Sow thou

shall

be generous and bountiful, he will reap the

Thus spake the poet

fruit thereof.

generosity in the field of gifts, and noble deeds

be harvested by thee early."

Wherefore man ought

to

know

that

if

he be

in a prosperous

condition, then his generosity will not impair his prosperity,

and

if

he be in a straitened condition, his adversity will not

continue on that account. that he

who employs

contrary, his (Prov. lack."

xxviii.

it

abundance 27)

:

"

It is peculiar to this

noble quality,

never feels the want of anything; on the

He

is

much

increased.

Thus

it

is

said

that giveth unto the poor shall not

Furthermore, David the Saint, peace be upon him,

says of generous and liberal

men

persed, he hath given to the poor

94

(Ps. cxii. 9), " :

He

hath

dis-

his righteousness endureth


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON What

forever."

magnified

is

your opinion with reference to the use of

is

this gracious virtue

?

It is like

lending unto God, exalted and

Thus the saying

He.

IBN GABIROL

(Prov. xix. 17),

hath pity upon the poor lendeth unto the Lord.

"He

Thus

that

was book on Ethics " Bestow kindness on those who In the case of are worthy and upon those who are unworthy. the worthy, thy kindness will be in the right place; and in the case of the unworthy, prove thou thy worth. " Again it was said in the

ities to give liberally to (it is

said)

:

"

Know

things with firmness. to deny,

when

denying

is

it

:

said with reference to liberality, " It

Kuti

"

to grant

him who

is

a part of the noble qual-

asks."

In the book of Al-

thou that resolution consists in doing

Consider well when to yield and when

and when

to promise.

For a

gift after

better than denying after (promising) a gift and favor.

Setting out to do after consideration after setting out.

Know

is

better than to abandon

that thou shouldst be

more prompt

to

do what thou hast not promised, than to promise what thou wilt Therefore beware of hastily promising what thou fearnot do. Adorn thy promise est thou mayest be unable to perform. with truth and thy deed with justice."

95


CHAPTER

II.

This is the Eighteenth Treating of Niggardliness. Chapter of the Book. 1

Know thou

that this

than

is

For thou seest that he who

this.

Among

a reprehensible quality.

is

host of reprehensible qualities there

the

none more abominable is

lavishly bountiful of

his substance, although blameworthy, is satisfied with the pleas-

ure he derives and men's goodly praise which gardliness

accompanied

is

by

evil

repute without even the

attainment of pleasure; and to be of evil repute the qualities desired by the excellent.

The

not one of

is

The noble-minded man

ought to shrink from this quality and not employ sion.

But nig-

his.

is

it

on any occa-

sages are at one in thinking that manliness does not

go well with prodigality, nor religion with an inordinate desire

He who

(for gain).

good repute and a

"The

vile

is

of this character

may

well despair of a

Thus it was said (Isa. xxxii. 5), be no more called liberal, nor the churl

fair record.

person shall

This "vile person"

said to be bountiful."

wilderness of Maon,

who

said (I

Sam. xxv. and give

is

like him, in the

11),

"Shall

I

then

take my bread and my water, it unto men whom I know not whence they be? " Thou knowest the severe punishment with which he met. But the good feature of this state .

.

is

man

that

does not squander his substance, be

small, but guards

overdo

this,

which

is

.

by means

it

however,

lest

'

it

great or

must not

he pass over to the quality of greed,

Thus the sage

not of the qualities of the noble.

spake in condemning niggardliness (Prov. withholdeth corn, the people shall curse him trary, "

He

of this quality.

26), "

xi.

" ;

He

Blessing shall be on the head of him that selleth

This chapter

is

(" Ehrensaulen," pp.

given, in a 12,

German

13).

96

that

and, on the con-

translation from the

it."

Hebrew, by Dukes


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON

IBN GABIROL

This verse outwardly' refers to "charity," but its hidden implication is knowledge. 2 The wise man ought not be niggardly in dealing out his knowledge, for

knowledge

imparting

as the brightness of the fire

it

(to others), as little

away when a

dies

is

light is kindled therefrom.

with regard to the employment of this quality

not lessened by

The is

best rule

to accustom

one's self to beneficence toward kinsmen, until one gradually

habituate one's self to benevolence toward strangers, and thus train one's self to choose generosity. 1

On

sammen

Bacher (p. angegeben ist,

this point,

legorischer) Sinn

(Sanhedrin,

53,

note

fallt

unten).

91 b,

allegorische Auffassung des Verses als

der Belehrung bei

Abraham

1)

says

"

:

Was

hier als verborgener (al-

mit der agadischen Deutung des Verses zu-

Ebenso

gilt

Warnung

selbstverstandlich

als

diese

vor engherziger Zuriickhaltung

b. Chija, {^SJ |VJn. ed.

Freimann,

p.

17

a.

.*' .

.

Gabirol's use of terms in this place suggests the formal distinction between the

"outward" and "inward" manifest and hidden meanings of Scripture, made by the Islamic sect of Batiniya; cf. Haarbriicker (Th. i. p. 256). 2 The same idea is expressed in the Midrash (Bemidbar rabbah, par. 15), in reference to the prophetic powers of Moses; cf. Wolff (" Muhammedanische Eschatologie, " Leipzig, 1872, p. 207, and note 412). ,

97


CHAPTER Treating of Valor.

The man who nature,

who

is

III.

This is the Nineteenth Chapter of the Book.

prevails over the

temperament of the blood-

large-hearted, full- veined, and long-armed, thou

wilt generally find to be a

man

of valor, especially

is

praiseworthy (in man),

when

it is

if,

com-

This quality

bined with that, he be master of the art of war.

manifested in his strength,

and in accordance with his determination to be saved from what might befall him. But when he departs from a moderate course

and unites valor with the quality of folly and it becomes the cause of a man's throwing himself into dangerous places then it is reprehensible. Of these two dispositions the sage saith (Prov. xxviii. 14), " Happy is the man that feareth always; but he that But as regards hardeneth his heart shall fall into mischief." the great

men who

are

mentioned as possessors of

this quality,

heavenly signs gave evidence of their possessing this power, thus Joshua, Gideon, Samson, Saul, David, Jonathan, Joab, and

Abner, and others like them, whose power gave evidence of the quality of valor, were praised therefor; and those ness, in contradistinction to the former,

quality of cowardice, were not in

commended

whose weak-

gave evidence of the for

regard to them in the following chapter.

it,

as

It is

I

will

show

necessary to

devote this quality to the service of God, as thou knowest from

Moses, peace be upon him, when he retaliated upon the people by saying to the children of Levi (Ex. xxxii. 27), "Put every man his sword by his side"; and as thou knowest from Phinehas in the matter of his zeal. Thus it is said (Num. xxv. 7), "And when Phinehas, the son of Aaron the priest, saw it, he rose up from among the congregation and took (the story of)

98


"

:

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON conspicuous

With

IBN GABIROL

This quality of valor never

a javelin in his hand."

in the souls of

"

:

fails to

be

mighty men and courageous heroes.

reference to valor and patience in facing danger, the poet

spake

There came a day in the heat of which some people warmed themselves, but though there was no fire, they acted as if in the fire's midst. But we had patience until the clay "

was done.

Likewise, a case of misfortune can be brought to a

close only through patience."

Among the things which have been said in order to encourage the use of valor is " Crave death, and life will be granted The Arabs were accustomed to call the man of valor thee." "safe." Among the things which have been said on the emboldening of the spirit in combat is the word of the poet :

" I

went to the rear

found that

I

to preserve

could not preserve

my

my

life

life

unless

(in battle), but I

I

went forward.

Thus the noble man must make use of this quality in such a way as not to overstep the middle path lest he be called demented (foolhardy). But he must pursue an excellent course The philosopher spake, " The exin regard to this quality. treme limit of valor

is

what thou abhorrest. "

strength and endurance with respect to

Valor cannot go hand-in-hand with

vanity (untruth), nor firmness with absurdity, nor patience with weariness, for these are of the qualities of asses and swine.

Valor consists in persevering in the right and overcoming thy desires, until thou feel that to die in the best way thou hast

more desirable than to live in the opposite (i.e., evil) way, which the power of understanding may have revealed to found thee.

is

According

to Al-Kuti, "

Valor

is

the nature of a noble

soul, corresponding to the strength of the body.

99


:

CHAPTER

IV.

Treating of Cowardice. This is the Twentieth Chapter of the Book. This quality is generally found downcast, poor and wretched.

Let the wise use of

it,

man be on

in spirits that are abject and

It

is

a reprehensible quality.

it, let him make no away and abstain from it, since

his guard against

exert himself to keep

he derives no benefit from it; on the contrary, he reaps illMen of lofty repute, a vile record, and a diminution of praise. purpose must dread

it

when they have

learned to employ their

power of distinguishing in the use of things, so that it may be Among the offshoots of the means of escaping serious danger. this quality is slothfulness, of which we have already treated. Thou knowest what was said with regard to its ignominy and baseness. Thus the sage, peace be upon him, said (Prov. xxvi. 15), "A slothful man hideth his hand in his bosom, and will This is the utternot so much as bring it to his mouth again." most that can be said of the shame thereof. The slothful coward is known to say " I will not travel, for fear of highwaymen and wild beasts. I will not engage in business, lest I meet I will not fast, lest I become ill. with losses. I will give no alms, lest I become poor," and similar words that put an end to all activity, until there remains nothing for him to do, but living on without moving from his place, as it is said (id., xxvi. " As the door turneth upon its hinges, so doth the slothful 14), upon his bed. " A wise man should not choose this quality of :

cowardice or make use thereof in preference to his other qualities, lest he become known thereby and be as one who fancies that he will be killed before the expiration of the appointed time, as was said exaggeratedly of the slothful coward by the poet,

who spake

thus


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON " If a little bird

coward

is

as iron,

consumed at

merely raises

its

voice, the heart of the

(leaps with terror).

But his teeth are sharp

meal times."

But in a case where escape for the quality of cowardice to

whereupon he ing than bless

said, 'It

all

impossible, into play

is

it

— as

permissible

in the case of

"

The king dispatched him to to go. The king reviled him, better that thou revile me when liv-

is

me when

quality has been

world to

is

come

whom it is said place. He refused

him, concerning a dangerous

IBN GABIROL

:

dead.' "

made use

It

has been said that this

by those who prefer repose

of

in this

other qualities, not knowing that repose can be

enjoyed to the

full,

only after zealous care in the regulating of

and the attainment of whatsoever be needed. Thus it is said (Prov. xxiv. 27), " Prepare thy work without, and make it fit for thyself in the field." Repose in and of itself signifies slothfulness and cowardice. Thou knowest what happens to a

affairs

man by

reason of his slothfulness

:

namely, he

Thus

his honor through utter poverty.

all

33-34): "Yet

a

little sleep,

the hands to sleep

:

it

a little slumber, a

so shall thy poverty

come

is

deprived of

said

is

little

as

(id.,

xxiv.

folding of

one that

trav-

and thy want as an armed man." Again this quality engenders in the body not a few ills and diseases, thus flab-

elleth,

biness, dulness, swelling,

gout, sciatica, and elephantiasis, and

similarly whatsoever results from

indigestion;

in

fact,

this

man and he considers everything and worthless; especially if this feeble coward

quality becomes habitual to a else as faulty

be of a phlegmatic disposition and on the it

way

to old age,

then

weighs him down even more.' 1

We

have here a reminiscence of Saadya's distinction between the results of and slothfulness. between the reposeful and the indolent, as found in

tranquillity

the "

Emunoth weDeoth,"

x.

END OF PART

IOI

V.


Thus' thou hast, may God have mercy upon thee, all that was promised in the introduction. Because of our love of conciseness, our aversion to prolixity, and our fear of departing from the purpose of. the book, we have much curtailed the disWe course in the individual chapters and in the various parts. have not united every one of these qualities to

its

nature and

we referred the senses to their natures, although we ought to make clear the situation of every quality in the body and give much of the science of the temperaments,

its

sense, nor have

anatomy and physiognomy. We think, however, that this must be deferred to some other time, when it may please God, exalted may He be, for He is the One from whom to seek help. Having finished as much as we could, and having said enough in the chapters of this book, we would hold it to be possible that there exist in man qualities other than those which have been classified, and still other natures. We say yes. We have been brief with regard to the others for two reasons First, we know that among the qualities of men are those of vexation and weariness. We feared that these might occupy as much space as the whole book, and therefore we did not go to the length of collecting many verses from the Hebrew and Arabic. Furthermore, because we knew that there is no quality which we have avoided mentioning, that is not implied among those which have been mentioned. It would bear the same relation to them that the branches do to the root. If any one should happen to say, "Thou must not exhort men to improve their qualities, nor arouse them concerning the betterment of their moral status,

:

unless this be characteristic of thine

wouldst be as he '

is

who recommends

This concluding paragraph

is

omitted in the

appended a Hebrew poem.

I02

own

self

—because thou

piety and forgets himself

Hebrew

translations, to

"

which


!

!

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON

—we

would

IBN GABIROL

reply, "

Every vessel gives forth whatever it conhe who seeks to measure this world and does not know the value of the parasang wherewith it is measured. We have not mentioned any excellence which we have not emulated; nor have we extolled any quality which we tains."

How

foolish is

have not tried to make part adorns himself with what

is

our

of

own

nature.

He who

not in him, will find his claims laid

bare after a time.

To Him

Him

do

take

refuge

I

that giveth understanding do

triumph

:

in

against

Him

do

I

I

owe thanks: with

greatly glory: with

such things

(as

Him

do

I

those aforementioned).

Him do I praise for he is worthy of praise; to Him it belongs and Him praise behooves. Thus spake His saint, peace be upon him (Ps. cix. 30, 31), " I will greatly praise the Lord with my mouth yes, I will praise Him among the multitude. For He shall stand at the right hand of the poor to save him from ;

those that

condemn

his soul."

Thus is ended what I sought to establish in the book on " The Improvement of the Qualities," with the help of God and He is my lot and my fortune, the Helper and Flis assistance. Praise be to God, the Lord of both worlds the Giver of aid. Blessed be the Merciful

who hath helped

103

us



:

APPENDIX

A.

PREFACE OF THE HEBREW TRANSLATOR OF

THE Letter Meshullam

To

Rabbi Jehuda ibn Tibbon

of of

my

the sweet comrade and

my

palate,

comb.

lift

my

to

Rabbi Asher ben

the brother-ever-near, whose

path, and

bundle of spices,

R. Asher,

wisdom, and

'

Lunel

words are as a light to to

"ETHICS."

may God

whose memory

my

honey, and

is

my

direct thy heart in the

sweet honey-

ways

of

thee up to the inheritance of the most high

For thou art so precious in my sight, that I have the doing of thy will. I have lightened for myself the burden of translation, touching (the difficulties of) which I was warned, because of the things which I have mentioned in the introduction to my translation of the chapter on " Unity,'' made by me for our Master, the holy Rabbi, thy father (may his light shine), from out the book " The Duties of For remember when thou and I were studying the Heart." excellences.

made my aim

that chapter in his presence,

told thee in the course of con-

I

"

of the Qualities of the Soul,"

Improvement by the wise philosopher, Solomon

bar Rabbi Jehuda (may his

memory be

versation of the existence of a small

(may

his

memory be

blessed),

work on the

blessed) bar Gabirol

which contains

all

the subjects

discussed in the nine chapters of that book, and adds some-

thing concerning these things. Appended to Hebrew translation 1

His words are spoken rightly

the manuscripts (Neubauer. 1402,

2,

Michael, 401) of the

"Ethics." Steinschneider published it for the first time (pp. 366, 367, of the " Katalog der Michael'schen Bibliothek," Hamburg, 1848); it was reprinted in the Lyck edition, 1S59; Q f- St. ("H. U.," p. 381) and H. Gross, Gallia Judaica (Paris, 1S97, p. 280). I0 5 of the


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL manner

in a wise

'

2 they lean

on the words of the

sages,

Scripture, and

on

parables

the

of

The

and the ethical sayings of the philosophers.

ment

of all the chapters

are

based

the ancients, arrange-

good, the author attains his ob-

is

ject in briefest' terms, his expressions are well chosen, and

the problems he raises are wholesome.

wisdom

like pearls this,

He

fills

them with

the

of the heart, with rare ethical sayings, with thoughts

and words like sapphires. it, and

thy soul did long to behold

and thou didst say that

if

that

When to

thou didst hear

examine

work should come

it

carefully,

into our hands

it would suffice for us, as if it were the whole work on the ''Duties of the Heart," and even take its place. It would spare us the trouble of over-much elaboration, and we should be the better able to remember his words according to For such things as are long the arrangement of his chapters. good order. I promised thee drawn out, no man can master in

with that chapter,

time to translate

at that

Behold,

chapter.

my

I

after the completion of the first

it

have translated

knowledge and power,

sion, its parables, its

it

for thee, to the best of

words and its poetical expresethical maxims, and its problems. But all

its

the place of the verses which are noted therein

is left

vacant

in

every chapter because of the word of our master, thy father,

Rabbi (may

his light shine),

who urged me

to

complete the task

before undertaking to give the verses in poetic paraphrase.

should find the words of the ancient poets like unto the

If I

words of the author of this book, and the words of the Prince

(Samuel ha-Nagid), or of those who conducted themselves as these did in matters similar to and relating to them, I will write

them in the book with the names of the respective Whatever I cannot find, I shall render to the best of

authors.

my own

judgment, as well as with the aid of the opinion of a friend. will put every verse in its place

Dukes

1

Cf.

2

The

(p.

Cf.

Rosin

Thou

in thy

Tig, note i).

way shows that Ibn Tibbon regarded the Scripmere mnemonics cf. Introduction, p. 13, note 4.

use of this term in this

tural citations of Gabirol as 3

on the page.

I

(p. 166,

note

;

1).

106


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON grace, take thou the trouble to correct

terms, and to elucidate

and

error "

Who

Thus

can understand

teach us to

come

sin.

ured in our hearts.

its errors, to

meaning, for no one

its

said

our master, David

his errors? "

profit, instruct

wise, so that

IBN GABIROL

us that

explain

xix.

(Ps.

(Is. xlviii.

17),

"lam

eth thee to profit"; and, as will instruct thee

Blessed

is

He

13),

As may He we may understand and beof us

and

treas-

conduct us in the good and right

way, and enlighten our eyes with the light of the law as written

its

from

free

for our God,

wisdom become remembered

May He

is

the Lord, it

is

and teach thee

Thy God, which way thou

that giveth strength to the weary.

107

teacb-

written (Ps. xxxii. 8), in the

it is

"I

shalt go."


APPENDIX

B.

A COMPARISON OF SOME PROVERBS AND MAXIMS IN THE -'ETHICS" WITH PARALLEL SAYINGS IN OTHER ARABIC, MAINLY JUDyEO-ARABIC, WORKS. The

attempt has not been made to find out

all

the sources

whence Gabirol derived his maxims and apothegms, seeing according to his

that,

own

statements, these are merely cited

as illustrative of his ethical teachings.

The

parallels

between

the "Ethics" and "Choice of Pearls" are pointed out with

may

some

care,

light

on the moot question of the authorship of the

because the comparison

tend to throw some latter.

Steinschneider ("H. U.," pp. 387, 388) after pointing out the similarity between the " Choice " and " Ethics " (with some slight variants), makes mention of the surprising circumstance that in the " Choice " no authors' names nor titles are cited,

whereas in a number of cases the titles in

"

Ethics " gives authors and

connection with quotations to be found in both works.

Even though Gabirol compiled the " Choice " for his personal use when young, it is difficult, as Steinschneider remarks, to see the reason for this omission.

A tury,

work by Honein, an Arabic florilegium of the ninth centranslated into Hebrew by Harizi under the title nDlD

d'SlDl^an,

man

was published

in a

Hebrew text together with a Gerwho has performed with much

translation by Lowenthal,

maxims of Honein with those and other mediaeval collections of apothegms

diligence the task of collating the of the Ethics

hence the frequent references to Lowenthal's German transla108


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON

IBN GABIROL

tion of Honein.

Lowenthal holds that Gabirol made use of the in the Arabic original, and points out the agreement of Gabirol with Honein (PP- 33> 34) whenever Gabirol cites maxims and gives the authors' names (with occasional exceptions), and also shows that many of the anonymously given proverbs in the Ethics are identical with

Honein ibn Ishak

collection of

those cited by Honein.

Steinschneider

("

H. U.,"

350, note

p.

658) thinks that Honein's work was known to the Spanish

Jews "

"

and

30.

(xlii.

" Choice,"

common

rived from a

Page

maxims

the eleventh century, but that the

of

Ethics

and also those

of

Honein,

in

may

the

be de-

(earlier) source.

— On the question of man's preference for ethical practice,

" Choice

cf.

''

429).

Page 44. — The

saying of the philosopher, " Habit

is

master over

things "

all

;

("Erm.," p. 5 and p. xiv., Anm. 36, and " H. U.," p. 353, note 6S7), Dukes (" Blumenlese." p. 96, no. 44; p. 156, no. 275 p. 244, no. 657), " Choice " (xliii., 480), Dukes (" Phil. ," p. 75 and note 2), who quotes the words of Publius Syrus, " Gravissiminn est imperium consuetudinis," attributed by Honein to Plato (i., chap. v.. no. 7. p. 55 and note 7, and cf.

Steinschneider

;

ii.,

chap,

67);

ii

Page 45. — On good

no.

,

1,

p. 101

Honein, pp.

cf.

directing

habits,"

cf. p.

"Blumenlese," 1,

men " between 45, note

compulsion

and "Choice"

1,

to Aristotle

(i.,

chap.

.\.,

no. 59, p.

the periods of childhood and youth unto

(p. 170,

no. 3,

p. 58,

and

to

obedience and freedom of

abiding by one's

will, cf. p. 48,

note 49 1 )-

fruit plucked from wisdom, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules").

Page 56. — On Page 57. — On note

and

Dukes (" Spruchkunde,"

1,

Page 51. — The p. 97S,

5),

p. 133, no. 171).

Page 48. — Respecting note

and note

10, 11).

own

etc.

opinion,

cf.

;

cf.

Steinschneider

Burckhardt

(''

H. U.,"

(p. 102, no. 259).

the need of domination for the adjustment of affairs,

cf. p. 57,

and " Pirke Aboth." iii. 2. On the danger of stumbling because of reliance upon one's own opin" Choice "(lv. 623).

Page 58. — ion, cf.

Page 58. — The ment,"

etc.;

saying of the divine Socrates, cf.

Steinschneider

("Erm.,

"From whom

p. 20,

n. 36)

doth disappoint-

and "Choice"

(lvi.

629).

Page 58.— " He who

sets himself

up," etc.;

cf.

Honein

(ii.,

chap,

i.,

no. 6,

p. 88).

Page 58. — The chap,

i.,

saying of Socrates with respect to aversion

no. 72, p. 97).

109

;

cf.

Honein

(ii.,


"

,

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL Page cf.

59.

Aristotle's comparison of beauty of

"Choice"

(xliv.

and note on

551,

form with beauty of character;

178),

p.

Honein

(ii.,

chap,

iii.,

no.

9,

and Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 882). Page 59. Aristotle's testament to Alexander; cf. Honein (ii. chap. iv. no. g, p. 115 and note 4), and Journal of American Oriental Society, vol. xv. "Arabic Proverbs and Proverbial Phrases," by J. R. Jewett, p. 73, no. 130. and note

p. log,

4).

,

,

Page 59.— The

saying of Ardeshir; cf. p. 59. note 2 this tale is cited (together with twelve other extracts from the " Ethics ") in the Hebrew, together with a German translation in " Proben Morgenlandischer Weisheit," by D. Otten:

soser, Furth, 1851, p. 26.

Page 60. — Honor,

the recompense of meekness;

"Choice"

cf.

(xliv.

and

514),

Fleischer (p. 67. no. 32).

Page 61. — " kunde,"

Lowliness consists,"

etc.

Dukes

cf.

;

(p. 67, no. 13,

and " Spruch-

p. 17, no. 47).

Page 61. — The fruit of contentment; Page 61. — "He who desires of this

cf. p.

6i,note3, and "Choice"(x. 170). cf. "Choice" (x. 161, and

world," etc.;

note on p. 148). Honein (ii., chap, vi., no. Steinschneider (" Erm.," p. 21, no. 81).

Page 61. — " He who

19,

cannot bear with one word,"

124 and note

p.

etc.; cf.

"Choice"

5),

and

(iii.

95,

and Dukes (" Blumenlese," p. 164, no. 305). Page 62. "A wise man lost among fools " cf. " Choice " (i. 66, 67, and note 488, p. 170), and Steinschneider (" Manna," p. 90, " Erm.," p. 20, no. 46, and "H. U.," p. 978, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules"). and note

79, p. 145),

;

Page 62. — The

saying of

and note

and Dukes

6)

,

Lokman

cf.

;

Honein

(ii.,

chap,

xii.,

no.

13, p. 141

(p. 78).

Page 63. — On the kinship of modesty and intelligence; cf. "Choice" (iii. 78). Page 63. — " The faults of him,'' etc. cf. "Choice" (xii. 177). Page 64. — Pudency when alone cf. " Choice'' (xxxi. 328, 332 and notes on p. ;

;

159),

Honein

(ii.,

chap,

v.,

126, chap, xix., no. 23, p.

no. g, p. 118 and note 3, chap, vii., no.

«56 and

note

3),

Dukes

(''

Blumenlese,"

5,

p.

p

105,

and " Spruchkunde," p. 25, no. 78), and Steinschneider ("Erm.," and " H. U.," p. 979, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules"). Page 64. The interdependence of pudency and faith; cf. " Choice " (xii. 178 and note on p. 150), and Dukes ( Blumenlese," p. 106, no. 86). Page 64. " Pudency marks the countenance of a nobleman" cf. "Choice" (xii, 176 and note on p. 150). Page 64. "If thou art not pudent," etc. cf. Fleischer (p. gi, no. 24), and no. 86,

p. 22, no. 139,

'

;

;

Burckhardt

188, no. 643).

(p.

Page 64. — " Upon him reposes," etc. Page 64. — The saying of Aristotle, Honein

(i.,

;

Fleischer (p. 69, no. 54).

cf.

"as a

chap. a., no. 15, p. 65 and note

result 7)

of modesty,"

where

it

is

said

etc.;

cf.

" Through

long-suffering one's helpers are increased.

Page 64.— Modesty p.

167 and note

Page 64. — The '"

Burckhardt

midst of wrath

enmity of the modest

(p.

Haarbrucker

in the

;

cf.

Honein

(ii.,

chap, xxi., no. 57,

9).

(ii.

man";

110, no. 415), Steinschneider p. 150): this

proverb

IIO

is

to be

cf.

Fleischer

("Erm.,"

(p. 79,

p. 22, no.

found in some form

no. 175), 117)

and

in almost


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON every Arabic collection,

Page 64. — On

"Choice"

cf.

and note

nos. 47, 48, p. 167

and Honein

(xx. 266)

chap, xxi.,

(ii.,

2).

away one's dignity;

trifling

IBN GABIROL

cf.

Honein

chap, xxi., no. 24,

(ii.

165 and note 14).

p.

Page 66. — On

consideration for the wise,

cf.

Honein

(i.,

chap, x., no. 62, o.

68).

Page 68. — "None

such

exists,''

etc.;

cf.

Honein

chap,

(ii.,

xi.,

no.

50, p.

13S).

Page 68. — " The penalty of misfortune" cf. " Choice " (xv. 190). Page 68. — " Fickle of speech " cf. " Choice" (xv. 192). Page 69. — "Passion is an enemy of the heart " cf. "Choice" (xv. ;

;

195), and Honein (ii., chap, xvi., no. 12, p. 151, and note 2). Page 69. " He who is submissive to his lust," etc.; cf. "Choice" (xv. 199) and Kurckhardt (p. 9S, no. 249). Page 70. On being blind to the object of one's love, cf. Honein (ii., chap. xxi., no. 59, p. 167), and Dukes (" Blumenlese,'' p. SS, no. 13). Page 70. "Thou shalt not attain what thou lovest, " etc. cf. Honein (ii., chap, xix., no. 29, p. 157, and note 3), and Steinschneider (" Erm.," p. 22, no. 140, attributed to Gregorius in the ^Ethiopic version of Honein cf. Cornill, " Buch der Weisen l'hilosophen," Leipzig, 1S75, p. 48, and in Ger;

— —

;

;

man

translation, p. 24.

Page 71. — "He who

loves thee for

some reason,"

etc.

;

cf.

Honein (i.,chap.

and note 5, and ibid., nos. iS, 19, p. 57 and note 5, and nos. 23, 24, p. 58 and note 2), being attributed in these five passages to Diogenes, Apollonius. Solon, Gregorius, and Pikorus, respectively cf. Dukes (p. 45, and "Phil.," 140), " Choia- " (xxv. 2S8), and Steinschneider ( "H. U,"

v., no. 5, p. 55

;

from Bonsenyor's " Paraules "). sows hatred," etc.;

p. 979,

Page 72. — " He who

cf.

"Choice"

(liii.

616,

and note on

p. 1S2).

Page

72.

chap,

— "Beware

i.,

of

whomsoever your heart hate," etc.; cf. Honein (ii., and Steinschneider ("Erm., "p. 21, no.

no. 31, p. 90 and note 7),

76).

Page 72. — The

most persistent form of hatred caused by envy

;

cf.

Dukes

(" Phil.," p. 135 and note 2) and Fleischer (p. S3, no. 224). Page 72. " Thou canst cure," etc. cf. " Choice" (xlviii. 594, and note on p.

;

]8i).

— The

upon one's enemies cf. " Choice" (liii. 617, and Honein (ii., chap. ii. no. 47, p. 107 and note 5). Dukes " Phil.," pp 132 and 134, note 17), Steinschneider (" H. (p. 71. note 21, and U.," cited as found in Bonsenyor's " Paraules"). and Briill (vol. ix., p. 46,

Page

75.

best revenge

;

note on p. 1S2),

,

8, in part 21, " Spriiche des Aristoteles " of a manuscript discussed under the caption, " Beitrage zur Jiidischen Sagen- und Spruchkunde im Mittelalter"); attributed to Plomer in Shahrastani (Haarbrucker, ii., p.

no.

144)

Page 76. — Description of joyous souls; cf. Honein (i., chap, vi., p. 59). Page 77. — "For him who laughs much," etc.; cf. "Choice" (xviii. 234 note on

p.

152,

xlii.

425, and note on p. 167),

Ill

Honein

(ii.,

chap,

xiii.,

and no.


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 17, p. 145

and note

10)

,

and Dukes (" Spruchkunde,''

and

p. 70, no. 23,

p.

61, no. 12).

Page

77.

vi.,

— Diogenes

79.

— " If

it

and grief;

effects of joy

and chap.

xii.

Honein

cf.

(ii.,

no. 32, p. 143) andSteinschneider("

,

from Bonsenyor's " Paraules

p. 979,

Page

on the

no. 19, p. 124,

be impossible for a

chap.

H.U."

").

man

to

have what he

desires,'' etc.; cf.

("Erm.,"p. 20, no. 37, and " H. U.," p. 979, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules"), Dukes (p, 88) and Marcus Aurelius (vii. 27). Page 80. "Socrates was asked," etc.; cf. "Choice" (vi. 118 and note on p. 147), Honein (ii., chap, i., no. 64, p. 95 and note 3) and Dukes (p. 64, Steinschneider

note

6).

Page 80. —" Grief

is

greatest on the day

it

comes into being"

cf.

;

Dukes

(" Spruchkunde," p. 64, No. 9) who cites parallels from "TUffi "|?Dn )3, in which, according to Guttmann (p. 48, note 2) there are many points of agree,

,

ment with the "Ethics'' and "Sayings of Aristotle.'' Attributed to Alexcf. p. 23). ander by Honein (iii. chap, i., p. 173 and note 1 Page 80. Alexander's attempt to console his mother cf. Honein (iii. chap, i., p. 173 and note 2, p. 174 and note l) and Dukes (pp. 46, 47). Page 80. "Alexander had heard from Aristotle"; told of Alexander in Honein (ii. chap, v., no. 2, p. 117 and note 1), and of Galen (ibid., chap, a., no. 2, p. 133 and note 1). Page 81. Galen on apprehensiveness and sadness; cf. Honein (ii.,chap. i. no. 11, p. 88 and note 5), and Steinschneider (" Erm.," p. 20, nos. 28 and 38, and " H. U. " p. 979, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules"). Page 81. On the difference between sadness and apprehensiveness; cf. Honein (ii., chap, viii., no. 2, p. 128 and note 5, and chap. ix. p. 131 and ,

;

;

,

,

,

,

note

2).

Page 81. — On hensiveness

the second version of the difference between sadness and appre-

Page 81. — On (ii.,

Honein

cf.

;

chap.

(ii.,

ix.

,

p.

132 and note

1).

cf.

Honein

12, p.

88 and

the benefits to be derived from apprehensiveness;

chap, xvii., Nos. 6 and

Page 81. — Socrates

7,

on sorrows;

pp. 151, 152 and notes).

Honein

cf.

(ii.,

note 6) and Dukes (" Blumenlese," p. 68, no.

Page 81. — Saying

of Ptolemy;

cf.

Honein

(ii.,

chap,

i.,

no.

3).

chap, xi., no. 26, p. 136 and

note 9); Steinschneider (" Erm.," p. 20, no. 40), and

Briill (vol. ix., p. 47,

no. 17, as above cited).

Page 83. — On

regretting what has been said and retracting cf. " Choice " (xxx. and note on p. 159, and xxv. 290). 84. On indignation being praiseworthy at the sight of wrong-doing cf. ;

327,

Page

;

Frankel-Griin

(p. 25,

note

I).

Page 84. — On

the right mean, or "middle way," cf. p. 84, note 1, and Honein (ii., chap, i., no. 10, p. 88and note 4). Page 84. Galen on anger and wrath cf. Honein (p. 19). Page 85. Al Kuti on the man of wrath cf. Honein (ii., chap, iii., no. 1, p.

;

;

108).

Page 85. — " Wrath chap. A ., no.

5, p.

is

a disease of the soul," attributed to Galen in Honein

133) 1

I

2

(ii.,


"

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL Page 86.—" Nor

must he be so gentle as never to become wrathful" cf. p. 86, and Honein (ii., chap, iv., no. 5, p. 114) Ptolemy on wrath cf. p. 86, note 2, and Honein (ii., chap, xi., no. 137 and note 4). ;

note

I,

Page 86 32, p.

;

Page 87.— On

the acceptabJeness of the righteous

" Pirke Aboth "

Page 88.— The

xiii.,

"Choice"

cf.

is

never envious;

friend,

his

(i.

28,

and note on

Burckhardt

cf.

and

p. 138, iv.

(p. 98. no. 246).

unfriendly";

intention

chap,

xiii.,

in order

no. 33, p. 147 and note

Page 90. — " The (ii.,

;

and note 4). The envious man, "created

chap,

(ii.,

1,

Honein

cf.

(ii.,

no. 21, p. 146

xiii.,

Page 90. —

87, note

cf. p.

;

295).

Page 89.— The noble man Page 90 "His name is chap,

man

13).

story of the king

and xxvi.

112,

(iii.

to

be angered";

Honein

cf.

2).

man is grieved at the time of thy joy"; cf. Honein no. 34, p. 147, and note 3), and " Choice" (xlviii. 598, and

envious

note on p. 181).

Page 92. — "

Hastiness the very worst of evils"

114-116,

(v. (i.,

chap,

vi.

and

145,

lxiv.

a., no. 53, p. 67,

and

Schneider (" Erm. " p. 20, no.

ii.,

,

Derwisch," Pest, i860,

Page 92. — "The man Brtill (p. 78,

Page 92. — "On

note

cf.

;

note

p. 92,

"Choice"

1,

and note on p. 184) Honein no. 18. p. 89 and note 4) Stein-

nos. 648, 649,

,

7)

,

chap,

i.,

;

;

and Ibn Hasdai (W. A. Meisel,

'

Prinz und

'

p. 201).

of hastiness

is

not secure from disappointment";

cf.

2).

the

value of deliberation;

cf.

Honein

(i.,

chap. x.

,

no. 54,

P- 67).

Page 95. — Bestowing

kindness on the worthy and unworthy;

cf.

"Choice"

(xvi. 207).

Page 95. — "Beware

of hastily promising," etc.;

cf.

Burckhardt

(p.

243, no.

53o).

Page 96. — Religion

incompatible with inordinate desire Saadya speaks in undue greed (Emunoth we-Deoth, a.). Page 97. "Knowledge is not lessened by imparting it"; cf. p. 97, notes 1, 21 ascribed to Plato in Honein (ii., chap, ii., no. 6, p. 102 and note 3); cf. Lowenthal (" Pseudo-Arist.," chap, vi., p. 108), Dukes (" Blumenlese, p. 178, no. 370 and note 1, and " Spruchkunde," p. 31, no. 103, and p. 91, ;

similar terms of

;

note

f).

Page 99. — "Crave chap,

i.,

death and

life

will

be granted thee";

no. 13, p. 88 and note 7), Steinschneider ("

cf.

Erm.,"

Honein

(ii.,

p. 20, no. 43)

and Dukes ("Blumenlese," p. 180, no. 377). Every vase gives forth whatever it contains" cf. Dukes ("Blumenlese," p. 149, no. 242, and note on p. 275 p. 153, no. 255 p. 182, no.

Page 103. — "

;

;

389).

113

;



LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. In the citation of the principal authorities, the following abbreviations have been used

:

Bacher

W.

Beer

B.

Bacher, " Die Bibelexegese der jiidischen Religionsphilosophen des Mittelalters vor Maimuni," Budapest, 1892.

" Philosophie und philosophische Juden," Leipzig, 1852. L. Burckhardt, " Arabic Proverbs," LonBeer,

Schriftsteller der

Burckhardt

J.

Brtill

N.

don, 1830.

*'

" Jahrbiicher

Bri'ill,

fiir

jtidische Geschichte

und Literatur," Jahrgang v. B. H. Ascher, " A Choice of Pearls," Lon-

Choice "

don, 1859. F. Dieterici, " Die Logik und Psychologie der Araber, " Leipzig, 1868.

Dieterici (" Logik ") Dieterici ("

Mikrokosmus").

..

.

F. Dieterici, "Die Philosophie der Araber," " Mikrokosmus," Leipzig, 1879. vol. ii. ,

von Diez, " Denkwi'irdigkeiten von Asien," Berlin. 1811. L. Dukes. " Salomo ben Gabirol aus Malaga

Diez

H.

Dukes

F.

und

Dukes

("

Blumenlese

Dukes

("

Ehrensaulen

")

die

zig,

")

ethischen

Werke

desselben

I.,"

Hannover, i860. L. Dukes, " Rabbinische Blumenlese," Leip1844.

Dukes,

L. .

.

.

"Ehrensaulen

und

Denksteine

hebraischer Dichter und Dichtungen,"

Wien, 1837. L. Dukes, " Philosophisches aus Jahrhundert, " Nakel, 1868.

Dukes ("Phil.";

Dukes

("

Spruchkunde

")

dem zehnten

L. Dukes, " Zur rabbinischen Spruchkunde," Wien, 1851.

" Ali's Hundert Sprilche,"

Fleischer

H. L.

Frankl-Griin

A. D. Frankl-Grlin, Halevi," Bilin.

Fried

S.

Fleischer, Leipzig, 1837.

" Die Ethik des Juda-

Geiger

Fried, nVTlDVI 1SD. "Das Buch fiber die Elemente I.," Leipzig, 1884. A. Geiger, " Salomo Gabirol und seine Dich-

Gratz

H. Gratz, " Geschichte der Juden,"

tungen," Leipzig, 1867. zig, r86l.

US

,.,, vi.,

Leipr


"

,

THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL Guttmann

Guttmann. " Die Philosophie des Salomon ibn Gabirol," Gottingen, 1889.

J.

Guttmann

("

Ibn

Daud

")

Guttmann, " Die Religionsphilosophie des

J.

Abraham

ibn

Daud

aus Toledo," Gottingen,

1879.

Guttmann

("

Saadya

")

Guttmann. " Die Religionsphilosophie des Saadya, " Gottingen, 1882.

J.

"Z. H. B."

"Zeitschrift fur Hebraische Eibliographie," Berlin

Haarbriicker

Th. Haarbriicker, " Religionspartheien und 2 Philosophen - Schulen," vol., Halle, 1850-51.

Hertz

Hertz, " Bachya, the Jewish New York, 1898.

H.

J.

Thomas a

Kempis,"

Honein

" Honein ibn

Lowenthal,

A.

Ishak,

Sinn-

spriiche der Philosophen," Berlin, 1896. S. Horovitz, "

Horovitz

Die Psychologie Ibn Gabirols,"

Breslau, 1900.

A. Jellinek,

Jellinek

bild

von

.

" Der Mensch als Gottes EbenRabbi Schabtai Donolo, .

.

Leipzig, 1854.

Jellinek ("

Mikrokosmos

")

"J. Q. R."

A. Jellinek, " Der Mikrokosmos Josef ibn Zadik," Leipzig. 1854. .

.

.

von R.

Joel

" Jewish Quarterly Review, " London. M. Joel. " Beitrage zur Geschichte der Phi-

Kampf

S. I.

Kaufmann

D.

losophie,"

i.,

Breslau, 1S76.

Kampf, " Nichtandalusische Poesie an-

dalusischer Dichter

Kaufmann,

.

.

" Studien

,"

.

Prag, 1858.

iiber

Salomon ibn

Gabirol." Budapest, 1S99.

Kaufmann

(" Attributenlehre ").D.

Kaufmann

("

Kaufmann, "Geschichte der Attributenlehre in der jlidischen Religionsphilosophie des Mittelalters von Saadya bis Maimuni,"

Sinne

")

Gotha, 1877. D. Kaufmann, " Die Sinne," Budapest, 1884.

M

Lazarus

.

Lazarus,

"The

.

Ethics of Judaism "

i.

Philadelphia, 1900.

Lowenthal ("Pseudo-Arist."). " M. G.

W.

.A. Lowenthal, " Pseudo-Aristoteles iiber die Seele, " Berlin, 1891.

Munk

" Monatsschrift ft'ir Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums." S. Munk, " Melanges de philosophie juive et

Musen

J.

J."

arabe." Paris, 1859.

Musen, " Hatapuach," niDDn

"D,

Lemberg,

1873-

Myer

I.

Myer, " Qabbalah. ings of Avicebron,

''

The philosophical writPhiladelphia, 1888.

Neubauer

Ad. Neubauer.

" R. E. J."

" Revue des Etudes Juives." D. Rosin, "J. Q. R.," iii., pp. 159-181.

" Catalogue of the Hebiew Manuscripts in the Bodleian Library," Ox-

ford,

Rosin

116

18S6.


THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON Rosin ("Maimonides

")

IBN GABIROL

D. Rosin, "Die Ethikdes Maimonides." Breslau, 1876.

Sachs

M. Sachs, " Die

religiose Poesie der Juden in Spanien," Berlin, 1845. A. Schmiedl, " Studien tiber judische, inson-

Schmiedl

ders jttdisch-arabische phie," Wien, 1869.

Religionsphiloso-

R. Seyerlen, " Die gegenseitigen Beziehungen zwischen abendlandischer und morgenlandischer Wissenschaft mit besonderer Riick-

Seyerlen

auf Solomon ibn Gebirol und seine philosophische Bedeutung," Jena., 1899. L. Stein, " Die Willensfreiheit bei den sicht

Stein

.

jl'idischen

Philosophen

des

.

.

Mittelalters,"

Berlin, 1882.

Steinschneider (" Al-Farabi ")..M. Steinschneider, " Al-Farabi des Arabischen Philosophen Leben und Schriften," St. Petersburg, 1869.

Steinschneider (" C. B.")

M.

Steinschneider, " Catalogus Librorum in Bibl. Bodl.," Berol., i860.

He-

brseorum

Steinschneider (" Erm.")

M.

"

Steinschneider,

Ermahnungsschreiben

des Jehuda ibn Tibbon und Spruche der VVeisen," Berlin, 1852. Steinschneider, " Die hebraischen Uebersetzungen des Mittelalters," Berlin, 1893.

Steinschneider (" H. U.")

M.

Steinschneider

M.

(" Intro.")

Steinschneider,

"An

Introduction to the

Arabic Literature of the Jews," "

J.

Q. R.,"

vols, ix., x., xi., xii.

Steinschneider (" Stossel

Manna ")

Winter und Wiinsche Wolff

M.

Steinschneider, "

Manna,

" Berlin, 1847.

D. Stossel, " Salomo ben Gebirol als Philosoph und Forderer der Kabbala, " Leipzig, 1881. Winter und Wiinsche, " Die judische Literatur" (three volumes), Trier, 1894-1896. M. Wolff. " Mose ben Maimun's acht Capitel," Leipzig,

117

1863.



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