DoWeKnow UWCADPHILOSOPHYMAGAZINE The Emotional Issue(s)
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TABLE OF CONTENT -
Evaluation for his/her character and her actions ? By Celia Ho
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Normal N.1 by Niccolo Piras
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The philosophical question
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Never doubt what I feel by Rina Cakrani
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Marcelo’s Musings by Marcelo Bertorelli
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Propaganda, emotions and liberty by Edoardo Cattaneo
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Sulle emozioni by Urna Semper
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A scientific description of my feelings right now by Niccolo Piras
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Blue Eyes by Nour Al Asali
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The quest to defining emotions by Laila Talal
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EVALUATION FOR HIS/HER ACTIONS AND CHARACTER? By Celia Ho
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, a girl who did not have blond hair and blue eyes took the world by storm with her exotic beauty and her carefree, wild child style. Having been on the cover of many fashion magazines including Cosmopolitan and Vogue in America, Britain, France and Italy, Gia Carangi was the favourite of many top fashion photographers and was considered the first supermodel in the world. She had it all and that was supposed to be a glamorous life. However, soon after the peak of her career, she became addicted to heroin, contracted HIV, and died of AIDS at the age of 26.
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Whenever her tragic life is mentioned, people blame it on her upbringings and the bad experiences in her life, including growing up without a mother who left her husband and children for another man, and being sexually abused at the age of 5. No one tried to say anything about her role in the decisions she made. What is happening when our sense of sympathy dilutes the facts that she had the freedom to choose friends instead of drugs in the face of emptiness? And while we are admiring her for her courage of not being what girls were supposed to be back in those days, are we also accepting her irresponsibility when she would cancel 2 whole weeks of bookings because she did not like her new haircut? How do our sympathy and admiration for someone influence our moral evaluation of his/her actions and character? What are the roles of emotions and reasons in making moral judgements? I believe one of the reasons why Kant made his imperatives categorical (with no exception) is that he had realized our tendency to justify an action or a person’s character when our compassion overflows. Compassion is a virtue which can also be the origin of other virtues such as altruism and courage, yet its extreme form leads to injustice. When evaluating a person’s actions or character, reasons involving facts and pre-existing rules should always be prioritized regardless of what he/she has been through as sympathy here does not help with the person’s past experiences while judging his/her actions/character rationally can perhaps warn him/her to prevent possible tragedies later in life. Unfortunately, no one did that in Gia’s life. Neither before nor after her death. ‘I could learn photography. That could be something to want. I could photograph children. I could have my own children. I would give them yellow roses. And if they got too loud, I
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would just put them some place quiet. Put them in the oven. And I would kiss them every day, and tell them you don't have to be anybody, because I would know that being somebody doesn't make you anybody anyway.’ - Gia Carangi (1960 - 1986)
NORMAL N.1 by Niccolo Piras
Sometimes I just want to Lay down and chill a little bit Sometimes I just want to Sit in front of of my PC Listen to some music Write some stupid things Now it seems like it’s immoral Seems like I have to be happy And positive And happy And positive And Happy And positive HAPPY POSITIVE HAPPY POSITIVE HAPPILY POSITIVE POSITIVELY HAPPY HAPPIVE 6
POSITY SOMEHOW SOMEONE ALWAYS WANTS TO TELL ME WHO SHOULD I BE WHAT SHOULD I DO And this is normality for
me.
THE PHILOSOPHICAL QUESTION Opinions from UWC Adriatic students What is love?
”Love is the most intense feeling a human can experience. It can be romantic or for people you admire. Or it can not only be towards people but also for experience, stuff you enjoy doing. Love is a state of mind and doesn’t have to be connected to people.” ”I don’t know what love is because I have never experienced it, and if I have, I’m disappointed by it. I imagine it to be passionate, time-consuming, fulfilling, hurtful and exciting. There’s the difficult romantic love, but there’s also love for the people you admire.”
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”I don’t want think about it. I’m just doing math.” ”Love is God. Love is the feeling you have when you step out into Duino and it’s Saturday morning and you can go to Trieste and be free. It’s when you see that one beautiful girl and you want to be that tough guy but then you’re in love so you are sweet instead. It’s when you see your bros and you know that without them life would just be bullshit. Love is family.”
NEVER DOUBT WHAT I FEEL Doubt that blue is the sea,
Doubt that the birds sing, 8
by Rina Cakrani
Doubt that the sun keeps us
Doubt the anger in my voice,
warm, Doubt that we are truly
Doubt my confidence when I speak,
free.
Doubt the reasons of my choice, Doubt that I ever forgive.
Doubt the whiteness of the clouds,
Doubt the matching of our souls,
Doubt the reality of your dreams,
Doubt the sanity of my mind,
Doubt the deepness of your
Doubt the enigma of my smile,
scars, Doubt that happiness
Doubt that when I fall, I rise.
exists. Doubt the stars are in the sky, Doubt the brownness of my eyes,
Doubt the moon hides in the day,
Doubt the meaning of my words,
Doubt the storm that I went through,
Doubt the birds that fly away, Doubt that they ever return. But never doubt what I feel for you.
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MARCELO’S MUSINGS by Marcelo Bertorelli
When I was back home, I remember every once in a while I would go to the doctor’s office for a yearly check-up. They would poke me in the stomach and feel my neck and ask me if “It hurts when I do this?” and shine a light on my eye and hit my knee with a hammer. That was pretty much the routine examination every year.
There was one part, however, that always really interested me. The doctor would put me on scale and measure my body and add some mysterious math that to this day still remains mysterious (as with all math), and produce a “Body Mass Index” to tell me if I was getting to an unhealthy level of body fat. Every time the response was similar: you’re pretty much healthy, continue exercising, keep eating your vegetables. I felt good, I was healthy, and there was medical proof that I was definitely on good shape. And nothing gets as irrefutable as medical empirical evidence, right? Well, not quite. I still felt I was too chubby. My sisters told me that I would look much better if I lost weight. All my favourite actors and comic book characters were all lean. The people on the bands I listened to, all beauty icons, looked nothing like me. The pretty people on the perfume commercials were never chubby. I recognized the very strange contrast back then, but didn’t quite know what exactly was that I was feeling. It was like having my mind separated in two. Now I realize, that in a way, my mind really was separated in two; I Knew that I had a healthy figure, but I Believed that I was too chubby. I started experiencing that same feeling over and over again. I Know that I have to study to get good grades but I Believe I can get decent grades without 10
studying. I Know that having that stupid crush is no good for me but I Believe that I can make it work. It’s difficult to understand sometimes exactly how much is Knowing and how much is Believing. The line can be blurred inside our brains and leads us into confusion. That is usually when emotions start wrestling with the logical aspect of our consciousness. And, don't get me wrong, those emotions are completely valid and can lead you to even better results than pure logic can, especially when dealing with other humans. That’s because, you see, those other people you interact with also have this dichotomy in their brains between Knowing and Believing. You need to understand that they come from two completely different places, but also learn to listen to the two to make an emotionally mature decision.
PROPAGANDA, EMOTIONS AND LIBERTY BY
EDOARDO CATTANEO
THERE ARE A LOT OF EXAMPLES IN THE LAST CENTURY THAT SHOW HOW GOVERNMENTS HAVE INFLUENCED THE PUBLIC OPINION FOR THEIR OWN PURPOSES.
IN ANCIENT TIMES, (BUT STILL NOW
IN SOME PLACE E.G.
NORTH KOREA) THE MAIN GOAL OF THE RULERS
WAS TO KEEP THE POPULATION QUIESCENT AND WILLING TO OBEY, AND THE BEST WAY OF DOING THIS WAS LETTING THE PEOPLE THINK THAT THEY GOVERN FOR A DIVINE WILL.
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THIS APPROACH RECURS
THROUGHOUT THE CENTURIES, AND WE CAN SEE THE PHARAOH BEING CONSIDERED AS A GOD, THE
EGYPTIAN
FRENCH ABSOLUTE
MONARCHS BELIEVED TO HOLD TAUMATURGICAL POWERS AND THE
RUSSIAN TSARS APPOINTED BY DIVINE WILL. ALL OF THESE BELIEFS WERE SET UP TO CREATE REVERENCE (AND OBVIOUSLY RESPECT) AMONG THE ILLITERATE CROWD THAT MADE UP MOST OF THE OLD SOCIETIES.
AFTER THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, THE
ENLIGHTENMENT ANYMORE.
AND THE
FRENCH REVOLUTION, THIS WAS NOT EFFECTIVE
PEOPLE STARTED TO THINK AND REGAIN THEIR SANITY, DEMOCRACY WAS
SPREADING, THE SOCIETY WAS EVOLVING.
TO MEET ALL THESE CHANGINGS, PROPAGANDA ALSO EMERGED WITH THE PURPOSE OF TRYING TO BRING BACK THE OLD ORDER, BY USING THE EMOTIONS TO INFLUENCE PEOPLE IN MANY DIFFERENT ASPECTS.
DURING THE GREAT WAR ALL THE INVOLVED POWERS
USED SOME SORTS OF PROPAGANDA TO STEER THE SUPPORT OF THE PEOPLE FOR THE WAR.
THE AMERICANS, WHEN WWI CAME OUT,
WERE PACIFIST AND ISOLATIONIST.
THE GOVERNMENT OF
WOODROW WILSON ESTABLISHED THE “CREED COMMISSION”, WHOSE DECLARED PURPOSE WAS MAKING THE THE ALLIES
AMERICANS WILLING TO JOIN THE WAR ON THE SIDE OF
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. THE GOAL HAD BEEN ACHIEVED THROUGH AN
EXTENSIVE USE OF PROPAGANDA SHOWING THE SUPPOSED ATROCITIES OF THE
CENTRAL POWERS AND THEIR ALLIES AND SO TURNING THE
AMERICANS IN A HORRIFIED AND SCARED
SOCIETY WILLING TO CLASH THE
“GERMAN MONSTERS” THAT MUTILATED POOR BELGIAN CHILDREN. A
VERY RECENT EXAMPLE
OF
PROPAGANDA
IS
INSTEAD
THAT
ONE
MADE
BY
THE
CHRISTIAN
DEMOCRATS IN ITALY AGAINST THE
COMMUNISTS, REPRESENTED AS CHILDREN EATERS EVEN.
ALL OF THIS
SHOWS HOW THE OTHERS CAN MANIPULATE US USING OUR FEELINGS, AND THIS ARISES THREE QUESTIONS: ARE WE
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REALLY ABLE TO THINK AND ACT FREELY OR WE ARE MANIPULATED AND CONTROLLED BY THE OTHERS?
HOW DEMOCRATIC ARE OUR DEMOCRACIES? ARE WE REALLY ABLE TO CHOOSE
FOR OUR BEST WHEN WE GO TO VOTE OR SHOULD WE LEAVE OUR LIVES IN THE HANDS OF THE MOST EDUCATED AND WEALTHY MINORITY THAT KNOWS WHAT IS ACTUALLY THE BEST, AS IN A MODERN TRANSPOSITION OF THE
PLATO’S THOUGHT (QUITE COMMON ACTUALLY AT THE
BEGINNING OF THE CENTURY, E.G.
LENIN’S THOUGHT)?
EVEN IF EVERYBODY IS INFLUENCED BY PROPAGANDISTIC MEDIA, NOT EVERYBODY IS BLINDED BY THEM.
IF YOU ARE AN OPEN-MINDED AND WELL INFORMED PERSON YOU CAN USUALLY
DISTINGUISH BETWEEN THE EXAGGERATIONS OF THE MEDIA AND THE POLITICIANS AND THE REALITY (EVEN IF EVERYBODY IS EMOTIONALLY INFLUENCED BY SOME NEWS AT THE VERY MOMENT IN WHICH THEY KNOW THAT).
THIS BECAUSE YOU LOOK AT THE DIFFERENT VERSIONS OF THE REALITY
THAT ARE PROPOSED BY THE MEDIA, AND SO THAT YOUR EMOTIONS ARE PUT APART IN FAVOUR OF A SERIOUS ANALYSIS.
NEVERTHELESS, IT REMAINS A PROBLEM BECAUSE MOST OF THE PEOPLE WILL ALWAYS BE INFLUENCED BY THE NARRATION THAT THE
“BIG POWERS” MAKE OF THE REALITY,
GUIDED BY THEIR INSTINCTIVE AND IRRATIONAL RESPONSE.
BUT THIS CAN NEVER EVER BE SOLVED
BECAUSE AS WE HAVE SEEN, HUMAN BEINGS ARE MOSTLY LED BY THEIR EMOTIONS THAT COME OUT AS BASIC RESPONSES OF FEAR.
HOWEVER,
TO REACH A MORE DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY THAT
SERVES THE CITIZENS, WE SHOULD TO DETACH OURSELVES BY OUR EMOTIONAL RESPONSE WHEN WE VOTE OR WE ACT IN THE PUBLIC LIFE.
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Cristian is a fourth year Italian high school student interested in human sciences. He has concentrated his studies on modern philosophy and art.
Sulle emozioni di Cristian Costa Breve articolo sul significato delle emozioni Cartesio è stato fra i primi che, ragionando sul dualismo anima e corpo, o Res cogitans e Res extensa ( come li intendeva egli stesso ) abbia incominciato una riflessione sulle emozioni, e sul loro significato per l'essere umano. Non solo in realtà per l'essere umano, visto che nella visione cartesiana le emozioni sono ci che permane in esso di ci che è animale; ovvero esse sono delle manifestazioni comportamentali che sussistono in noi in virtù del nostro essere animali. Sono ci che ci accomuna agli animali propriamente detti, da cui per ci distinguiamo grazie alla ragione. È proprio quest'ultima che Cartesio contrappone alle emozioni, le quali sono ontologicamente inferiori rispetto alle capacità razionali umane. Ecco perché Cartesio tende a non considerarle troppo. Il messaggio che segue dal suo pensiero è quello che ci avverte della non eccessiva importanza per la ricerca filosofica di queste emozioni. Poi verrà Darwin, che le considererà scientificamente come ci che permane in noi a causa della nostra animalità, ma che ha perso il proprio potenziale, in quanto nella condizione originaria dell'uomo ( l'uomo primitivo ) esse assumevano un'importanza per la sopravvivenza maggiore di quella che pu assumere oggi, ove il processo storico e tecnico si è già ben dispiegato ( purtroppo ). Ma queste emozioni, come la paura, la rabbia, la gioia, le quali si manifestano attraverso comportamenti particolari, comportamenti del nostro corpo che pu irrigidirsi, sudar freddo, aumentare la propria temperatura, piangere... Queste emozioni come possono aiutarci nel comprendere il mondo, nel riconoscere in esso una qualche verità? Vi è solo la scienza dietro le verità del 14
mondo? Vi è solo la scienza che, come ben aveva notato Heidegger, non pensa più ormai? Vi è solo la scienza allora, ora divenuta tecnica distruttrice dietro le verità di questo mondo? Ebbene, non è così. L'importanza della soggettività, dell'Io, del proprio essere, la scienza non puo concepirlo. La scienza come notava Bergson, ingabbia tutto in schemi prefissati. È ideale. Essa non puo cogliere l'infinita varietà del molteplice se non attraverso il dominio. Kubrick affermava che la scienza moderna è molto più pericolosa della politica stessa che regge uno stato: basta ammirare il suo capolavoro Arancia meccanica per comprenderlo. Le emozioni sono bistrattate, non considerate, umiliate. La psicologia, che è una scienza, le inquadra, vi ragiona sopra, offre soluzioni... Ma in sé non le comprende. Le definisce, ma non le comprende. La scienza è il linguaggio dominante. Solo l'Arte puo cogliere ci che è essa stessa a provocare. Le emozioni sono dei moniti, che ci fanno comprendere quando si assurge a una verità. Le emozioni vere, quelle suscitate dall'Arte sono rivelazioni, disvelamenti di noi stessi. Mediante esse possiamo comprendere il senso e non soltanto il funzionamento, quello dettato dalle leggi psicologiche. L'emozione che è figlia dell'Arte, quanto il sentimento, suo fratello maggiore, possono cogliere quel che vi è dietro il velo. Il senso, non la struttura del linguaggio, non il funzionamento ossessivo della scienza. La scienza vera, che ormai si sta eclissando, è quella che tiene conto delle emozioni. È la scienza arte, vera episteme, quella che ricerca il senso, la verità come disvelamento.
A SCIENTIFIC DESCRIPTION OF MY FEELINGS RIGHT NOW, 22:17 1/12/15 by Niccolo Piras
Feeling n.1 Skepticism for the experiment of writing down my feelings scientifically. Sense of apathy but knowing somehow that I either will stop or that I will take a bit longer. 15
Feeling n.2 Regret. A part of my brain is upset with me for throwing dices with people away, even if now I’d say that at least I ran way before the dices exploded. I feel my throat fuller and my eyes heavier. If I said that I’m about to cry, I’d be maybe pushing too much. Song: Voglio vederti danzare, by Franco Battiato Feeling n.3 Sense of distance between the two parts of me. The scientist keeps recording and writing, often reporting directly the speech to the crying philosopher. Song: All’inizio è la morte, by Haggard Feeling n.4 Not knowledge. I don’t know what to write about on this point, as apparently only feelings 2, 3 exist. Generally pre-tasting the delusion of the reader reading this piece. Feeling n.5 Sense of interruption. A friend has called me and has interrupted this piece. Damn. Feeling n.6 Sense of speaking to a wall. My best friend never listens to me. Feeling n.7 Feeling sick. I’m not really listening to the guy on the phone because I’m writing. Or I just can’t emphasize that much. Feeling n.8 The moment when I DON’T WANT the conversation to turn pseudo-philosophical. Feeling n.9 I don’t know why I’m going on with the call and with this article. Feeling n.10 I should study now Feeling n.11 Feeling n.2 is coming back like a boomerang. 16
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Blue Eyes
by Nour Al Asali
Her eyes were sparkling blue, like the colour
of a newly bloomed bluebell from the valley, enchanting and delicate. Like the flower, her gaze was never direct, preferring a shy earthbound focus, unlike me. I watched as her cheeks started flushing slightly showing the effect of my whispered words on her, but all I could honestly see at that very moment‌ were her lips. First, what is homosexuality?
Homosexuality is generally defined as sexual interest in and attraction to members of one's own sex. In different eras, cultures, and religions, homosexual behaviour has been variously approved, tolerated, punished, or banned. Homosexuality was not uncommon in ancient cultures, though the forms and views of homosexual behaviour vary significantly. In most of Africa, Asia, and Latin America, both the subject and the behaviour are considered taboo, with some slight exceptions in urban areas. The ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans were generally accepting homosexual behaviour within certain contexts. Hinduism and Buddhism tend to view homosexuality primarily from the standpoint of its karmic effects, with varying conclusions. Jewish, Christian, Sikh and Muslim cultures have generally perceived homosexual behaviour as sinful. Many Jewish and Christian leaders, however, have gone to great lengths to make clear that it is the homosexual acts and not the homosexual individuals or their "orientation" that is condemned. This is the opinions of some of the world religions on homosexuality:
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Christianity: Traditionally considered sinful. (Many Christians and
denominations continue to uphold this belief, while others have reconsidered it or in the process of doing so.) Christian denominations have a variety of beliefs about LGBT+ people, as well as the moral status of same-sex sexual practices and gender variance. LGBT+ people may be barred from membership, accepted as laity, or ordained as clergy, depending on the denomination. The Roman Catholic Church today welcomes people attracted to the same sex, but teaches that homosexual relationships and acts are sinful. They do not consider transgender individuals as anything other than the sex they were assigned at birth. Islam: All major Islamic schools disapprove of homosexuality and Islam views same-sex desires as unnatural temptations. Sexual relations are seen as transgression of the natural role and aim of sexual activity. The discourse on homosexuality in Islam is primarily concerned with activities between men. There are, however, a few hadith mentioning homosexual behaviour in women. Transgender men and women are recognized and accepted in many Islamic cultures around the world. In fact, the idea of a man or woman identifying as a member of the opposite gender is more likely to be accepted than that of a man or a woman expressing sexual desire for someone of their own gender. So generally: (Sinful and punishable under Islamic law.) Judaism: Orthodox: Strongly condemned. Conservative: Violation of Jewish law, disqualifies from Jewish marriage and religious leadership. Reform: Approved in the context of committed relationship; civil marriage supported, but generally not religious marriage. According to Leviticus 20:13: “If a man lies with a man as one lies with a woman, both of them have committed an abomination; they shall surely be put to death; their blood shall be upon them.� Buddhism: Unlawful for monks, who must be celibate regardless of their orientation. For other Buddhists, "sexual misconduct" is prohibited under the Third Precept, which depends on the circumstances and the results. Hinduism: Condemned by most Hindu cultures, though not often for religious reasons. The teachings of Vedanta, which emphasize liberation from the material world to the spiritual, allow only heterosexual sex, within marriage and for purposes of procreation. Mormonism: Considered a serious sin. Heterosexual marriage is required for entry into the most desirable forms of afterlife. 20
Sikhism: Generally condemned in light of its association with Lust and the value of family life. But a minority believes the Sikh value of universal equality supports acceptance of homosexual relations. Wicca: Accepted within bounds of general ethics. As a nation, we have no right to take away the privilege of marriage from two people who wish to commit to a relationship with whom they love. Society has come a long way from the days of illegal interracial marriage. However, intolerance still exists for many minority groups. Legalizing same sex marriage would be taking a step closer to a nation free from prejudice. In conclusion, homosexuality has its negative effects of course, such as the falling rates of birth and marriage, as well as concerns in general economic, health and lifestyle issues. (However, this does not make homosexuality a negative thing as every aspect of life has downfall).
The Quest to Defining Emotions by Laila Talal What is emotion? A feeling? Then what is a feeling? These terms are difficult to define and even more difficult to understand completely. People have been attempting to understand this phenomenon for thousands of years, and will most likely debate for a thousand more. The word emotions is derived from a Latin root emovere which means to move, to agitate, to excite, to stir. R.S Woodworth defines emotion as “a stirred up state of body and mind." According to this definition emotion is that state of mind where we find certain psychological changes which are known only to the individual who is experiencing an emotion. Emotion is also a stirred up state of body in the sense it brings about certain bodily changes which are external and hence can be seen by other for example striking behavior is typical of anger. Emotionality is associated with a range of psychological phenomena including temperament, personality, mood, and motivation. Physiological theories suggest that responses within the body are responsible for emotions. Neurological theories propose that activity within the brain 21
leads to emotional responses. Finally, cognitive theories argue that thoughts and other mental activity play an essential role in the formation of emotions. Evolutionary Theories More than a century ago, in the 1870s, Charles Darwin proposed that emotions evolved because they had adaptive value. For example, fear evolved because it helped people to act in ways that enhanced their chances of survival. Darwin believed that facial expressions of emotion are innate (hard-wired). He pointed out that facial expressions allow people to quickly judge someone’s hostility or friendliness and to communicate intentions to others. Recent evolutionary theories of emotion also consider emotions to be innate responses to stimuli. Evolutionary theorists tend to downplay the influence of thought and learning on emotion, although they acknowledge that both can have an effect. Evolutionary theorists believe that all human cultures share several primary emotions, including happiness, contempt, surprise, disgust, anger, fear, and sadness. They believe that all other emotions result from blends and different intensities of these primary emotions. For example, terror is a more intense form of the primary emotion of fear. The James-Lange Theory In the 1880s, two theorists, psychologist William James and physiologist Carl Lange, independently proposed an idea that challenged commonsense beliefs about emotion. This idea, which came to be known as the James-Lange theory, is that people experience emotion because they perceive their bodies’ physiological responses to external events. According to this theory, people don’t cry because they feel sad. Rather, people feel sad because they cry, and, likewise, they feel happy because they smile. This theory suggests that different physiological states correspond to different experiences of emotion. The Cannon-Bard Theory The physiologist Walter Cannon disagreed with the James-Lange theory, posing three main arguments against it: 1. People can experience physiological arousal without experiencing emotion, such as when they have been running. (The racing heart in this case is not an indication of fear.)
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2. Physiological reactions happen too slowly to cause experiences of emotion, which occur very rapidly. For example, when someone is in a dark alley alone, a sudden sound usually provokes an immediate experience of fear, while the physical “symptoms” of fear generally follow that feeling. 3. People can experience very different emotions even when they have the same pattern of physiological arousal. For example, a person may have a racing heart and rapid breathing both when he is angry and when he is afraid. Cannon proposed his own theory of emotion in the 1920s, which was extended by another physiologist, Philip Bard, in the 1930s. The resulting Cannon-Bard theory states that the experience of emotion happens at the same time that physiological arousal happens. Neither one causes the other. The brain gets a message that causes the experience of emotion at the same time that the autonomic nervous system gets a message that causes physiological arousal. Schachter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory In the 1960s, Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed a different theory to explain emotion. They said that people’s experience of emotion depends on two factors: physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation of that arousal. When people perceive physiological symptoms of arousal, they look for an environmental explanation of this arousal. The label people give an emotion depends on what they find in their environment. Schachter and Singer agree with the James-Lange theory that people infer emotions when they experience physiological arousal. But they also agree with the Cannon-Bard theory that the same pattern of physiological arousal can give rise to different emotions.
Cognitive Appraisal Theory According to appraisal theories of emotion, thinking must occur first before the experience of emotion. Richard Lazarus was a pioneer in this area of emotion, and this theory is often referred to as the Lazarus theory of emotion. 23
According to this theory, the sequence of events first involves a stimulus, followed by thought, which then leads to the simultaneous experience of a physiological response and the emotion. For example, if you encounter a bear in the woods, you might immediately begin to think that you are in great danger. This then leads to the emotional experience of fear and the physical reactions associated with the fight-or-flight response.
Credits and Acknowledgments The Philosophy Magazine Team is: Rina Cakrani (editor) Edoardo Cattaneo Celine Tung Marcelo Bertorelli Atharv Diman 24
Celia Ho Ellen Henricson
Contributions:
Niccolo Piras Nour Al Asali Urna Semper Special thanks to: Dr. Paul Stachowiak for the guidance Ida Fisker for the cover
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