ELEMENTARY BASIC ENGLISH GRAMMAR & VOCABULARY FOR LEANERS AND BEGINERS A Self-Study…
Preface Basic and Elememtary English Grammar & Vocabulary, started with the first purpose for expanding knowledge of learners and beginers. This book has been elaborated also with the purpose to have an easy way to learn English, essential vocabulary tells us why English is so important and it is big a nessecity to improve English language every single day. A learner or beginer learn English throught easy and understandable list of words having the responsability to look for the meaning for each word in a good dictionary even in the Internet where it is required to use on the new world. A comunicative English is easy no if it does not have many vocabulary in mind so it is a big responsability to increase vocabulary too. On the other hands, English Grammar has the important acquisition of rules and structures that help learners to imporve by themselves if it has the will to look for vocabulary and meanings. To be shown an easy way to learn English and keep skills in many areas for learning a language, speacially, English is considered a world language and it were just for speaking because it would not be academic. As academic purpose include many skills like learn a lot of vocabulary, definitions and rules and structure of a language.
Acknowledgment
It is a neseecary to have an easy book for learners or beginers students who ask for studying first vocabulary then change that knowledge into a communicative way of English language. That is why Douglas Barquero Elías as an editor kept in mind what a learner has in common for learning. Experiences have shown us that it is required an easy way to have everything in one book.
Co-editors reference Betty Azar Raymond Murphy David Bolton Patricia K. Wernner MacMillan, English Dictionary https://www.english grammar. Com Google; WordReference
How to use this book, you have the resposibility to look for the meaning of each word or to find out the correct translation into your native language for each word. On google you can type “WordReference” and this is free, and it is like a dictionary of vocabulary and it is better than google translator which should not be allowed for tranlating just for looking the correct meaning. Basically it is necessary to have an excelent dictionary which show you the whole posibility definition.
Dedication I want to thank God first for giving me this opportunity, to my parerents and my whole family cause they were the ones whos just gave me real advices base on experiences, to all my students who just teach me there is a big neccesaty that exist in our real lives. edgargustavorodriguez@gmail.com
First Edition San Salvador, El Salvador 2014-2015
1. Common Words The Aphabeth: A – B – C – D – E – F – G – H – I – J – K – L- M – N –O –P – Q – R – S – T – U – V – W – X – Y – Z Probably Mistake in Pronuncing: A–I
B–V
C–Z
E–I
K–Q
M–N
P–T
S-X
G–J
J–Y
One Alphabeth + Word: A: Apple
N: Note
B: Book
O: Open
C: Cat
P: Pencil
D: Day
Q: Quiz
E: Elephant
R: Rose
F: Fig
S: Store
G: Grapes
T: Tomatoes
H: House
U: Umbrella
I: Ivory
V: Vacation
J: Jump
W: Window
K: Key
X: Xerox
L: Learn
Y: Yard
M: Movie
Z: Zest
The days of the week: Monday – Tuesday – Wednesday – Thursday – Friday – Saturday – Sunday
The Months of the Year: January – February – March – April – May – June – July – August – September – October – November – December
The four Season:
Spring – Fall (Autumn) – Winter – Summer
2. Numbers
Cardinal Numbers
1 one
13 thirteen
50 fifty
2 two
14 fourteen
60 sixty
3 three
15 fifteen
70 seventy
4 four
16 sixteen
80 eighty
5 five
17 seventeen
90 ninety
6 six
18 eighteen
100 a/one hundred
7 seven
19 nineteen
101 a/one hundred and one
8 eight
20 twenty
200 two hundred
9 nine
21 twenty-one
1.000 a/one thousand
10 ten
22 twenty-two
10.000 ten thousand
11 eleven
30 thirty
100.000 a/one hundred thousand
12 twelve
40 forty
1.000.000 a/one million
1st first
13th thirteenth
50th fiftieth
2nd second
14th fourteenth
60th sixtieth
3rd third
15th fifteenth
70th seventieth
4th fourth
16th sixteenth
80th eightieth
5th fifth
17th seventeenth
90th ninetieth
6th sixth
18th eighteenth
100th hundredth
7th seventh
19th nineteenth
101st hundred and first
8th eighth
20th twentieth
200th two hundredth
9th ninth
21st twenty-first
1.000th thousandth
10th tenth
22nd twenty-second
10.000th ten thousandth
11th eleventh
30th thirtieth
100.000th one hundred thousandth
12th twelfth
40th fortieth
1.000.000th one millionth
Ordinal Numbers
There are two common ways of telling the time
1) Say the hour first and then the minutes. (Hour + Minutes) •
6:25 - six twenty-five
•
8:05 - eight O-five
•
9:11 - nine eleven
•
2:34 - two thirty-four
2) Say the minutes first and then the hour. (Minutes + PAST / TO + Hour) For minutes 1-30 we use PAST after the minutes. For minutes 31-59 we use TO after the minutes. •
2:35 - twenty-five to three
•
11:20 - twenty past eleven
•
4:18 - eighteen past four
•
8:51 - nine to nine
•
2:59 - one to three
When it is 15 minutes past the hour we normally say: a quarter past •
7:15 - a quarter past seven
When it is 15 minutes before the hour we normally say: a quarter to •
12:45 - a quarter to one
When it is 30 minutes past the hour we normally say: half past •
3:30 - half past three (but we can also say three-thirty)
O'clock We use o'clock when there are NO minutes. •
10:00 - ten o'clock
•
5:00 - five o'clock
•
1:00 - one o'clock
Sometimes it is written as o'clock (the number + o'clock)
12:00 For 12:00 there are four expressions in English. Twelve midday midnight
o'clock = noon
Asking for the Time The common question forms we use to ask for the time right now are: What time is it? or What is the time? The common question forms we use to ask at what time a specific event will happen are: What time...? When...? •
What time does the flight to New York leave?
•
When does the bus arrive from London?
•
When does the concert begin?
Giving the Time We use It is or It's to respond to the questions that ask for the time right now. •
It is half past five (5:30).
•
It's ten to twelve (11:50)
We use the structure AT + time when giving the time of a specific event. •
The bus arrives at midday (12:00).
•
The flight leaves at a quarter to two (1:45).
•
The concert begins at ten o'clock. (10:00)
We can also use subject pronouns in these responses. •
It arrives at midday (12:00).
•
It leaves at a quarter to two (1:45).
•
It begins at ten o'clock. (10:00)
AM vs. PM We don't normally use the 24-hour clock in English. We use a.m. (am) for the morning and p.m. (pm) for the afternoon and night. 3am = Three o'clock in the morning. 3pm = Three o'clock in the afternoon.
Parts of a House: kitchen
stairs
dishwasher
spoon
bedroom
apartment
washing machine
teaspoon
bathroom
table
ironing board
cutlery drawer
dining Room
chair
toaster
cup
living Room
armchair
blender
mug
garden
sofa
mixer
glass
rooms
floor
broom
saucer
balcony
ceiling
sink
jug
sitting room
rug
tap
coffeepot
basement
carpet
waste bin
coffee maker
cellar
fireplace
worktop
teapot
attic
radiator
tea towel
tablecloth
study
lamp
frying pan
napkin
toilet
light
saucepan
bath
door
curtain
pressure cooker
shower
doorbell
wall
kettle
toilet
doormat
wallpaper
bowl
bidet
letter box
television
tin opener
washbasin
window
refridgirator
corkscrew
tap
roof
oven
fork
mirror
chimney
microwave oven
knife
soap
soap dish
shampoo
nailbrush
sheet
towel
conditioner
bedside table
duvet
towel rail
safety razor
bedside lamp
bedspread
bath mat
electric razor
wardrobe
alarm clock
toilet paper
shaving foam
drawers
bed
sponge
toothbrush
mattress
bathmat
comb
hair drier
pillow
hairbrush
toothpaste
blanket
leg
palm
lips
groin
ankle
shoulder
moustache
heart
buttock
wrist
mouth
hip
foot
head
neck
liver
heel
ear
nose
lung
knee
beard
pupil
navel
shin
brain
tongue
stomach
bone
cheek
tooth
thorax
toe
eye
throat
waist
arm
eyebrow
abdomen
rib
elbow
eyelash
armpit
finger
eyelid
back
hand
forehead
breasts
nail
hair
chest
classrooms
library
courts
white boards
laboratries
academic office
gardens
sharpener
Parts of Human Body
Parts of a School
pencil
stapler
lockers
encyclopedia
pen
clips
rest rooms
book
ruler
earaser
gym
test book
desk
masking tape
field
note book
chair
transparent tape
Principal's office
computers
mechanical pencil
The Principal
scaner
televitions
marker
the coach
File cabinet
phones
glue
librarian
shelves
teacher
scissors
classmates
sheets of paper
professor
backpack
secretary
Bond paper
Dean
school bag
cook
bulletin board
pencil case
auditorium
teacher room
data show
students
cafeteria
dictionary
record tape
almond
fig
nectarine
artichoke
apple
kiwi
orange
aubergine
apricot
grape
papaya
asparagus
avocado
grapefruit
passion fruit
beans
banana
hazelnut
peach
beetroot
blackberry
lemon
peanut
broccoli
blueberry
lime
pear
brussels
cherry
lychee
plum
cabbage
chestnut
mandarine
raspberry
carrot
coconut
mango
starfruit
cauliflower
cranberry
melon
strawberry
celery
date
morello cherry
watermelon
corn
Fruits and Vegestables:
courgette
lettuce
potato
squash
cucumber
mushroom
pumpkin
sweet potato
eggplant
onion
radish
tomato
garlic
peas
rice
turnip
leek
pepper
rye
watercress
lentils
pickle
spinach
wheat
shirt
jacket
bathrobe
handkerchief
t-shirt
duffel coat
nightdress
gloves
sport shirt
pants
pajamas
scarf
blouse
trousers
socks
shawl
sweatshirt
slacks
ties
cloak
sweater
jeans
underwear
cap
cardigan
shorts
bra
beret
dress
pinafore
knickers
hat
evening gown
sneakers
underpants
bonnet
vest
boots
bathing-suit
helmet
suit
Wellingtons
bikini
coat
slippers
swimming shorts
raincoat
shoes
belt
overcoat
sandals
hood
mackintosh
high-heeled shoes
suspenders
The Clothes
3. Countries & Nationality This list is about many of the countries or nations in the world with the nationality: Name of country
Adjective used for that country (also describes nationality) Look at this example sentences: He comes from France. He is French. His nationality is French. He is a Frenchman. He drives a French car. She speaks French.
Country
Nationality
England
English
Afghanistan
Afghan
Finland
Finnish
Algeria
Algerian
France
French
Australia
Australian
Germany
German
Bahamas
Bahamian
Greece
Greek
Bangladesh
Bangladeshi
Netherlands
Dutch
Barbados
Barbadian
Hungary
Hungarian
Belgium
Belgian
Iceland
Icelandic
Belize
Belizean
India
Indian
Bhutan
Bhutanese
Indonesia
Indonesian
Botswana
Botswanan
Ireland
Irish
Brazil
Brazilian
Italy
Italian
Britain
British
Jamaica
Jamaican
Canada
Canadian
Japan
Japanese
China
Chinese
Kenya
Kenyan
Costa Rica
Costa Rican
Lebanon
Lebanese
Croatia
Croatian
Luxembourg
Luxembourger
Czech Republic
Czech
Madagascar
Madagascan
Denmark
Danish
Malaysia
Malaysian
Dominican Republic
Dominican
Mexico
Mexican
Egypt
Egyptian
Morocco
Moroccan
El Salvador
Salvadorean
Mozambique
Mozambican
New Zealand
New Zealander
Spain
Spanish
Nigeria
Nigerian
Swaziland
Swazi
Korea
Korean
Sweden
Swedish
Norway
Norwegian
Switzerland
Swiss
Panama
Panamanian
Taiwan
Taiwanese
Philippines
Philippine
Tanzania
Tanzanian
Poland
Polish
Thailand
Thai
Portugal
Portuguese
Trinidad and Tobago
Trinidadian
Romania
Romanian
Turkey
Turkish
Russia
Russian
Ukraine
Ukrainian
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabian
United Arab Emirates Emirati
Scotland
Scottish
United Kingdom
British
Seychelles
Seychellois
United States
American
Singapore
Singaporean
Vietnam
Vietnamese
Slovakia
Slovak
Wales
Welsh
Slovenia
Slovene
Zambia
Zambian
Somalia
Somali
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwean
South Africa
South African
4. Verbs A verb, it is a word (part of speech) that in syntax conveys an action (bring, read, walk, run, learn), an occurrence (happen, become), or a state of being (be, exist, stand). In the usual description of English, the basic form, with or without the particle to, is the infinitive. In many languages, verbs are inflected (modified in form) to encode tense, aspect, mood, and voice. A verb may also agree with the person, gender, and/or number of some of its arguments, such as its subject, or object. Verbs have tenses: present, to indicate that an action is being carried out; past, to indicate that an action has been done; a verb is considered the main part of a sentence.
Example of a sentence: Noun (common or proper noun)
Verb (regular or irregular)
Subject of a sentence and Sustantive +
Auxilary or main verb
Predicate +
Object of a sentence
Subject pronoun
Form and Tenses change
Students of this university Sub
enjoy studying
+ verb
Complement
very hard every semester. +
object
Types of verbs: Regular: study – work – talk – walk – change – move – ask – listen – write – love – sit – live – call Irregular: do – hear – tell – keep – come – become – feel – have – take – speak – be – can – think Transitive: bring – buy – cost – get – give – leave – lend – make – offer – owe – pass – pay - play Intrasitive: arrive – go – lie – sneeze – sit – die – eat – run – grow – watch – give – sing – rain - add Linking: feel – taste – look – smell – appear – grow – remain – stay – turn – seem – sound - prove Auxilary: be – do – can – may – might – must – should – could – would – will - ought to
Verbs Followed by Infinitive: Examples: Verbs
Sentences
agree
Tom agreed to help me.
appear
His health appeared to be better.
arrange
Naomi arranged to stay with her cousin in Miami.
ask
She asked to leave.
begin
He began to talk.
can't stand
Nancy can't stand to work the late shift.
care
He doesn't care to participate in the activity.
cease
The government ceased to provide free healthcare.
choose
I chose to help.
claim
She claimed to be a princess.
continue
She continued to talk.
decide
We decided to go to Hawaii.
demand
He demanded to speak to Mr. Harris.
deserve
He deserves to go to jail.
dread
I dread to think what might happen.
expect
They expect to arrive early.
fail
He failed to get enough money to pay for the new project.
forget
I forgot to lock the door when I left.
get
Debbie gets to go to the concert next week! Why can't I?
happen
She happened to be at the bank when it was robbed.
hate
He hates to clean dishes.
hesitate
She hesitated to tell me the problem.
hope
I hope to begin college this year.
intend
We intend to visit you next spring.
learn
I learned to speak Japanese when I was a kid.
like
Samantha likes to read.
love
We love to scuba dive.
manage
He managed to open the door without the key.
need
I need to study.
offer
Frank offered to drive us to the supermarket.
Plan
We plan to go to Europe this summer.
prefer
He prefers to eat at 7 PM.
prepare
They prepared to take the test.
pretend
The child pretended to be a monster.
promise
She promised to stop smoking.
propose
Drew proposed to pay for the trip.
refuse
The guard refused to let them enter the building.
regret
I regret to inform you that your application was rejected.
remember
You remember to lock the door when you left
seem
Nancy seemed to be disappointed.
start
Marge started to talk really fast.
swear
She swore to tell the truth.
tend
He tends to be a little shy.
threaten
He threatened to leave forever.
try
Mary tried to lift the table, but it was too heavy.
wait
She waited to buy a movie ticket.
want
I want to study Spanish.
wish
I wish to stay.
Verbs Followed by Gerunds: Examples:
admit
He admitted cheating on the test.
advise
The doctor generally advised drinking low-fat milk.
allow
Ireland doesn't allow smoking in bars.
anticipate
I anticipated arriving late.
appreciate
I appreciated her helping me.
avoid
He avoided talking to her.
begin
I began learning Chinese.
cease
The government ceased providing free healthcare.
complete
He completed renovating the house.
consider
She considered moving to New York.
continue
He continued talking.
defend
The lawyer defended her making such statements.
delay
He delayed doing his taxes.
deny
He denied committing the crime.
despise
She despises waking up early.
discuss
We discussed working at the company.
dislike
She dislikes working after 5 PM.
don't mind
I don't mind helping you.
dread
She dreads getting up at 5 AM.
encourage
He encourages eating healthy foods.
enjoy
We enjoy hiking.
finish
He finished doing his homework.
forget
I forgot giving you my book.
hate
I hate cleaning the bathroom.
imagine
He imagines working there one day.
involve
The job involves traveling to Japan once a month.
keep
She kept interrupting me.
like
She likes listening to music.
love
I love swimming.
mention
He mentioned going to that college.
mind
You mind waiting here for a few minutes.
miss
She misses living near the beach.
need
The aquarium needs cleaning.
neglect
Sometimes she neglects doing her homework.
permit
California does not permit smoking in restaurants.
Postpone
He postponed returning to Paris.
practice
She practiced singing the song.
prefer
He prefers sitting at the back of the movie theater.
propose
I proposed having lunch at the beach.
quit
She quit worrying about the problem.
recall
Tom recalled using his credit card at the store.
recollect
She recollected living in Kenya.
recommend
Tony recommended taking the train.
regret
She regretted saying that.
remember
I remember telling her the address yesterday.
report
He reported her stealing the money.
require
The certificate requires completing two courses.
resent
Nick resented Debbie's being there.
resist
He resisted asking for help.
risk
He risked being caught.
start
He started studying harder.
stop
She stopped working at 5 o'clock.
suggest
They suggested staying at the hotel.
tolerate
I tolerated her talking.
try
Sam tried opening the lock with a paperclip.
understand
I understand his quitting.
urge
They urge recycling bottles and paper.
5. Simple Present Tense Rules The simple present tense in English is used to describe an action that is regular, true or normal. Also simple present an action that someone or sonthing do every single day. Example: 1. For repeated or regular actions in the present time period. I take the train to the office. The train to Berlin leaves every hour. John sleeps eight hours every night during the week. 2. For facts. The President of The USA lives in The White House. A dog has four legs. We come from Switzerland. 3. For habits. I get up early every day. Carol brushes her teeth twice a day. They travel to their country house every weekend. 4. For things that are always / generally true. It rains a lot in winter. The Queen of England lives in Buckingham Palace. They speak English at work.
In general, in the third person we add 'S' in the third person. Subject
Verb
The Rest of the sentence
I / you / we / they
speak / learn
English at home
he / she / it
speaks / learns English at home
The spelling for the verb in the third person differs depending on the ending of that verb: 1. For verbs that end in -O, -CH, -SH, -SS, -X, or -Z we add -ES in the third person. go – goes catch – catches wash – washes kiss – kisses fix – fixes buzz – buzzes 2. For verbs that end in a consonant + Y, we remove the Y and add -IES. marry – marries study – studies carry – carries worry – worries
NOTE: For verbs that end in a vowel + Y, we just add -S. play – plays enjoy – enjoys say – says
Negative Sentences in the Simple Present Tense
To make a negative sentence in English we normally use Don't or Doesn't with all verbs EXCEPT To Be and Modal verbs (can, might, should etc.).
Affirmative: You speak French.
Negative: You don't speak French.
You will see that we add don't between the subject and the verb. We use Don't when the subject is I, you, we or they.
Affirmative: He speaks German.
Negative: He doesn't speak German.
When the subject is he, she or it, we add doesn't between the subject and the verb to make a negative sentence. Notice that the letter S at the end of the verb in the affirmative sentence (because it is in third person) disappears in the negative sentence. We will see the reason why below.
Negative Contractions Don't
=
Do not
Doesn't
=
Does not
I don't like meat = I do not like meat. There is no difference in meaning though we normally use contractions in spoken English.
* Verb: The verb that goes here is the base form of the infinitive = The infinitive without TO before the verb. Instead of the infinitive To have it is just the have part. Remember that the infinitive is the verb before it is conjugated (changed) and it begins with TO. For example: to have, to eat, to go, to live, to speak etc.
Examples of Negative Sentences with Don't and Doesn't: You don't speak Arabic. John doesn't speak Italian. We don't have time for a rest. It doesn't move. They don't want to go to the party. She doesn't like fish.
Questions in the Simple Present Tense To make a question in English we normally use Do or Does. It has no translation in Spanish though it is essential to show we are making a question. It is normally put at the beginning of the question.
Affirmative: You speak English.
Question: Do you speak English?
You will see that we add DO at the beginning of the affirmative sentence to make it a question. We use Do when the subject is I, you, we or they.
Affirmative: He speaks French.
Question: Does he speak French?
When the subject is he, she or it, we add DOES at the beginning to make the affirmative sentence a question. Notice that the letter S at the end of the verb in the affirmative sentence (because it is in third person) disappears in the question. We will see the reason why below. We DON'T use Do or Does in questions that have the verb To Be or Modal Verbs (can, must, might, should etc.) *Verb: The verb that goes here is the base form of the infinitive = The infinitive without TO before the verb. Instead of the infinitive To have it is just the have part. Remember that the infinitive is the verb before it is conjugated (changed) and it begins with TO. For example: to have, to eat, to go, to live, to speak etc. Examples of Questions with Do and Does: Do you need a dictionary? Does Mary need a dictionary? Do we have a meeting now? Does it rain a lot in winter? Do they want to go to the party? Does he like pizza?
6. Short Answers with Do and Does In questions that use do/does it is possible to give short answers to direct questions as follows:
Sample Questions
Short Answer
(Affirmative)
(Affirmative) Answer
(Negative)
Do you like chocolate?
Yes, I do.
No, I don't.
Do I need a pencil?
Yes, you do.
No, you don't.
Do you both like chocolate?
Yes, we do.
No, we don't.
Do they like chocolate?
Yes, they do.
No, they don't.
Does he like chocolate?
Yes, he does.
No, he doesn't.
Does she like chocolate?
Yes, she does.
No, she doesn't.
Does it have four wheels?
Yes, it does.
No, it doesn't.
7. Simple Past Tense Rules The simple past refers to things that have already happened, and are finished doing their thing. World War II reminded us bad memories from 1939-1945. Mom cooked a delicious supper last Saturday. I watched the dishes in the morning. Margaret aced her math exam.
Regular Verbs Regular verbs are changed to the simple past by adding -ed to the end of the root form. If the verb already ends in -e, we just add -d. Play – played Type – typed Listen – listened Push – pushed Love – loved
Spelling Rules for Regular Past Tense Verbs You will learn the spelling of the simple past form (-ed form.) But before you continue the lesson study the following examples and try to see how the verbs are spelled.
Verbs ending in a... 1. silent e
2. vowel + y
3. consonant + y
4. other forms
close = closed
play – played
marry – merried
miss - missed
die = died
destroy – destroyed
carry – carried
watch - watched
study – studied
fix - fixed
phone = phoned
Regular verbs ending in a silent e take /-d/ in the simple past and past participle: Example: Close = closed Regular verbs ending in a vowel + y take /-ed/ in the simple past and past participle: Example: Play = played Regular verbs ending in a consonant + y take /-ied/ in the simple past and past participle (the y becomes an i followed by /-ed/) Example: Marry = married All the other regular vebs take /-ed/ in the simple past and past participle. Example: Visit = visited Special cases of the -ed forms: Follow these rules when there is a consonant after a vowel (stop, ban, open, offer...) If there is a consonant after a stressed vowel at the end of the word, double the consonant but also if the word has one syllabel only and if there is a vowel in midle of two consonants. stop – stopped ban - banned swap - swapped If the vowel is not stressed, we do not double it: open - opened (Here the stress is on'o', not the 'e'.)
offer - offered ( Here the stress is on 'o', not the 'e'.) In British English we double the last l even though the last vowel is not stressed. Here are some examples: travel - travelled cancel - cancelled level - levelled marvel – marvelled
Affirmative sentences: Use the same form of the auxilary verb every time regardless the subject in the simple past tense. Example; look the chart bellow for regular and irregular verbs. regular verbs
irregular verbs
I played football.
I went to the supermarket.
Negative sentences: Use the auxiliary did (Simple Past of do) every time regardless the subject. regular verbs
irregular verbs
I did not play football.
I did not go to the supermarket.
NOTE: Short forms in negative sentences in the Simple Past are used quite often. regular verbs
irregular verbs
I didn't play football.
I didn't go to the supermarket.
Questions: Use the auxiliary did (Simple Past of do) every time regardless the subject. regular verbs
irregular verbs
Did you play football?
Did I go to the supermarket?
Spellinh-final Rule verbs -Ing For many verbs we make the ING form by simply adding -ING to end of the verb. •
eat - eating
•
speak - speaking
•
cook - cooking
•
start - starting
•
do - doing
•
stay - staying
•
fix - fixing
•
try - trying
Verbs ending with -e (with the exception of verbs ending in -ee and -ie). Drop the -e and add ING •
hope - hoping
•
ride - riding
•
make - making
•
write - writing
Verbs ending with –ee Just add -ING •
agree - agreeing
•
flee - fleeing
•
see - seeing
Verbs ending with –ie. Change the -ie to -y and add -ING •
die - dying
•
tie - tying
•
lie - lying
Verbs ending with one vowel and one consonant (with the exception of w, x, and y). For one syllable verbs double the consonant and add -ING
•
jog - jogging
•
sit - sitting
•
run - running
•
stop - stopping
For two syllable verbs; If the 1st syllable is stressed, just add ING •
answer - answering
•
offer - offering
•
listen - listening
•
visit - visiting
If the 2nd syllable is stressed, double the consonant and add ING •
admit - admitting
•
prefer - preferring
•
begin - begining
8. Present Continuous: Negatives and Questions Introduction In the present continuous tense, negative and question forms is needed The Verb To Be as an auxiliary, and question forms are made by changing the word order of the sentence. 1. Forming a negative Negatives in the present continuous are formed by adding not or n't after the verb BE: Positive sentence
Negative sentence
Contracted negative
I am eating.
I am not eating.
I'm not eating.
You are working.
You are not working.
You aren't working.
He is driving.
He is not driving.
He isn't driving.
She is teaching.
She is not teaching.
She isn't teaching.
It is raining.
It is not raining.
It isn't raining.
Positive sentence
Negative sentence
Contracted negative
We are reading.
We are not reading.
We aren't reading.
They are writing.
They are not writing.
They aren't writing.
2. Forming a question Yes/no questions are created by moving the verb BE to the beginning of the sentence. WHquestions are formed by moving the verb BE, and then adding the WH- word. Here are the rules: Statement
Yes/no question
WH- question
I am eating.
Am I eating?
What am I eating?
You are crying.
Are you crying?
Why are you crying?
He is going.
Is he going?
Where is he going?
She is arriving.
Is she arriving?
When is she arriving?
It is sleeping.
Is it sleeping?
Why is it sleeping?
We are leaving.
Are we leaving?
When are we leaving?
They are fighting.
Are they fighting?
Why are they fighting?
9. Parts of Speech: Article - nouns – pronouns – adjectives - verbs – adverbs – prepositión – connectors - interjection Article: Definite and Indefinite Definite: a – an Indefinite: the
Nouns: A noun, it is a word that functions as the name of some specific thing or set of things, such as living creatures, objects, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas. Linguistically, a noun is a member of a large, open part of speech whose members can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition. Lexical categories are defined in terms of the ways in which their members combine with other kinds of expressions. The syntactic rules for nouns differ from language to language. In English, nouns are those words which can occur with articles and attributive adjectives and can function as the head of a noun phrase.
Types of nouns: Proper: Michael – Gerardo Barrios university – John F. Kenedy airport – Saint Catarina church – El Salvador Common: table – chair – book – computer – cell pone – pencil – soda – school – cake – sandwhich – plane - cup Concrete: white board – car – wall – floor – picture – chair – table – book – wood – plant - pencil – glass - cap Abstract: love – air – wind – feeling – dream – ghost – honesty – power – evil – hate – faith – belief - happiness Collective nouns: team – furniture – zoo – group – crowd - family – staff – gang – choir – band – forest - army Uncountable noun: sand – salt – sugar – stars – money – electricity – air – dust – water – calm – confidence - fear Countable noun: people – cars – students – friends – pencils – books – cell phones – chairs – tables – computers -
Pronouns: Personal / Subject Pronouns
Object Pronouns
Possessive Adjetives
Possessive Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns
I
me
my
mine
myself
You
you
your
yours
yourself
he
him
his
his
himself
she
her
her
hers
herself
it
it
its
its
itself
we
us
our
ours
ourselves
you
you
your
yours
yourselves
they
them
their
theirs
themselves
Demontrative Pronouns: This singular
These plural
near
That singular
Those plural
far
Indefinite Pronouns: everybody
nobody
somebody
anybody
everyone
no one
someone
anyone
everything
nothing
something
anything
Relative Pronouns: who
which
that
whom
whose
Reciprocal Pronouns: each other / one another
Adjectives: In linguistics, an adjective is a "describing word", the main syntactic role of which is to qualify a noun or noun phrase, giving more information about the object signified. Adjectives are one of the traditional eight English parts of speech, although linguists today distinguish adjectives from words such as determiners that formerly were considered to be adjectives. In the immediately previous sentence, "traditional" is an adjective and "eight", while known traditionally as an adjective, is now classified as a determiner; and in the preceding paragraph, both "main" and "syntactic" are traditional adjectives. Note: Colors are also adjectives Example: adorable
awful
charming
courageous
adventurous
bad
cheerful
crazy
aggressive
beautiful
clean
creepy
agreeable
better
clear
crowded
alert
bloody
clever
cruel
alive
bored
cloudy
curious
amused
brainy
clumsy
cute
angry
brave
colorful
dangerous
annoyed
breakable
combative
dark
anxious
bright
comfortable
dead
arrogant
busy
concerned
defeated
ashamed
calm
condemned
defiant
attractive
careful
confused
delightful
average
cautious
cooperative
depressed
determined
fragile
innocent
outstanding
different
frail
inquisitive
panicky
difficult
frantic
itchy
perfect
disgusted
friendly
jealous
plain
distinct
frightened
jolly
pleasant
dizzy
funny
joyous
poised
doubtful
gentle
kind
poor
dull
gifted
lazy
powerful
eager
glamorous
light
precious
easy
gleaming
lively
prickly
elated
glorious
lonely
proud
elegant
good
long
puzzled
embarrassed
gorgeous
lovely
real
enchanting
graceful
lucky
relieved
encouraging
grotesque
magnificent
repulsive
energetic
grumpy
misty
rich
enthusiastic
handsome
modern
scary
envious
happy
motionless
selfish
evil
healthy
muddy
shiny
excited
helpful
mushy
shy
expensive
helpless
mysterious
silly
exuberant
hilarious
nasty
sleepy
fair
homeless
nervous
smiling
faithful
homely
nice
smoggy
famous
horrible
nutty
sore
fancy
hungry
obedient
sparkling
fantastic
hurt
obnoxious
splendid
fierce
ill
odd
spotless
filthy
important
old-fashioned
stormy
fine
impossible
open
strange
foolish
inexpensive
outrageous
stupid
successful
thankful
unusual
wide-eyed
super
thoughtful
upset
wild
talented
thoughtless
uptight
witty
tame
tired
vast
worried
tender
troubled
victorious
wrong
tense
ugly
wandering
zany
terrible
uninterested
weary
zealous
testy
unsightly
wicked
Amaranth
Coral
Jungle green
Prusian blue
Amber
Crimson
Lavender
Puce
Apricot
Dark blue
Lemon
Purple
Aquamarine
Dark brown
Lilac
Raspberry
Azure
Dark green
Lime
Red
Baby blue
Dark orange
Magenta
Red-violet
Beige
Dark red
Magenta rose
Rose
Black
Dark yellow
Maroon
Ruby
Blue
Desert sand
Navy blue
Salmon
Blue-green
Electric blue
Ocher
Sangria
Blue-violet
Electric green
Olive
Sapphire
Bronze
Electric pink
Orange
Scarlet
Brown
Electric yellow
Orange-red
Silver
Carmine
Emerald
Orchid
Slate gray
Champagne
Gold
Peach
Spring
Chartreuse green
Gray
Pear
Spring bud
Chocolate
Green
Persian blue
Spring green
Cobalt blue
Ivory
Pink
Tan
Coffee
Jade
Plum
Teal
Color in English:
Turquoise
Viridian
Yankees Blue
Violet
White
Yellow
Adjectives; Comparatives and Superlative One-syllable adjectives.
Form the comparative and superlative forms of a one-syllable adjective by adding –er for the comparative form and –est for the superlative. One-Syllable Adjective
Comparative Form
Superlative Form
tall
taller
tallest
old
older
oldest
long
longer
longest
•
Mary is taller than Max.
•
Mary is the tallest of all the students.
•
Max is older than John.
•
Of the three students, Max is the oldest.
•
My hair is longer than your hair.
•
Max's story is the longest story I've ever heard.
If the one-syllable adjective ends with an e, just add –r for the comparative form and –st for the superlative form. One-Syllable Adjective with Final -e
Comparative Form
Superlative Form
large
larger
largest
wise
wiser
wisest
•
Mary's car is larger than Max's car.
•
Mary's house is the largest of all the houses on the block.
•
Max is wiser than his brother.
•
Max is the wisest person I know.
If the one-syllable adjective ends with a single consonant with a vowel before it, double the consonant and add –er for the comparative form; and double the consonant and add –est for the superlative form. One-Syllable Adjective Ending with a Single Consonant with a Comparative Single Vowel before It Form
Superlative Form
big
bigger
biggest
thin
thinner
thinnest
fat
fatter
fattest
•
My dog is bigger than your dog.
•
My dog is the biggest of all the dogs in the neighborhood.
•
Max is thinner than John.
•
Of all the students in the class, Max is the thinnest.
•
My mother is fatter than your mother.
•
Mary is the fattest person I've ever seen.
Two-syllable adjectives. With most two-syllable adjectives, you form the comparative with more and the superlative with most. Two-Syllable Adjective
Comparative Form
Superlative Form
peaceful
more peaceful
most peaceful
pleasant
more pleasant
most pleasant
careful
more careful
most careful
thoughtful
more thoughtful
most thoughtful
•
This morning is more peaceful than yesterday morning.
•
Max's house in the mountains is the most peaceful in the world.
•
Max is more careful than Mike.
•
Of all the taxi drivers, Jack is the most careful.
•
Jill is more thoughtful than your sister.
•
Mary is the most thoughtful person I've ever met.
If the two-syllable adjectives ends with –y, change the y to i and add –er for the comparative form. For the superlative form change the y to i and add –est. Two-Syllable Adjective Ending with -y
Comparative Form
Superlative Form
happy
happier
happiest
angry
angrier
angriest
busy
busier
busiest
•
John is happier today than he was yesterday.
•
John is the happiest boy in the world.
•
Max is angrier than Mary.
•
Of all of John's victims, Max is the angriest.
•
Mary is busier than Max.
•
Mary is the busiest person I've ever met.
Two-syllable adjectives ending in –er, -le, or –ow take –er and –est to form the comparative and superlative forms. Two-Syllable Adjective Ending with -er, -le, or -ow Comparative Form Superlative Form narrow
narrower
narrowest
gentle
gentler
gentlest
•
The roads in this town are narrower than the roads in the city.
•
This road is the narrowest of all the roads in California.
•
Big dogs are gentler than small dogs.
•
Of all the dogs in the world, English Mastiffs are the gentlest.
Adjectives with three or more syllables. For adjectives with three syllables or more, you form the comparative with more and the superlative with most.
Adjective with Three or More Syllables
Comparative Form
Superlative Form
generous
more generous
most generous
important
more important
most important
intelligent
more intelligent
most intelligent
•
John is more generous than Jack.
•
John is the most generous of all the people I know.
•
Health is more important than money.
•
Of all the people I know, Max is the most important.
•
Women are more intelligent than men.
•
Mary is the most intelligent person I've ever met.
Exceptions. Irregular adjectives. Irregular Adjective
Comparative Form
Superlative Form
good
better
best
bad
worse
worst
far
farther
farthest
little
less
least
many
more
most
•
Italian food is better than American food.
•
My dog is the best dog in the world.
•
My mother's cooking is worse than your mother's cooking.
•
Of all the students in the class, Max is the worst.
Two-syllable adjectives that follow two rules. These adjectives can be used with -er and -est and with more and most. Two-Syllable Adjective
Comparative Form
Superlative Form
clever
cleverer
cleverest
Two-Syllable Adjective
Comparative Form
Superlative Form
clever
more clever
most clever
gentle
gentler
gentlest
gentle
more gentle
most gentle
friendly
friendlier
friendliest
friendly
more friendly
most friendly
quiet
quieter
quietest
quiet
more quiet
most quiet
simple
simpler
simplest
simple
more simple
most simple
Adverbs: An adverb is a word that changes or simplifies the meaning of a verb, adjective, other adverb, clause, or sentence expressing manner, place, time, or degree. Adverbs typically answer questions such as how?, in what way?, when?, where?, and to what extent? This function is called the adverbial function, and is realised not just by single words but by adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses. Types of Adverbs: Adverbs of place: About – above – abroad – anywhere – away – back – backwards – behind – below – down – downstairs - east – elsewhere – far – here – in – indoors – inside - near – nearby – off – on – out outside – over there – towards – under – up – upstairs - where Adverbs of time: now – then – today – tomorrow – tonight – yesterday – annually – daily – fortnightly – hourly monthly – nightly – quarterly – weekly - yearly Adverbs of manner: accidentally – angrily – anxiously – awkwardly – badly – beautifully – blindly – boldly – bravely brightly – busily – calmly – carefully – carelessly – cautiously – cheerfully – clearly – closely –
correctly – courageously - cruelly – daringly – deliberately – doubtfully – eagerly – easily – elegantly enormously – enthusiastically – equally – eventually – exactly – faithfully – fast – fatally – fiercely fondly – foolishly – fortunately – frankly – frantically – generously – gently – gladly – gracefully – greedily – happily – hard – hastily – healthily – honestly – hungrily – hurriedly – inadequately – ingeniously – innocently – inquisitively – irritably – joyously – justly – kindly – lazily – loosely – loudly – madly – mortally – mysteriously – neatly – nervously – noisily – obediently – openly – painfully – patiently – perfectly – politely – poorly – powerfully – promptly – punctually – quickly – quietly – rapidly – rarely – really – recklessly – regularly – reluctantly – repeatedly – rightfully roughly – rudely – sadly – safely – selfishly – sensibly – seriously – sharply – shyly – silently – sleepily – slowly – smoothly – softly – solemnly – speedily – stealthily – sternly – straight – stupidly successfully – suddenly – suspiciously – swiftly – tenderly – tensely – thoughtfully – tightly –truthfully – unexpectedly – victoriously – violently – vivaciously – warmly – weakly – wearily – well wildly – wisely Adverbs of degree: Almost – absolutely – awfully – badly – barely – completely – decidedly – deeply – enough – enormously – entirely – extremely – fairly – far – fully – greatly – hardly – highly – how – incredibly indeed – intensely – just – least – less – Little – lots – most – much – nearly – perfectly – positively practically – pretty – purely – quite – rather – really – scarcely – simply – so – somewhat – strongly terribly – thoroughly – too – totally – utterly – very – virtually - well Adverbs of certainty:
actually – admittedly – altogether – certainly – clearly – definitely – evidently – honestly – literally – maybe - of course – obviously – naturally – presumably – probably – reportedly – simply – surely – undoubtedly – virtually Prepositions: Prepositions are words which link nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence. Prepositions usually describe the position of something, the time when something happens and the way in which something is done, although the prepositions "of," "to," and "for" have some separate functions. Prepositions can also be used to end sentences. In general, we use as preposition of place and time: at POINT
in ENCLOSED SPACE
on SURFACE
at the corner
in the garden
on the wall
at the bus stop
in London
on the ceiling
at the door
in France
on the door
at the top of the page
in a box
on the cover
at the end of the road
in my pocket
on the floor
at the entrance
in my wallet
on the carpet
at the crossroads
in a building
on the menu
at the front desk
in a car
on a page
also… in these standard expressions: at home
in a car
on a bus
at work
in a taxi
on a train
at school
in a helicopter
on a plane
at university
in a boat
on a ship
at college
in a elevator
on a bicycle
at the top
in the newspaper
on a horse
at the bottom
in the sky
on the radio
at the side
in a row
on the reception
Preposition of place: above – across – against – along – among - around – behind – below – beside – between close to – down – from - in front of – inside – into – near - next to – onto – opposite – out – outside – over – round - through – under – up Preposition of time:
after – ago – before – between - by – during – for - from – past – since – till – until - to – up to – within
Connectors: 1. Examples: (making contrasts) Although - In spite – However – Nevertheless - Even though 2. Examples: (adding) Also – Besides - In addition – That – Moreover - On the one hand - Furthermore 3. Examples: (expressing the result or consequence of something) Therefore - For this reason - As a result – Properly – why – Because - What
4. Revision exercise. Much as – Consequently - On account of – So - Even if – Since – Through – But – For - All the same 5. Examples: (ways of expressing an opinion) In my opinión - As far as 6. Examples: (reaching conclusions) Into account – Briefly - After all - All in all - In short 7. Esamples: (organising the sequence of events, facts and so forth) First of all - In the first place – Firstly - In the second place – Then – Next - After that – Finally - To begin with - To end with - To conclude with – 8. Examples: (giving examples) For instance - As a case in point - Such as Others:
by comparison - on the contrary - in any case - all the same – likewise – similarly - in the same way - above all - most significantly – particularization - in fact – actually - talking of – rather – meanwhile – anyway Interjection: In grammar, an interjection or exclamation may be a word used to express an emotion or sentiment on the part of the speaker although most interjections have clear definitions. Filled
pauses such as uh, er, um are also considered interjections. Interjections are often placed at the beginning of a sentence. An interjection is sometimes expressed as a single word or non-sentence phrase, followed by a punctuation mark. The isolated usage of an interjection does not represent a complete sentence in conventional English writing. Thus, in formal writing, the interjection will be incorporated into a larger sentence clause. Several English interjections contain sounds, or are sounds as opposed to words, that do not or very rarely exist in regular English phonological inventory. For example: Ahem [əʔəm] - Gah [ɡæh] – Oops - Psst [psː] - Shh [ʃːː] - Tut-tut [tʌt tʌt] - Ugh [ʌx] - phew [ɸɪu] Yeah [jɛ]
10. WH - Question Words We use question words to ask certain types of questions. We often refer to them as WH words because they include the letters WH-. Question Word
Function
Example
asking for information about something
What is your name?
asking for repetition or confirmation
What? I can't hear you. You did what?
what...for
asking for a reason, asking why
What did you do that for?
when
asking about time
When did he leave?
where
asking in or at what place or position
Where do they live?
what
which
asking about choice
Which colour do you want?
who
asking what or which person or people (subject)
Who opened the door?
whom
asking what or which person or people (object)
Whom did you see?
whose
asking about ownership
Whose are these keys? Whose turn is it?
why
asking for reason, asking what...for
Why do you say that?
asking about manner
How does this work?
asking about condition or quality
How was your exam?
how far
distance
How far Bangkok?
how long
length (time or space)
How long will it take?
how many
quantity (countable)
How many cars are there?
how much
quantity (uncountable)
How much money do you have?
how old
age
How old are you?
How come (informal)
asking for reason, asking why
How come I can't see her?
how
is
Pattaya
from
11. Words with almost similar pronounciation, different in meaning and written form, one phoneme only change: Amuse – abuse –
Look - cook – took – book - hook
Fear – bear – wear – tear – near – dear -
Dust – just –
Site – cite – lite -
Nick - sick – pick – tick – dick – lick - chick
Pow – bow – tow - cow – row – sow – now -
Shame – share – shake – shave – shape –
Bill – pill – gill – hill -
Call - mall – ball – wall – hall – tall – fall -
Set – met – pet – net – bet – let -
Sell – cell – gell – bell – well – dell – tell -
Hat – bat – mat – sat – fat – cat
Back – pack – sack – lack –
Gold – sold – cold – fold -
Feet – meet – sheet – heet – beet –
Cool – pool – wool -
Hut – cut – but – nut – gut – put –
Right – might – night – sight – tight – light –
Fun – run – nun – gun – sun -
Take – make – cake – pake – lake – sake -
Wine – mine – shine – line – nine – fine -
May – say – lay – day – way – bay –
Need – seed – speed –
Tan – pan – pan – man – van –
Five – live – give – dive -
Watch – match – catch –
Send – lend – spend – mend –
Seat – beat – neat – heat – feat – meat -
Land – sand –
Some – come –
Sink – pink –
Lit – sit – pit – hit -
Sound – pound –
Lame – same – name –
Mike - like – dike – pike -
Jar – car – far -
Try – fry – cry – dry –
Mea – seal – deal – peal -
12. Tag Ending or Tag Questions Tag questions are something like negative questions. They are used when someone thinks he or she knows an answer and wants confirmation. There are two very commonly used types of tag questions--one made from affirmative ( + ) sentences, the other made from negative ( - ) sentences:
*Three basic rules that you should keep in mind: 1. Tag questions it is used auxiliaries verbs. 2. Affirmative Sentences use one tag question in NEGATIVE. 3. Negative sentences use one tag question in AFFIRMATIVE.
Examples: With verb to Be in affirmative sentences:
•
It's a beautiful day, isn't it?
•
Martha is angry, isn't she?
•
You are really tired, aren't you?
•
They're very nice people, aren't they?
•
You are coming tomorrow, aren't you?
•
Pedro's flying now, isn't he?
Exception cases:
•
I'm late, aren't I?
•
I'm arriving late at night, aren't I?
Verb to Be in negative sentences:
•
I'm not late, am I?
•
It isn't a beautiful day, is it?
•
Martha isn't angry, is she?
•
You aren't really tired, are you?
•
They aren't very nice people, are they?
•
You aren't coming tomorrow, are you?
•
Pedro isn't flying now, is he?
Verb to Be in Past Tense; affirmative and negative sentences:
•
It was a beautiful day, wasn't it?
•
Martha was angry, wasn't she?
•
You were really tired, weren't you?
•
You were studying at 6, weren't you?
•
He was flying when I phoned, wasn't he?
•
It wasn't a beautiful day, was it?
•
Martha wasn't angry, was she?
•
You weren't really tired, were you?
•
You weren't studying at 6, were you?
•
He wasn't flying when I phoned, was he?
Another auxiliary verbs:
•
You went to Costa Rica in 1990, didn't you?
•
Elena has traveled a lot, hasn't she?
•
Ann will be here soon, won't she?
•
Tom should pass his exam, shouldn't he?
•
You can play the violin, can't you?
•
He could find a job, couldn't he?
Imperative, suggestions or invitations:
•
Let's go out for a walk, shall we?
•
Let's study tomorrow morning, shall we?
•
Open the door, will you?
•
Don't smoke in this room, will you?
Summary:
•
He's from Italy, isn't he?
•
He isn't from Italy, is he?
•
She's living in London, isn't she?
•
She isn't living in London, is she?
•
There were at the party, weren't they?
•
They weren't at the party, were they?
•
She speaks Estonian, doesn't she?
•
She doesn't speak Estonian, does she?
•
He had a good time, didn't he?
•
He didn't have a good time, did he?
•
She's lived here a long time, hasn't she?
•
She hasn't lived here a long time, has she?
•
They'd left when you arrived, hadn't they?
•
They hadn't left when you arrived, had they?
•
He can help us, can't he?
•
He can't help us, can he?
13. Use of Passive Voice Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action. Example: My bike was stolen. In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it. Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example shows: Example: A mistake was made. In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone (e.g. You have made a mistake.). Form of Passive Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs) Example: A letter was written. When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following: •
the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence
•
the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
•
the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped)
Examples of Passive Tense Simple Present
Simple Past
Present Perfect
Future
Modal aux.
Subject
Verb
Object
Rita
writes
a letter.
Passive: A letter
is written
by Rita.
Active:
wrote
a letter.
Passive: A letter
was written
by Rita.
Active:
has written
a letter.
Passive: A letter
has been written
by Rita.
Active:
will write
a letter.
Passive: A letter
will be written
by Rita.
Active:
can write
a letter.
can be written
by Rita.
Verb
Object
is writing
a letter.
Active:
Rita
Rita
Rita
Rita
Passive: A letter
Examples of Passive Tense
Subject
Present Progressive Active: Rita
Past Progressive
Past Perfect
Future II
Conditional I
Conditional II
Passive: A letter
is being written
by Rita.
Active: Rita
was writing
a letter.
Passive: A letter
was being written
by Rita.
Active: Rita
had written
a letter.
Passive: A letter
had been written
by Rita.
Active: Rita
will have written
a letter.
Passive: A letter
will have been written
by Rita.
Active: Rita
would write
a letter.
Passive: A letter
would be written
by Rita.
Active: Rita
would have written
a letter.
Passive: A letter
would have been written
by Rita.
Passive Sentences with Two Objects Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on. Subject
Verb
Object 1
Object 2
Active:
Rita
wrote
a letter
to me.
Passive:
A letter
was written
to me
by Rita.
Passive:
I
was written
a letter
by Rita.
Active / Passive Overview Active
Passive
Simple Present
Once a week, Tom cleans the house.
Once a week, the house is cleaned by Tom.
Present Continuous
Right now, Sarah is writing the letter.
Right now, the letter is being written by Sarah.
Simple Past
Sam repaired the car.
The car was repaired by Sam.
Past Continuous
The salesman was helping the customer when the thief came into the store.
The customer was being helped by the salesman when the thief came into the store.
Present Perfect
Many tourists have visited that castle.
That castle has been visited by many tourists.
Present Perfect Continuous
Recently, John has been doing the work.
Recently, the work has been being done by John.
Past Perfect
George had repaired many cars before he received his mechanic's license.
Many cars had been repaired by George before he received his mechanic's license.
Past Perfect Continuous
Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant's fantastic dinners for two years before he moved to Paris.
The restaurant's fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years before he moved to Paris.
Simple Future will
Someone will finish the work by 5:00 PM.
The work will be finished by 5:00 PM.
Simple Future be going to
Sally is going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.
A beautiful dinner is going to be made by Sally tonight.
Future Continuous will
At 8:00 PM tonight, John will be washing the dishes.
At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will be being washed by John.
Future Continuous be going to
At 8:00 PM tonight, John is going to be washing the dishes.
At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are going to be being washed by John.
Future Perfect will
They will have completed the project before the deadline.
The project will have been completed before the deadline.
Future Perfect be going to
They are going to have completed the project before the deadline.
The project is going to have been completed before the deadline.
Future Perfect Continuous will
The famous artist will have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.
The mural will have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.
Future Perfect Continuous be going to
The famous artist is going to have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.
The mural is going to have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.
Used to
Jerry used to pay the bills.
The bills used to be paid by Jerry.
Would Always
My mother would always make the pies.
The pies would always be made by my mother.
Future in the Past Would
I knew John would finish the work by 5:00 PM.
I knew the work would be finished by 5:00 PM.
Future in the Past Was Going to
I thought Sally was going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.
I thought a beautiful dinner was going to be made by Sally tonight.
14. Used to: We use 'used to' for something that happened regularly in the past but no longer happens.
•
I used to smoke a packet a day but I stopped two years ago.
•
Ben used to travel a lot in his job but now, since his promotion, he doesn't.
•
I used to drive to work but now I take the bus.
We also use it for something that was true but no longer is.
•
There used to be a cinema in the town but now there isn't.
•
She used to have really long hair but she's had it all cut off.
•
I didn't use to like him but now I do.
We use 'to be used to doing' to say that something is normal, not unusual.
•
I'm used to living on my own. I've done it for quite a long time.
•
Hans has lived in England for over a year so he is used to driving on the left now.
•
They've always lived in hot countries so they aren't used to the cold weather here.
We use 'to get used to doing' to talk about the process of something becoming normal for us.
•
I didn't understand the accent when I first moved here but I quickly got used to it.
•
She has started working nights and is still getting used to sleeping during the day.
•
I have always lived in the country but now I'm beginning to get used to living in the city.
15. Conjugation of Important Verbs: In these conjugations you better pay attention these verbs, they have different role as principal verbs or an auxiliary verbs, others do not have third pronoun conjugations and proggressives and perfect tenses. An asterisk tells you that is not common in English.
Be Personal Pronoun
Present
I
Am
You
Past
Future + (will)
Present
Past Progressive + was/were
Present Perfect + (have)
Past Perfect + (had)
Was
Will be
Am being*
Was being*
Have been
Had been
Are
Were
Will be
Are being
Were being
Have been
Had been
He
Is
Was
Will be
Is being
Was being
Has been
Had been
She
Is
Was
Will be
Is being
Was being
Has been
Had been
It
Is
Was
Will be
Is being
Was being
Has been
Had been
We
Are
Were
Will be
are being
Were being
Have been
Had been
You
Are
Were
Will be
Are being
Were being
Have been
Had been
They
Are
Were
Will be
Are being
Were being
Have been
Had been
Personal Pronoun
Present
Past
Future + (will)
Present
Past Progressive + was/were
Present Perfect + (have)
Past Perfect + (had)
I
Do
Did
Will do
Am doing
Was doing
Have done
Had done
You
Do
Did
Will do
Are doing
Were doing
Have done
Had done
He
Does
Did
Will do
Is doing
Was doing
Has done
Had done
She
Does
Did
Will do
Is doing
Was doing
Has done
Had done
It
Does
Did
Will do
Is doing
Was doing
Has done
Had done
We
Do
Did
Will do
Are doing
Were doing
Have done
Had done
You
Do
Did
Will do
are doing
Were doing
Have done
Had done
They
Do
Did
Will do
Are doing
Were doing
Have done
Had done
Personal Pronoun
Present
Past
Future + (will)
Present
Past Progressive + was/were
Present Perfect + (have)
Past Perfect + (had)
I
Can
Could
*
*
*
Been able
*
You
Can
Could
Been able
He
Can *
Could
Been able
Progressive + am, is /are
Do Progressive + am, is /are
Can Progressive + am, is /are
She
Can
Could
Been able
It
Can
Could
Been able
We
Can
Could
Been able
You
Can
Could
Been able
They
Can
Could
Been able
Personal Pronoun
Present
Past
I
Have
You
Have Future + (will)
Present
Past Progressive + was/were
Present Perfect + (have)
Past Perfect + (had)
Had
Will have
Am having *
Was having *
Have had
Had had
Have
Had
Will have
Are having
Were having
Have had
Had had
He
Has
Had
Will have
Is having
Was having
Has had
Had had
She
Has
Had
Will have
Is having
Was having
Has had
Had had
It
Has
Had
Will have
Is having
Was having
Has had
Had had
We
Have
Had
Will have
Are having
Were having
Have had
Had had
You
Have
Had
Will have
Are having
Were having
Have had
Had had
They
Have
Had
Will have
Are having
Were having
Have had
Had had
Personal Pronoun
Present
Past
Future + (will)
Present
Past Progressive + was/were
Present Perfect + (have)
Past Perfect + (had)
I
Study
Studied
Will study
Am studying
Was studying
Have studied
Had studied
You
Study
Studied
Will study
Are studying
Were studying
Have studied
Had studied
He
Studies
Studied
Will study
Is studying
Was studying
Has studied
Had studied
She
Studies
Studied
Will study
Is studying
Was studying
Has studied
Had studied
It
Studies
Studied
Will study
Is studying
Was studying
Has studied
Had studied
We
Study
Studied
Will study
are studying
Were studying
Has studied
Had studied
You
Study
Studied
Will study
Are studying
Were studying
Has studied
Had studied
They
Study
Studied
Will study
Are studying
Were studying
Has studied
Had studied
Present
Past
Future + (will)
Present
Past Progressive +
Present Perfect +
Past Perfect + (had)
Progressive + am, is /are
Study Progressive + am, is /are
Write Personal Pronoun
Progressive + am, is /are
was/were
(have)
I
Write
Wrote
Will write
Am witing
Was writing
Have written
Had written
You
Write
Wrote
Will write
Are writing
Were writing
Have written
Had written
He
Writes
Wrote
Will write
Is writing
Was writing
Has written
Had written
She
Writes
Wrote
Will write
Is writing
Was writing
Has written
Had written
It
Writes
Wrote
Will write
Is writing
Was writing
Has written
Had written
We
Write
Wrote
Will write
Are writing
Were writing
Have written
Had written
You
Write
Wrote
Will write
Are writing
Were writing
Have written
Had written
They
Write
Wrote
Will write
Are writing
Were writing
Have written
Had written
16. Places, Buildings and Monuments Places:
Building:
Monument:
School
Empire State
Capitol
University
ONU Building
Brige Tower
Hospital
House
Eifiel Tower
Bank
Apartment
Pissa Tower
Book store
Condonminium
Pharmacy
Bungalow
Church
Castle
City Hall
Masion
Restaurant
Chack
Cafeteria
Hut
Store
Cathedral
Justice Hall Park Discotec Mall Supermark Car Wash Convention Center
Gas Station Stadium Police Station Library Theater Museum Gymnasium Art Gallery Court House Bakery Emabassy Fire Station Factory Post Office Bus Station Taxi Station Air Port Floristry
Vowels IPA
Examples
ʌ
cup, luck
ɑ:
arm, father
æ
cat, black
e
met, bed
ə
away, cinema
ɜ:ʳ
turn, learn
ɪ
hit, sitting
i:
see, heat
ɒ
hot, rock
ɔ:
call, four
ʊ
put, could
u:
blue, food
aɪ
five, eye
aʊ
now, out
eɪ
say, eight
oʊ
go, home
ɔɪ
boy, join
eəʳ
where, air
ɪəʳ
near, here
ʊəʳ
pure, tourist
Consonants IPA
Examples
b
bad, lab
d
did, lady
f
find, if
g
give, flag
h
how, hello
j
yes, yellow
k
cat, back
l
leg, little
m
man, lemon
n
no, ten
ŋ
sing, finger
p
pet, map
r
red, try
s
sun, miss
ʃ
she, crash
t
tea, getting
tʃ
check, church
θ
think, both
ð
this, mother
v
voice, five
w
wet, window
z
zoo, lazy
ʒ
pleasure, vision
dʒ
just, large
17. The Verb To Be Probably the best known verb: "To be" Forms of To Be Present
Past
Perfect Form
Continuous Form
I
am
was
have / had been
am / was being
he / she / it
is
was
has / had been
is / was being
you / we / they
are
were
have / had been
are / were being
Normally we use the verb to be to show the status or characteristics of something or someone. It says what I am, what you are or what something is. Present Simple I am a You are a He /She is It is a car. teacher. student. a student.
We are all teachers.
They are students.
Past Simple I was a You were He /She was a student. a student. student.
It was a nice day yesterday. We were all students once. They were students.
Future Simple I will be You will He / She a be a will be a student. teacher. teacher.
It will be nice later.
We will be teachers.
They will be students.
When used with the present participle of other verbs it describes actions that are or were still continuing auxiliary verb be [+ ing form of the main verb]. Present Continuous I am You are being being He /She is being silly. It is being silly. silly. silly.
We are being silly.
They are being silly.
We were being silly.
They were being silly.
Past Continuous You I was were being being silly. silly.
He /She was being It was being silly. silly.
18. Do and Does as an Auxiliary and and as a Main Verb The verb do can be an auxiliary verb and a main verb in English. Simple Present (do, does, don't, doesn't) Pronouns
Affirmative sentences
Negative senteces
Questions
I
I do my homework.
I do not do my homework.*
Do I do my homework?*
you
You do your homework. You do not do your homework.* Do you do your homework?*
he, she, it
He does his homework.
He does not do his homework.* Does he do his homework?
we, you, they They do their homework. They do not do their homework.* Do they do their homework?
Simple Past (did, didn't)
Pronoun
Affirmative Sentence
Negative Sentence
Question
did a special activity.
did not a special activity.
Did _____ a special activity?
I You He She It We You
They
*Past participle (done) Pronouns
Affirmative sentences
Negative senteces
Questions
I, you, we, you, they We have done the shopping. We have not done the shopping. Have we done the shopping? he, she, it
He has done the shopping. He has not done the shopping. Has he done the shopping?
Present Progressive, Gerund, present participle) – (doing) affirmative
negative
I am doing my homework.
I am not doing my homework.
Doing my homework is not always fun. Not doing my homework is not clever. I saw Jane doing her homework.
I didn't see Jane doing her homework
19. Wh – Question For asking information
Question What When Who Where Why How Example:
Answer Thing Time Person Place Reason Directions/Feelings
Example What is that? When is the game? Who do you live with? Where do you live? Why are you happy? How are you?
20. The Direct / Indirect Object
Direct Object A direct object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb or shows the result of the action. It answers the question "What?" or "Whom?" after an action verb. An action verb with a direct object is called a transitive verb. The direct objects on this page are italicized. Notice each question being answered: "Receives what?" "The action"; "Shows what?" "The question"; etc. Recognize a direct object when you see one. Direct objects are nouns, pronouns, phrases, and clauses that follow transitive verbs [a type of action verb]. If you can identify the subject and verb in a sentence, then finding the direct object--if one exists--is easy. Just remember this simple formula: Subject + verb + what? [sometimes who?] = the direct object Examples:
•
Zippy accidentally kicked Maurice in the shin.
Zippy = subject | kicked = verb | Zippy kicked who? Maurice = direct object Sometimes direct objects are single words like soccer and Maurice; other times they are phrases or clauses. The formula nevertheless works the same.
•
Even worse, Sylina hates when Mom lectures her about hand care.
Sylina = subject | hates = verb | Sylina hates what? When Mom lectures her about hand care [subordinate clause] = direct object Direct objects can also follow verbals--infinitives, gerunds, and participles. Use this abbreviated version of the formula: Verbal + what? (sometimes who?) = direct object Examples:
•
To see magnified blood cells, Gus squinted into the microscope on the lab table.
To see = infinitive | To see what? Blood cells = direct object Dragging her seventy-five pound German shepherd through the door is Roseanne's least favorite part of going to the vet. Dragging = gerund | Dragging what? Her seventy-five pound German shepherd = direct object Don't confuse direct objects and subject complements.
Only action verbs can have direct objects. If the verb is linking, then the word that answers the what? or who? Question is a subject complement. The space alien from the planet Zortek accidentally locked his keys in his space ship. Alien = subject | locked = action verb | The space alien locked what? His keys = direct object. The space alien was happy to find a spare key taped under the wing. Alien = subject | was = linking verb | The space alien was what? Happy = subject complement. Example:
•
After giving my dog Oreo a scoop of peanut butter, she always kisses me with her sticky tongue.
She = subject | kisses = verb | She kisses who? Me = direct object Because Jo had cut Mr. Duncan's class five times in a row, she ducked out of sight whenever she spotted him on campus. She = subject | spotted = verb | She spotted who? Him = direct object Inside the Predicate Now we will look inside the Predicate, and assign functions to its constituents. Recall that the Predicate is everything apart from the Subject. So in David plays the piano, the Predicate is plays the piano. This Predicate consists of a verb phrase, and we can divide this into two further elements: [plays] [the piano] In formal terms, we refer to the verb as the PREDICATOR, because its function is to predicate or state something about the subject. Notice that Predicator is a functional term, while verb is a formal term: FORM
FUNCTION
Verb
Predicator
Indirect Object An indirect object precedes the direct object and tells to whom or for whom the action of the verb is done and who is receiving the direct object. There must be a direct object to have an indirect object. Indirect objects are usually found with verbs of giving or communicating like give, bring, tell, show, take, or offer. An indirect object is always a noun or pronoun which is not part of a prepositional phrase. Example:
•
She gave me the report.
The indirect object is often used right before a direct object and does not follow a preposition, as illustrated in the phrases above. If a preposition is used, then the word becomes the object of that preposition, as in the following, where to and for are prepositions and man and yourself are their objects:
•
We will make an offer to the man. Get a job for yourself.
Example:
•
Suellen gave Thomas the answers to the test.
You will recall, that in our discussion of direct objects, the way to find them is to state the action verb in a question ending with "What". In the sentence above we have an action verb, "gave", and an answer to the question "Gave what?", "answers". Therefore we have the direct object, "answers". Is there anything in the sentence that received the direct object? You bet, Thomas! "Thomas" is the Indirect Object. Examples: An indirect object is really a prepositional phrase in which the preposition to or for is not stated but understood. It tells to whom or for whom something is done. The indirect object always comes between the verb and the direct object. Example: She gave me a gift. The indirect object always modifies the verb. It may have modifiers and be compound. It is used with verbs such as give, tell, send, get, buy, show, build, do, make, save, and read. Example: She sent the man and me a gift.
Find the verb, direct object, and indirect object in the following sentences. 1. Has your boss sent you a notice about the next convention? 2. John read his tiny nephew an exciting story. 3. Our father built the family a redwood picnic table. 4. The doctor sent me a bill for his services. 5. We gave my mother a book for her birthday.
21. The Punctuation Marks in English The Comma (,)
The comma is useful in a sentence when the writer wishes to: pause before proceeding add a phrase that does not contain any new subject separate items on a list use more than one adjective (a describing word, like beautiful) For example, in the following sentence the phrase or clause between the commas gives us more information behind the actions of the boy, the subject of the sentence:
The boy, who knew that his mother was about to arrive, ran quickly towards the
opening door.
Note that if the phrase or clause were to be removed, the sentence would still make sense although there would be a loss of information. Alternatively, two sentences could be used:
The boy ran quickly towards the opening door. He knew that his mother was about
to arrive.
Commas are also used to separate items in a list. For example:
The shopping trolley was loaded high with bottles of beer, fruit, vegetables, toilet
rolls, cereals and cartons of milk.
Note that in a list, the final two items are linked by the word ‘and’ rather than by a comma. Commas are used to separate adjectives. For example:
The boy was happy, eager and full of anticipation at the start of his summer holiday.
As commas represent a pause, it is good practice to read your writing out loud and listen to where you make natural pauses as you read it. More often than not, you will indicate where a comma should be placed by a natural pause. Although, the ‘rules’ of where a comma needs to be placed should also be followed. For example:
However, it has been suggested that some bees prefer tree pollen.
The Period (.) A full stop should always be used to end a sentence. The full stop indicates that a point has been made and that you are about to move on to further explanations or a related point. Less frequently, a series of three full stops (an ellipsis) can be used to indicate where a section of a quotation has been omitted when it is not relevant to the text, for example: “The boy was happy… at the start of his summer holiday.” A single full stop may also be used to indicate the abbreviation of commonly used words as in the following examples: Telephone Number = Tel. No. September = Sept. Pages = pp.
Exclamation Mark (!) An exclamation mark indicates strong feeling within a sentence, such as fear, anger or love. It is also used to accentuate feeling within the written spoken word. For example: “Help! I love you!”
In this way, it can also be used to indicate a sharp instruction
“Stop! Police!”
or to indicate humour
“Ha! Ha! Ha!”
The exclamation mark at the end of a sentence means that you do not need a full stop or period. Exclamation marks are a poor way of emphasising what you think are important points in your written assignments; the importance of the point will emphasise itself without a sequence of !!! in the text. An exclamation mark should only be used when absolutely essential, or when taken from a direct quote. The exclamation mark should be used sparingly in formal and semi-formal writing.
Question Mark (?) The question mark simply indicates that a sentence is asking a question. It always comes at the end of a sentence: For example:
Are we at the end?
Note that the question mark also serves as a full stop.
Semi-colon (;) The semi-colon is perhaps the most difficult sign of punctuation to use accurately. If in doubt, avoid using it and convert the added material into a new sentence. As a general rule, the semi-colon is used in the following ways: When joining two connected sentences. For example:
We set out at dawn; the weather looked promising.or
Assertive behaviour concerns being able to express feelings, wants and desires appropriately; passive behaviour means complying with the wishes of others. The semicolon can also be used to assemble detailed lists. For example: The conference was attended by delegates from Paris, France; Paris, Texas; London, UK; Stockholm, Sweden; Colombo, Sri Lanka; and Mumbai, India.
Colon (:) The colon within a sentence makes a very pointed pause between two phrases. There are two main uses of the colon:
It is most commonly used when listing.
For example:
She placed the following items into the trolley: beer, fruit, vegetables, toilet rolls,
cereals and cartons of milk.
Or it can be used within a heading, or descriptive title.
For example:
Human Resource Management: Guidelines for Telephone Advisers
Apostrophe (’) The apostrophe, sometimes called an inverted comma has two main uses. The apostrophe indicates possession or ownership. For example: The girl's hat was green, (girl is in the singular).
This shows the reader that the hat belongs to the girl. The girls' hats were green, (girls in this instance are plural, i.e. more than one girl, more than one hat). This indicates that the hats belong to the girls. Another use of the apostrophe is to indicate where a letter is omitted: For example:
We're going to do this course. (We are going to do this course.)
Isn’t this a fine example of punctuation? (Is not this a fine example of punctuation?) The time is now 7 o’ clock. (The time is now 7 of the clock)
Note that a common mistake is to confuse its with it’s. It’s indicates to the reader that a letter has been omitted. For example:
It’s a lovely day is an abbreviated way of saying: It is a lovely day.
Note that in most formal writing, the practice of using abbreviated words is inappropriate.
Quotation or Speech Marks (“….”) Quotation or speech marks are used to: to mark out speech when quoting someone else's speech. For example: My grandpa said, "Share your chocolates with your friends."
"George, don't do that!"
"Will you get your books out please?” said Mrs Jones, the teacher, “and quieten
down!"
It is worth noting that to report an event back does not require speech or quotation marks. For example: Mrs Jones told the pupils to take out their books and to quieten down.
Hyphen (-) The hyphen is used to link words together. For example: sub-part eighteenth-century people week-end second-class post gender-neutral non-verbal
The hyphen is also used when a word is split between two lines. The hyphen should be placed between syllables at the end of the upper line and indicates to the reader that the word will be completed on the next line. Computer applications such as Word Processors can be set to automatically hyphenate words for you, although it is more common to use extra spacing to avoid hyphenation.
Brackets ( ) Brackets always come in pairs ( ) and are used to make an aside, or a point which is not part of the main flow of a sentence. If you remove the words between the brackets, the sentence should still make sense. For example: “The strategy (or strategies) chosen to meet the objectives may need to change as
the intervention continues.” Another example is as follows: “We can define class as a large-scale grouping of people who share common
economic resources that strongly influence the types of lifestyle they are able to lead. Ownership of wealth, together with occupation, are the chief basis of class differences. The major classes that exist in Western societies are an upper class (the wealthy, employers and industrialists, plus tops executives – those who own or directly control productive resources); a middle class (which includes most whitecollar workers and professionals); and a working class (those in blue-collar or manual jobs).”
Square Brackets […] A different set of square brackets [ ] can be used: to abbreviate lengthy quotations, to correct the tense of a quotation to suit the tense of your own sentence, to add your own
words to sections of an abbreviated quotation, to abbreviate lengthy quotations in an essay or report
“We can define class as a large-scale grouping of people who share common
economic resources that strongly influence the types of lifestyle they are able to lead. Ownership of wealth, together with occupation, are the chief basis of class differences. The major classes that exist in Western societies are an upper class […]; a middle class […] and a working class […].”
To adjust a quotation to suit your own sentence. For example, if you were writing about class structure, you might use the following:
According to Giddens, (1997, p.243) the “[o]wnership of wealth, together with
occupation, are the chief basis of class differences”.
Note, that when using square brackets, only the occasional letter as in the above example or the occasional word (for example when changing the tense of the sentence) would be placed in square brackets in this way.
Slash (/) Many people use the slash instead of or, and etc., but this is not always helpful to the reader. There is, however, a modern convention in gender-neutral writing to use ‘s/he’. Slashes are important symbols in web-addresses. 22. Transition Words Transitions are phrases or words used to connect one idea to the next, transitions are used by the author to help the reader progress from one significant idea to the next, transitions also show the relationship within a paragraph (or within a sentence) between the main idea and the support the author gives for those ideas, different transitions do different things.
Transitions may be "Additive," "Adversative," "Causal," or "Sequential."
Additive Transitions
Addition
Reference
Identification
Introduction
Similarity
Clarification
Adversative Transitions
Replacement
Consequence
Continuation Conclusion
Conflict
Causal Transitions
Emphasis
Digression
Cause/Reason
Concession
Causual Transitions
Effect/Result
Dismissal
Resumption Summation
Numerical
Purpose
Additive Transitions: These show addition, introduction, similarity to other ideas, &c. Addition: indeed,
further,
as well (as this),
either (neither),
not only (this) but also (that) as well,
also,
moreover,
what is more,
as a matter of fact,
in all honesty,
and,
furthermore,
in addition (to this),
besides (this),
to tell the truth,
or,
in fact,
actually,
to say nothing of,
too,
let alone,
much less
additionally,
nor,
alternatively,
on the other hand,
not to mention (this),
Introduction: such as,
as,
particularly,
including,
as an illustration,
for example,
like,
in particular,
for one thing,
to illustrate
for instance,
especially,
notably,
by way of example,
Reference: speaking about (this),
considering (this),
regarding (this),
with regards to (this),
as for (this),
concerning (this),
the fact that
on the subject of (this)
Similarity: similarly,
in the same way,
equally
likewise,
by the same token,
in a like manner,
Identification: that is (to say),
namely,
specifically,
I mean,
(to) put (it)
thus,
Clarification: that is (to say),
another way
in other words,
Adversative Transitions: These transitions are used to signal conflict, contradiction concession, dismissal, &c. Conflict: but,
by way of contrast,
while,
on the other hand,
however,
(and) yet,
whereas,
though (final position),
in contrast,
when in fact,
conversely,
still
above all,
indeed,
more importantly,
besides
but even so,
nevertheless,
even though,
on the other hand,
admittedly,
however,
nonetheless,
despite (this),
notwithstanding (this),
albeit
(and) still,
although,
in spite of (this),
(and) yet,
though, granted (this),
be that as it may,
either way,
whichever happens,
in either event,
in any case,
in either case,
whatever happens,
all the same,
in any event,
(or) rather,
instead
Emphasis: even more,
Concession:
regardless (of this),
Dismissal:
Replacement: (or) at least,
Causal Transitions: These transitions signal cause/effect and reason/result, etc. . . Cause/Reason:
at any rate,
for the (simple) reason that,
being that,
for,
in view of (the fact),
because (of the fact),
seeing that,
as,
owing to (the fact),
due to (the fact that),
in that
since,
forasmuch as,
on (the) condition (that),
granted (that),
if,
provided that,
in the event that,
as/so long as,
unless
given that,
granting (that),
providing that,
even if, only if,
inasmuch as,
Condition: in case,
Effect/Result: as a result (of this),
consequently,
hence,
for this reason,
because (of this),
in consequence,
so that, accordingly
as a consequence,
so much (so) that,
so,
for the purpose of,
in the hope that,
for fear that,
so that,
with this intention,
to the end that,
in order to,
lest
with this in mind,
in order that,
so as to, so,
thus,
therefore,
Purpose:
Consequence: under those circumstances,
then,
in that case,
that being the case,
if so,
otherwise
if not,
Sequential Transitions: These transitions are used to signal a chronological or logical sequence. Numerical: in the (first, second, etc.) place,
initially,
to start with,
to begin with,
at first, for a start,
first of all secondly,
Continuation: subsequently,
previously,
eventually,
next,
before (this),
afterwards,
after (this),
then
thirdly, &c.)
Conclusion: to conclude (with)
as a final point,
eventually,
at last,
last but not least,
in the end,
finally,
lastly,
incidentally,
by the way,
Digression: to change the topic
Resumption: to get back to the point,
to resume
anyhow,
anyway,
at any rate,
as was previously stated,
so,
consequently,
in summary,
all in all,
to make a long story short,
thus,
as I have said,
to sum up,
overall,
as has been mentioned,
then,
to summarize,
to be brief,
briefly,
given these points,
in all,
on the whole,
therefore,
as has been noted,
hence,
in conclusion,
in a word,
to put it briefly,
in sum,
altogether,
in short,
to return to the subject,
Summation:
23. Tips of Listening Skills The Technique. Active listening is really an extension of the rules or tips. To know how to listen to someone else or a speaker, think about how you would want to be listened to.
While the ideas are largely intuitive, it might take some practice to develop some skills like listening. Here’s what good listeners know.
1. Face the speaker; Sit up straight or lean forward slightly to show your attentiveness through body language.
2. Maintain eye contact; to the degree that you all remain comfortable.
3. Minimize external distractions; Turn off the TV. Put down your book or magazine, and ask the speaker and other listeners to do the same.
4. Respond appropriately to show that you understand; Murmur or raise your eyebrows. Say words such as “Really,” “Interesting,” as well as more direct prompts: “What did you do then?” and “What did they say?”
5. Focus solely on what the speaker is saying; Try not to think about what you are going to say next. The conversation will follow a logical flow after the speaker makes her point. 6. Minimize internal distractions; If your own thoughts keep horning in, simply let them go and continuously re-focus your attention on the speaker, much as you would during meditation.
7. Keep an open mind; Wait until the speaker is finished before deciding that you disagree. Try not to make assumptions about what the speaker is thinking.
8. Avoid letting the speaker know how you handled a similar situation; Unless they specifically ask for advice, assume they just need to talk it out.
9. Even if the speaker is launching a complaint against you; wait until they finish to defend yourself. The speaker will feel as though their point had been made. They won’t feel the need to repeat it, and you’ll know the whole argument before you respond. Research shows that, on average, we can hear four times faster than we can talk, so we have the ability to sort ideas as they come in…and be ready for more.
10. Engage yourself; Ask questions for clarification, but, once again, wait until the speaker has finished. That way, you won’t interrupt their train of thought. After you ask questions, paraphrase their point to make sure you didn’t misunderstand. Start with: “So you’re saying…”
Tips of Speaking Skills There are so many exciting ways to learn English and make the learning process fun. Tips of things you can do to improve your speaking skills: 1. Speak and practice every single time; Be confident and speak as often as possible to as many people as you possibly can! Do not be shy to make mistakes! The more you practice the better and more confident you will become in your pronunciation and vocabulary. 2. Read many book you have on your hands; When you are unsure of a word or a pronunciation of a word, ask google! It's easy to use! Enter the word in Google Translate and listen to the correct pronunciation by clicking on the audio button. 3. Listen yourself when you speak; Listen to news bulletins and songs in English to listen to the pronunciation of words. You can also learn new words and expressions this way. The more you listen, the more you learn! 4. Read Out Loud; Read the newspaper or a magazine out to yourself. Hearing yourself read will help you spot your mistakes better. 5. Learn a new word everyday; Choose a word you would like to work on and use practice it in different sentences. Use the word until you have learnt it and keep using it regularly.
6. Watch Films with or without written interprertation; Watch movies in English and pay attention to new vocabulary and pronunciation. Imitate the actors and have fun with it. 7. Attend to conversation clubs; Make friends with English speakers or others learning to speak English and compare notes. Talk about things that you have learnt and exchange ideas. 8. Do Interesting activities in English; Take a cooking course in English or join a book club! Anything you enjoy doing, make sure you do it and communicate it in English. 9. Have a f贸rum and debates; Debate all the topics that interest you with friends in English. Try to use as much vocabulary as you can to get your point across. 10. Use any simple technique to talk; The dictionary has millions of words to choose from! Look up different words and their synonyms and alternate how and when you use them in sentences.
Tips to Improve Your Reading Skills In the modern age of information, reading truly is a fundamental survival skill. Here are ten tips you better use to improve their reading skills: 1. You don't have to be a great reader to get the point; Some people read fast and remember everything. Others read slowly and take a couple of times to get all the information. It doesn't matter, really, so long as when you read, you get the information you're seeking. 2. Know What and Why you are Reading; Are you reading for entertainment or to learn something? Decide why you're reading before you start and you'll greatly improve your comprehension and your enjoyment. 3. You don't need to read everything; Not every magazine, letter, and email you receive contains information you need. In fact, most of it is simply junk. Throw it away, hit the delete key! Just doing this will double the amount of time you have available to read. 4. You don't need to read all of what you DO read; Do you read every article of every magazine, every chapter of every book? If so, you're probably spending a lot of time reading stuff you don't need. Be choosy: select the chapters and articles that are important. Ignore the rest. 5. Scan before you read; Look at the table of contents, index, topic headers, photo captions, etc. These will help you determine if, a) you have a real interest in this reading, and b) what information you're likely to get from it. 6. Prioritize your Reading; You can't read everything all at once (and wouldn't want to). If it's important, read it now. If it's not, let it wait. 7. Optimize your reading environment; You'll read faster and comprehend more if you read in an environment that's comfortable for you. 8. Once you start, don't stop; Read each item straight through. If you finish and have questions, go back and re-read the pertinent sections. If you don't have questions, you got what you needed and are ready to move on. 9. Focus; Remember, you're reading with a purpose, so focus on that purpose and the material. If you lose interest or keep losing your place, take a break or read something else. You can keep track of where you are by following along with your hand. This simple technique helps you focus and increase your concentration. 10. Practice; The more you read, the better reader you'll become (and smarter, too)! So, feed your mind: read!
Tips of Writing Skills Whether we're composing a blog or a business letter, an email or an essay, our goal should be to respond clearly and directly to the needs and interests of our readers. These 10 tips should help us sharpen our writing whenever we set out to inform or persuade. 1. Lead with your main idea. As a general rule, state the main idea of a paragraph in the first sentence-the topic sentence. Don't keep your readers guessing.
2. Vary the length of your sentences. In general, use short sentences to emphasize ideas. Use longer sentences to explain, define, or illustrate ideas.
3. Put key words and ideas at the beginning or end of a sentence. Don't bury a main point in the middle of a long sentence. To emphasize key words, place them at the beginning or (better yet) at the end.
4. Vary sentence types and structures. Vary sentence types by including occasional questions and commands. Vary sentence structures by blending simple, compound, and complex sentences.
5. Use active verbs. Don't overwork the passive voice or forms of the verb "to be." Instead, use dynamic verbs in the active voice.
6. Use specific nouns and verbs. To convey your message clearly and keep your readers engaged, use concrete and specific words that show what you mean.
7. Cut the clutter. When revising your work, eliminate unnecessary words. 8. Read aloud when you revise. When revising, you may hear problems (of tone, emphasis, word choice, and syntax) that you can't see. So listen up!
9. Actively edit and proofread. It's easy to overlook errors when merely looking over your work. So be on the lookout for common trouble spots when studying your final draft. 10. Use a dictionary. When proofreading, don't trust your spellchecker: it can tell you only if a word is a word, not if it's the right word.
24. Words with Prefixes Dis
im
in
mis
pre
disagree
impatient
inactive
misbehave
prearrange
disappear
imperfect
incomplete
mislay
precook
disarm
impolite
incorrect
mislead
prepaid
disconnect
impossible
indefinite
misplace
preschool
dishonest
impure
mispronounce
pretest
dislike
misread
preview
disloyal
misspell
dismount
mistreat
disobey
misuse
disorder disown distrust
re reappear
un remove
unable
unheated
rearm
rename
unafraid
unkind
rearrange
renumber
unbroken
unknown
recount
repack
uncertain
unlike
redo
repaint
uncommon
unlock
reenter
repay
uncooked
unlucky
refill
replace
uncover
unpainted
refresh
replay
undecided
unreal
refried
reread
undress
unselfish
regrew
rerun
unequal
untangle
regroup
resale
uneven
untied
reheat
reshape
unexpected
unusual
rehire
retell
unfair
unwrapped
reload
rethink
unfamiliar
remade
retrace
unfasten
remake
reword
unhappy
remarry
rewrite
unhealthy
Words with Suffix able
exchangeable
trainable
fatten
sharpen
admirable
imaginable
understandable
flatten
shorten
agreeable
laughable
usable
freshen
strengthen
approachable
likable
washable
gladden
sweeten
avoidable
manageable
golden
thicken
believable
moveable
wearable
harden
toughen
breakable
noticeable
workable
lengthen
whiten
comfortable
observable
en
lighten
widen
curable
pleasurable
blacken
loosen
desirable
readable
brighten
moisten
wooden
enjoyable
respectable
cheapen
quicken
er
excitable
salable
dampen
ripen
bomber
excusable
teachable
darken
sadden
catcher
commander
performer
ful
restful
forcible
dancer
pitcher
armful
successful
reversible
defender
pointer
careful
thankful
designer
rancher
cheerful
useful
dodger
robber
colorful
wasteful
driver
ruler
delightful
wonderful
dryer
scraper
fearful
youthful
explorer
settler
forgetful
follower
sharpener
helpful
ible
hopeful
collapsible
gambler golfer
shopper
joyful
collectible
invader
speaker
painful
convertible
juggler
stinger
peaceful
defensible
leader
teacher
playful
digestible
manager
trapper
respectful
expressible
painter
washer
25. Words with Different Roles
Adjective
Adverb
Noun
Verb
Accurate
accurately
accurateness
_____
agreeable
agreeably
agreement
agree
amazing, amazed
amazingly
amazement
amaze
annoying, annoyed
annoyingly
annoyance
annoy
artistic
artistically
art
______
associate
_______
association
associate
attractive
attractively
attractiveness
attract
behaved
_______
behaviour
behave
believable
believably
belief
believe
beneficial
beneficially
beneficiary
benefit
bold
boldly
boldness
______
casual
casually
casualness
______
clear
clearly
clear
______
comfortable
comfortably
comfort
comfort
convenient
conveniently
convenience
_______
commercial
commercially
commerce
_______
creative
creatively
creation
create
critical
critically
criticism
criticize
dated
dateless
datedness
date
decided
decidedly
decision
decide
decisive
decisively
decisiveness
______
deliberate
deliberately
_______
______
different
differently
_______
______
discuss
______
discussion disputable
disputably
dispute
dispute
distracted
distractedly
distraction
distract
ethical
ethically
ethic
______
exact
exactly
exactness
exact
extraordinary
extraordinarily
_______
______
fashionable
fashionably
fashion
fashion
fascinated, fascinating ________
fascination
fascinate
forgivable
________
forgiveness
forgive
fortunate
fortunately
fortune
______
friendly
friendlily
friendliness
______
happy
happily
happiness
______
harmonious
harmoniously
harmony
harmonize
hidden
________
_______
hide
heightened
height
heighten
______
honest
honestly
honesty
______
honourable
honourably
honour
honour
imaginable, imaginary imaginably
imagination
imagine
important
importantly
importance
_______
improvable
________
improvement
improve
inspirational
inspirationally
inspiration
inspire
intrigued / intriguing
intriguingly
intrigue
intrigue
intelligent
intelligently
intelligence
______
inventive
inventively
invention
invent
irritable
irritably
irritant / irritation
irritate
justified
justifiable
justification
justify
legal
legally
legality
legalize
legible
legibly
legibility
_______
legitimate
legitimately
legitimacy
legitimize
liberal
liberally
liberal
liberalize
likely
likely
likelihood
like
logical
logically
logic
_______
lucky
luckily
luck
_______
mature
maturely
maturity
mature
moral
morally
morality
moralize
mortal
mortally
mortality
_______
noticeable
noticeably
notice
notice
offensive
offensively
offensiveness
offend
ordinary
ordinarily
_______
_______
patient
patiently
patience
_______
perfect
perfect
perfection
perfect
________
_________
performance
perform
polite
politely
politeness
_______
possible
possibly
possibility
_______
powerful
powerfully
power
power
preventable
_________
prevention
prevent
probable
probably
probability
_______
professional
professionally
professionalism
_______
protective
protectively
protection
protect
rational
rationally
rationale /rationality
rationalize
recommended / recommending
recommendation
recommend
regular
regularly
regularity
_______
relevant
relevantly
relevance
_______
reliable
reliability
reliability
_______
religious
religiously
religiousness
_______
replaceable
________
replacement
replace
representative
________
representative
represent
respectful
respectable
respectability
respect
responsable
responsibly
responsibility
_______
reversible
reversibility
reverse
reverse
romantic
romantically
romantic
romanticize
satisfactory
satisfactorily
satisfaction
satisfy
significant
significantly
significance
signify
soluble
________
solubility
solution
speedy
speedily
speed
speed
successful
successfully
success
succeed
symbolic
symbolically
symbol
symbolize
talkative
________
talk / talkativeness
talk
tasteful
tastefully
tastefulness
taste
taught / teaching
________
teacher
teach
thrilled / thrilling
________
thrill
thrill
valid
________
validity
validate
26. A Little / A Few The expressions a little and a few mean some. If a noun is in singular, we use a little
Example: a little money
If a noun is in plural, we use a few Example:
a few friends
27. Countable / Uncountable Nouns
In connection with a little / a few people often speak of countable nouns and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns have a singular and a plural form. In plural, these nouns can be used with a number (that's why they are called 'countable nouns'). Countable nouns take a few.
Example:
4 friends – a few friends
Uncountable nouns can only be used in singular. These nouns cannot be used with a number (that's why they are called 'uncountable nouns'). Uncountable nouns take a little.
Example:
3 money – a little money
Note: Of course you can count money – but then you would name the currency and say that you have got 3 euro (but not „3 money“). A Little / A few or Little / Few
It's a difference if you use a little / a few or little / few. Without the article, the words have a limiting or negative meaning. a little = some little = hardly any
Example:
I need a little money. - I need some money. I need little money. - I need hardly any money. a few = some
Example:
few = hardly any
A few friends visited me. - Some friends visited me. Few friends visited me. - Hardly any friends visited me.
Without the article, little / few sound rather formal. That's why we don't use them very often in everyday English. A negative sentence with much / many is more common here.
Example:
I need little money. = I do not need much money. Few friends visited me. = Not many friends visited me.
28. Much / many
The words much and many mean a lot of. If a noun is in singular, we use much
Example:
much money
If a noun is in plural, we use many Example:
many friends Use of much / many
In everyday English, we normally use much / many only in questions and negative clauses.
Example:
How much money have you got? Carla does not have many friends.
In positive clauses with so, as or too, we also use much / many. Example:
Carla has so many friends. She has as many friends as Sue. Kevin has too much money.
In all other positive clauses, however, we prefer expressions like a lot of / lots of. Example:
Carla has a lot of / lots of friends.
Kevin has a lot of / lots of money.
In formal texts, however, much / many are also common in positive clauses. This you will notice for example when you read English news. Countable / Uncountable Nouns In connection with much / many people often speak of countable nouns and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns have a singular and a plural form. In plural, these nouns can be used with a number (that's why they are called 'countable nouns'). Countable nouns take many.
Example:
100 friends – many friends
Uncountable nouns can only be used in singular. These nouns cannot be used with a number (that's why they are called 'uncountable nouns'). Uncountable nouns take much.
Example:
100 money – much money
29. Some & Any
The words some and any are used for countable and uncountable nouns. In general, we could say that some means a few / a little and any means none in negative clauses or a few / a little in questions. Positive Clauses In positive clauses, we usually use some.
Example:
I have bought some bread. I have bought some apples.
Negative Clauses
In negative clauses, we use any. Note, however, that any alone is not a negative - it must be not ... any
Example:
I have not bought any bread. I have not bought any apples.
Questions In questions, we usually use any.
Example:
Have you bought any bread? Have you bought any apples?
30. Compound Words with some & any Some & any can also be part of compound words such as:
Something / anything Someone / anyone Somewhere / anywhere
Note that some & any have to be used with a noun while compound words with some & any can stand on their own.
Example:
I have bought some bread. I have bought something.
However, some and any need not stand directly before the noun. Sometimes, the noun appears somewhere before some or any and is not repeated. So if you are not sure whether to use some or something for example, check if there is a noun in the sentence that you can place after some.
Example:
I do not have to buy bread. Rachel has already bought some [bread].
Exceptions Positive Clauses with Any
We usually use some in positive clauses. But after never, without, hardly, we use any.
Example:
We never go anywhere. She did her homework without any help. There’s hardly anyone here.
Also in if clauses, we usually use any. Example:
If there is anything to do, just call me.
Questions with Some We usually use any in questions. But if we expect or want the other to answer ‚yes‘, we use some.
Example:
Have you got any brothers and sisters?
Some people have brothers or sisters, others don't –
We cannot expect the answer to be ‚yes‘- Would you like some biscuits?
We offer something and want to encourage the other to say “yes”
One Verb for each letter of the Alphabet H
---
Happen
A
----
Apply
I
---
Iron
B
---
Begin
J
---
Jump
C
---
Clean
K
---
Kneel
D
---
Drink
L
---
Learn
E
---
Enjoy
M
---
Mean
F
---
Feel
G
---
Gain
N
---
Need
O
---
Observe
U
---
Unite
P
---
Perform
V
---
Visit
Q
---
Qualify
W
---
Write
R
---
Read
X
---
Xerox
S
---
Save
Y
---
Yearn
T
---
Treat
Z
---
Zoom
31. Quoted Speech and Reported Speech 1. Quoted speech has quotation marks; reported speech does not use quotation marks. 2. In reported speech, the pronoun often changes. For example, in the above sentence with quoted speech the pronoun I is used, whereas the sentence with reported speech uses the pronoun he. 3. In reported speech, the word that is often used after said, but that is optional. 4. Quoted speech is exactly what the person said. 5. The verb in reported speech is changed to the past; some modal verbs do not change. There are rules to follow when changing the verb. Please see the chart below.
Quoted Speech (EXACT)
Reported Speech (NOT EXACT)
Jordan said, "I cook rice every day."
Jordan said that she cooked rice every day.
Jordan said, "I am cooking rice."
Jordan said that she was cooking rice.
Jordan said, "I cooked rice."
Jordan said that she had cooked rice.
Jordan said, "I have cooked rice."
Jordan said that she had cooked rice.
Jordan said, "I had cooked rice."
Jordan said that she had cooked rice.
Jordan said, "I will cook rice."
Jordan said that she would cook rice.
Jordan said, "I am going to cook rice."
Jordan said that she was going to cook rice.
Jordan said, "I can cook rice."
Jordan said that she could cook rice.
Jordan said, "I may cook rice."
Jordan said that she might cook rice.
Jordan said, "I must cook rice."
Jordan said that she had to cook rice.
Jordan said, "I have to cook rice."
Jordan said that she had to cook rice.
Jordan said, "I should cook rice."
Jordan said that she should cook rice.
Jordan said, "I ought to cook rice."
Jordan said that she ought to cook rice.
Jordan said, "I might cook rice."
Jordan said that she might cook rice.
Jordan says, "I cook rice every day."
Jordan says that she cooks rice every day."
Jordan has said, "I cook rice every day." Jordan will say, "I cook rice every day."
Jordan said, "Cook rice."
Note: The past tenses all use had + past participle. To see a list of irregular past participles.
Note: These modals do not change when used in reported speech.
Note: When you use the words say, has said, or Jordan has said that she cooks rice every day." will say (not said), the verb tense remains the Jordan will say that she cooks rice every day." same for both the quoted speech and reported speech. Jordan told me to cook rice.
Note: For commands, use the word told instead of said, and use an infinitive for the main verb.
32. Clauses – noun clause, adverbial clause, A clause is a part of a sentence. There are two main types: independent (main clauses), dependent (subordinate clauses). Independent Clauses
An independent clause is a complete sentence; it contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought in both context and meaning. For example: The door opened. Independent clauses can be joined by a coordinating conjunction to form complex or compound sentences.
Co-ordinating Conjunctions And – but – for – or – nor – so - yet
For example: Take two independent clauses and join them together with the conjunction and: "The door opened." "The man walked in." = the door opened and the man walked in.
Dependent Clauses A dependent (subordinate) clause is part of a sentence; it contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. They can make sense on their own, but, they are dependent on the rest of the sentence for context and meaning. They are usually joined to an independent clause to form a complex sentence.
Dependent clauses often begin with a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun (see below) that makes the clause unable to stand alone.
Subordinating Conjunctions after
although
as
because
before
even if
even though
if
in order that
once
provided that
rather than
since
so that
than
that
though
unless
until
when
whenever
where
whereas
wherever
whether
while
why
Relative Pronouns that
which
whichever
who
whoever
whom
whose
whosever
whomever
For example:
The door opened because the man pushed it.
Dependent clauses can be nominal, adverbial or adjectival. A nominal clause (noun clause) functions like a noun or noun phrase. It is a group of words containing a subject and a finite verb of its own and contains one of the following: that | if | whether
For example:
I wondered whether the homework was necessary.
Noun clauses answer questions like "who (m)?" or "what?"
An adverbial clause (adverb clause) is a word or expression in the sentence that functions as an adverb; that is, it tells you something about how the action in the verb was done. An adverbial clause is separated from the other clauses by any of the following subordinating conjunctions: after | although | as | because | before | if | since | that | though | till | unless | until | when | where | while
For example:
They will visit you before they go to the airport.
Adverbial clauses can also be placed before the main clause without changing the meaning.
For example:
Before they go to the airport, they will visit you.
Note - When an adverb clause introduces the sentence (as this one does), it is set off with a comma.
Adverb clauses answer questions like "when?", "where?", "why?"
An adjectival clause (adjective clause or relative clause) does the work of an adjective and describes a noun, it's usually introduced by a relative pronoun: who | whom | whose | that | which
For example:
I went to the show that was very popular.
This kind of clause is used to provide extra information about the noun it follows. This can be to define something (a defining clause), or provide unnecessary, but interesting, added information (a non-defining clause).
For example: clause.)
The car that is parked in front of the gates will be towed away. (Defining relative
Information contained in the defining relative clause is absolutely essential in order for us to be able to identify the car in question.
My dog, who is grey and white, chased the postman. (Non-defining relative clause)
A non-defining relative clause is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. If you take away the non-defining clause the basic meaning of the sentence remains intact.
For example:
My dog chased the postman.
Adjective clauses answer questions like "which?" or "what kind of?"
Summary An adjective clause functions as an adjective (modifies a noun or pronoun); an adverb clause functions as an adverb (describes a verb, adjective or other adverb); a noun clause is used as a noun (subject of a verb, direct object, indirect object, predicate nominative or object of the preposition).
Note - The difference between a clause and a phrase is that a phrase does not contain a finite verb.
Relative Clauses A relative clause follows the noun it modifies. It is generally indicated by a relative pronoun at the start of the clause, although sometimes you can tell simply by word order. The choice of relative pronoun, or choice to omit one, can be affected by the following:
Human or Non-human We make a distinction between an antecedent that is a human — who (m) — and an antecedent which is a non-human — which.
Who (m) is used when the antecedent is a person.
That is used to refer to either a person or thing.
Which is used to refer to anything exept a person.
•
I met a man and a woman yesterday. The woman, who had long blonde hair, was very pretty.
•
The man she was with, was the man that / who won the race.
•
The race was the one that I lost.
•
The man, to whom the winnings were given, was with the woman who was very pretty.
Note - Whom is not used much in spoken English. Restrictive or Non-restrictive Restrictive relative clauses are sometimes called defining relative clauses, or identifying relative clauses. Similarly, non-restrictive relative clauses are called non-defining or non-identifying relative clauses. In English a non-restrictive relative clause is preceded by a pause in speech or a comma in writing, unlike a restrictive clause.
For example:
The builder, who erects very fine houses, will make a large profit.
This example, with commas, contains a non-restrictive relative clause. It refers to a specific builder, and assumes we know which builder is intended. It tells us firstly about his houses, then about his profits.
The builder who erects very fine houses will make a large profit. This second example uses a restrictive relative clause. Without the commas, the sentence states that any builder who builds such houses will make a profit.
Restrictive and Non-restrictive Human
Nonhuman
Subject
who, that, which, that who which
Object
who, whom, that, which, that, who, whom which
After preposition
whom which whom which
Possessive
whose, of whom, whose, of whom, whose, of which
Adjective, Adverb, and Noun Clauses
A clause is a group of related words which has both a subject and a predicate. A clause is different from a phrase because a phrase is a group of related words which lacks either a subject or a predicate or both.
Adjective Clauses Adjective clauses modify nouns or pronouns. An adjective clause nearly always appears immediately following the noun or pronoun.
To test for adjective clauses there are a couple of questions that you can ask. Which one? What kind? Most adjective clauses begin with "who," "whom," "which," or "that." Sometimes the word may be understood. The words "that" or "who," for example, might not specifically be in the sentence, but they could be implied. To determine the subject of a clause ask "who?" or "what?" and then insert the verb.
Example:
The book that is on the floor should be returned to the library.
Occasionally, an adjective clause is introduced by a relative adverb, usually "when," "where," or "why."
Example:
Adverb Clauses
Home is the place where you relax.
Adverb clauses usually modify verbs, in which case they may appear anywhere in a sentence. They tell why, where, under what conditions, or to what degree the action occurred or situation existed. Unlike adjective clauses, they are frequently movable within the sentence.
Example:
When the timer rings, we know the cake is done. OR We know the cake is done when the timer rings.
Adverb clauses always begin with a subordinating conjunction. Subordinating conjunctions introduce clauses and express their relation to the rest of the sentence. Noun Clauses Noun clauses are not modifiers, so they are not subordinators like adjectives and adverbs, and they cannot stand alone. They must function within another sentence pattern, always as nouns. A noun clause functions as a subject, subject complement, direct object, or object of a preposition.
A noun clause usually begins with a relative pronoun like "that," "which," "who," "whoever," "whomever," "whose," "what," and "whatsoever." It can also begin with the subordinating conjunctions "how," "when," "where," "whether," and "why."
Example:
Whoever wins the game will play in the tournament.
33. Verb with Similar Meaning and Different Spelling and Usage and Sentences Subject
+ main verb
Noun (Subject pronoun)
+ (auxiliary) + verb
+ complement
Substantive
+ verb (-s – ed – ing)
+ predicate
+ (auxiliary)
+ object
List of Verbs by group
Sentence for each verb
Rise
The sun rises from the east every morning.
Arise
Every nation arises its flag in the morning.
Get up
Mr. Smith gets up from bed early at 6:00 a.m.
Stand up
I stand up when my teacher ask me to do.
Lift
A strong man lifts 300 pounds at the gym.
Raise
Tom raises his hand in class.
Pick up
My cousin picks up a coin with his finger.
________________________________________________________________________________ Begin
Classes begin at 7:00 a.m.
Start
The concert starts early at 9:00 p.m.
________________________________________________________________________________ Set
The librarian sets some books in order on the shelf.
Lay
My maid lays the pillow on the bed.
Place
I place a flowerpot on the floor.
Put
Someone puts his notebooks under the desk.
________________________________________________________________________________ Win
Barcelona wins the golden cup every season.
Earn
A big company earns a lot of money every year.
Gain
Today professionals gain some experiences at work.
________________________________________________________________________________ Be
Rose and Mark are at home every Sunday.
Stay
The housekeeper stays at home doing her duties.
________________________________________________________________________________ Love
A chef loves cooking apple pie every party.
Want
Children want to watch TV after school.
Wish
People wish to have wonderful life opportunities.
________________________________________________________________________________ Write
The secretary writes a letter to her boss.
Type
Young people type their document in the computer.
________________________________________________________________________________ Ask
The teacher asks a question every single class.
Question
The police question about your ID. Cards.
Claim
Religious people claim about their rights.
________________________________________________________________________________
Speak
Mr. Van Dame speaks English and French languages.
Talk
My friend talks every single day about vacations.
________________________________________________________________________________ Laugh
People laugh because the clown is funny.
Smile
Young girls smile with their funny thing.
________________________________________________________________________________ Steal
Someone steals some apples from the supermarket.
Rob
A thief robs a necklace from the jewelry.
________________________________________________________________________________ Make
The cook makes a delicious pineapple pie.
Do
Students do their homework on time.
________________________________________________________________________________ Can
A sport man can play some different sports.
May
The client may deserve to be assisted by the waitress.
________________________________________________________________________________ Take Guys take some subjects at the university. Carry
A worker carries a pizza by motorcycle.
________________________________________________________________________________ Touch
My friends touch a stone during a camping.
Play
Nice singers play the guitar and the piano in a concert.
________________________________________________________________________________ Hit Somebody hits a person on his head. Beat
Human heart beats every emotion they feel.
Knock
A stranger knocks my door very hard.
Strike
The baseball player strikes the ball strength away.
Bang
She bangs with her feet when she moves.
________________________________________________________________________________ Wed
Miss Royer weds with her husband at the church.
Marry
Sandy and Danny marry together in a lovely season.
________________________________________________________________________________
Collect
My aunt collects some stamps for collection.
Pick up
Children pick up everything they find on floor.
________________________________________________________________________________ Get
Mr. Smith gets nice results about their students.
Obtain
A healthy person obtains vitamins from fruits.
________________________________________________________________________________ Throw Someone throws a stone from the Street. Drop
A correct person drops garbage inside of the trash.
Pitch
The baseball player pitches the ball out of the ground.
________________________________________________________________________________ Hold A boy holds the hands of his girlfriend. Support
A lonely mother supports their kids by herself.
________________________________________________________________________________ Live
Mr. Boyles lives in California.
Dwell
The moppets dwell under the water.
________________________________________________________________________________ Owe
Mrs. O’Conner owes lots of money to the bank.
Must
Students must do their homework every day.
________________________________________________________________________________ Guide
A leader of boy scouts guides his group to the wood.
Drive
The chofer drives a bus to down town very well.
Conduct
That road conducts to the big city.
Lead
The boss leads his employees successfully.
Manage
A mayor manages his institution with humble.
________________________________________________________________________________ Go She goes to the supermarket. Leave
My neighbor leaves from El Salvador to Los Angeles.
Head
The president of United States heads a whole nation.
________________________________________________________________________________ Finish
Students finish their homework on time.
End
The film end at the same moment than other one.
________________________________________________________________________________ Call My classmates call to their friends every single day. Name
Shusmita named as a Godess’ name from India.
________________________________________________________________________________ Listen Young people listen carefully to the radio. Hear
Adult people hear with a lot of patience.
________________________________________________________________________________ Keep Rose keeps her luxury inside of her bag. Save
Mr. Amstrong saves his money in the bank.
Store
A computer technician stores information in a USB.
________________________________________________________________________________ Observe The meteorologist observes changes in the weather. Look at
You look at her face very well.
Watch
Kids watch TV everyday in the afternoon.
See
People see a nice landscape from the mountain.
________________________________________________________________________________ Find
A butler finds a watch on the floor.
Meet
Two friends meet each other at the airport.
________________________________________________________________________________ Take
Students take some books from the table.
Catch
A basketball player catches the ball far away.
________________________________________________________________________________ Cut
The tailor cuts a shirt with some scissors.
Slice
The cook slices a cake in four pieces.
Peel
Mrs. Grut peels a cucumber for eating.
Break
A mechanic breaks a cane from the car.
________________________________________________________________________________ Split
A seller splits a banana in two pieces on the ice cream.
Divide
My grandmother divides a pizza for seven people.
________________________________________________________________________________ Believe
Religious people believe in God every year.
Think
I think that an idea is strong when it comes from heart.
Guess
People always guess about weather reporter.
________________________________________________________________________________ Wait
A boy waits for his girlfriend at the bus stop.
Hope
People hope peace one day in our country.
Expect
The whole world expects new signs form the nature.
________________________________________________________________________________ Lend My friend lends me money every end of month. Borrow
A student borrows a pen to another one in class.
________________________________________________________________________________________
Investigate
A scientific investigates about the cure of migraine.
Research
Students research about a topic project in many books.
________________________________________________________________________________ Reach
Children reach everything they find on their road.
Achieve
New professional achieve their efforts at the university.
________________________________________________________________________________ Occur
A traffic accident occurs every single day in our country.
Happen
The same story happens to me when I was a child.
________________________________________________________________________________ Cry
The baby cries for milk every morning.
Weep
A housekeeper weeps every single time.
________________________________________________________________________________ Move
The Flynn’s move to a new house in Los Angeles.
Quake
A main church in the United States quakes to society.
Shake
The earth shakes every ten years in summer season.
________________________________________________________________________________ Shout
Someone shouts for asking help in the beach.
Yell
A baby yells because he is afraid around strange people.
________________________________________________________________________________ Return He returns from his origins. Come back
He usually comes back when she goes to the market.
________________________________________________________________________________ Spin
The planets spin around the sun.
Turn
She just turns away when she smiled.
________________________________________________________________________________ Spend
Lovers spend beautiful times when they are in love.
Waste
Young people waste their money in shoppings.
________________________________________________________________________________ Allow
English allows you to be in touch with the world.
Permit
Parents permit their sons to have relationship.
Let
Teacher lets his students to do their homework.
________________________________________________________________________________ Jump
Martin jumps highest as a gymnastic person.
Hop
BeyoncĂŠ hops with her waist when she is dancing.
________________________________________________________________________________ Teach
Mr. Peterson teaches English as second language.
Show
John shows a gift to his girlfriend.
________________________________________________________________________________ Taste
A chef tastes a delicious fig pie at the restaurant.
Like
People like different fruits for eating.
_______________________________________________________________________________ Remember Students remember everything when they really study. Remind
My friend reminds me to buy a new cellphone.
________________________________________________________________________________ Know She knows the correct answer for that question Realice
You realize that the weather changes every day.
________________________________________________________________________________
Search
A student searches a specific word in the dictionary.
Seek
One kid seeks other kids behind the tree.
Look for
An old lady looks for her glasses on the ground.
________________________________________________________________________________ Mail
An adult person mails his letters by a post office.
Send
Today, young people send their letters by Internet.
________________________________________________________________________________ Enjoy
Salvadorean family enjoy together their free time.
Delight
On Sunday, people delight a nice piece of cheese cake.
________________________________________________________________________________ Animate
Group dancers animate every musical festival.
Encorauge
Teacher encourages students to participate.
________________________________________________________________________________ Try Children try to do the best in the kindergarten. Treat
The clerk treats very well to the customers.
________________________________________________________________________________ Buy
My cousin buys a new computer for doing his task.
Purchase
Girls purchase different clothes at the mall center.
________________________________________________________________________________ Enter
I enter to the theater before the movie.
Get in
You better get in cause it is raining.
Come in
Mr. Royer come in early to the class.
Access
Tom accesses in the new software.
________________________________________________________________________________ Seem
They seem to be interested on technical words.
Appear
Mr. Konrad Zuse appears to be the first inventor of Pcs.
________________________________________________________________________________ Annoy Kids always annoy when they want something. Bother
My younger nephew bothers me for my TV programs.
Disturb
Patients disturb at silent place of the hospital.
Mind
People mind when I open the windows in the bus.
________________________________________________________________________________ Say
The president says to the people all of his expectations.
Tell
I tell you the true of my wishes.
________________________________________________________________________________ Go
They go to the beach every vacation.
Address
The cup address a group of tourist people.
________________________________________________________________________________ Inhale
A man inhales smoke from the fire.
Pull
An old lady pulls the door of the restaurant.
________________________________________________________________________________ Give
My mom gives me a delicious meal every Saturday.
Provide
Students provide excellent answer to the teacher.
________________________________________________________________________________ Hurry
Guys always hurry when they ask for a cake.
Speed up
Men speeds up with their cars on the Street.
_______________________________________________________________________________ Respond
Tom responds Jerry about his noisy movement.
Answer
Excelent student answers evry question correctly.
________________________________________________________________________________ Comprehend
Adult people comprehend the real exsistences of life.
Understand
You understand the reading if you read it three times.
________________________________________________________________________________ Resquest
She requestes more time to finish the report.
Demand
He demands to to be paid more for his work.
Ask
They ask to change the time of the exam.
________________________________________________________________________________ Evaluate
The teacher evaluates students with a simple exam.
Assess
The arquitec assesses the demages of the house.
________________________________________________________________________________ Provide
The workers provide their afforts evey day.
Give
A nice mother gives to her chirdren the best food.
________________________________________________________________________________