Dr. Dragon Issue #14 by Dr. Dragon

DR. DRAGON HSMSE’S MATH, SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE MAGAZINE

Our Lethal Solar System Math in nature • video game evolution • darkroom science, and so much more!

Dear Readers, Thank you for picking up our Winter 2018-2019 magazine! In our fourteenth issue, I'm proud to present so many new writers who have joined us. Dr. Dragon has come a long way since its beginnings, and we have made tremendous progress. Shoutouts to all of our amazing staff members, with special thanks to our Editor-in-Chief, Maisy Hoffman, and our Designers, Zelie Goldberg Little and Koreen Grossberg. Without them, the publication of this magazine would have been impossible. I would also like to thank our advisor, Mr. Choi, for mentoring and guiding Dr. Dragon through this journey. Lastly our readers, for your continuous support and appreciation! Dr. Dragon would not exist without our amazing audience! Min Yi Lin, President

STAFF PRESIDENT MIN YI LIN

VICE-PRESIDENT MIA AKHTER

TREASURER LAURA SONG

DESIGNERS IN CHIEF ZELIE GOLDBERG LITTLE KOREEN GROSSBERG

EDITOR IN CHIEF MAISY HOFFMAN

EDITORS

SECRETARY

LINNA CHEUNG

ALYSSA CHEN HANNAH SAIGER MIA AKHTER

FACULTY ADVISOR

SPECIAL THANKS

RONALD CHOI

HSMSE PTA

WRITERS

MAISY HOFFMAN NICO JORDAN MIN YI LIN ELVIRA QUARSHIE OLIVIA ROUGE ZELIE GOLDBERG LITTLE LAURA PREKA FATOU MBAYE MICHELLE CAIZAGUANO KARILYN DURAN AFSANA RAHMAN ANN-NICOLE FRIMPONG JASPER STEDMAN HANNAH SAIGER TALIA WIGDER RAMOND LIN ANGELO LONTOK TAHOOR ARIF JOHAN MACHUCA

MAISY HOFFMAN, OLIVIA ROUGE, ELVIRA QUARSHIE AND TAHOOR ARIF

Lethal solar system

google duplex

RAMOND LIN

JASPER STEDMAN

MIN YI LIN

STEM HEROeS

Tunneling Machines

MATH IN NATURE

enchroma Glasses

Paterns of waves

12 Tardigrades

MAISY HOFFMAN

KARILYN DURAN

HANNAH SAIGER

MICHELLE CAIZAGUANO

mitochondria dna

darkroom science

Prime numbers

Magnesite

TALIA WIGDER

ELVIRA QUARSHIE

AFSANA RAHMAN

ZELIE GOLDBERG LITTLE

deep brain stimulation

VIDEO GAME EVOLUTION

REVERSING PARALYSIS

CHESS HISTORY

OLIVIA ROUGE

LAURA PREKA

NICO JORDAN

JOHAN MACHUCA AND TAHOOR ARIF

LANGUAGE PROCESSING

HEART DISEASE

FATOU MBAYE AND ANGELO LONTOK

ANN-NICOLE FRIMPONG

Stem heroes from history Emmy Noether

Lise Meitner

Zhang Heng

Louis Pasteur

Emmy Noether, born in Erlangen, Germany, in 1882, is one of the most significant and unsung mathematicians of history. After choosing to study math in defiance of cultural norms, she spent years studying advanced topics by auditing classes. Noether then spent seven unpaid years teaching university math classes and doing her own research on algebraic invariants. She was eventually invited by famous mathematicians to help prove Einstein’s theory of general relativity. Through her research on a theorem that still plays a key role in theoretical physics, she won the begrudging respect of her male peers. She went on to revolutionize abstract and non-commutative algebra, and became an acclaimed, published, and magnificent mathematician.

Born in the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Heng was one of many great polymaths. He was experienced in numerous fields, such as astronomy, poetry, math, cartography, and many more. He affected intellectual, technological, and literary development in China, invented the seismometer, and published 32 written works before his death. During his time in government, Heng faced multiple obstacles; his seismometer was doubted, he had political enemies, and his controversial views once even forbid him from assisting a committee, but he still persisted. Zhang Heng was a great inspiration to many for his outstanding and radical work.

Lise Meitner was born in Vienna, Austria, in 1878. She was a physicist who helped create the first theoretical explanation of nuclear fission. She was hailed as the “mother of the atomic bomb” even though she never worked in nuclear weaponry. Meitner entered the University of Vienna in 1901, fighting restrictions on female education. Ludwig Boltzmann, her teacher, helped her realize that physics was her calling. She later went to Berlin to study the physics of radioactive substances with physicist Otto Hahn. They eventually explained and named nuclear fission. Hahn unfortunately received most of the credit for their work, but Meitner’s breakthroughs in nuclear physics were truly the most significant.

Louis Pasteur, born in 1822 in Dole, France was a microbiologist and a chemist. He discovered that microbes were responsible for the spoiling of food such as the souring of alcohol, which led him to invent the process of pasteurization. Pasteurization uses heat processing to kill pathogenic bacteria. This made food safe to eat and prevented the spread of diseases. His contributions to germ theory led his scientific team to develop vaccinations for anthrax and rabies, two very deadly diseases still present today. He died in 1895, but his legacy lives on forever. His discoveries have saved millions of lives, and scientists continue to build on his research even today.

Tunneling Machines Today, modern tunnel construction has become safer, more reliable, and cheaper than ever before. This is the result of centuries of innovation and design. Early tunnels were mine shafts, which have been built since antiquity to collect precious materials like flint or metal. Tunnels have also historically been used for religious purposes, the most famous of which is the Valley of Kings, the burial place for the Pharaohs of Egypt. Tunneling later evolved to become a key part of transportation, as seen in aqueducts, sewers, and irrigation channels. By the industrial age, tunnels were built bigger to fit railways and canals. However, because so many large tunnels dug through unstable soil and rock led to many deaths, technological improvements were needed, to make tunneling faster and safer. This is the job of a Tunnel Boring Machine, or TBM. The first widely used TBM was known as the Greathead Shield, which utilized compressed air to prevent cave-ins. It also automatically lined the tunnels with iron rings, which were easier to install than brick, and effectively supported the tunnel. The modern TBM was built in the 1950s, when the automation of digging and tunnel lining was combined with diesel to create a better machine. Since then, tunneling has continued to improve and reduce cost of construction. There are two basic types of TBMs that are used, an Earth Pressure Balance (EPB) TBM and a Slurry TBM. The EPB is used mainly for tunneling in silty soils and clays. When tunneling, it scrapes rock face with specialized discs, and debris is conveyed up to the surface. After advancing a set distance, it stops tunneling and builds a concrete ring around the new space, built in pieces to allow the tunnel to curve. Some tunnels, however, need to be built in sandier terrain, which requires a slurry TBM. The slurry TBM uses a liquid called bentonite to dissolve clay grains and support rocks as the machine cuts into them. Similarly to the EPB, rocks are then sent up to the surface and rings are installed. TBMs are extremely efficient and useful in building tunnels for the transportation world of today. However, due to short distances dug in subway stations

or escape corridors, Tunnel Boring Machines are not usually worth the high cost. Thus, most tunneling is manual, with workers mining and building by hand. This is much slower than boring machines, and as technology evolves, new methods of tunneling will make this process faster and cheaper. Because the greatest challenge in tunneling is often financial, engineers have many ideas to improve TBMs. For example, engineers believe using vertical TBMs as access and ventilation shafts can consolidate resources and significantly reduce the cost. Another possibility is to use the diagonal TBM, a machine that can be used in situations where soil conditions do not allow for conventional digging and in areas where certain buildings block tunneling efforts. Yet another idea is to create a combined slurry and EPB TBM, so that only one machine can do the work of two. One of the newest tunneling machines in the world has replaced the technique of digging tunnels and covering them up later with a new way to only minimally disrupt the surface. Tunneling will continue to be an important human development. Today, mining tunnels is cheaper than building bridges, especially in cities. As humans continue to urbanize, innovative yet effective solutions to solve transportation needs must be created. Tunneling truly is the solution, as it reduces space, increases the economic productivity, and leads the world to a future of efficiency. —Ramond Lin Brierley, Gary. “Tunneling: A Historical Perspective.” Tunneling Business Magazine, 25 August 2014, https://tunnelingonline.com/tunneling-historical-perspective/. Dubrau, Anton. “Far From Boring: Meet the Most Interesting Tunnel Boring Machines.” Catbus, 25 Jan. 2018, http://www.cat-bus.com/2018/01/far-from-boringmeet-the-most-interesting-tunnel-boring-machines/#giant. “EPBS SHIELD.” International Tunneling and Underground Space Association, http://tunnel.ita-aites.org/en/how-togo-undergound/construction-methods/mechanized-tunnelling/epbs-shield. Ozdemir, Levent. “Slurry, Hybrid, and Large TBMs.” https:// tunnelingshortcourse.com/2017-presentations/ozdemirslurry-hybrid-and-large-tbms.pdf.

How The Solar System Will Try to Kill You Congratulations! You have discovered something truly remarkable! With a single press of this

simple button, you will be instantly transported to a random location anywhere in the solar system! You might be excited to try the button, but you need to throw it away as soon as you can, and you should not even think about pressing it. In fact, you should load it into an indestructible safe, put the safe on a small plane, and have it crashed into the middle of the Amazon rainforest. Just about every part of the solar system is trying to kill you.

Chapter I: Space If you press the button and end up in the vacuum of

space without a spacesuit, you are going to have some problems. No matter what, air is going to kill you. Since the air in your lungs is still at one atmosphere of pressure, and the outside vacuum has essentially no pressure, your lungs will explode. Assuming you remembered to exhale before you pressed the button, now the lack of air will kill you. Within 15 seconds you will lose consciousness from lack of oxygen to the brain, and within 2 minutes you will be completely dead. Pressing the button, you will almost always be doomed to this fate. The boundary that defines “the solar system” is called the Heliosphere, the region in which the Sun’s magnetic field stops most interstellar radiation. It extends more than 123 astronomical units, or 18 billion kilometers from the Sun, and has a volume of over 24 nonillion (2.4x1031) cubic kilometers. So, if you press that button—even though I specifically told you not to—your chances of landing anywhere other than a random bit of empty space are literally astronomical. The chances of landing anywhere within Earth’s orbit are 1 in 50 million. That means that if you take half a second to press the button, it will take three quarters of a year of continuous pushing to get within Earth’s orbit once.

Chapter II: Mercury Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun, and it is inter-

esting because of its tidal lock to the Sun, which means that the day side of the planet always faces the Sun.

Landing on the night side is less interesting because, between space and Mercury, the only difference is Mercury’s very cold surface. Make no mistake, space is very cold, but freezing takes a long time because there is nothing to conduct heat away from your body like air or water. The -193°C (-315°F) surface of Mercury, on the other hand, will freeze your feet the instant you touch down. Uncomfortable? Yes, but lack of air will still kill you first. The day side is much deadlier. Because sunlight is four times more intense on Mercury than on Earth, the surface is heated up to 426°C (800°F). When touching down on Mercury, your shoes will melt very quickly, and your feet will be burned very, very badly. In fact, the Sun’s rays are so intense that after only 4 seconds standing on Mercury, the sunlight on your head will heat it up enough to start literally boiling your brain! For the record, this will happen 11 seconds before you lose consciousness due to oxygen deprivation.

Chapter III: Venus Venus is the solar system’s second planet and is often

called Earth’s “sister planet” because its size, mass, distance to the sun, and composition are very similar. However, they are so different in every other way that the comparing Earth to Venus is like comparing a warm hug to a nuclear trash compactor. Venus’ deadliness is entirely the result of its atmosphere. Because of its 95% CO2 atmosphere, Venus has a severe greenhouse effect, resulting in temperatures of over 462°C (864°F), hot enough to melt lead. Because CO2 is much heavier than nitrogen, Venus’ atmospheric pressure is much greater than Earth’s. If you land on Venus, a crushing 91 atm that will implode rather than explode your lungs and organs. Apart from the temperature and pressure, the air itself is deadly. Venus’ atmosphere contains small amounts of hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen chloride, chemicals that instantly form hydrofluoric and hydrochloric acid upon skin contact. Hydrochloric acid causes severe skin and eye burns, as well as substantial lung damage, and hydrofluoric acid is even worse. While most acids only cause surface burns, hydrofluoric acid can pass through your skin and give you severe chemical burns throughout the inside of your entire body.

Chapter VI: Mars Mars is the fourth planet, and after Venus, it is not that

exciting. In many ways it is very similar to space. Like in space, Mars’ low temperature and pressure are problems. The average air pressure is barely more than in space, only 0.6% of Earth’s, so lung explosion is still a possibility. The average temperature of -63°C (-81°F) is warmer than space, but still far too cold to survive. Unlike in space, where heat cannot dissipate, in Mars’ atmosphere, you will quickly freeze, but not before succumbing to the lack of oxygen.

Chapter V: Outer Planets Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system, more

than 300 times more massive than Earth, and it is also one of the most interesting to die on! Unfortunately, you will die from a lack of oxygen way before anything interesting happens, so assume that you have learned your lesson, and you will now be bringing your own air tank. Unlike the other planets so far, Jupiter has no solid surface, so what scientists call the “surface” for convenience is actually just the point where the atmospheric pressure is 1 atm, the same as Earth. Starting at the “surface” point and falling deeper and deeper into Jupiter, the atmospheric pressure will increase, just like when diving in water. However, the pressure will increase very gradually compared to the pressure in the deep ocean because Jupiter’s hydrogen atmosphere is extremely light compared to water. You will reach the lethal pressure of 12 atm after falling for about half an hour, at which point your lungs will implode and all of your organs will be crushed. The outer planets—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune—are all very similar, but Saturn stands out with its unique ring system. The rings are incredibly beautiful, but also quite deadly. Though they appear to be solid bands from a distance, the rings are actually streams of trillions of rocks and dust particles all orbiting Saturn at tremendous speed. In the main rings, the particles range in size from 1 centimeter to 10 meters, and orbit Saturn at over 20 kilometers per second, 58 times faster than a bullet. At that speed, even microscopic particles will shred your body to pieces if you go inside the rings.

Chapter VI: Earth Even though Earth is the only place in the solar sys-

tem remotely hospitable to human life, it is still quite dangerous. First, about 71% of the surface is water, so drowning is very possible when randomly teleporting around. Even disregarding water, only 82% of the land is habitable. Second, and more importantly, Earth is the only known place in the solar system where anything

will be consciously intent on killing you. In the United States alone, hundreds of people are killed by animals each year. However, the largest threat on Earth is the human race. Humans are by far the most dangerous single threat in the solar system. People kill hundreds of thousands every year in conflicts amongst each other and are actively destroying the ecosystem of an entire planet single-handedly—turning it into another Venus. If you have learned anything, it is that the ability to live on Earth is precious, and must be protected. Also, that you should have thrown out that button by now. —Jasper Stedman Pomeroy, Ross. “How Would You Die in Outer Space?” RealClearScience, 1 Aug. 2012, www.realclearscience.com/blog/2012/08/how-wouldyou-die-in-outer-space.html. Sutter, Paul. “Lost In Space Without a Spacesuit? Here’s What Would Happen (Podcast).” Space.com, Space.com, 28 July 2015, www.space.com/30066-whathappens-to-unprotected-body-in-outer-space.html. Garner, Rob. “Solar Irradiance.” NASA, NASA, 3 Apr. 2015, www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sdo/science/solar-irradiance.html. “Sulfur Dioxide Basics.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, 28 June 2018, www.epa.gov/so2-pollution/sulfur-dioxide-basics#effects. Fell, Scott D. “The Bends: Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention.” EMedicineHealth - Health and Medical Information Produced by Doctors, www.emedicinehealth.com/decompression_syndromes_the_bends/ article_em.htm. Munroe, Randall. “Jupiter Descending.” Orbital Speed, what-if.xkcd.com/139/. Munroe, Randall. “Jupiter Submarine.” Orbital Speed, what-if.xkcd.com/138/. “Jupiter Radiation Belts Harsher Than Expected.” ScienceDaily, ScienceDaily, 29 Mar. 2001, www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/03/010329075139. htm. “Interplanetary Air Pressure at Altitude Calculator.” Mide Technology, www.mide.com/pages/ interplanetar y-air-pressure-at-altitude-calculator. “Orbit Speeds and Times for Saturn’s Rings.” SpaceMath@NASA, NASA, spacemath.gsfc.nasa.gov/weekly/10Page28.pdf.

Talking Machines: Turing Test and Google Duplex From splitting the atom to man’s first step on the moon, humans have accomplished unimaginable goals. However, when we are compared with close cousins such as chimps or bonobos, how exactly do we differ? It is our innate human ability for consciousness and intelligence.

Consciousness, the ability to simply “experience” everyday life, is often overlooked and taken for granted. However, it is this very mechanism that defines thought, action, emotion, and the unique human character. Neuron scientists and philosophers alike have attempted to explain this seemingly magical phenomenon, but their justifications for why and how a cluster of atoms came to be able to “experience” and “think” have had very little success. With the boom of computational innovation during the 20th century, debates began on whether or not a computational system could reach human intelligence and acquire consciousness. While there was no defined and universal definition for consciousness, Alan Turing’s 1950 paper Computing Machinery and Intelligence approached the debate by defining machine intelligence in a practical and testable way. Turing devised the “imitation game,” in which a human being and a computer would interact with an interrogator entirely through text messages. Now known as the Turing Test, Turing argued that if a computer can “pass” the test, fooling the human interrogator into thinking that it is a human, it would be reasonable to call the computer intelligent, because humans perceive each other’s intelligence through external observations in this exact fashion. Others, however, opposed Turing’s claim, insisting that machines will never be able to “think” in the sense that humans naturally do. Such an individual was John

Searle, an American philosopher of the 19th century, who disputed the claim by devising the Chinese Room argument. Imagine that a monolingual English speaker is locked in a room with a set of Chinese characters and an instructions manual. The manual tells the individual how to match and arrange Chinese symbols based on the set of characters he receives. A Chinese speaker from the outside can insert questions through a slot, while the human inside the room picks and matches appropriate responses from the manual, pushing them out another slot. To the external observer, the system was able to effectively communicate in Chinese and thus passing the Turing test, while the human inside the room has no actual knowledge or understanding of Chinese. The Chinese Room thought experiment argues that any machine, no matter how advanced or complex, simply simulates all already coded rules and patterns, and in truth possess no real intelligence or consciousness. Nevertheless, the Turing Test provides a great framework on the quest for artificial intelligence and proposes an intricate philosophical question that lies at the very foundation of human existence. While numerous attempts have been made to “pass” the Turing test, most chatbots use clever psychology tricks to deceive judges rather than trying to understand and simulate the underlying principles of human intelligence. The Loebner Prize, an annual competition that awards prizes to computer programs who successfully “pass” the Turing test by fooling judges 30% of the time, further motivated and standardized the initiative toward artificial intelligence. Later claims to success by programs such as Cleverbot, which used a huge database to resource and compile responses, still showed little signs of real human-like intelligence. The most exciting and human-like conversation, however, was held recently by Google Duplex at Google demo in May of this year. Google Duplex, an extension of Google assistant like that of Siri or Alexa, was designed to help book appointments by making real and live phone calls to humans. It does this through a deep neural network that builds off Wavenet, a voice synthesis program that imitates a real human voice through joining short

units of sound. Used as a text-to-speech software, it speaks for Duplex with human-like elements such as lip sounds and breathing. Duplex uses a recurrent neural network model, taking huge sets of real phone call records, and attempting to imitate human responses by comparing snippets of sound, eliminating errors and slowly improving along the way. In action, a user speaks to Google assistant, which translates spoken words into text and machine language through Google’s voice recognition programs. The transcribed input, along with context of the call, is then fed into the Duplex system, which then is understood by the neural network and voiced through Wavenet technology. Human conversations are often quick, less formal, and often transpire with reliance on common sense and context, creating a massive challenge for computer comprehension. Google Duplex, however, is amazing for its ability to overcome these challenges and to seem truly human-like. It has an awareness of context and goals, and can handle interruptions, interpret elaborate information, and navigate poor connection.

There is no doubt that Google Duplex has passed the Turing test. Though used narrowly, only to book appointments, it is able to do so fluently under a real human conversation setting, an achievement computer scientists are awed by. This does not spell the end of humans or a coming sentient robotic revolution, but it marks a very import-

ant moment in which technology and AI advancements have and are sure to be further incorporated into modern life. —Min Yi Lin Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, www.iep.utm.edu/chineser/. Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Turing Test.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 6 Dec. 2017, www.britannica.com/technology/ Turing-test. “Google Duplex: An AI System for Accomplishing Real-World Tasks Over the Phone.” Google AI Blog, 8 May 2018, ai.googleblog.com/2018/05/duplex-ai-system-for-natural-conversation.html. Koch, Christof. “What Is Consciousness?” Scientific American, 1 June 2018, www.scientificamerican.com/ article/what-is-consciousness/. “The Alan Turing Internet Scrapbook.” Alan Turing: the Enigma, www.turing.org.uk/scrapbook/test.html. “The Turing Test: Can a Computer Pass for a Human? - Alex Gendler.” TED-Ed, TED-Ed, ed.ted.com/lessons/ the-turing-test-can-a-computer-pass-for-a-human-alex-gendler. “WaveNet: A Generative Model for Raw Audio.” DeepMind, deepmind.com/blog/wavenet-generative-model-raw-audio/.

Mathematics in Nature Why is nature so… round? Have you ever noticed that the world around us seems to love spheres, spirals, curves, and circles? They seem to make up all of nature, from the tiniest atoms to our own gigantic sun. Why is our world like this? You might expect science to answer the question, but instead the heart of the matter is math. In truth, mathematics is the foundation of the universe. There are actually no true spheres in the world. Instead, ellipsoids, the three-dimensional form of ellipses, are one of the most common natural shapes. Ellipses are rounded shapes formed with the set of points that are produced by the sum of the distances of two points called focuses, or foci. Often in nature, an ellipsoids’ foci are very close together, but its focal length (like a radius) is extensive, which results in the misconception that it is a sphere. These almost-spheres are everywhere: in particles like protons and neutrons, in rocks and boulders, in cells, and even in dandelions’ fluffy, white seeds. In fact, without air resistance, raindrops would be almost perfect spheres, too. Mathematically, the shape with the least surface and the greatest area is a circle, and in the third dimension, a sphere. This spatial advantage is commonly optimized by natural formations because surfaces are chemically more “difficult” to generate than volumes. For an example, look at soap bubbles. Bubbles have a limited amount of liquid soap on their surface, so to stay stable for the longest time, they need the thickest layer of soap possible. They take a spherical form to preserve liquid soap and keep the largest possible volume. By forming a spherical ellipsoid, any volume is also balanced throughout. Earth’s layers are not exactly equal everywhere, but to at least have a semblance of similar terrain across the globe (weather aside), the layers have to be mostly balanced, which is just another reason the spherical form is so important. Take a look at flowers. Most flowers’ petals form a disclike shape, but they do not grow in an obvious pattern. They grow outward in a seemingly “random” pattern because of a molecule called PIN, which is located at their tips. Petals need the molecule to grow, so they follow a “hidden path” created by PINs that leads petals away from their stems and form a circle. They have to form a disc to have each petal follow its path, and to allow the most petals to grow. This logic is similar to that of the reasoning behind spheres. Circles are formed because

they let the maximum petals grow in a limited space. Though circles are important, in nature there are many curves that are not circular or spherical. Spirals occur consistently in nature. Shells such as conchs are based on spirals, as are pinecones and even strawberry seeds. And at the center of these spirals? The Fibonacci sequence. A famous list of numbers that seem to pop up all over the natural world, the Fibonacci sequence is the basis for the Golden ratio, and as a result the aforementioned Golden spiral and the Golden angle. The Golden angle is the angle that is produced by sectioning a circle into two portions that are proportional to the Golden ratio, and is approximately 137.5º. This angle is, in fact, the same angle between flower petals in the order they grow, and the irrational nature of the Golden angle is what causes the “random” growth patterns of petals. Not only do flower petals follow the logic of circles, but they follow the logic of spirals, too. This collision of patterns appears in innumerable, similar ways across nature, but what is crucial to note is that nature follows patterns and curves for all kinds of reasons. It is a common concept that nature is not perfect. That is completely true. Entropy, the disorder that occurs innately over time, does not allow for perfection, which is why neither perfect circles nor straight lines truly exist in the world. Straight lines cannot exist, which may explain why anything polygonal is uncommon, but there is a better explanation. Straight lines do not have any advantages. They are weak and brittle in comparison to curves. Evolutionarily, flexibility is key to growth and to survival, and flexibility is found far more in curved forms than stiff, structured, straight forms. Additionally, curves do not need to be perfectly circular to be strong, while for a line to be a real line, it must be perfect. Because entropy does not let perfect, straight lines exist, it is not worth nature’s time to try to create inevitably imperfect lines when it could craft an imperfect curve that yields stronger results. Perhaps the development of natural objects should belong to the field of biology. Why, then, does math play such a crucial role in these formations? Math is the purest science; sciences all utilize aspects of each other, but all are merely applied, chaotic forms of math. Numbers and equations can seem abstract, and they are in comparison to the natural world, but they are also the

foundation of everything in the natural world. Math is just the non-entropic form of every single thing in the universe. In truth, math is not simply math, it is everything. —Maisy Hoffman Cook, Theodore Andrea. The Curves of Life. Dover Publications, 1914. Doval, Diego. “The Universe Doesn’t Do Straight Lines – the n3xt Gazette.” The n3xt Gazette, Medium, 25 Sept. 2017, articles.whatsn3xt.com/the-universe-doesnt-dostraight-lines- d0d9021f7aaf.

Hart, Vi. “Doodling in Math: Spirals, Fibonacci, and Being a Plant .” YouTube, YouTube, 21 Dec. 2011, www. youtube.com/watch?v=ahXIMUkSXX0&t=125s. Leary, Catie. “How the Golden Ratio Manifests in Nature.” MNN - Mother Nature Network, 21 Nov. 2017, www.mnn.com/earth-matters/wilderness-resources/ blogs/how-golden-ratio- manifests-nature. Munroe, Randall. “Purity.” XKCD, xkcd.com/435/.

Color Correcting Glasses It is incredible to look back in time and see what humans have become capable of, taking great strides in the field of engineering and especially in the medical field. The magnitude of advancement in biotechnology can be used to improve the quality of life of people with disabilities such as color blindness. It is estimated that around 5% of the population is color blind, accounting for over 300 million people. There are 300 million people who do not see the world as the rest do. Color blindness is defined by the Encyclopedia of Children’s Health as “the inability to clearly distinguish different colors of the spectrum.” The normal eye sees the world through a complex system of cells. Light is projected onto the retina of the eye where millions of coneshaped cells correspond to the colors red, green, and blue. The cones send signals to the brain to develop an image creating a perception of a range of color.

Those who suffer from color blindness react to light differently because their cone cells overlap, causing confusion in the brain when deciphering between colors. Incredibly, the company EnChroma has been able to invent glasses that correct red-green colorblindness, a common form of color blindness caused by the overlapping of red and green cones. These glasses are a unique solution that allows those who are colorblind to experience the stunning world of color. The glasses use an almost ridiculous amount of technology in a small package. They use, according to EnChroma, “optical materials that selectively remove particular wavelengths of light exactly where the overlap is occurring.” This essentially means that their glasses correct the way the light hits the eye by separating the natural

overlap in order to have the waves hit the right cones. It is unbelievable that the origination of this amazing technology was accidental. Co-founder Don McPherson was simply playing a game of frisbee when he let one of his colorblind teammates wear glasses he invented for laser surgery.

To McPherson’s surprise, his teammate was able to see color, and this discovery ultimately led to the creation of the oneof-a-kind EnChroma glasses. The glasses themselves are quite expensive, with a base model starting at around $250, but they are definitely worth it to those with red-green color blindness. EnChroma glasses change the worldview of those with color blindness, allowing them to see colors more vividly and distinctly, offering an overwhelming and fascinating experience for most. —Karilyn Duran “Color Blindness.” Encyclopedia of Children’s Health, www.healthofchildren.com/C/Color-Blindness.html. “Facts About Color Blindness.” National Eye Institute, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1 Feb. 2015, nei.nih.gov/health/color_blindness/facts_about. Inc. “EnChroma | Color Blindness Glasses.” EnChroma, Inc, enchroma.com/pages/normal-color-vision. “RestoringVision - Helping People in Need See Clearly Again.” Restoring Vision, restoringvision.org/mission-and-vision/. Martin, Claire. “EnChroma’s Accidental Spectacles Find Niche Among the Colorblind.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 21 Dec. 2017, www.nytimes.com/2015/08/16/business/enchromas-accidental-spectacles-find-niche-among-the-colorblind. html?_r=1.

Patterns of Waves Every element of nature has its beauty, but one of its most calming scenes is the crashing of wave after wave on the beach. The trance created by the sight and sound of moving water is based on its lulling pattern, but also its randomness. It seems as if every wave is unique in size, shape, and speed, but as each wave moves through the water and crashes against the shore, there is also a rhythm, a slight pattern. Contrary to the popular myth, waves do not align with patterns of the moon as tides do. Tides are changes in the sea level caused by gravitational forces of the moon and sun. Waves, however, are created by the chaotic, unpredictable force of wind. A wave is not the water itself moving, but the energy created by wind moving through the water. As wind moves across the surface of water, it pulls the water upwards, creating ripples. The water is pulled and then slanted upwards, which creates its shape. A wave starts in the middle of a body of water, and moves through the water towards the shore. If there is no obstruction in the path of a wave, the energy it transmits will reach the shore. As the wind slants the wave more and more, the slant can cause a tilt over itself, creating a breaker, which looks like white froth. Most waves break at the shore because as they come to the shore, they get closer and closer together. The waves that are closer together get taller in order fit in a more crowded space. At a certain point, a tall wave loses its stability, and the tilt rolls over itself, causing the wave to topple. If these toppling waves are simply created by the chaotic force of winds, where does the perceived perception of pattern and rhythm come from? The patterns do not come from the wind itself, but from the interaction between the different waves. Usually, waves travel in groups of twelve to sixteen, with one larger wave in the middle of the group. When more aggressive, irregular waves move through the water, they bump against each other, creating groups and regulating their shapes and sizes. The farther the wave is from the wind that created it, the more likely it is to interact and form patterns with other waves. The groups of twelve to sixteen waves usually stay together as they move toward the shore, and continue

to balance each other, creating a rhythm and pattern. As waves crash against the coast, they do not only create a mesmerizing pattern to watch, they also create a more permanent pattern in the sand and rocks of a coastline. A coastline often has a fractal-like shape. Essentially, at different ranges of view, the shape of the coast repeats itself in each crevice. The repetition is not exact, but it is close enough to be noticable. Fractal coastlines are formed by waves hitting the shore with equal energy at each crash. Completely chaotic waves would not create this shape, but the regulation of waves as they move towards the shore allows for precise placement and timing of energy. The waves of the ocean and sea may start from complete randomness, but when they interact, they create patterns and beauty. —Hannah Saiger Briney, Amanda. “All You Ever Needed to Know About Ocean Waves.” ThoughtCo, 17 Jan. 2018, www.thoughtco.com/what-are-waves-1435368. “Fractal Geography.” Fractal Foundation Online Course - Chapter 1 - FRACTALS IN NATURE, fractalfoundation. org/OFC/OFC-9-4.html. Hadhazy, Adam. “Science of Summer: How Do Ocean Waves Form?” LiveScience, Purch, 23 July 2013, www. livescience.com/38361-how-do-ocean-waves-form. html. MacKinnon, Eli. “Do Ocean Waves Really Travel in Sets of 7?” LiveScience, Purch, 8 Dec. 2011, www.livescience. com/33624-waves-ocean-sets-seven.html. “Strange Ocean Wave Patterns Raise Questions About Beach Erosion.” ScienceDaily, ScienceDaily, 29 Dec. 2004, www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/12/041219143546.html. US Department of Commerce, and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. “Why Does the Ocean Have Waves?” NOAA’s National Ocean Service, NOAA, 1 June 2013, oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/wavesinocean.html.

Tardigrades: Microscopic Superheros People often dream about having superpowers such as immortality or indestructibility. Unfortunately, human DNA does not allow for living out these fantasies. Although humans may not be capable of possessing these powers, there is a unique organism that is capable of superhero-like powers called a tardigrade. They are extremely strong creatures, and are also some of the most adorable organisms in the universe. Scientists may one day be able to replicate their incredible characteristics for humans.

Tardigrades are microscopic, aquatic organisms, also known as “water bears” due to their resemblance to polar bears. Their scientific name stems from the Latin word meaning “slow walker.” This six-legged creature can be found in moss, soil, ferns, and other damp areas around the world. Since they are aquatic, they use water around their bodies to permit gas exchange, as well as to prevent drying out. However, they are also very resilient, and can live without water for up to ten days. Though they may be small, they are very fierce. A majority of their diet consists of juices from algae, lichens, and moss, but if food is short they will resort to eating their own kind. These creatures also have many amazing features that allow them to survive in the most extreme temperatures. In an experiment, tardigrades were able to stay alive in temperatures as cold as -328º F, and as hot as over 300º F. It was also found that they could survive in open spaces without oxygen and with negligible pressure for a period of time. This essentially means they can survive for some time in the vacuum of space. Compared to most animals on Earth, who would perish in these conditions, tardigrades are able to achieve these feats because of their chemical makeup.

They use a process called cryptobiosis, which paralyzes metabolic activity in the absence of water. During this process, the tardigrade will contract its body into a tun, which is the dehydrated form of the tardigrades, whereby it loses more than 95% of its free, stored water and dehydrates itself. In this state, it creates different proteins and sugars that help protect its cells. It suspends all forms of metabolism such as reproduction, development, and repair. In extreme temperature where cells would naturally collapse and die, the tardigrades can protect itself from outside forces by pausing their metabolic activity. The tardigrade is, in this way, perhaps the most persistent and versatile creatures on Earth. Many scientists are fascinated with tardigrades, and have begun research to recreate their abilities in humans. Humans are not capable of surviving the extreme circumstances tardigrades can.

Scientists, however, are researching ways to break down the genome of a certain species of tardigrade, so as to recreate the genome in humans. Researchers at Carleton University have been able to copy its DNA, and have discovered a protein called Dsup that prevents the animal’s DNA from breaking under stresses of radiation and dryness. Unfortunately, translating this protein for human DNA is still not possible.

Someday, humans may acquire cryptobiosis, and have the ability to survive in harsh climates, but for now that is still a fantasy. Although the reality of humans acquiring these phenomenal abilities is still far out of reach, it in fun to imagine the progression it could have on humanity. Humans are unable to explore areas where we would perish because our technology is not yet able to withstand the extreme conditions within this world. More than eighty percent of our oceans are unexplored because of the high pressures under water so if we are able to withstand these forces the knowledge that could be obtain would be revolutionary. Not only would we be able to learn about our world but also about the vast universe that is still a mystery to us. With an immunity to brutal temperatures and pres-

sures, humans would be capable of exploring farther areas that we know nothing about. These new discoveries will give us insight on our own world as well as progression of society. —Michelle Caizaguano Miller, William Randolph. “Tardigrades.” American Scientist, 2 Feb. 2018. Bordenstein, Sarah. “Tardigrades.” Examples, 7 June 2017, serc.carleton.edu/microbelife/topics/ tardigrade/index.htm. Hashimoto, Takuma, et al. “Extremotolerant Tardigrade Genome and Improved Radiotolerance of Human Cultured Cells by Tardigrade-Unique Protein.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, 20 Sept. 2016, www.nature.com/articles/ncomms12808.

Why Do Mitochondria Have Their Own DNA?

Deoxyribonucleic acid is the building block of life. A self-replicating, double-helix molecule with four nitrogen bases and a sugar-phosphate backbone makes you who you are. Although most DNA is located in chromosomes within the nucleus, mitochondria, structures within cells that convert energy from food for cells to use, also have their own DNA, known as mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA. In humans, mtDNA spans about 16,500 base pairs, representing a mere fraction of the three billion base pairs of DNA in each cell. mtDNA contains 37 genes, all of which are essential for mitochondrial function. Some genes provide instructions for making enzymes involved in oxidative phosphorylation, the process in which oxygen and simple sugars are used to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s energy source. Other genes provide instructions for making different types of RNA, which help assemble amino acids into functioning proteins. The mitochondria is one of the most essential parts of the cell, and without it, cellular metabolism would be impossible. Why, though, are they the only organelles in the cell besides the nucleus to contain DNA? Many scientists believe that mitochondria were once independent, single-celled organisms until they were swallowed by eukaryotic cells. Instead of being digested, they formed a symbiotic relationship with their hosts. This relationship enabled the rise of more complex life, like the plants and animals we see today. The mitochondrial genome has shrunk significantly from its original form, and most mobile genes have jumped into the nucleus’s genome.

Why do mitochondria still retain some genes? Biologist Iain Johnston of the University of Birmingham and biologist Ben Williams of the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research modeled the problem, analyzing more than 2,000 different mitochondrial genomes from animals, plants, fungi, and single-celled organisms. Johnston and Williams traced their evolutionary path, and created an algorithm that calculated the probability that different genes and combinations of genes were lost at particular points in time in their development. Their main discovery was that the genes that were likely to stick around in the mitochondria were those that were central to maintaining protein complexes for creating energy. Because there are many crucial functions of mitochondria, keeping those genes locally in the

organelle gives the cell a way to individually control those functions. The cell can then efficiently regulate energy production in individual mitochondria without having to make changes to thousands of mitochondria through the nucleus’s DNA. It is an evolutionary defense mechanism that prevents triggering blanket, cell-wide responses that might throw everything out of balance when only individual changes are needed.

There may be other important factors for why mtDNA exists. They are hydrophobic, or water-repelling, and are more likely to be made in the mitochondria so they do not get stuck moving through the cytoplasm of the cell, where water would be an issue if they were manufactured elsewhere. Furthermore, genes that are chemically more able to withstand harsh conditions in the mitochondria are more likely to persist there. Furthermore, mtDNA has unique properties as DNA, where it is only by your mother and not both parents. During the fertilization of gametes, only nuclear DNA of the sperm is transferred to the egg while other things, including the sperm mtDNA, is destroyed. From an evolutionary point of view, the strategy of the sperm is to produce many gametes with little cost, which includes removing unnecessary organelles like the mitochondria, as the egg is able to provide all the necessary cellular machinery needed for the zygote. Since there is usually no change in mtDNA from mother to offspring, scientists can utilize mtDNA as a powerful tool for tracking the ancestry of females. The evolution of mtDNA is fascinating. The structure of the mitochondria reinforces the beauty of the cell’s ability to reap the most benefits to keep humans alive, while also providing insight to evolutionary pasts. —Afsana Rahman Nutrition & the Epigenome, learn.genetics.utah.edu/ content/cells/organelles/. “Mitochondrial DNA - Genetics Home Reference - NIH.” U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, ghr.nlm.nih.gov/mitochondrial-dna. Johnston & Williams, 2016, Cell Systems 2, 101–111 February 24, 2016 ª2016 Elsevier Inc. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.cels.2016.01.013.

The Science of Darkroom photography

For hundreds of years, the idea of capturing a moment in a single image has fascinated scientists, professionals, and amateurs alike. Even in the digital age, there is something almost magical in seeing an image miraculously come to life on a sheet of white paper. It all started in 1824, when Nicéphore Niépce created heliography, a process in which a print is made from a photo-engraved printing plate. Over the next sixty-four years, photography evolved into the characteristic black and white prints photography is known by today with the creation of negatives, developing, and easy ways to make copies of images. Finally, in 1888, George Eastman introduced the Kodak camera. A much simpler camera than anything predating it, photography became truly available to everyone. One appeal of darkroom photography is the level of control it offers artists. Unlike the “point and shoot” method of digital photography, everything can be customized. The amount of light let into the camera, the speed in which the picture is taken, the focus—all in the photographer’s control. Not only that, but unlike color photography, a super complex process usually done by professionals, almost anyone with the right ingredients can develop black and white film.

Film used in darkroom photography has two sides, support and emulsion. The emulsion side is made of light-sensitive silver halide crystals, which are responsible for capturing the photographic image. It also includes gelatin, which holds the crystals in place. The photographic image formed when light selectively hits the film is invisible until processed with chemicals. Once pictures are captured, the light-sensitive roll of film is removed from the camera and then placed in a developing tank, which has to be done in complete darkness. If not, the film will absorb light, turning all of the pictures black. To make the pictures light-safe they must first go through the developing process. The first step is to fill a tank with an alkaline developer. In order to make an image visible, the developer acts upon the exposed silver halide crystals. Each exposed crystal contains an invisible speck of metallic silver, while unexposed crystals do not. The developer acts upon each crystal that contains silver and turns the entire crystal black. When all the exposed crystals have turned black, the image is visible, but still sensitive to light. The more alkaline the developer is, the faster it works, so sodium hydroxide (lye) is used to give the developer a pH of 14. If left unchecked, the developer begins turning unexposed silver crystals black as well, so restrainer, another element in developer, stops this from happening. Even

with the restrainer, if the film is left in the developer for too long, the images will be too dark, so a ‘stop bath’ is used to halt the developing process quickly when the time is right. The stop bath is acidic, so as to counter the alkalinity of the developer.

Even after going through the developer and the stop bath, the film is still light sensitive. An acidic ‘fixing solution’ dissolves the unexposed silver halide crystals, preventing them from turning black when exposed to light, and making the film light-safe. Additionally, when the film goes through the developer, the gelatin used to hold the silver halide crystals in place gets soft, which allows the developing process to happen. If left unchecked, this gelatin can swell up when washed with water, destroying the film. Hardener, another ingredient in fixer, solidifies the gelatin on the emulsion to prevent it from swelling. The last step is to put the film in the wash, which consists of one ingredient—flowing water. The water acts as a solvent to dissolve any chemicals left on the film. After having the water cleaned off and the film dried, the film is completely developed and safe to view. The film is known as a negative because all the shades are inverted: the blacks are white, and the whites are black. This may seem like a challenge to undo, but it is easily reversible by shining light through the film onto a piece of photographic paper, and developing that to make a final print.

The final print is a thing of beauty. After working for so long, it is not difficult to feel pride in a well-contrasted image printed on glossy paper. When the print goes through the developer and the image is revealed, the surprise of discovering unexpected details is something digital photography will never be able to match. —Zelie Goldberg Little “The History of Photography.” Nicephore Niepce House Photo Museum, www.photo-museum.org/photography-history/. Grundberg, Andy, et al. “History of Photography.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1 Feb. 2018, www.britannica.com/technology/photograph “CHEMISTRY OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSING.” University of Houston College of Technology.

Non-Randomness in Prime Numbers 1, 4, 6, 8, 9, and 10 have all been murdered, and 2, 3, 5, 7, and 11 are the prime suspects. A prime number is a number beside 1 that only has one pair of factors: itself and the number 1. These numbers have been commonly deemed random and unpredictable, and are known to always end in the digits 1, 3, 7, and 9, with the exceptions of 2 and 5. However, according to recent findings, primes are not quite as random as they seem. In past theories, mathematicians believed that a prime number was a random occurrence, because the gaps between primes can range from two to a thousand, and each gap seems to have no effect on the next prime. But what if there is a correlation? A pair of mathematicians at Stanford University studied the first one hundred million whole numbers and observed all the consecutive prime numbers within the set. If prime numbers were truly random, a prime number ending in 1 would be followed 25% of the time each by a prime ending in 1, 3, 7, and 9. However, they recorded that a prime number ending in 1 was followed by another prime number ending in 1 only 18.5% of the time. They also found that primes ending in 9 after primes ending in 1, which should also be 25%, only occurred 22%. Furthermore, primes ending in 3 or 7 after primes ending in 1 each comprised 30%. While these inconsistencies may seem small, they actually bring up many questions. Specifically, why would a number ending in 3 and a number ending in 7 have the same percent chance of occurring? Why does a prime ending in 1 rarely follow another prime ending in 1? Is there a pattern between consecutive prime numbers? Using one prime number, can the next be determined? The mathematicians continued to study the idea of non-randomness and observed all the prime numbers up to a few trillion, and still could not understand why primes are not random. A possible solution to this boggling problem is the not yet proven “K-Tuple Conjecture.” The conjecture describes that the patterns between primes are based on close clusters of prime numbers. This is also found using the end digit in a prime number to prove that consecutive primes are not exactly random. Mathematicians are now trying to find a way

to calculate one prime number based on the last, testing all kinds of equations and summations to find one that can be used to accurately predict the next prime number. Mathematicians and researchers are racing to discover what is next in the study of prime numbers, mainly because primes are used so commonly in cryptography, which is very prominent today in a tech-dominated world. If the world had a simple notation that would allow for the consecutive calculation of prime numbers, coding would become simpler and more efficient, creating more opportunities for people to build new products and services. Prime numbers are one of the most fascinating, complicated group of numbers in mathematics. Scientists and mathematicians alike have been trying to crack open the mysteries of this set for millennia. Until there is a full understanding of where these numbers fall, mathematicians will continue to study the ages-old mysteries of prime numbers. — Talia Wigder Aron, Jacob. “Mathematicians Shocked to Find Pattern in ‘Random’ Prime Numbers.” New Scientist, New Scientist, www.newscientist.com/article/2080613-mathe m a t i c i a n s - s h o c k e d -t o - f i n d - p a t t e r n - i n - ra n dom-prime-numbers/. “k-Tuple Conjecture.” From Wolfram MathWorld, mathworld.wolfram.com/k-TupleConjecture.html. “Mathematician Pair Find Prime Numbers Aren’t as Random as Thought.” Phys.org - News and Articles on Science and Technology, Phys.org, phys.org/ news/2016-03-mathematician-pair-prime-randomthought.html. “Peculiar Pattern Found in ‘Random’ Prime Numbers.” Nature News, Nature Publishing Group, www.nature. com/news/peculiar-pattern-found-in-random-primenumbers-1.19550.

Magnesite vs. Global Warming Global warming is one of the most potent concerns in the scientific community, especially with the recent U.N. report that the world has just 12 years until it will reach the point of no return. At this point, no one will be able to prevent catastrophic events like extreme flooding and the destruction of coral reefs. In an effort to counter pollution, scientists have started researching a mineral called magnesite. Magnesite can help reduce air pollution and the chances of disaster.

When magnesite is produced, the microspheres remain unchanged, and can ideally be reused. Every ton of magnesite is capable of removing around half a ton of CO2 from the atmosphere, which might just change the state of the world. This study is relatively new, so companies that may be interested in producing magnesite on an industrial scale are not known. However, the effect of magnesite is so great that these companies will surely grow and help the Earth.

Magnesite is a magnesium carbonate mineral whose chemical composition is MgCO3. Magnesite is formed in several ways. The carbonation of magnesium-rich rocks such as peridotite or serpentinite when they are changed by heat or pressure leads to the formation of magnesite. Magnesite is also formed from the alteration of limestone, marble, or other carbonate-rich rocks by combining them with magnesium-rich solutions. This mineral can help prevent climate change from going past its tipping point. Magnesite splits into MgO and CO2 when heated. MgO has an extremely high melting temperature, making it a good refractory material in many steelmaking, metallurgical, and ceramic processes. It is also used to make fertilizers, magnesium chemicals, and refined magnesium metal.

Magnesite has many uses, the most important being that it can change the way scientists combat global warming by it absorbing excess CO2 from the atmosphere.

Magnesite is commonly used to make tumbled stones and beads. White magnesite is porous, and has the ability to be cut and reliably absorb dye to produce almost any color. It has fooled people into believing it is turquoise or lapis lazuli. However, magnesite has another, much more important use. It can store CO2 from the environment by absorbing it and converting it into carbonate materials. Scientists have found a rapid way of producing magnesite and, if it can be developed at an industrial scale, it can remove CO2 from the air for long-term storage, thus countering the globally warming effect of atmospheric CO2. The previously mentioned natural formations of magnesite take up to thousands of years to grow, but scientists have figured out that by using polystyrene microspheres—particles typically used to facilitate biological lab tests—as a catalyst, magnesite can be formed within 72 days.

By industrializing the process of creating magnesite, scientists can reduce Earth’s overall CO2 level, which has been dramatically increasing every year due to air pollution created by fossil fuel combustion. With science, research, and magnesite, humans can inhabit Earth longer and prevent the end of all life. — Elvira Quarshie Goldschmidt Conference. “Scientists Find Way to Make Mineral Which Can Remove CO2 from Atmosphere.” Phys.org - News and Articles on Science and Technology. Phys.org, 14 Aug. 2018. Web. 08 Nov. 2018. Gabbatiss, Josh. “Scientists Create Mineral That Can Remove CO2 Pollution from the Atmosphere.” The Independent. Independent Digital News and Media, 15 Aug. 2018. Web. 08 Nov. 2018. King, Hobart M. “Magnesite.” Geology. N.p., n.d. Web. 08 Nov. 2018.

Brain Stimulation Therapy

What is Brain Stimulation Therapy? Brain stimulation therapy is used for treating psychiat-

ric and neurological disorders by applying electric impulses directly to the brain. There are different types of therapy that utilize different methods of activating certain parts of the brain to communicate better with others. Examples of brain stimulation therapy include electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and deep brain stimulation (DBS).

What is ECT? Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a medical treatment

that is commonly used for treating patients with severe mental health conditions, such as depression. The procedure for ECT involves sending small electric currents through electrodes to specific parts of an anesthetized

patientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s brain, intentionally inducing a brief seizure. This is capable of making changes to the brain that can reverse symptoms of severe mental conditions. ECT is only used when antidepressant medication and psychotherapy end up taking too long to work.

Why Does ECT Work? It is unclear why exactly the practice of applying elec-

tricity directly to the brain is effective in treating mental disorders. While some scientists speculate that the electric pulses applied to the brain helps â&#x20AC;&#x153;resetâ&#x20AC;? an area of the brain that is malfunctioning, others believe that treatments like ECT flood the brain with neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine, which are responsible for regulating physiological behavior and are involved in cases of depression. Others hypothesize that the therapy creates changes in the way brain cells

communicate and even encourages the development of new brain cells. Most of these theories are based on the idea that ECT affects an area of the brain known as “Brodmann Area 25” (BA25), which is most commonly associated with depression. Scientists believe that targeting the area with electrodes will successfully treat depressed people.

What is Parkinson’s disease? Parkinson’s disease is a neurological disorder that af-

fects movement and is often accompanied with tremors. Parkinson’s disease includes a wide variety of symptoms, from speech problems, to psychological and sleep disorders. The most common symptoms, however, are slow movement, stiffness, and loss of balance. The disease affects approximately 7 to 10 million people worldwide, roughly one million of whom live in the United States, not accounting for the thousands of cases that go undetected each year. Most patients are diagnosed with this neurological disorder after the age of 50, but an estimated 4 percent of patients are diagnosed before the age of 50. Parkinson’s is considered incurable, but medications that target specific symptoms exist. These include dopamine promoters, antidepressants, and anti-tremor medications. The medication cost for an individual American is around $2,500 on average. It was not until a few decades ago that researchers started considering deep brain stimulation (DBS) as a treatment for Parkinson’s.

What is DBS? How is it used in Parkinson’s disease patients? The process of DBS in Parkinson’s disease patients

involves placing thin wires called electrodes in a patient’s subthalamic nucleus, or globus pallidus internus,areas of the brain responsible for movement. To make sure that the electrodes are placed correctly, the patient needs to stay awake during the surgery so they can perform tasks and answer questions. During the therapy sessions post-surgery, a movement disorder specialist adjusts the parameters into the neurotransmitter according to the patient’s unique symptoms. A neurotransmitter, or pulse stimulator, is a battery powered pacemaker designed to create electric pulses which are delivered to the brain. The neurotransmitter is placed under the skin of the chest or abdomen. After recovery, the patient’s medications are tailored to his or her symptoms as well. Like any surgery, it poses many risks, including strokes, intracranial bleeding, and the risk of infection. However, if all goes as intended, the patient will experience lessened motor symptoms like slowness, stiffness, and tremors.

Why is Brain Stimulation Therapy Important? Brain stimulation therapy is capable of becoming a re-

liable solution for severe depression and Parkinson’s Disease. Scientists are even proposing research into reversing the symptoms of Alzheimer’s through brain stimulation therapy, just by targeting different parts of the brain. Many clinical trials have been conducted and the results are constantly improving. Eventually, brain stimulation is likely to become an essential procedure in the medical world. Brain stimulation therapy has improved so many lives today, and will become a further positive force in the world. — Johan Machuca and Tahoor Arif “Electroconvulsive Therapy(ECT)” https://www. mayoclinic.org /tests-procedures/electroconvulsive-therapy/about/pac-20393894 “What is Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)?”https:// www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/ect “Frequently Asked Questions about ECT” https:// www.hopkinsmedicine.org /psychiatry/specialty_ areas/brain_stimulation/ect/faq_ect.html Jiang, Li, and Jijun Wang. “Potential Mechanisms Underlying the Therapeutic Effects of Electroconvulsive Therapy” Neuroscience Bulletin, Jun. 2017, pp. 339-347. US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. 10.1007/s12264-0160094-x “NIMH Brain Stimulation Therapies” https:// www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/brain-stimulation-therapies/brain-stimulation-therapies.shtml Parkinson Association of the Carolinas, www. parkinsonassociation.org /facts -about-parkinsons-disease/ Mayfield Brain & Spine. Brain Anatomy, Anatomy of the Human Brain, mayfieldclinic.com/pe-dbs.htm

VIDEO GAME EVOLUTION Video games are everywhere: on phones, stores, and even posters. Cafes have been dedicated to gamers and widespread eSport competitions with millions of spectators are held to find the best players. Their fame is well known, but what about before—how have video games evolved over time?

games were not very popular at the time, but some of these games were showcased to thousands of people in exhibits and open houses, bringing captivating attention to a new form of entertainment. For instance, in 1958, William Higinbotham’s “Tennis for Two” appeared for a day in New York, allowing the public to catch a glimpse of what video games were like. From then on, video games only grew. The very first major digital game company, Atari, had a significant impact on cultural history. Their first game, Pong, led to hundreds of thousands of people frequenting arcades and buying their own consoles to play at home. All over, arcade moniters’s screens flashed bright colors and blocky sprites. Atari was vital in starting the next generation of consoles and games, bringing a new era of fun.

Video games were first created around the late 1940s and have improved in their designs, mechanics, and graphics over the years. As time went on, there was However, before there were any fancy technologies, game concepts were rather simple, although consoles a sweeping crash in the vidcould be very diverse. Console sizes could vary from a small box television to a few lockers side by side. Video eo game industry in 1983. 22

Why? Production of low-quality games soared, and suffocating competition was one of the factors that discouraged players from buying new content. As a result, home computer and console companies went bankrupt. Then, in 1985, Nintendo expanded in the United States, introducing better sound, graphics, gameplay, and colors. Originally a playing card manufacturer, Nintendo created some of the most well-known video games franchises up to date, such as Super Mario Bros, Pokemon, and the Legend of Zelda. Their popular games inspired the rise of more players, increased care in properly testing and developing games, and created additional rights for video game platform companies.

However, Nintendo was not the sole video game company that existed—there was competition. Sony had a strong third party support, which Nintendo found difficult to compete with. Later, in the 2000s, Microsoft became prominent too; they focused more on creating consoles with the features of a PC, as well as 3D gaming. Character models now differed greatly from the earlier 2D style - they were less pixelated more realistic. Over the following decades, the three clashed alongside each other to have the biggest fanbase and the highest sales.

Currently, some companies such as Sony and Microsoft aim to work with virtual reality. It would allow players a more personal experience with a game, enabling them to have a physical presence in the imaginary world of their choice. While some aspects of the experienced senses in virtual reality are limited, such as smell and feel, from around the world there has been some development concerning those senses. A Korean start-up has been testing flexible thermoelectric modules, small electronic chips integrated into a bodysuit and controls which can induce different temperatures. Depending on what is occurring in the game, the wearer could feel cool, warm, and even pain. A Tokyo start-up has incorporated scent by having a section of the headset emit smells with a fan that controls the strength. Using virtual real-

ity could help people around the world with various goals, such as learn how to drive, overcome fears, and cook. The possibilities are endless!

When comparing video games to how they used to be, they are superior in their graphics, audio, availability, gameplay, and user interface. Even though there are many differences, one thing is still certain: video games are meaningful to their fans. Whether someone plays Wii sports with their friends and family, meets someone new through online gaming, or spends their weekends enjoying new releases and old classics, video games offer memories which countless cherish. While the future is uncertain about how they will change, video games have had a remarkable impact on the whole world and will likely continue to do so. As technology´s efficiency skyrockets, the world just may see video games in forms completely unimaginable and indescribable. The future has yet to see the end of all the different possibilities and what will be made of them. —Olivia Rougé History.com, A&E Television Networks, www.history. com/topics/inventions/history-of-video-games. “5 Startups Enabling Virtual Reality with All 5 Senses.” Nanalyze, 25 Sept. 2017, www.nanalyze.com/2017/08/ virtual-reality-all-5-senses/. “The Great Video Game Crash of 1983.” The Great Video Game Crash of 1983 | BugSplat, www.bugsplat.com/ great-video-game-crash-1983. Markoff, John. “Microsoft’s Game Plan; Xbox to Go Head to Head With Sony.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 4 Sept. 2000, www.nytimes.com/2000/09/04/ business/microsoft-s-game-plan-xbox-to-go-head-tohead-with-sony.html. Marshall, Rick. “The History of the Xbox.” Digital Trends, Digital Trends, 12 May 2013, www.digitaltrends.com/ gaming/the-history-of-the-xbox/. “Who Invented the First Video Game?” Wonderopolis, wonderopolis.org/wonder/who-invented-the-first-video-game.

Reversing Paralysis

Paralysis can drastically alter someone’s life, making it impossible to do things that most people take for granted. The idea of recovery may seem impossible to those who suffer from paralysis. Neuroprosthetics have become a beacon of hope in the field of medicine, making recovery more tangible for patients. This technology has been developed with the intentions of restoring motor, sensory, or cognitive functionality by converting the brain’s intentions into physical action. The beginning of neural prosthetic technology dates back to 1929. Hans Berger, a German psychiatrist, invented the electroencephalogram (EEG), a machine that tests and records brain activity using electrodes attached to the scalp. Scientists such as Jacques Vidal utilized the EEG to further explore and facilitate communication between a brain and a computer. These early inventions and studies paved the way for modern neural prosthetic technology. The revolutionary field of neuroprostheses has enabled the restoration of hearing, sight, and memory. Cochlear implants for hearing restoration were first made available in 1972, and since then have evolved and advanced immensely. To restore vision, nerve tissue related to sight is electrically stimulated, which helps transmit electrical signals to the brain. To restore memory, a chip is implanted into the hippocampus, the region of the brain that consolidates short-term memory As a result, a subject can remember how to complete forgotten tasks when stimulated with specific electrical impulse patterns. In addition to sensory restoration, neural prosthetics have developed enough to reverse paralysis. Grégoire Courtine, a professor at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, uses electrical stimulation, drugs, and robots to arouse neural pathways and guide the body into moving on its own. Courtine initially did so by using mice with spinal cord injuries as his subjects of study. To activate motion in a mouse, a microscopic electric implant was placed into its spine, stimulating nerve fibers below the location of the injury. Each mouse was placed in a supportive device and prompted to walk forward by powering the implanted electrodes. This stimulated the nerve fibers, allowing them to eventually bring commands from the mouse’s brain to its legs. This experimentation did not stop with mice; it was altered slightly for the macaque monkey. First, doctors inserted a recording device beneath the skull of a monkey paralyzed in one leg. The recording device placed beneath the skull was wirelessly connected to a sutured pad of flexible electrodes around the spinal cord. Electric stimulation was formed by the monkey’s thoughts and intentions to move.

Courtine’s research has reached a milestone. The spinal implant system has met its first human trial. The first person to be a part of this clinical trial was partially paralyzed—he could walk with some support. With the implant, however, his gait and coordination improved significantly. Scientists expect gradual improvement in the locomotion of the patient months after the implantation of the device and a reorganization of the nervous system. The brain will inevitably find a way to communicate with the spinal cord below the injury. Despite the improvements in stride and fluidity in motor function of the patient, the implant still has a long way to go. Claudia Angeli, the author of a study conducted at University of Louisville remarks that “while more clinical research must be done with larger cohorts, these findings confirm that the spinal cord has the capacity to recover the ability to walk with the right combination of epidural stimulation, daily training, and the intent to step independently with each footstep.” Science is an ever-evolving field, where advancement is inexorable. Although some ideas can seem radical and even impossible, they are practical and necessary for those who suffer from spinal cord injuries. Blindness, deafness, and paralysis have plagued millions upon millions of people since the beginning of time. Now, the field of neuroprosthetics presents a promising solution to ailments that have always seemed incurable. — Laura Preka Strickland, Eliza. “One Small Step for a Paraplegic, One Big Step Toward Reversing Paralysis.” IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News, IEEE Spectrum, 14 Mar. 2017, spectrum.ieee.org/thehuman-os/biomedical/bionics/one-small-step-for-aparaplegic-one-big-step-toward-reversing-paralysis. http://web.cs.ucla.edu/~vidal/BCI.pdf https://www.nscisc.uab.edu/Public/Facts%202016. pdf Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Electroencephalography.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 31 Oct. 2017, www.britannica.com/science/electroencephalography#ref3134. Regalado, Antonio. “A Brain Implant Is Helping a Paralyzed Monkey Walk Again.” MIT Technology Review, MIT Technology Review, 6 Apr. 2017, www.technologyreview.com/s/603492/10-breakthrough-technologies-2017-reversing-paralysis/. Daley, Jason. “How Implanted Electrodes Helped Paralyzed People Stand and Walk Again.” Smithsonian. com, Smithsonian Institution, 25 Sept. 2018, www. smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/implanted-electrodes-allow-paralyzed-people-walk-180970399/.

The Evolution of Game Theory in Chess Chess is one of the oldest games known to man, originating in the 6th century A.D. in India. The game is so vast and complex that no one has ever been able to calculate the number of possible games, but it is theoretically more than the number of atoms in the universe. The game has evolved a lot since its humble beginnings, and players toiling about what to play on the 4th turn of the game would be astonished by the sheer amount of known theory that is common knowledge now. In fact, the age of technology has only made chess more complex. In chess, people use notation to talk about games, similarly to how they name squares in battleship. On both sides of a chess board there are letters and numbers: letters a-h on the bottom and 1-8 on the sides. To notate a piece going to a square, abbreviations are used. R is for Rook, N for Knight, B for Bishop, Q for Queen, and K for King. A letter is not needed for pawn moves. For captures, an x is put in between the piece and the square. If a Knight is capturing on d4, the move would be noted Nxd4. Additionally, a check, which tells the opposing player their king is in danger, is “+”, and checkmate, to tell the other player they lost, is “#”. Finally, if a piece is moving to a square, but another piece of the same type can move to that square, the piece going there must be specified. This happens by saying the column the piece is on before the square. If a rook is on the g-column and wants to go to e1, but another rook on the a-column can go to the same square, then it is noted Rge1. If they are on the same column, then the row number is used.

What this notation allows for is the ability to comprehensively describe chess games over literature. Chess theory would progress over an extremely slow time if notation did not exist. Imagine trying to prepare for a big tournament and deciding to get some coaching

from a more experienced player. Without notation to help study positions more in depth, a teacher could give away tricks that rarely work, and there would be little data to dispute the move. Having access to millions of games over decades of high level tournaments allows the collective knowledge of chess players to come to consensus on ideas, rather than for theory be an opinionated subject. Paul Morphy was an American chess master born in New Orleans in 1837. Considered one of the first to have a real, masterful understanding of the game, Morphy’s skills were the envy of all who played the game, rich and poor alike. Perhaps his most famous game was one he played while at an opera house in Paris, where he played the Duke of Brunswick and Count Isouard. Morphy’s fast and aggressive play can be explained by the fact that he was simply trying to see the show, but could not turn down a game from such prominent company. While Morphy wished he could have seen the opera in its entirety, what occurred was quite possibly the most famous chess game of all time. It is evident why this game is so frequently shown to new players. Morphy took a quick lead after a bishop threatened the Duke and Count, and it all went uphill for him from there. Morphy quickly realized that the Duke and Count’s plan to play b5 to gain tempo and grab more space was inaccurate, and correctly calculated that Nxb5 would lead to a winning attack. Morphy’s genius in this game has remained over time very instructive on the basics of attacking chess. One of the most important works of literature for chess theory is My System. Written by Aron Nimzowitsch, a well known player in the early 1900s, this book was written about the fundamentals of how he played chess and how he understood the game. It focused on center control, piece coordination, pawn weaknesses, and king safety. While these were fundamentals that were obvious to the world’s top players, it made them accessible to the average player and teacher. Excerpts taken out of My System are still taught to learning players today, and it is undeniable that My System was a valuable resource for the coming generation of chess players. Chess was highly popularized in the Soviet Union when the country heavily fostered citizens, mostly youth, to learn the game at a high level. This was mostly an attempt by the government to show Soviets’ mental superiority over their capitalist counterparts, and they definitely reaped the rewards. Players like Tigran Petrosian, Mikhail Tal, Anatoly Karpov, and Garry Kasparov shaped the way chess is seen to this day. However, while the Soviet Era created all of these amazing players, there are none more famous than Bobby Fischer, who, in 1972, played in the most famous world chess championship

match of all time against the Soviet’s Boris Spassky. The world chess championship is played in a 12 game match format, and the first player to 6.5 points is the victor. The dramatic match went back and forth until game 6, where Fischer won what is considered to be the greatest chess game of all time. Fischer surprised Spassky with his very first move, pawn to c4, but this quickly transposed into a known position. Spassky’s board looked completely fine by about move 17, but the game was unbalanced. Spassky clearly lacked initiative against Fischer’s weaknesses, and Fischer quickly found an idea to use his rook to set up a winning attack. Spassky’s center looked like an advantage in the middle of the game, but a weak e6 pawn was under constant pressure. The reason this game is so famous is due in no small part to the fact that Spassky actually applauded after he resigned in the game, because he too recognized that it was one of the greatest chess games of all time. The start of the computer era of chess was the match between Intel’s “Big Blue” and world champion Garry Kasparov. While the engine was defeated and ultimately pales in comparison to computers now, it was an important step in developing advanced computers that could challenge masters. Kasparov was quick to denounce the idea of a computer defeating him, so Intel’s computer engineers kept working on the program, and in 1997, the “greatest chess player of all time” lost to what some dubbed, “Bigger Blue.” In today’s world, instead of having televised feuds against opponents with nerves of silicon, game theorists use computers to help us understand more about the game. Top chess masters spend a good portion of their time not just practicing the game, but finding novelties using computers in positions played hundreds of times before. Just as computers help astronomers map the cosmos, computers help chess players map the wide possibilities of a board game that can be taught to a 4 year old. Next time you play against a friend or family rival, think about all you can discover in 32 pieces and 64 squares. —Nico Jordan “Chessgames.com: Chess Games Database & Community.” Chess Games, www.chessgames.com/. Nimzowitsch, Aron. My System. Snowball Publishing, 2012. Abbott, Karen. “A Chess Champion’s Dominance-and Madness.” Smithsonian.com, Smithsonian Institution, 12 Dec. 2011, www.smithsonianmag.com/ history/a-chess-champions-dominanceand-madness-4307709/.

Language processing Language is a constant in the world, and without it, human culture would be lost. How can something so seemingly elementary be so

complicated? From a bird’s trill to a cat’s purr, all kinds of animals share the ability to communicate. Humans clearly do the same; as a species, human developments have been dependent on and facilitated by language. The very act of writing and reading this article, in fact, is only possible due to language! However, if other animals have the ability to communicate, what then, sets human language apart from other forms of communication? Human language is highly restricted; there is neither an infinite set of sounds nor an infinite set of words to express ideas with. Grammar restricts language further— every language is bound by a set of rules that dictate ‘proper’ communication. With all these restrictions, it is surprising that humans have a practically infinite number of possible communications. From basic sentences that described one’s surroundings and aided the survival of early humans, communication has progressed to express far more complex statements. In this manner, language can be defined as the ability to use limited sounds and set rules to express a multitude of ideas. Humans developed language out of necessity for survival. To be able to communicate with one another made it easier for ancient humans to teach each other lessons and work together in activities such as hunting. Experts are not sure when language definitively developed, but historians argue it happened anywhere from 100,000 years ago to 2,000,000 years ago. Either way, whenever humans started using languages, language quickly became abundantly diverse and complex. As people in different regions began to communicate sectionally, they made languages with completely different phonetics from others. In fact, language evolved so much that today there are over 5,000 known languages. Though languages can wildly differ, learning a first language is a similar process for most people. Children typically learn a language naturally, because children have LAD, language acquisition device, which allows for them to easily learn words and grammar. As people get older, it becomes harder to learn a language, as it

takes more of a conscious effort. Older adolescents and adults do not have LAD because their language learning ability focuses mainly on their already known language. Around the age of 13, children slowly lose their LAD, and after 17 it becomes significantly harder for people to learn languages. Learning a language requires several parts of the brain. One critical part of the brain involved is the Broca’s area, which has to do with speaking accurately, generating ideas, and writing correctly. Also involved is the Wernicke’s area which is key in understanding words and language whether it is spoken aloud or written. The hippocampus is used mainly to remember the words, phrases and grammar learned. As for hearing and seeing, tangular gyros and the visual cortex take control. As new words are learned, a person’s brain size actually starts to increase, according to a study by Swedish researchers. The brains of people who learn new languages become rewired to use portions of their brains that they may not have used the same way before. Therefore, those who are bilingual are cognitively sharper than those who speak only one language. In fact, according to a Canadian study, multilingual speakers are less likely to experience symptoms of dementia or Alzheimer’s. Today, what makes people speak one language versus another? Languages very much parallel the study of speciation. Like an organism of a species, each person has an idiolect, an individual unique use of language and expression. Similar to regional variations found in a species, there are regional variations in the the way people speak, known as dialects.

The divisions between languages even resemble the divisions between species. Two species are typically considered separate if two members of both species cannot produce fertile offspring together. Likewise, two languages can be considered separate if two speakers of both languages cannot understand each other without training, otherwise known as mutual unintelligibility.

Throughout time, the separation between languages has become more clear, due to the adoption of standardized dialects and languages, many of which have gained significant prestige. Prestigious languages have the power to unite people. They are the languages that people from different cultures may learn to have a shared means of communication. Just look around in the subway and find people of completely different backgrounds communicating together with English! Unfortunately, this comes at the expense of lesser known languages; it is expected that more than 3,000 languages will die out in the next 100 years because they are no longer taught or used. Each language has its own unique sounds and means of expression. Thus, to lose a language would be to lose a part of what makes human communication so great—its diversity. But if more people learn more diverse languages, the world can ensure that many languages will not die out. Learning a language is never easy to do, but can be fun as well as challenging. Though it is harder for adults than it is for children, learning a language is not impossible. While adults do not have LAD, the work required to learn a language is worth it. Learning multiple languages at any age has been scientifically proven to do so much, including increase memory, build mental sharpness and much more. However, language has a much greater impact than merely on the individual level. Language is behind everything humans use and do. It is a means of creativity and freedom. As people learn different languages, the world becomes more interconnected in this era of globalization.

“How Did Language Begin?” Linguistic Society of America, www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/faq-how-didlanguage-begin. Mackey, Alison. “What Happens in the Brain When You Learn a Language?” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 4 Sept. 2014, www.theguardian.com/education/2014/sep/04/what-happens-to-the-brain-language-learning. Mandal, Ananya. “Language and the Human Brain.” News-Medical.net, News Medical, 23 Aug. 2018, www. news-medical.net/health/Language-and-the-HumanBrain.aspx. McWhorter, John. “There’s No Such Thing as a ‘Language’.” The Atlantic, Atlantic Media Company, 20 Jan. 2016, www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/01/difference-between-language-dialect/42470/. museum, Science. “Who Am I?” Why Are Enzymes Important?, NMSI / Science Museum, 19 Apr. 2010, whoami.sciencemuseum.org.uk/whoami/findoutmore/ yourbrain/whatisspecialabouthumanlanguage/whendidhumansstarttalking. Linguistics 201: The Origin of Language, pandora.cii. wwu.edu/vajda/ling201/test4materials/language_ and_the_brain.htm.

— Fatou Mbaye and Angelo Lontok BalterJan, Michael, et al. “Human Language May Have Evolved to Help Our Ancestors Make Tools.” Science | AAAS, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 10 Dec. 2017, www.sciencemag.org/ news/2015/01/human-language-may-have-evolvedhelp-our-ancestors-make-tools. Edmonds, Molly. “Why Don’t We All Speak the Same Language?” HowStuffWorks, HowStuffWorks, 14 June 2010, people.howstuffworks.com/speak-same-language.htm. Eschner, Kat. “Four Things That Happen When a Language Dies.” Smithsonian.com, Smithsonian Institution, 21 Feb. 2017, www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/ four-things-happen-when-language-dies-and-onething-you-can-do-help-180962188/. Goldman, Jason G. “Is Language Unique to Humans?” BBC News, BBC, 17 Oct. 2012, www.bbc.com/future/ story/20121016-is-language-unique-to-humans.

Heart Disease

When a single nanometer-sized pathogen passes through a cell or small opening in the body and causes a disease, it can ruin millions of lives. A few of the most prevalent world diseases caused by pathogens include cancer, which attacks 14 million people annually, diabetes, that find its way to 29 million people, and so much more. However, the most life-impacting disease known worldwide is heart disease. Heart disease is an umbrella term for diseases that range from heart failure, stroke, and genetic heart issues. Annually, 25% of deaths in the United States are from heart disease, and it is the leading cause of death in both men and women. Heart disease is an issue pertaining to the lack of blood flow, oxygen, clogs, or any form of damage to the heart, many of which are spontaneous. Many people do not view this as a huge problem because they incorrectly believe it can be cured with medication or surgery. This disease is a lifelong issue. Although procedures such as bypass surgery will help blood and oxygen flow easier, any damage to the arteries is permanent. The most essential point in heart disease is when someone is permanently disabled because of their disease. If plaque completely blocks the flow of blood, it can lead to a heart attack or fatal rhythm disturbance, cardiac arrest. This is a major cause of death and disability worldwide. Heart diseases can be placed into two categories: genetic diseases that come from a parent’s DNA, and acquired diseases, usually due to lifestyle choices. The main form of a hereditary or genetic type of heart disease is Congenital Heart Disease. That of an acquired nature but can also be hereditary is Coronary Heart Disease. Beyond these, there are several forms of notable heart diseases. Coronary Artery Disease is the buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries of the heart, which blocks blood flow and the cycle of the heart. Effects can range from heart attacks to strokes. Peripheral Artery Disease is similar because it is a circulatory issue where blood vessels narrow, reducing blood flow to the heart and the rest of the limbs. Congenital Disease is an abnormality at birth ranging from holes in the heart and leaky valves to defective vessels. Symptoms of Coronary Artery Disease are chest pain and tightness, shortness of breath, and preliminary heart attacks. Causes can be smoking, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, or diabetes. Risk factors include old age, stress, unhealthy diet, family history, and sex— males are more prone to this form of heart disease. The two most used methods of diagnoses are echocardiograms, where sound waves are used to produce images of the heart to determine whether all parts of the heart wall are contributing to abnormal heart activity, and a heart scan or CT scan that tells the doctor if calcium deposits in the arteries prove Coronary Artery Disease

is present. Personal treatments are commonly lifestyle changes, such as to quit smoking, eat healthy, and exercise. On the medical side of treatments, bypass surgery, angioplasty, stent placement, and various prescriptions can be used to counter the disease’s effects. Symptoms of Congenital Heart Disease are pale gray or blue skin color, known as cyanosis, rapid breathing, and shortness of breath. Causes are related to genetics, medical conditions, and medications. Risk factors could be parents smoking or drinking alcohol during pregnancy, or a parent with rubella or diabetes. The effects of this horrible disease are holes in the heart, obstructed blood flow, and other various abnormalities. It has the same treatments and diagnoses as Congenital Heart Disease. Heart Disease is a very tragic and life-threatening disease that millions of people are forced to live with for their entire lives without a cure. Not only is it economically draining, but it is physically vexatious and can lead to emotional trauma.The next step in medical research is figuring out how the world’s leading cause of death can be nullified or prospectively cured to help the lives of millions of people, as the number of patients with heart disease grows. —Ann-Nicole Frimpong “Coronary Heart Disease.” National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/coronary-heart-disease. “Heart Disease Facts & Statistics.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, www.cdc.gov/heartdisease/facts.htm. “Heart Disease.” Mayo Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 22 Mar. 2018, www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/heart-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20353118. Nordqvist, Christian. “Coronary Heart Disease: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment.” Medical News Today, MediLexicon International, 19 Jan. 2018, www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/184130.php. Ntelios, Dimitrios, et al. “Strength Training in Congenital Heart Disease: A Way to Boost Respiratory Function?” Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports., European Journal of Preventive Cardiology, 14 Nov. 2018, journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/204748731881250 5?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid% 3Acr ossref. org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed.

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ISSUE #14

About Dr. Dragon Dr. Dragon is our school’s student produced magazine that focuses on math, science, and engineering. The mission of this magazine is to give HSMSE students the opportunity to take the school’s core subjects and explore subtopics that particularly interest them. Students on the magazine staff research and write about subjects of their choice. They are also involved with the production of the magazine, and learn about everything from design to fundraising and budgeting. If you are an HSMSE student and want to contribute your thoughts, please talk to our officers or our faculty advisor, Mr. Choi. Contact information: Dr. Dragon email: hsmsedrdragon@gmail.com Mr. Choi: RChoi@hsmse.org Also, you can read our previous magazines, and check the answers to crossword puzzles and Sudoku puzzles by visiting our website: sites.Google.com/site/hsmsedrdragon/

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