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RESEARCH OBSERVATIONS: THE MEANING OF LIFE IN CONTEMPORARY DRUIDRY Michael T. Cooper Trinity International University Introduction The cultural context of Western culture suggests that people continue to demonstrate strong religious and paranormal beliefs. Over the course of the past several years, many have suggested that Western society is not as secular as once believed. 1 The contemporary Western religious landscape, instead, could be thought of in terms of re-enchantment. One expression of this re-enchantment is exemplified in the revival of European native religions, sometimes referred to as Paganism. In its varied expressions, Paganism has raised the question of whether the West was ever truly disenchanted. Some have suggested that Pagan religions such as Druidry, Asatru and Wicca are successfully confronting the Western religious economy. This article will look explicitly at Druidry as one recent expression of reenchantment. After defining and situating Druidry in the context of Pagan religions, this essay will examine the Druid understanding of life as it relates to the role of nature, deities and ancestors. An essential characteristic of the article is the attempt to allow practitioners of Druidry to express their beliefs in relationship to the meaning of life. As such, the article represents a framework by which one might study expressions of Paganism. Defining Druidry Paganism is a broad religious category incorporating at least three core beliefs. First is the belief in the inherent divinity of the natural world. Second, Pagans generally reject any dogma that prescribes the
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manner in which one should conduct life. Third, practitioners accept both female as well as male deities. As Ronald Hutton comments, “Pagans today are people who hold those tenets and turn from symbolism, kinship, and inspiration to the pre-Christian religions of Europe and the Near East. . . .”2 Hutton posits that if there is a legitimate claim to being a Pagan religion, Druidry can make it.3 Defining what it is, however, has become a difficult task. As an informant said, “Ask two Druids, get three answers.” The ancients suggested that the very word “Druid” itself is an indicator of its meaning. A cognate of the word for “oak” in many European languages and from “wisdom,” having an Indo-European root, many speculate that “Druid” is one who possesses the wisdom of the oak. 4 Strabo and Pliny the Elder both had the understanding that Druid was a cognate of the Greek for oak, drus.5 Pliny states, “The magicians perform no rites without using the foliage of those trees . . . it may be supposed that it is from this custom that they get their name of Druids, from the Greek word meaning ‘oak.’”6 Contemporary observers of Druidry have found a definition challenging. Graham Harvey, for example, states, “Not all of them [Druids] are Pagan, not all of them have Celtic ancestors, not all of them speak Celtic languages and not all of them agree on what ‘Druid’ means. Perhaps the only thing that they all agree on is that human sacrifice is not part of Druidry!”7 Emma Restall Orr recognizes the difficulty in defining Druidry as well. Due to the lack of a sacred text in Druidry it is difficult to arrive at a consensus of belief. Orr states, “There is no one god, or even one pantheon, which all Druids revere as the divine guiding force. There are no prophets who have laid down great truths together with ritual obligations – just a mixture of historical and mythical heroes.”8 Nonetheless, she suggests that there is consensus in regards to the general features of Druidry. Most Druids agree that it is a polytheistic faith that honors nature as well as the ancestors. However, according to Philip Carr-Gomm, each Druid can conceive of deity on his or her own. In this, some Druids are monotheistic while others are pantheistic or even agnostic. There are also duo-theistic Druids who polarize deity in order to express its femaleness and maleness, a theology borrowed from Wicca.9 CarrGomm states, “Druidry celebrates the natural world, and rather than focusing on how to transcend our physical existence, it focuses on celebrating our life on earth and on encouraging our creativity, helping the Bard within us to sing the song of our hearts and souls.”10 Alferian Gwydion MacLir, member of the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids (OBOD), Druid Wandmaker and Doctor of Philosophy (a.k.a. James W. Maertens, M.A., Ph.D.) has defined Druidry in this widely accepted manner:
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Druidry is a way of life based in reverence for and communion with nature. It teaches that spirits and intelligence exist everywhere in nature, in animals, trees, stars and sacred places. It reveres ancestors and the divine imagination, which is to say the individual experience of the divine. Its ethics respect all creatures and value peaceful co-existence, sustainable living, and ecological responsibility. 11 Isaac Bonewits, founder and first Archdruid of Ar nDraiocht Fein (ADF), defined Druidry in light of its relationship with the pre-Christian expression. As such, Druidry is a Neo-Pagan religion. By this Bonewits meant that ADF would be a new expression of an ancient religion or what he termed paleo-Paganism. Those religious group that incorporate elements of Christianity or other religious elements were thought of as meso-Paganism. These distinctions do not seem to be of necessary importance for adherents. Some insight is gained from one informant’s comment on the subject: As for myself, I respond with a shameless yes to both terms. I am a Pagan and a Neo-Pagan. I find, however, as time goes on, that I call myself Pagan more and more, rather than Neo-Pagan. Probably because I’ve been a Pagan for ten and a half years now. I’m not exactly new to it anymore. ADF describes Druidry in the following manner: NeoPagan Druidry is a group of religions, philosophies and ways of life, rooted in ancient soil yet reaching for the stars. We are part of the larger NeoPagan movement, one of the world’s most vital and creative new religious awakenings. Like much of that movement we are polytheistic nature worshippers, working with the best aspects of the Pagan religions of our predecessors within a modern scientific, artistic, ecological and wholistic context using a nondogmatic and pluralistic approach.12 Nevertheless, no matter how Druidry is defined, phenomenologically speaking, there is an apparent congruency of beliefs among those I have interviewed.
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Research Methodology and the Study of Paganism Many have noted that research of Pagan religions is often difficult. 13 Due in part to the secretive nature of some religious rituals, participant observation can be challenging. Access to such events is generally limited to adherents. Eileen Barker, nevertheless, suggests that it is methodologically reprehensible if the study of a religious movement does not include participant observation.14 However, there can be consequences in this approach. While most sociologists and anthropologists regard participant observation as imperative in understanding religious movements, they can be mistaken for lending credibility to questionable groups.15 The research for this article is a result of on-going research attempting to understand the religious beliefs of contemporary Druids in relationship to the Western religious landscape. Two hundred and thirty interviews with 70 practitioners have been conducted by diverse means since September 2002. Three interviewing techniques constituted the use of the Internet: via electronic mail exchanges, a discussion forum and an on-line open-ended survey. Likewise, the traditional approach of faceto-face interviews was also employed, on occasion as a result of the initial electronic contact. As a result of the use of the electronic interviews, participant observations were made at three rituals and were followed up by face-to-face interviews with twelve practitioners. One telephone interview was conducted and was followed up by email. Internet Interviews The use of the Internet in research has recently attracted the attention of the academic community.16 Although traditional ethnography has depended upon the physical displacement of the researcher into a community that is geographically located, sociologists have a growing interest and acceptance of “virtual ethnography” in virtual communities that are located on the Internet. 17 Similarly, anthropology, even though a relatively recent interest, is increasingly open to academic enquiry on the Internet. 18 While there is interest in this type of research, there are also issues yet to be resolved. One issue confronting research framed in the context of the Internet is that of community. One informant was aware of the effect of being a participant in a “cyber-community,” Although the ADF organization really resonates with me, my experience with it up until this point has been through email lists rather than meeting anyone in person which may limit my interaction or impressions of others’ full personalities, practices,
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or beliefs, so my views of Druidry may or may not accord with the views of others. While outside the focus of the study, the research suggests that technology has little effect on the views of members. Samuel Wilson and Leighton Peterson suggest that “the distinction of real and imagined or virtual communities is not a useful one, and that an anthropological approach is well suited to investigate the continuum of communities, identities, and networks that exist . . . regardless of the ways in which community members interact.”19 Margot Adler, the National Public Radio commentator and practicing Wiccan, notes that Pagans are generally optimistic about the use of technology.20 For many, according to Adler’s research, the computer is the best way to communicate with other Pagans.21 Still another issue is that of access or what has been termed the “cyberspace divide.”22 In the United States only fifty percent of households own personal computers and only fifty percent of these are connected to the Internet. 23 The worldwide estimate of on-line use is approximately 0.01 percent.24 Interestingly, however, Alder estimated that 21 percent of Pagans work in the computer technology field and many Pagans believe that 80 percent of the community actively uses computers.25 New ethical issues also arise in conducting Internet interviews. For example, the use of e-mail and discussion groups does not necessarily secure the anonymity of the user. On the other hand, chat rooms and discussion forums, while permitting anonymity, do not assure the researcher that the participant’s identity on-line is the same as the identity in public social discourse.26 Wilson and Peterson suggest that although the American Anthropological Association Code of Ethics does not explicitly deal with virtual research it should nonetheless apply to online as it does to face-to-face research.27 The benefits of Internet usage for interviews and surveys are great. The Internet opens up opportunities to interview individuals from different continents simultaneously while potentially maintaining daily contact with participants.28 In this, participants, such as Druids who might be otherwise socially marginalized, can participate from the safety of their environment. Studies have shown that email surveys are returned at a greater rate than surveys returned via post. Similarly, web page based surveys can speed up the data collection process and have
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been demonstrated to generate many responses in a short period of time. 29 In September 2002, a website was designed by the researcher and a domain name was secured through Domain Registry of America. The website was hosted on the Trinity International University’s server at the URL www.researchndruidry.org. The purpose of the website was to gather data from an online survey. There is absolutely no way to determine who came across it or for what reason they made their way to it unless they actually participate in the survey. To date, 49 practitioners of Druidry have completed the survey and five respondents were professed Christians attempting to evangelize me. The site has collected more than 1400 hits, but there is no way to tell how many are for the first time. The survey was originally tested by a group of Druids that were part of a discussion forum that was arranged especially for this research. There was general consensus that the website was appropriate and would assist in collecting data. One informant wrote, “I went to your website you set up. I think that it is a good way to get the answers you’re looking for without anyone having to reveal themselves if they choose not to.” The challenge for the website was to find Druids who would participate. Since the focus of the research was on two Druid groups (ADF and OBOD) an avenue was sought by which only those groups would participate. One informant from OBOD suggested that I post a message on the OBOD message board indicating the presence and purpose of the website. Since I was an unknown, I decided to wait on posting a message until I conducted face-to-face interviews with OBOD members. This seems to have been a good decision. One participant in a face-to-face interview commented on the OBOD message board, “For anybody interested, I’ve actually met the chap who made this post with [person’s name] to assist in his research. It’s straight up legit so do make your contributions on his website.” As previously mentioned, a discussion forum was initiated as a result of email communication with the senior Druid of a grove in the United States. The number of participants is unknown, but nine actually responded and interacted in written electronic form. Based on communication with the senior Druid I do know that the forum consisted of members of his local grove and another grove in the area, as well as others who were a part of a scholar’s guild for ADF. As a result of the forum and the advocacy of the participants, 26 ADF members have completed the online survey.
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Face-To-Face Interviews Face-to-face interviews were conducted in England and Scotland from 9 to 21 June 2003. All seven of the interviewees were participants in OBOD. Some arrangements were made before I arrived in England by email correspondence. Others were made through interviewees’ introduction following a participant observation of a summer solstice ritual in Glastonbury. Five additional face-to-face interviews were conducted with ADF participants. These particular interviews were also conducted on 22 September 2005 after observation of an autumn equinox ritual that incorporated an ordination of one member into the Druid priesthood. While there were 25 participants at the ritual, three of the five interviewees were individuals who had participated in a discussion forum. The Meaning of Life in Contemporary Druidry: A Phenomenological Approach Joseph Bettis outlines three ways in which phenomenology of religion can be understood. First, it can refer to the philosophical school that asks the question, what is phenomenology. Second, phenomenology of religion can refer to the study of religion in historical perspective where researchers apply phenomenological methods to early religious symbolism and rituals. Finally, it can be understood as one religions attempt to describe the essence of what practitioners do. 30 As such, phenomenology of religion is not necessarily concerned for finding a common theme among all religious practitioners nor is it concerned with a theology of religion. As Bettis notes, “phenomenology of religion attempts to describe religious behavior rather than explain it.”31 It is in this third understanding that the current research formulates a phenomenological study of Druidry. In developing a contemporary understanding of the religious beliefs of Druids the question of how initiates make sense out of life is addressed. Fredrick Streng noted, “To understand religious life means to comprehend the feelings, activities, ideas and social forms of people as they express the ultimate dimension of their lives.”32 For this study, the ultimate dimension is explored in adherents’ responses to one interview question: how does Druidry provide an understanding to the meaning of life? In other words, why are we here? Melford Spiro suggested that humanity has a universal desire to know, to understand and to find
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meaning. He posited, “religious beliefs are held, and are of ‘concern,’ to religious actors because, in the absence of competitive explanations, they satisfy this desire [to know, to understand and to find meaning].”33 The phenomenological analysis will focus on how Druids express this universal desire of humanity. The question on a meaning of life attempts to understand a religious system synchronically and diachronically. The synchronic understanding of life helps answer the question of who one is whereas the diachronic meaning helps in understanding the historical connection with the community. When asked about the meaning of life, informants consistently defined themselves in terms of the wheel of the year/cycle of nature (synchronic) and the ancestors and deities (diachronic). This three-fold idea was widespread: nature, ancestors, gods and goddesses. One member of ADF referred to this notion as the Kindreds, “Most of us believe that by working with members of the Kindreds: spirits of nature, the ancestors and the deities, we develop allies that help us through troubled times.” Whether or not the Kindreds are a universal in Druidry is unclear. Nevertheless, the meaning of life for adherents of Druidry is derived from an understanding of nature, ancestors and deities. Another informant states, [Those practices (rituals, etc.)] open the portals to the Otherworld where I can experience the wonders of Nature, Faerie, mythology, fantasy, history, the future. All that is available to me through Druid (and Wiccan) training, and I feel very connected to the Gods, the world and nature. Cycle of Nature/Wheel of the Year Philip Carr-Gomm writes, “Druidry has an entirely different vision that celebrates and revels in life-as-it-is-now – not life as it might be in the hereafter or as it could be if we were able to break the cycle of death and rebirth.”34 In this way, the meaning of life is mirrored in the cycles of nature. One informant stated, “We celebrate the changes, we celebrate the fertility, the birth, the harvest, the death.” Life is a journey beginning with birth and leading to death and some type of re-birth. The cycle of nature helps in the understanding of this process and is therefore celebrated at festivals reinforcing the deep sense of responsibility that the Druid has for the environment. They provide a practical means where the practitioner can experience oneness with nature and its rhythm in the changing seasons.35 For example, consider the following comment: I feel that everything on this planet is connected, in a symbiotic relationship. We may have higher intelligence than other species but have misused it. Mankind has at times seen themselves as
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dominator of the planet, resulting in a disconnection from the natural world, leaving destruction in our wake. I believe that life should be lived passionately, and that a deep sense of connection with nature is life-enhancing, both for ourselves and also for the wider world that we live in. There are eight community festivals celebrated by Druids during the course of the year beginning with Samhain.36 These same eight festivals are also celebrated by Wiccans. Carr-Gomm writes, Witches, Wiccans and Druids all celebrate these times of the year. Although we can find traces and records of ancient practices and folklore associated with these special times, we cannot be sure that any particular community in ancient times celebrated all eight. In the modern era, it was only in the middle of the last century that Ross Nichols and Gerald Gardner introduced the celebrations of the complete eightfold cycle – a practice that has now become widespread. 37 The eight festivals are divided into two sets of four. There is an apparent belief that these practices are somehow tied to the past practices of Druids. For example, Druidry teaches a way of life that embraces and loves the nonhuman world as much as the human world. The old Druidry of legend strikes a chord with those people in the modern world seeking a spiritual path grounded in Nature. . . . Druidry is fundamentally a relationship to the natural world of animals, trees, plants, sea, star and stone. It cultivates awe and a sense of the numinous in the light of the sun and moon, and the invisible rush of the wind. It acknowledges spirit in all things, not just in human beings, and finds intelligence and wisdom in all creatures. In this respect, it is in accord with much of modern science but goes beyond biology to find life and communion in stones, rivers and stars–things science tends to consider “inanimate” and without intelligence. 38 What is of interest for this research is the contemporary meaning given to these practices more than their historical authenticity. As Maya Sutton and her co-author Nicholas Mann suggest, indifferent of the practice’s historicity, “We use this cyclical pattern in our Druid
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ceremonies and find that it becomes more relevant and appropriate as time goes by.”39 The first set of four festivals is the Solar Feasts and they occur at midwinter (21 December) and midsummer (21 June) as well as at the time of the equinoxes (21 March and 21 September). The second set of four festivals, the Fire Feasts, made up for the agricultural climate of Northern Europe (1 May – Beltane or May Day; 1 August – Lughnasadh or Lammastide; 1 November – Samhain; 1 February – Imbolc or the Feast of the Candles). Thus, according to Chris Turner, the Solar Feasts are predominately spiritual and the Fire Feasts are primarily pastoral.40 One informant communicates the significance of the wheel relating it to Christianity: Just as Christians take the life, acts and words of Christ as the path by which they order their lives and model their behavior, so, I think, do Pagans--Wiccans, druids and others, take the Wheel of the Year as a guiding inspiration. Everything has a beginning, middle and end, and must, for life to continue. The feasts are viewed as rites of passage in the cycle of life. They help bring understanding to different stages from birth to death. Beginning with midwinter, the cycle celebrates the return of the sun and represents the hope of re-birth after death. The Winter Solstice is the time when the atom-seed of Light, represented both by the one light raised on high and by the white mistletoe berries distributed during the ceremony, comes down from the Inspired realms and is conceived or incarnated in the womb of the night and of the Earth Mother. It is thus a potent time to open ourselves to the fertilising power of the Muse or of the Great Source, so that we may give birth to our creativity.41 By the spring equinox, the cycle celebrates fertility and balance between life and death, light and darkness. It points to the future and the light that will illumine the world until the autumn equinox takes it away. It is a hopeful time of potential growth when seeds for the new crops are blessed and planted. In recognizing the power of the sun over the darkness, it symbolizes the rise of wisdom. Carr-Gomm states, “At this time we can open ourselves to wisdom and the powers that can bring clarity to us.”42 The midsummer celebrations focus on vitality and strength. It is “the time of Expression - when we can open ourselves to realising our dreams and working in the arena of the outer world.”43 Yet, at the same time, it recognizes the waning of the vitality and strength as the days begin to be shorter. The autumn equinox is a time for reflection on what the light
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has brought. It acknowledges the mystery of how the seed planted in the spring has grown and will soon be harvested.44 According to Ross Nichols, founder of OBOD, the solar feasts remind the practitioner of the importance in giving and receiving, “The putting into practice the law of giving and receiving is what makes these solstice ceremonies the high ones of the year. The full cup that has been received must be emptied if it is to be refilled.”45 Another informant states, I believe the meaning of life to be a chance to grow and improve. Improve not only ourselves, but the earth by reconnecting with a time when people lived with the land and not against it. When we were a part of nature, in harmony, not when we ignore it. To acknowledge the spirits that are around us and give them the proper respect. Interspersed in these solar feasts are feasts of the season. CarrGomm states, “The four fire festivals relate to key life periods and the experiences necessary for each one of them.”46 Beginning with Samhain (sometimes written as Samhuinn and pronounced sow-inn), recognition that summer has come to an end leads to thanks for what has been accomplished as well as a desire to protect what might not survive the winter. It is also a time of mourning the past because it is gone and recognizing its contribution to the future. The dead are honored at this festival and their direction is sought for the future. “It is a time of prophesies, of disguising oneself to avert evil, of performing rites of protection from the dead and Otherworldly spirits.”47 Nichols states that the gates of this world and the other world are opened at this time. 48 Carr-Gomm writes, “The Druid rite of Samhuinn, therefore, is concerned with making contact with the spirits of the departed, who are seen as sources of guidance and inspiration rather than as sources of dread.”49 As we grow old, we approach the Gateway to the Other World. If we have followed such a path as Druidry, this becomes a time of preparation for the Great Adventure, a time in which we become familiar with our friends and guides in the Other Worlds who show us, time and again, that death is really a birth to another level - a wider horizon.50 Imbolc (pronounced im-olk) is the first festival of spring. It is celebrated to recognize the mother’s care for its young along with the
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hopes and aspiration of youth. Graham Harvey relates the meaning as a time when past phases of life are left behind for the future. It represents a time for personal growth and infusion of sacredness.51 According to Carr-Gomm, it “invokes the purity and mothering that we need in our first years on earth.”52 As we see the Child of Light grow stronger day by day in the arms of the Mother, so do we understand that we ourselves will grow under the protection of the Mantle of the Lady, and the Light that shines within us will bring forth a great harvest in the ground that She has prepared. This is our knowledge and our affirmation. 53 Beltane celebrates fertility and the growth to sexual maturity as well as youth. It is often expressed in the dance around the May pole in a courtship and fertility ritual. At Beltane, we open to the God and Goddess of Youth. However old we are, Spring makes us feel young again, and at Beltane we jump over the fires of vitality and youth and allow that vitality to enliven and heal us. When young we might use this time as an opportunity to connect to our sensuality in a positive creative way, and when older the mating that we seek might well be one of the feminine and masculine sides of our nature.54 Finally, Lughnasadh (pronounced loo-nas-ah) is the celebration of the first harvest. It focuses on the understanding of sacrifice as it acknowledges the giving up of the seed to death and the giving of life sustaining nutrients.55 As we become young adults at the Lughnasadh time of our lives and begin to build a family, the rules change - the wildness of youth gives way to the constraints that responsibility brings, and we need an understanding of this as part of the wider scheme of things - not merely a ‘knuckling down’ to duty with the seeds of rebellion in our hearts.56 Orr summarizes the meaning of these rites of passage, So the Druid family is offered rites of passage which carry the members from conception to death. These ceremonies of celebration, dedication and transformation are to some extent individually crafted to be specifically relevant to the people involved. They are designed to aid processes of change, to bring confidence and affirm support.57
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Deities Through the connection with the wheel or cycle of the year, a practitioner achieves a sense of cosmic belonging. That belonging creates meaning and order for life. So, it is in the context of the wheel of the year that a practitioner understands his/her relationship to nature, ancestors and the god/desses. As stated previously, there is no single pantheon of god/desses in Druidry. However, there does seem to be the belief in a Life Force that varies in manifestations. I believe our spirits are eternal and we vacillate between being in a state of spirit and earthly manifestation. Our goal is to learn the truth and grow closer to the Life Force that is the Universe, whether you call it The Force, the Gods, God, Goddess, Deity, Great Spirit, Eternal Spirit or any of the multitude of concepts humans have devised to encompass this incredible, but intangible force of life. One member of ADF stated, As polytheists, we believe in a multiplicity of deities, some more powerful than others. Individual Groves within ADF may have specific deities that are worshipped at every occasion for worship or may change which deity is worshipped based on the time of the year. The same holds true for our solitary members as well. There is a strong sense of being in the presence of gods and goddesses. The gods and goddesses are viewed as imminent rather than transcendent. Since Druidry is polytheistic, this might be expected. We also live among gods. The Divine is immanent in reality to such an extent that one is never outside of its presence. There is no “deus absconditus� (hidden God) or withdrawn transcendence: the gods are here with us, all the time, in all our comings and goings. Thus, we live together among the gods, which means doing the best by them that we can. While ancient writers related the Celtic gods with their own, there is an attempt to reconstruct them for the contemporary context. This reconstruction makes Druidry distinct from Wicca in that Wicca’s theology is characterized by its polarity. Wicca views the essentiality of
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the maleness and femaleness of deity as expressed in the god and the goddess. Druidry on the other hand does not necessarily view this distinction. One insider explains the difference, One of the ways in which Druidry differs from modern Wiccan witchcraft is that it does not posit a dual theology of one god and one goddess. Indeed it doesn’t posit any single theology at all. Gods and goddesses are treated as heroes of story and the spirits of place -- of river, rock, well, and tree -- are just as divine as any pantheon of archetypal characters corresponding to social roles or crafts. The Celtic gods and goddesses, such as Lugh, Brigit, Dagda, Boann, Cernunnos, Hu, Taranis, Ogma, Angus Og, Cerridwen, and Arianrhod (among others) are sometimes characters of legend, and sometimes spirits of place. In the case of Lugh and Brigit, these are spirits of knowledge and craft and healing.58 Nevertheless, it is difficult if not impossible to identify a specific pantheon of gods in Druidry. As another informant explains, There is no simple pantheon and modern Druidry often embraces deities and stories from diverse other pantheons, recognizing the power of myth across cultures. Some modern druids are Celtic reconstructionists, some are pantheists, some are syncretists drawing on Native American or Asian philosophies and deities. I venture to say, however, that most if not all Druids recognize and revere the spirits of the trees, animals, and wilderness places.59 Ancestors Miranda Green points out that, for contemporary practitioners, the ancestors provide the connection between the past and present.60 As one informant explained, These [ancestors] can be your own direct ancestors, the ancestors of the tribe (community) you now belong to or the ancestors of the earth, the place where you meet or worship. We feel that all of our ancestors are worthy of respect and that no ancestor was completely bad, that they all have some good within them. It is also important to remember that without these ancestors, we wouldn’t be here. The connection with the ancestors is significant for the Druid. One informant comments, “Those practices (rituals, etc.) give me a sense of
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stability and continuity with my fellow Pagans, and my ancient ancestors.” It not only provides them with a sense of identity that has been inherited down through the centuries, the ancestors are viewed as a rich resource that can counsel and protect. Another informant states, Really, guiding souls on this plane of existence is what I believe the deceased do between lives as well. When a person in the family dies, I believe they have become one of the Ancestors, and as such, may be appealed to for guidance. The ancestors, are after all, one of the triumvirate of, for want of a better term, entities, we appeal to in our rituals. Nature, deities and ancestors all contribute to the meaning of life in contemporary Druidry. In relationship to nature, one informant commented, Paganism is an earth-based religion. We work with the wheel of the year. The year is divided into four quarters and four cross quarters, each with is own celebration. It’s a dying and rebirth world. We celebrate the changes; we celebrate the fertility, the birth, the harvest and the death. The change from the dark half of the year to the light half of the year and back. Our lives are the same. We’re conceived, born, work, die and our energy is recycled. It’s the wheel of life. On occasion, an informant would respond differently. For example, The meaning of life itself is to live life to the fullest. To learn and gain knowledge, experience, and spirituality to its fullest. To have no fear of life and to know that everything you experience and learn in life is for a reason and has meaning. Even if you don’t always know what that meaning is until a later date. Nonetheless, the consensus among those interviewed was that nature modeled the meaning of life. In regards to life, one informant commented: We can experience it and embrace that experience, we can celebrate it and we can trust it. One Druid tradition, the RDNA, narrowed down their basic expression of belief to the simple statement “Nature is good.” That doesn’t mean it conforms to our human notions of good and evil; it means that trusting
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Nature is the one choice we’ve got. (Literally–to insist that Nature is not to be trusted, and take that insistence seriously, is to go spinning into an abyss of self-contradictions). Trusting in the cycles of nature, then, provides meaning to life and gives explanation to life’s experiences. Other informants saw the meaning of life in their connection with the divine, as well as with nature. For example, an informant stated, the meaning of life is “To connect with the divine, with the rest of humanity, and nature.” This was not uncommon. Consider the following comment: We believe that we are here to gain a better understanding of how the world around us, and everything that happens on it, works. Druidry is a path of lifelong learning. We learn about the cycles of nature, the history of our ancestors and the nature of our Gods and Goddesses. Conclusion In order for an understanding to develop of Druidry, a phenomenological approach to ultimate questions is suggested as a framework. Particularly, as expressed in the study, this framework has attempted to understand the Druid meaning of life. The phenomenological analysis in the study focused on that meaning as expressed in the Druid relationship with nature, the deities and ancestors. The effect that Druidry has had upon the researcher is inconsequential. At the same time, verification of the observed phenomena by practitioners is vital for a perspective that describes the religious experience of others. While this study has looked at Druidry phenomenologically, further historical and sociological research is needed. Specifically stated, research is needed in regards to the number and types of rituals that are practiced. There are eight festivals celebrated throughout the year that directly relate to the beliefs and practices of Druids. Further participantobservation of these religious rituals would help in a general knowledge of their relationship to beliefs and practices. Similarly, this study has focused on two Druid organizations when there are literally hundreds spread across the globe. While the present study helps with a beginning knowledge of Druidry, further research should focus on specific cultural expressions of these beliefs.
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51
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Rodney Stark, “Church and Sect,” in The Sacred in a Secular Age: Toward Revision in the Scientific Study of Religion, ed. Phillip E. Hammond (Berkeley: University of California, 1985); Rodney Stark and Laurence R. Iannaccone, “A Supply-Side Reinterpretation of the ‘Secularization’ of Europe,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 33, no. 3 (1994): 230-252; William S. Bainbridge, “Secularization, Revival and Cult Formation,” The Annual Review of the Social Science of Religion 4 (1980): 85-119; Peter Berger, “Epistemological Modesty: An Interview with Peter Berger,” Christian Century 114, no. 30 (1997): 972-976; Peter L. Berger, “The Desecularization of the World: A Global Overview,” in The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics, ed. Peter L. Berger (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999). 1
Ronald Hutton, The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft (New York: Oxford, 1999), 390. 2
Ronald Hutton, “The Roots of Modern Paganism,” in Pagan Pathways: A Guide to the Ancient Earth Traditions, ed. Graham Harvey and Charlotte Hardman (London: Thorsons, 1996), 4. 3
Emma Restall Orr, Principles of Druidry (London: Thorsons, 1998), 25; cf. Philip Carr-Gomm, Druid Mysteries: Ancient Wisdom for the 21st Century (London: Rider, 2002), 3-4. 4
Peter Beresford Ellis, A Brief History of the Druids (New York: Carroll and Graf, 2002), 37. 5
Pliny, Natural History, XVI, 95.
6
Graham Harvey, Contemporary Paganism: Listening People Speaking Earth (Washington Square, N.Y.: New York University, 1997), 17. 7
Orr, Principles of Druidry, 8.
8
Carr-Gomm, Druid Mysteries, 55.
9
10
Ibid., 5.
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James W. Maertens, “Druidry Teaches . . .” (accessed from www.druidry.org, 31 August 2003). 11
12
Information from http://www.adf.org/identity/npd-today.html. Accessed 10 March 2003. See for example Tanya Luhrmann, Persuasions of the Witch’s Craft: Ritual Magic in Contemporary England (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989); Lorettta Orion, “Revival of Western Paganism and Witchcraft in the Contemporary United States” (Ph.D. diss., State University, 1990); Michael York, The Emerging Network: A Sociology of the New Age and Neo-pagan Movements (London: Rowman and Littlefield, 1995); Helen Berger, A Community of Witches: Contemporary Neo-Paganism and Witchcraft in the United States (Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1997); Jenny Blain, Douglas Ezzy and Graham Harvey, eds., Researching Paganisms (Walnut Creek, Calif.: Alta Mira, 2004). 13
Eileen Barker, “The Scientific Study of Religion? You Must be Joking!” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 34, no. 3 (1995): 289-290. 14
15
David G. Bromley, Jeffrey K. Hadden and Phillip E. Hammond, “Reflections on the Scholarly Study of New Religious Movements,” in The Future of New Religious Movements, ed. David G. Bromely and Phillip E. Hammond (Macon, Georgia: Mercer University, 1987), 213. Chris Mann and Fiona Stewart, “Internet Interviewing,” in Handbook of Interview Research: Context and Method, ed. Jaber F. Gubrium and James A. Holstein (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2002), 611. See also R. Coomber, “Using the Internet for Survey Research,” Sociological Research Online 2, 2 (1997). Accessed 16 October 2002 from www.socresonling.org.uk/socresonline/2/2/2.html. 16
Kate Eichhorn, “Sites Unseen: Ethnographic Research in a Textual Community,” Qualitative Studies in Education 14, 4 (2001): 567. 17
Samuel M. Wilson and Leighton C. Peterson, “The Anthropology of Online Communities,” Annual Review of Anthropology 31 (2002): 450. 18
19
Ibid. 456-457.
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Margot Adler, Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers and Other Pagans in America Today (New York: Penguin, 1986), 392. 20
21
Ibid., 448.
Brian D. Loader, Cyberspace Divide: Equality, Agency and Policy in the Information Society (London: Routledge, 1998). 22
Andrea Fontana, “Postmodern Trends in Interviewing,” in Handbook of Interview Research: Context and Method, ed. Jaber F. Gubrium and James A. Holstein (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2002), 169. 23
Chris Mann and Fiona Stewart, “Internet Interviewing,” in Handbook of Interview Research: Context and Method, ed. Jaber F. Gubrium and James A. Holstein (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2002), 605. 24
Alder, Drawing Down the Moon, 447. See also Erik Davis, “Technopagans: May the Astral Plane Be Reborn in Cyberspace,” Wired Magazine 3, no. 7 (1995), accessed 15 October 2002 at www.wired.com/wired/archive/3.07/technopagans_pr.html. 25
Fontana, “Postmodern Trends in Interviewing,” 169.
26
Wilson and Peterson, “The Anthropology of Online Communities,” 461. See Carol V. McKinney, Globe-Trotting in Sandals: A Field Guide to Cultural Research (Dallas: SIL, 2000), 10-20 for a summary of AAA Code of Ethics. The June 1998 Code of Ethics of the American Anthropological Association can be found at http://www.aaanet.org/committees/ethics/ethcode.htm 27
Mann and Stewart, “Internet Interviewing,” 605.
28 29
Ibid., 608.
Joseph Dabney Bettis, “Introduction,” in Phenomenology of Religion (New York: Harper and Row, 1969), 1-2. 30
31
Ibid., 3.
Frederick J. Streng, Understanding Religious Life (Encino, Calif.: Dickenson, 1976), 1. 32
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Melford E. Spiro, “Religion: Problems of Definition and Explanation,” in Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Religion, ed. Michael Banton (London: Tavistock, 1966), 110. 33
Philip Carr-Gomm, The Druid Mysteries: Ancient Wisdom for the 21st Century (London: Rider, 2003), 6. 34
Carr-Gomm, Druid Mysteries, 89.
35 36
Carr-Gomm acknowledges that Samhain was believed to mark the beginning and end of the Celtic year, “This now seems incorrect historically, but nevertheless those who celebrate this time today notice a definite shift in the life of the year–with it dying in some way and perhaps only really being reborn at the winter solstice, the time that scholars now believe marked the traditional beginning of the new year.” Ibid., 93. Cf. Graham Harvey, Contemporary Paganism: Listening People, Speaking Earth (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 3-6. Philip Carr-Gomm, Druidcraft: The Magic of Wicca and Druidry (London: Thorsons, 2002), 88. 37
James W. Maertens, “Druidry Teaches . . .” (accessed from www.druidry.org, 31 August 2003). 38
Maya Magee Sutton and Nicholas R. Mann, Druid Magic: The Practice of Celtic Wisdom (St. Paul, Minn.: Llewellyn, 2002), 228. 39
Chris Turner, “The Sacred Calendar,” in The Druid Renaissance: The Voice of Druidry Today, ed. Philip Carr-Gomm (London: Thorsons, 1996), 160-162. 40
Philip Carr-Gomm, “Druid Festivals,” available from http://druidry.org/obod/intro/festivals.html, accessed 17 October 2003. 41
42
Ibid.
43
Ibid. Orr, Principles of Druidry, 85-91.
44
Ross Nichols, “Festivals of Light,” in The Druid Teachings of Ross Nichols, ed. Philip Carr-Gomm (London: Watkins, 2002), 108-109. 45
Carr-Gomm, “Druid Festivals” available from http://druidry.org/obod/intro/festivals.html, accessed 17 October 2003. 46
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Copperlion, “The Thinning Veil,” available from http://druidry.org/obod/festivals/samhain.html, accessed 17 October 2003. 47
Ross Nichols, “The Fuller Tale of Ceridwen Ceriedwen,” in The Druid Teachings of Ross Nichols, ed. Philip Carr-Gomm (London: Watkins, 2002), 94. 48
Carr-Gomm, Druid Mysteries, 94.
49
Carr-Gomm, “Druid Festivals,” available from http://druidry.org/obod/intro/festivals.html, accessed 17 October 2003. 50
Harvey, Contemporary Paganism, 8-9.
51
Carr-Gomm, Druid Mysteries, 98.
52
Coifi, “Imbloc,” available from http://druidry.org/obod/festivals/imbolctxt.html, accessed 17 October 2003. 53
54
Information from http://druidry.org/obod/festivals/beltane.html, accessed 17 October 2003. Orr, Principles of Druidry, 92-97.
55
Carr-Gomm, “Druid Festivals,” available from http://druidry.org/obod/intro/festivals.html, accessed 17 October 2003. 56
Orr, Principles of Druidry, 98.
57
James W. Maertens, “Druidry Teaches . . .” (accessed from http://www.druidry.org, 31 August 2003). 58
59
Ibid.
Miranda J. Green, The World of the Druids (London: Thames and Hudson, 1997), 178. 60
57