GODS AND THEIR ‘MAGIC’ Pg 52
FEATURES
2
2 No!
14 My Friend
by Anthony Hollingsworth
6 The Who and
Achilles’ Shield by Angela Murock Hussein
18 Weapons and
the What
Warfare
by Liz Johnson
by Justin D. Lyons
8 Our Ships!
30 Was Homer Colorblind? by Tricia Carey
20 Grief!
by Anthony Hollingsworth
8
28 Reading
by Anthony Hollingsworth
by Anthony Hollingsworth
12 The Role of
24 Understanding
the Gods
Achilles
by Justin D. Lyons
by Justin D. Lyons
DEPARTMENTS
12
1 26 31 32
Five Facts/Map: Achilles’ World Fun With Words The Calliope Chronicles Fast Forward by Ellen Seiden
34 Interestingly by Sarah Novak
35 Tales It Is! by Sarah Novak
18
36 Ask Away! 38 This & That 39 Off the Shelf/On the Net
LET’S GO
-GING
41 A Look at Achilles 42 The Search for Troy
24
46 Clues to Homer
EAGLE EYE
50 Fiction or Fact?
by Emily Abbink by Nell Wright by Chaddie Kruger
52 A Look at the Magic by Nell Wright We have hidden 4 eyes like the one above in this month’s DIG issue (print and digital editions). See KRZ IDVW \RX FDQ ğ QG each—but, while you are looking, check out the articles in this issue. And, don’t take a peek at the answers on page 38 until you have found all four eagle eyes!
55 In the Headlines 57 Artifacts
illustration by Tim Oliphant
Musings
The fates have given mortals hearts that can endure. —god Apollo, speaking to his fellow deities, Iliad, Book 24
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Achilles’ World
5 Handy Homer Facts
1
During the Hellenic period WKLUGbFHQWXU\ ĆŠ Ć‹ Ć? ), many Greek cities dedicated shrines to Homer.
2
In ancient times, several towns on islands in the Aegean Sea and along the west coast of what is present-day Turkey claimed to be Homer’s birthplace. Smyrna and Chios are the most likely.
3
The exact dates of Homer’s birth and death remain unknown.
4
Greek students are believed to have studied Homer as early as 400 ĆŠ Ć‹ Ć?
5
Through the centuries, some people have doubted Homer ever existed; others have suggested Homer was a woman.
illustration by Sophie Kittredge
About the cover: Anger, rage, fury—Achilles felt them all—as we can see in this 21st -century illustration of Achilles preparing for battle! That anger resulted in the Greeks and the Trojans suffering greatly in the great Trojan War. But, what caused this anger? Why was Achilles in Troy? Who were his enemies? Turn the page, and let’s find out! (illustration by Brad Walker) PICTURE CREDITS: Samuel Courtauld Trust, The Courtauld Gallery, London, UK/Bridgeman Images: 4, 25; Collection of the New-York Historical Society, USA/Bridgeman Image: 5; Š Look and Learn/Bridgeman Images: 6, 10–11; Biblioteca Monasterio del Escorial, Madrid, Spain/Bridgeman Images: 8–9, 11; State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia/Bridgeman Images: 9; Š Ivy Close Images (www.ivycloseimages. com: 12–13, 20–21, 22 (both); Musee Municipal, Soissons, France/Bridgeman Images: 14–15; Š RMNGrand Palais/Art Resource, NY: 16, 48; De Agostini Picture Library/Š Veneranda Biblioteca AmbrosianaMilano/Bridgeman Images: 16–17; Ancient Art and Architecture Collection Ltd./Bridgeman Images: 18 (top); Heritage Image Partnership Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo: 18 (bottom); CS Stock/Shutterstock.com: 18–19 (background); Peter Horree/Alamy Stock Photo: 19 (top left); Tatiana Popova/Shutterstock.com: 19 (top right); National Archaeological Museum, Athens, Greece/Bildarchiv Steffens / Henri Stierlin/ Bridgeman Images: 19 (bottom); Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow, Russia /Bridgeman Images: 23 (top); Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY: 23 (bottom); De Agostini Picture Library/A. Dagli Orti/Bridgeman Images: 24; Scala/Art Resource, NY: 24–25; The Stapleton Collection/Bridgeman Images: 29; LauraKick/Shutterstock. com: 30; EpicStockMedia/Shutterstock.com: 32 (top); INTERFOTO/Alamy Stock Photo: 32 (bottom); Laurin RinderShutterstock.com: 33; De Agostini Picture Library/M. Seemuller/Bridgeman Images: 34; Militarist/Shutterstock.com: back cover (left); Heritage Image Partnership Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo: 35; Dudarev/Mikhail/Shutterstock.com: 37; De Agostini Picture Library/A. Dagli Orti/Bridgeman Images: 42–43; CORTYN/Shutterstock.com: 43; Š SZ Photo/Scherl/Bridgeman Images: 44; World History Archive/ Alamy Stock Photo: 45 (top); Pavel Kirichenko/Shutterstock.com: 45 (bottom); xpixel/Shutterstock. com: 46 (dirt); LuFeeTheBearShutterstock.com: 46 (tools); Kozlik/Shutterstock.com: 46 (bottom); IBL BildbyraCollection: Heritage Image/agefotostock.com: 47; Š Look and Learn/Bridgeman Images: 48-49; De Luan/Alamy Stock Photo: 50; Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples, Italy/Bridgeman Images: Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples, Italy/Bridgeman Images: 51; Š Luca Sassi/Bridgeman Images: 52; Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples, Italy/Bridgeman Images: 53; Bridgeman Images: 54-55; Š Write Sutter: 55 (both); Musei Capitolini, Rome, Italy/De Agostini Picture Library/G. Dagli Orti Bridgeman Images: 57; villorejo/Shutterstock.com: back cover (right). Cricket Media has made every effort to trace the copyrights of these images.
CONSULTING EDITORS Emily Abbink, retired University of California, Santa Cruz, lecturer in American studies, anthropology, and writing; Gordon Grimwade, archaeologist and writer, Queensland Australia; Anthony Hollingsworth, professor of classical languages at Roger Williams University; Angela Murock Hussein, archaeological consultant and post-doctoral
researcher, University of Tubingen, Germany; Liz Johnson, master’s degree in classics from Tufts University; Chaddie Kruger, teacher, retired, Latin and Classical Civilization; Justin D. Lyons, associate professor of history and political science, Ashland University, Ashland, Ohio; Nell Wright, teacher, Greek and Latin
NOTE: In this issue on the Iliad, we are using the abbreviations ĆŠ Ć‹ Ć? %HIRUH WKH &RPPRQ (UD DQG Ć‹ Ć? &RPPRQ (UD DQG QRW ĆŠ Ć‹ DQG Ɖ ĆŒ 8VHG SUHVHQWO\ ZRUOGZLGH ĆŠ Ć‹ Ć? DQG Ć‹ Ć? KDYH QR UHOLJLRXV DIILOLDWLRQ
STAFF: Rosalie F. Baker Editor, Nicole Welch Art Director, Patrick Murray Designer, James M. O’Connor Director of Editorial, Christine Voboril Permissions Specialist, Stephen L. Thompson Copy Editor, Patricia Silvestro Proofreader; EDITORIAL CONSULTANT: Naomi Pasachoff: Research Associate, Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts; ADVISORY BOARD: Paul G. Bahn: Archaeologist and Author; Nancy S. Bernard: Archaeologist; Diane L. Brooks, Ed.D.: Director (retired), Curriculum Frameworks and Instructional Resources Office, California Department of Education; Vaughn M. Bryant: Director, Palynology Laboratory in Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University; Ken Burns: Florentine Films; Ross E. Dunn: Professor of History, San Diego State University; Peter Feinman: Director, nstitute of History, Anthropology and Education; Richard A. Gould: Chairman and Professor, Department of Anthropology, Brown University; Gordon Grimwade: Archaeologist and Writer, Australia; A. Gwynn Henderson: Kentucky Archaeological Society; Donald James Johnson: Professor Emeritus, New York University; Jean Elliott Johnson: Teacher and Director (Retired) of the Asia Society’s TeachAsia Project; Martha S. Joukowsky: Professor Emerita, Brown University, Department of Anthropology Center for Old World Archaeology and Art; Director, Brown University Petra ‘Great’ Temple Excavations; Richard A. Lobban, Jr.: Archaeologist and Executive Director Sudan Studies Association; Elena Miklashevich: Kemerovo State University, Russia; Robert B. Pickering: Director of Curatorial Affairs and Public Programs, Gilcrease Museum, and Director, Museum Science and Management, University of Tulsa; Margarete Pruech: Art historian, Archaeologist, and Lecturer in East Asian Art; Joseph M. Pucci: Associate Professor of Classics, Medieval Studies, and Comparative Literature, Brown University; Heidi Roupp: Past President, World History Association; Shirley J. Schermer: Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa; KC Smith: Museum of Florida History; Sandra Stotsky: Professor of Education Reform, 21st Century Chair in Teacher Quality, University of Arkansas; Elizabeth ten Grotenhuis: Professor Emerita, Boston University, and Head of Birches School in Lincoln, Massachusetts
illustration by Brad Walker
2
by Anthony Hollingsworth
M
ore than 3,000 years ago, the Achaeans, as the ancient Greeks called themselves, sailed east to Troy (also known as Ilion) and then spent 10 long years in a bloody war against the Trojans. Ancient
poets and bards wrote many verses and tales about these heroes and their adventures, but the most famous was the one we call the Iliad. Like many good war stories, the Iliad does not describe everything that happened. In fact, it says very little about the conflict itself. The backdrop for the entire epic is just a few months in the last year of fighting. Thus, the Iliad really is a poem about a young man, a general, the quarrel between the two, and the reasons the Greeks nearly lost. For anyone wishing to understand the Iliad and why it begins as it does, it is necessary to first meet five of the main characters in the tale. Achilles, the most important of the five, is a man in his late teens who is acknowledged by all as the best warrior in the Greek army. Agamemnon is the leader of the Greek army and a man who is very proud to be king. To bring his army to Troy, he had to sacrifice much to the gods, including his own daughter. Briseis is a young woman, whom the Greeks captured and gave to Achilles as a reward for his valor, while Chryseis is the young woman who was given to Agamemnon as a prize because he was the king. The fifth person is Chryses, a priest of the god Apollo and the father of Chryseis.
Sing, oh goddess, the anger of Achilles… So, begins the Iliad, with a clear message to all that Achilles is angry—very angry. The cause of this anger, however, is not the war, nor is it the result of any actions by his men or even by the enemy. Rather, the cause lies with Agamemnon, who has dishonored Achilles, and, in their world, honor is everything. For ancient warriors, honor was reflected in the prizes or war booty that an army and a king gave each of them. When an army sacked a village, there was plenty of treasure. There were pots and vases, gold and silver, weapons and jewelry, but the greatest prize was prisoners, especially princesses. In the last years of the Trojan War, the Greeks had seized several towns around Troy. Among their captives were two young women, Chryseis and Briseis. The army gave Chryseis to Agamemnon, because he was the king; and Briseis to Achilles, because he had fought most honorably. Note: Ilion is Greek for “city of Ilus.” In Greek mythology, Ilos, the great-grandson of Zeus, king of the gods, founded Ilion.
3
“Achilles means to kill me,” thinks a startled Agamemnon (center). But the goddess Minerva yanks on Achilles’ hair, forcing him to loosen his grip on his sword. (1630s painting by French master Peter Paul Rubens)
A Turn of Events
Agamemnon turns to him and says, Never let me
At first, everyone is happy with the manner in
find you again, old sir, near our hollow ships, neither
which the spoils were distributed. Then, some time
lingering now nor coming again hereafter. I will not
later, Chryseis’ father, Chryses, came to the Greek
give back the girl.
camp and begs for his daughter’s return. He
4
Chryses obeys and leaves the Greek camp, but
promises more gold and silver than the Greeks
the story does not end there. In fact, this is just the
would get if they sold her. The Greeks all shout
beginning. After Chryses leaves, he prays to the
their approval—all, that is, except Agamemnon.
god Apollo for vengeance. Remember, he was a
Chryseis is his prize, and his alone. He has no
priest of Apollo. The god hears his plea and takes
intention of returning her. When the old man
pity on him, sending a plague upon the Greek
finishes pleading for his daughter’s return,
army. Sorrow and despair spread through the
NOTE: As was often the custom in ancient times, a daughter was named for her father—hence the similarity between the names Chryseis and Chryses. An example today would be Michelle, the daughter of a man named Michael.
camp as, first, the animals begin to die, and,
Agamemnon’s mind at the thought of giving
then, the soldiers. After nine days, Achilles calls
Chryseis back to her father—he will have no
an assembly and asks the priest Calchas for
prize and, more important, no honor. So, if he
advice. Calchas calmly tells the troops and the
must return Chryseis for the sake of the army,
king that, to end the plague, they must return
then the army must give him something in
Chryseis to her father.
exchange, even if it means that every soldier has to contribute something.
Uncontained Fury
Achilles, however, is not about to yield quickly
Homer’s description of Agamemnon’s anger upon
to Agamemnon’s demands. Rather, he speaks out
hearing those words is breathtakingly vivid:
at the assembly and accuses the king of
[having a] heart within filled black to the brim with
greediness. It is shameful to ask for gifts back, he
anger from beneath, and with two eyes flashing like
explains. Agamemnon is so angered by Achilles’
fire in their blazing. Two thoughts spin around in
outburst that he turns on his fellow Greek and demands that Achilles give him
“Oh, father!” “Come, Chryseis, let us go home!”—truly a scene filled with emotion (1771 painting by Anglo-American artist Benjamin West)
Briseis. Agamemnon says this will be Achilles’ punishment for speaking out against him. To the assembled Greeks, Agamemnon says, I take no account of your anger. But here is my threat to you. Even as Apollo is taking away my Chryseis, I shall take the fair-cheeked Briseis, so that you may learn well how much greater I am than you. The fury that then rises within Achilles is so strong that only the goddess Athena has the strength to stop him from killing the king. She promises him revenge, and he storms out of the meeting. Soon after, Agamemnon’s men come for Briseis. For Achilles, the war is over, and he stops fighting. His “No!” to the Greeks becomes the “no” that tips the scales in favor of the Trojans. Anthony Hollingsworth is a professor of classical languages at Roger Williams University and a frequent contributor to DIG.
5
the by Liz Johnson
“Listen, now, to the tales of our heroic ancestors”—so begins a Greek bard as he tells of the great Trojan War. 6
T
he Iliad, as we know it today,
Professor Milman Parry made an exciting
consists of 15,693 lines of poetry.
discovery. He traveled to what was then
We call it an epic poem because
Yugoslavia and studied how illiterate bards
of its length and because it tells
performed songs from memory. He concluded
a dramatic story about gods
that Homer’s poems traced their origin to a
and heroes from long ago.
similar oral tradition.
Yet, the Iliad is based on an historical event, and
Imagine this: Bards are traveling around
archaeologists have even identified an actual site
ancient Greece, singing stories from memory. At
for where it took place—Troy (see pages 42–45).
each performance, they repeat phrases and lines,
This city flourished during the Mycenaean Age,
because that makes it easier to keep the story
a time of palaces and wealth in ancient Greece.
going. They also “borrow” ideas from each
Around the 12th century B.C.E., Troy was destroyed,
other and, in time, their verses become more
along with many other once-prosperous palace-
and more alike.
centers. Why is unclear, but evidence indicates
Over hundreds of years, countless bards
that Greece was plunged into a Dark Age that
had a hand in shaping these tales until they
lasted 400 years. Even the art of writing was lost.
became the poems we now know as the Iliad
Sometime in the eighth century B.C.E., the
and the Odyssey.
Greeks began to recover, and a new system of writing developed. Around 750 B.C.E.,
The Homeric Question
Homer composed the Iliad and, later, the
Today, scholars generally agree that the Iliad
Odyssey. Both became well known in the
and the Odyssey grew out of an oral tradition.
ancient world, and, for centuries, the Greeks
Still, many questions remain. Who was
considered Homer to be their first and best
Homer? Was he an illiterate bard who sang the
poet. Yet, even in antiquity, Homer’s identity
best version of the stories? Or, perhaps he was a
was a mystery.
bard who learned how to write? How much of the Iliad and Odyssey are the work of a single
The Oral Tradition
person, and how much the product of centuries
When you read the Iliad, you soon notice that
of oral poetry? Were the two poems even
certain phrases, lines, and even entire sections
composed by the same person? Who first
are repeated many times. Two examples of
wrote them down?
phrases that are used throughout the poem are
To be sure, the mystery surrounding Homer
“Agamemnon, ruler of men” and “swift-footed
continues. Yet, what does seem certain is that
Achilles.” A closer look at the Iliad reveals that
the Iliad and the Odyssey will continue to be
certain types of scenes are found again and
regarded as two of the greatest works of
again, such as a warrior arming himself for
Western literature.
battle and people making a sacrifice to the gods. For a long time, scholars were puzzled by these repetitions. Then, in the 1930s, Harvard
Liz Johnson is a freelance writer who holds a master’s degree in Classics from Tufts University and who has read the entire Iliad in Greek.
7
Our Ships! by Anthony Hollingsworth
T
he Trojan War is in its 10th year, and the Achaeans still have very little to show for their efforts. They know that the Trojan prince Priam took Helen, wife of Menelaus, king of the Greek city-state of Sparta, to Troy and that their goal is to bring her back to Greece. But, they are no closer to doing so than when they first arrived by ship to the sandy shores of Troy. The reasons are threefold: The walls of the city are too strong to overcome, the Trojans have allies to help them, and the gods have not paid much attention to the war.
8
Change in the Air It is the conflict between Agamemnon and Achilles (see pages 2–5) that finally catches the attention of the gods. They now begin to interfere, meddle, and even manipulate events. Remember, some of the gods—Apollo, Ares, and Aphrodite, for example—favor the Trojans, while others— Athena, Poseidon, and Hera, for example—favor the Achaeans. As a result, whenever a god decides to help one side, another god offers to help the other side. The Iliad describes only several weeks during the last year of the war, but during that time, Homer tells us that the gods interfered in the war no fewer than 34 times.
Yes, “Our ships!” is definitely the cry among the Greeks as they see the Trojans approaching with firebrands. (from a 15th-century Spanish manuscript)
In the poem, Apollo is the first deity to get involved when he punishes the Greeks for not returning Chryseis to her father. Soon after, Athena stops Achille from killing Agamemnon because he considers the king too greedy. In the verses that follow, more deities begin meddling in human affairs. The goddess Thetis approaches Zeus. Because she is determined that her son, Achilles, will not be dishonored by the Greeks in any way, she asks the king of the gods: Give honor to my son, short-lived beyond all other mortals. Since even now the lord of men Agamemnon dishonors him. Put strength into the Trojans, until the Achaeans give my son his rights, and his honor is increased among them. Zeus takes pity on her and sweeps into action.
“Do not wo rry, my dea r daughter, I shall interc ede”— and Thetis takes comfo rt in her father’ s words. (1769 painting by Russian artist Anton
Pavlovich Lo senko)
9
s The battle seem out ab is s ri over—Pa e th h at ne to fall be s! au el en M sword of ? he But does tion of the scene)
Divine Deceit
(a 20th-century
eta English interpr
Since Achilles is no longer fighting, Zeus decides to help th Trojans by attacking the Achaeans and defeating their greatest warriors. First, he send a false dream to Agamemnon, advising him to attack. The tim for victory is near, the dream say Listen quickly to what I say, since am a messenger of Zeus, who far away cares much for you and is pitiful. Zeus bids you arm the flowing-haired Achaeans for battl in all haste; since now you might take the wide-wayed city of the Trojans. It is all a lie, but Zeus wants the Achaeans to see how much they need Achilles. Then, in an effort to rouse Hector, eldest son of King Priam and the Trojans t sends the goddes message: Hector, All around the great city of Troy are ny companions, let each man who is r leader give orders to these men, and let set his citizens into battle order, and m. Thus, it is Zeus’ lies that end the tween the two armies.
ombat Achilles, however, does not leave his tent. Without his battle prowess, the Trojans are able to push the Achaeans farther and farther back along the fields around Troy until they are near the coastline and can see the ships of the Achaeans. It is then that the armies stop the fight and agree to a single combat to decide the victor. The Achaeans choose 10
In ancient times, the word pitiful meant “compassionate—feeling or showing sympathy for others”—not “deserving or arousing pity.”
The clothing is what would have been worn in the 15th century, when this was drawn, but the scene is ancient: chaos at the Greek camp as the Trojans attack. Menelaus to represent them; the Trojans choose
With the help of the gods, the Trojans
Paris. The choices are fitting, as these two heroes
continue to drive the Achaeans back to the sea.
both claim to be wed to Helen of Troy, and it is
In battle after battle, the Trojans enjoy victory.
the feud between them that led to war.
So confident are they of their superior power
Menelaus is definitely the better warrior, but
that they even camp outside the walls of their
just as he drives Paris to his knees and is about to
city. They sincerely believe that the Achaeans
claim victory, the gods interfere once again.
cannot stop them. Still, the Achaeans do enjoy
Aphrodite, Paris’ patron goddess, wraps him in a
small victories, when Zeus is watching from
cloud of fog and whisks him back to Troy and into
his mountaintop, but they do so only with the
the open arms of Helen. Homer vividly describes
aid of Poseidon and Hera. Whenever Zeus
the scene: Menelaus turned and made again for Paris,
returns to the battlefield, the Trojan advance
determined to kill him with the bronze spear. But
is unstoppable. Zeus wants to honor Hector
Aphrodite caught up Paris easily, since she was divine,
with glory, and as Homer explains, Now the
and wrapped him in a thick mist and set him down
Achaeans fled in unearthly terror before father
again in his own perfumed bedchamber.
Zeus and Hector.
More Meddling
Disaster!
Athena is quick to react to Aphrodite’s
Hector slashes his way through the Achaean
outrageous meddling. Disguised as a Trojan, she
battleline, determined to reach the enemy’s
convinces the warrior Pandaros to shoot an
ships as quickly as possible. If he can destroy
arrow at Menelaus and start the battle once
them, he knows his enemy will be left stranded
again. Pandaros strings his bow, notches the
on the shores of Troy. He reaches the prows of
shaft, and sends the arrow flying at Menelaus.
the ships and, as Homer tells us, he did not let go,
Athena swoops in and protects Menelaus, but
but gripped the sternpost in his hands and called
not before the arrow draws blood. The fight
to the Trojans: “Bring fire, and give single voice to
between the two armies begins anew.
the clamor of battle.”
A sternpost is a vertical post, at the front of the keel, that forms the main part of the bow of a ship.
11
by Justin D. Lyons
T
he Olympian gods play an important role in Homer’s Iliad. Their nature and power provide the setting in which the
heroes act, and their interventions in human affairs decisively shape the plot of the epic.
12
NO PERFECTION HERE
A Closer look
The Greek gods definitely were not perfect. They
omer’s gods are depicted as anthropomorphic, meaning that they behave as if they were human. Here are a few examples: Thetis shares the sorrow of her son, Achilles. Poseidon becomes jealous and angry when the Trojans build a wall and do not offer a sacrifice to him. Zeus laughs when he sees the gods battling each other. When Ares and Aphrodite are wounded, they run to Zeus for sympathy.
could be spiteful, cruel, jealous, and deceptive— rather like human beings. They had their own particular concerns. These were related to that aspect of human life (love and war, for example) or the natural world (sea and sun, for example) over which each deity was thought to hold sway. The gods also played favorites among mortals, helping or harming as they saw fit. So, while they were immortal, they were not all-powerful.
H
Zeus, the king of the gods and the god of the sky and thunder, ruled over all the deities from his lofty seat atop Mount Olympus, restraining them when their quarrels threatened to
see into the future. These traits give them
overthrow the order of the world. Still, the gods
tremendous power and allow them to control
often sought to escape his control through
the lives of humans.
trickery and disguise. In the Iliad, Zeus adopts a policy of neutrality
That the gods really became involved in the Trojan War only at the end may seem a
and favors neither the Greeks nor the Trojans.
bit surprising, since it was the gods who were
The other gods do not follow his example. Rather,
responsible both for the start of the war and
they align with one side or the other and attempt
for its continuation. The conflict began when
to determine the outcome. Athena, Hera,
Paris, a prince of Troy, stole Helen, the wife of
Poseidon, and Hermes side with the Greeks, while
Menelaus, king of Sparta. No gods may have
Aphrodite, Apollo, Artemis, and Leto side with
been involved here, but Paris’ actions were
the Trojans. Ares, the god of war, has no fixed
definitely the direct result of interference by
allegiances, although Aphrodite eventually
the gods.
persuades him to fight for the Trojans.
Zeus had given Paris the task of judging who was fairest among the goddesses: Aphrodite,
MEDDLING & MORE MEDDLING
Athena, and Hera (see illustration opposite). To
Throughout the Iliad, the gods frequently
sway his decision, Aphrodite promised him the
intervene during armed clashes and heated
love of the most beautiful woman in the world,
discussions. Sometimes, they encourage; other
Helen. Her bribe won his allegiance, and, as a
times, they discourage; sometimes, they deliver
result, Hera and Athena turned on the Trojans
death; other times, they help avert destruction.
and treated them as their enemy. Even so, the
They flit constantly about the camps, council
dispute might have been resolved when a single
halls, and battlefields. They can be wounded in
combat between Paris and Menelaus was
a skirmish, but recover immediately; they can
arranged to end the war. But, just as Paris was
assume the form of a human or an animal, and
about to be killed, Aphrodite swept him off the
yet be visible or invisible as they wish; and they
battlefield and back to the palace in Troy.
can travel at tremendous speed. They can bestow any of these skills on mortals and can
Justin D. Lyons is associate professor of history and political science at Ashland University in Ohio.
13
by Anthony Hollingsworth
What emotions are seen here as Achilles looks upon the dead body of his friend Patroclus! (by 18th-century Venetian artist Giovanni Pellegrini)
14
riendship is a common theme in ancient Greek myths, but there is one friendship that surpasses all others in loyalty and sincerity. That friendship is the one between Achilles and Patroclus, Achilles’ war companion and advisor. Patroclus wants to be with his friend always, but, at the same time, he wants to obey his own father. On the night before the two left for Troy, Patroclus’ father told him, My child, by right of blood, Achilles is higher than you are, but you are the elder. You must speak solid words to him and give him good advice and point his way. If he listens to you, it will be for his own good. Patroclus heeds his father’s words and intends always to give Achilles good advice.
F
15
“What’s the urgency?” Achilles (far right) and Patroclus (middle) seem to be saying, as two Greek commanders burst into their tent. (by 18th-century Italian painter Giuseppe Cades)
“What should I do?” That is the question Patroclus keeps asking himself. He remembers
tearfully into her face, until she is picked up? At first, Patroclus cannot
Achilles remains silent for a while. He is no longer angry, but his pride is still hurt. He
well his father’s words, and he
answer. Then, when the answer
also knows that he had
is determined to honor them,
comes, it does so as a scolding,
promised himself that he
but the current situation is so
It was not Thetis the goddess that
would not fight until the
painful. Hector is now within
gave birth to you, it was the grey
Trojans had advanced as far as
the Achaean camp. Patroclus
sea that bore you and the
his ship. Yet, Patroclus’ plan
sees the Achaeans, his
towering rocks, so sheer the heart
seems like a good one to
comrades, dying all around
in you is turned from us.
him. Yet, Achilles refuses to
Patroclus reasons that, if
fight. Patroclus decides he has
Achilles will not let go of his
to act. So, with tears in his eyes
anger against Agamemnon
for the fallen, he goes to
and return to the battle, then
Achilles, who seems unmoved
he should let Patroclus wear his
and unaware of the disaster
armor and go into battle. Send
around him. When Achilles
me out at least, he says to
sees him, he asks, Why, then,
Achilles, and let the rest of the
Patroclus, are you crying like
Myrmidon people follow me.
some poor little girl who runs after
Give me your armor to wear on
her mother and begs to be picked
my shoulders into the fighting; so
up and carried, and clings to her
that perhaps the Trojans might
dress, and holds her back when
think I am you and give way from
she tries to hurry, and gazes
their attack.
Myrmidon refers to the legendary people of Thessaly, in northern Greece. It is the Myrmidon troops that Achilles led into battle in Troy.
Achilles, so he decides to give
same effect. But Patroclus’
hears Hector say, Patroclus, you
his loyal friend his armor in
fourth attack brings disaster.
thought perhaps of devastating
order to rally the troops—but,
Do not fight at the walls Achilles
our city, of stripping from the
with one very important
had cautioned. Patroclus
Trojan women the day of their
condition: When you have
forgets to heed the warning,
liberty and dragging them off in
driven them from the ships, come
and, for the fourth time, he swept
ships to the beloved land of your
back; although later the
in, like something greater than
fathers. Fool! When I with my
thunderous lord of Hera might
human, there, Patroclus, the end
own spear am leader among the
grant you the winning of glory,
of your life was shown forth, since
fighting Trojans, I who beat from
you must not set your mind on
Apollo came against you there in
them the day of necessity. For
fighting the Trojans. You must
the strong encounter dangerously,
you, here on this very spot the
not, in the pride and fury of
nor did Patroclus see him as he
vultures shall eat you. With
fighting, go on slaughtering the
struck his back and his broad
those words ringing in his
Trojans, and lead the way
shoulders with a flat stroke of the
ears, Patroclus dies.
against the city. Some one of the
hand so that his eyes spun.
everlasting gods on Olympus
Stunned by Apollo’s blow,
When the Achaeans learn that Patroclus has died, they
might crush you. Apollo who
Patroclus becomes an easy
rush to protect his body.
works from afar loves these
target. The Trojan Euphorbus
Hector and the other Trojans
people dearly.
sees his chance and thrusts his
manage to keep them back
spear between the Greek’s
long enough to take the
Achilles’ armor and joins the
shoulders. Patroclus turns to
armor, but they are unable to
battle. He charges headlong
attack, but Hector appears
take Patroclus’ corpse. Still,
into the fray and kills nine
and stabs him through the
the armor is a great prize.
Trojans. Feeling confident, he
chest. As he lies dying before
What had been Achilles’, now
charges again and kills nine
the walls of Troy—the walls he
is Hector’s to wear.
more. A third charge has the
had wanted to destroy—he
Overjoyed, Patroclus dons
The defeat of Patroclus is Hector’s moment of glory. He has stopped the Achaeans and saved his country. Now he wears the armor of the greatest warrior at Troy. But, Hector’s triumph is fleeting! If only the moment of victory could have lasted and his own death would not follow so quickly. Once Achilles learns of Patroclus’ fate, the anger he felt toward Agamemnon becomes nothing in comparison to the anger he now feels toward Hector, the
Compare this scene, dating to around 450 Ć‹ Ć? VKRZLQJ 3DWURFOXV DQG $FKLOOHV LQ WKHLU WHQW DW IDU OHIW ZLWK WKH VFHQH DERYH RSSRVLWH WKDW ZDV SDLQWHG VRPH \HDUV ODWHU
slayer of his best friend. 17
Fifth–century Ɗ Ƌ ƍ vase painting of Achilles (left) fighting Memnon
by Justin D. Lyons
omer’s Iliad te Therefore, it i a third of the depictions of these portrayals? Homer’s int exact record of the conduct of descriptions are often confusi They are also shaped by fanc sometime in the eighth centu the sack of a city that happen Homer’s poetic presentation m mixture of military customs t
18
Ancient Greek bronze armor
LOOK AT THE TIME e Iliad, as well as the Odyssey, oducts of a long tradition of al poetry that has its roots in e Mycenaean era (c. 1600– 00 B.C.E.). Unfortunately, our
Greek 7th-century Ɗ Ƌ ƍ bronze helmet
owledge of this period is limited, cause it was followed by a Dark Age that resulted
Ancient Greek bronze shield
ter a people known as the Dorians invaded the ea. The time was characterized by depopulation,
A LOO
verty, and cultural decline. Our only sure evidence
The con
military practices comes from the remains of arms
stems fr
nd armor recovered from aristocratic burials. Yet, it
q
arete—that is, the courage and excellence that
is clear that Homer’s details are not entirely
enabled a hero to acquire and defend honor. It is
Mycenaean: His heroes are cremated rather than
confrontation on the battlefield that provides the
entombed, as was the Mycenaean custom and,
opportunity for a personal demonstration of arete. In
while Homer’s Greeks have chariots, unlike the
fact, the obsession with honor is central to the Iliad.
Mycenaeans, they do not make much use of them
The dispute between Achilles and Agamemnon and the wrath of the offended warrior focus on honor and set the stage for what follows.
AT THE ARMOR hes his warriors in armor made of bronze. ts are topped with crests of horsehair,
A LOOK AT THE FRONTLINE Battle itself is depicted mainly in the form of private
e the wearers appear taller and more
combat among fighters on the front lines. Warriors of
he soldiers carry broad shields and are
status are carried into battle in chariots, but they
spears and swords. Bows are also used,
dismount to fight on foot. When a suitable opponent
in heroic combat. Great pride is taken in
is located, they are formally addressed and insulted.
f military equipment: Armor is decorated
Spears are then thrown. If the
te designs, a
casts miss or fail to penetrate
ver. The rich
shield or armor, the enemies
ge number o rowess, as t
h forward with drawn ds. Many of Homer’s ons of such encounters are he swift death that follows d in gruesome detail. usually depends on the f the individual on strategy, cunning,
Mycenaean sword 19
As Achilles mourns Patroclus’ death, Thetis (left) brings her son the new armor fashioned by Hephaestus. by Anthony Hollingsworth
ow do you tell someone that his best friend has just died? Who must bring such bitter news? In the Iliad, the job of telling Achilles about the fate of Patroclus fell to Antilochus, the son of King Nestor. With a heavy heart, Antilochus tells Achilles, You must hear from me the ghastly message of something I wish never had happened. Patroclus has fallen, and now they are fighting over his body. Hector has taken his armor. After Antilochus spoke, a black cloud of sorrow closed on Achilles.
20
he other goddesses. She realizes that her son’s ate to die at Troy is quickly approaching and adds, I shall never again receive him home again to his country and into the house of Peleus. Although I go to him, I can do nothing to help him. Yet I shall go, o look on my dear son, and to listen.
Please, Hephaestus!’ When Thetis reaches Achilles, they both know that he will return to the battlefield to kill Hector. They also know that he will fulfill the prophecy of dying young, but gloriously, at Troy. Achilles had been given a choice: Live a long life with little glory, or a hort life as the greatest warrior at Troy. After Patroclus’ death, Achilles decides to choose the glorious life. But, to fight in battle, he needs armor. His, which had been a gift from the gods to his ather, Peleus, on the day he married Thetis, is now worn by Hector. Thetis promises to help. She goes o the blacksmith god Hephaestus, for she knows divine armor is needed for her divine son. In the meantime, Achilles does what he can to top the Trojans. Taking advice from the goddess ris, he rushes to the edge of the camp and gives his mighty war cry. Athena, now at his side, magnifies his fury and the sound so much that ear overwhelms the Trojan soldiers: Three times across the ditch brilliant Achilles gave his great cry, and three times the Trojans and their renowned The death of Patroclus is too much for Achilles to
companions were filled with fear and fled.
bear. He tears out his hair, beats his chest, cries to the heavens, and buries his face in the dirt. His
‘Here, My Son!’
shouts of sadness and anger fill the camp and
The next morning, Thetis returns to Achilles with
bring terror to everyone around him. Even
armor made by Hephaestus. Hephaestus had told
Antilochus fears that Achilles may take a sword
Thetis, Do not fear. Let not these things be a thought
and kill him, as punishment for bringing such
in your mind. At that time when his hard fate comes
bad news. And far away, the goddess Thetis hears
upon him, there shall be fine armor for him, such as
her child as he laments his loss. I gave birth to a
another man out of many men shall wonder at, when
son who was without fault and powerful, she says to
he looks on it. Although heartbroken and weeping
21
at the side of his dead companion, Achilles feels the rush for battle inside himself and dresses for
“I have avenged Patroclus!” thinks Achilles, as he stands above Hector’s dead body.
the fight. He then marshals the troops, prepares his horses, and leads the Achaeans into the fray. Vengeance will be his. Rage flows through his veins, not against Agamemnon, but aimed at the Trojans, especially Hector. With the army behind him, Achilles hurls headlong into the Trojan frontline. No one can stop him, and many flee back to the city. Part of the Trojan army is trapped in the nearby river Xanthus, and Achilles begins slaughtering them. There is so much blood and gore in the water, that the river itself attacks Achilles. Yet, his anger is so great that even the Xanthus cannot stop him, and the river pulls back its waters, as Achilles continues his onslaught.
‘I Will Fight you!” At last, when the Trojans who survived the fury of Achilles’ onslaught have found safety behind the city’s walls, Hector alone remains to offer battle. But it is fated that Hector will lose, for even the gods favor and help Achilles. The battle lasts a while, but Achilles’ spear finally finds its mark, driving deep into Hector’s neck. The blow is fatal, and Hector dies. Achilles then acts very unheroically. Three times around the city of Troy he drags Hector’s body behind his chariot, disfiguring and mutilating it. He refuses to allow anyone to bury or burn the corpse, for he knows that, without a burial, it is believed that Hector’s soul will wander aimlessly forever. Achilles
22
“Hector is no more!” shouts Achilles.
The theme here and below is the same: King Priam begs Achilles to give him Hector’s body. Below is by the fifth-century Ɗ Ƌ ƍ. Greek painter Brygos; above is by the 19th-century Russian artist Aleksandr Ivanov. What differences/similarities do you see? Which do you think best represents the Greek tale? wants Hector to suffer for eternity and does not care if his actions are morally wrong. Achilles even lets the body decay, while he prepares the funeral for his dear friend Patroclus.
‘Please Return Him to Me!’ There was an unwritten law in the Homeric world Loo k—t Hec her t e’s dy. D Won o de one r sts d to ?
that fallen soldiers should be returned to their families—an unwritten custom that continues to be observed in many places today. Hector’s father, Priam, knew this custom. So, when Achilles refuses to return the body to Troy, Priam leaves the city and, under the protection of the god Hermes, enters the Achaean camp. He approaches Achilles and begs him for the return of his son’s body. Honor the gods, Achilles, Priam says, as he kisses his hand, and take pity upon me remembering your father, yet I am still more pitiful; I put my lips to the hands of the man who has killed my children. Achilles feels pity for Priam and relents. With the return of Hector’s body to his father, the poem ends.
23
Understanding
Achilles
by Justin D. Lyons
A
nger—Goddess, sing the anger of Peleus’ son Achilles, murderous, doomed, that cost the Achaeans countless losses, hurling down
to the House of Death so many sturdy souls… These first lines of Homer’s Iliad tell us that the
Achilles is the child of Thetis…
epic centers on Achilles, who is described as
a sea goddess, and Peleus, a mortal man. He is
murderous, doomed, and consumed with wrath.
described as “godlike” in the poem, but the
We are given fair warning that the story we are
epithet refers to his qualities and abilities rather
about to read will be strewn with Greek and
than his parentage. Achilles is presented as the
Trojan corpses and that Achilles’ path will end
greatest warrior who has ever lived. He is stronger,
in death.
faster, and more skilled in battle than any other. Yet, at the same time, he is mortal, not one of the deathless gods. To protect him from injury, Thetis had dipped her infant son in the River Styx, which forms the boundary of Hades, the underworld. Its waters made him invulnerable—except for his heel, the spot Thetis had held when she dipped him in the Styx (left).
When we meet Achilles… he is imprisoned in a godlike, lonely, heroic fury that isolates him from the rest of humanity. Agamemnon has insulted his honor and does not acknowledge his excellence. As a Immortal—almost! And it’s that heel Thetis is holding that will lead to Achilles’ death.
result, Achilles refuses to fight. Locked within himself and heedless of the dying going on around him, he
The Choice Was His hetis tells Achilles that he has a choice. He can stay at Troy and participate in the war, and the result will be death to his body and immortal glory and fame. Or, he can return home and lead a long and prosperous life, but he will not be remembered after he dies. Achilles chooses eternal fame.
T
by a feeling of tremendous loss, such as the gods never experience. Nor does he stop until Hector lies dead at his feet. Full of anger—Achilles attacks, with Athena and Poseidon at his side!
When Achilles holds funeral games… in honor of Patroclus, he seems to begin to rejoin human society. He is tactful, diplomatic, and generous. But his journey is not complete. After
appeals to his mother to persuade Zeus to make
killing Hector, he dragged the corpse behind his
the Greeks regret his absence. He then waits by his
chariot back to the Greek camp, where it still lies
ships on shore, until they beg him to rejoin the
in the dust without proper burial. It is not until
battle. As the war turns against the Greeks,
Achilles meets face to face with Priam, Hector’s
Agamemnon sends an embassy to Achilles to
father, and is moved to pity that he begins to truly
make amends. But even though Agamemnon
surrender his godlike isolation and become more
offers gifts, he fails to appease Achilles’ offended
fully human. Although not included in the Iliad
honor. Rather, Achilles will wait until the Greeks
itself, Achilles’ fate is not far off. An arrow will
grovel before him, confessing their utter weakness
pierce the heel by which his mother held him, and
and dependence upon him.
he, too, will descend to the “House of Death.”
After the Trojans drive the Greeks back… to the beach and are attacking their ships, Achilles allows his friend Patroclus to wear his armor and sends him to drive back the enemy. Thinking Achilles has returned, the Trojans begin to falter and retreat, but when Patroclus ventures too far into the Trojan line of battle, he is killed by the Trojan champion Hector. The news of Patroclus’ death drives Achilles into a true rampage, tearing across the battlefield with godlike fury. He becomes a weapon of pure destruction, laying waste to all that stands in the way of his vengeance on Hector. He is hardly even human, yet he is no god, for his frenzy is driven
Fate—death arrives! The arrow hits its mark: Achilles’ heel! 25
H FUN WIT
WORDS
Artist Tom Lopes has incorporated several of the words/expressions highlighted in this section into his illustration. We have labeled one. Can you find others? See page 38 for the answers.
WORD ORIGINS Conflict Here’s a simple one: The term ĹƒFRQÄ LFWĹ„ GHULYHV IURP WZR /DWLQ ZRUGVĹŒ cum, meaning “with,â€? and Ä LJHUH meaning “to strike.â€? Looking at a similar English word—combat—we see that this word also includes the Latin preposition cum, but here it is combined with the Latin verb battuere, PHDQLQJ ĹƒWR Ä&#x; JKW Ĺ„ 6R ZKDWĹ‚V the difference between the two words in (QJOLVK" :HOO ĹƒFRQÄ LFWĹ„ LV XVHG WR GHVFULEH a serious disagreement or argument, while the meaning of “combatâ€? includes physical FRQIURQWDWLRQ DV ZLWK Ä&#x; JKWLQJ EHWZHHQ armed troops.
irregular, very large,â€? as enormis is actually a combination of the Latin words ex (“out ofâ€?) and norma (“the rule, the patternâ€?). Thus, ĹƒHQRUPRXVĹ„ ZDV Ä&#x; UVW XVHG LQ (QJOLVK LQ WKH 1500s, and it meant “abnormal.â€? Through the centuries, its meaning evolved and is today one of the most overused words in the English language.
Enormous Here’s another simple one: “Enormousâ€? is a word we use just about every day to describe something—a project, a box or other container we need to carry, a building‌and the list continues. But did this word always mean “very largeâ€?? Yes—and no! Its root is the Latin adjective enormis, meaning, “out of the norm,
WORD STORIES Bard In decades and centuries past, this
ENT BE INV
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T MY B A O
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te a ove to crea b a rs e tt le Use the to the like to add ld u o w u o word y guage. English lan e th f o ry a diction QLWLRQ DQG LWV GHÄ&#x; UG R Z U X R (PDLO \ mail it dia.com or e tm e k c ri c to dig@ 0 East Magazine, 7 IG D , rd o W to: My ago, IL e 800, Chic it u S t, e e tr Lake S f the rint some o p l il w e W . 60601 ng in an nd interesti a e v ti a re c most History. of DIG Into e u s is g in upcom
word was often used to describe Homer—but it is not a term that derives from ancient Greek or Latin. Rather, its use dates only to the 1400s, long after Homer. Sometime around the 1450s, the Celts—a present-day term used to represent the people living in the British Isles and northwestern France— began calling poets and singers bardos. The root of this term gwer (“to lift up the voice,� “to praise�) traces its homeland to what is now Eastern Europe and dates to prehistoric times. In the late 1700s, early 1800s, the Scottish writer and poet, Sir Walter Scott,
ox
WRITE US! dig@cricketmedia.com CALLIOPE/DR.DIG, 70 East Lake Street, Suite 800, Chicago, IL 60601 Or have your parent/legal guardian email: dig@cricketmedia.com
So, here’s a word that, through the millennia, has changed in spelling, but not in meaning. Related to “poet� and with the same root in the ancient Greek language are the English words “poetry,� “poem,� and “poetical.�
BRIGHTEN YOUR LANGUAGE
popularized the term as one that described a “lyric poet,� “a singer.� And, indeed, Homer was a bard who sang his poems to the accompaniment of a lyre—lifting up his voice in praise!
Throughout the Iliad \RX ZLOO Ä&#x; QG SKUDVHV known as epithets, that are used repeatedly to describe characters in the tale. Look at the ones we have included below—along with WKH FKDUDFWHU HDFK XVXDOO\ PRGLÄ&#x; HVĹŒDQG then incorporate them into the next paper you write for school, a letter to a friend, or just a poem for your own enjoyment!
Athena
Poet The English word “poet� dates to at
earth-shaker
Odysseus
least the 14th century, when it was used to describe a “singerâ€? and a “person who writes verse.â€? The term came into English through French, where it was spelled poete. French had adapted it from the Latin poeta, while the Romans had borrowed the word from the Greek poetes, which the Greeks used to refer to a “maker of words,â€? “a maker of verse.â€? Digging a bit dee LOOK ZH Ä&#x; QG WKDW WKH A ancient Greeks E u may had adapted en: the word from their verb dy poein (“to make, create, glish compose.â€?) trious,
horse-taming
Hector
laughter-loving
Aphrodite
ox-eyed
Hera
URV\ Ä&#x; QJHUHG
Dawn
swift-footed
Achilles
wide-seeing
Zeus
TA K
bright-eyed
EXPRESSION Achilles’ Heel The phrase “Achilles’ heel� has come to mean a weakness that can lead to destruction or downfall—just as Achilles’ undipped heel did (see pages 24–25). The tendon that connects the calf muscle to the heel bone is also called the Achilles’ tendon.
and 27
Reading Achilles’ Shield
priz
e pages 2–5.)
W
he offense seems
rather strange to us today, at the time, such action was common practice. Thus, Achilles’ anger made sense to those listening to the poem. They recognized that Achilles felt
insulted because his military
commander did not respect his
status as the greatest fighter
by Angela Murock Hussein
among the Greeks. It is Achilles’ action, or rather inaction, that caused desperation among the Greeks. The opening lines of the Iliad make it clear that many men
T
died in battle because Achilles allowed a personal
he story recounted in the Iliad is that of the hero Achilles and his opponent Hector. Everyone listening
to the poem would have been familiar with the characters and their fates, just as we are familiar with the themes of today’s popular
dispute to rule his actions. But this was not the only incident that caused Achilles to feel humiliated. The second incident occurred when Hector killed Patroclus and took his armor as war booty (see page 17). Taking the property of a defeated warrior was permitted in ancient times, but Achilles felt mistreated and
movies and television programs. The poem
viewed as a failure because he lost his property. To
was designed to offer a closer look at the
regain his honor, he demanded that Hector fight
character of Achilles, viewing him through
him in single combat.
an emotional arc from selfishness to anger
However, before any combat could take place,
to empathy. We know this was deliberate,
Achilles needed new armor and weapons. So, his
because Homer included passages
goddess-mother asked the god Hephaestus to
throughout the poem to remind us that there was more to the poem than just the incidents connected with Achilles’ fury.
fashion them. In the Iliad, Homer described the new shield in great detail. It had the traditional round shape, but it was also decorated in a series of concentric rings.
An Affront Leads to Chaos
A Closer Look
The lines of the Iliad recount how Achilles
The shield’s innermost section depicted the
refused to fight because of an affront to his
cosmos. The Greeks understood the structure of
honor. The incident occurred after Agamemnon
the universe as having levels, reflected by the
returned the girl he had taken as his war prize
rings on the shield. There was the earth, with the
and took the girl Achilles had taken as his war
sky above, and the sea. In the sky were the
28
Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others.
Cosmos refers to the universe seen as a well-ordered whole.
Sea City at War
Daily Life
Farm Life
is e th lov ! It is ‌ m , n Hmm tratio ircles c s s illu g two y give ll sin ow mis it rea a of h d t e e u d n b o od i . visi a go er en shield m ’ Ho illes Ach
Sky
Daily Life Farm Life
Earth
City at Peace
movable bodies: the sun, the moon, the
while other sections showed harvests of grain
constellations, and the visible planets.
and grapes.
The earth was the focus of the next ring, with
Another ring also showed scenes of daily
scenes of two cities. One hosted a wedding and a
life. One had cattle being attacked by lions,
legal case. Both represented order, since weddings
while a herder and his dogs fight them off.
created families and allowed for inheritance,
The meaning here was clear: struggle, hard-
while trials meant fairness and the rule of law.
ship, and danger. Another had sheep grazing,
The depiction of the other city was much different.
representing peacefulness. In a third, men
There, chaos reigned, with the city under siege
and women were dancing, representing
and a battle being fought. As a result, people will
celebration.
die, and destruction will rule. The next ring offered a glimpse of farm life,
The design around the outer edge of the shield represented the ocean, which the Greeks
which represented day-to-day and year-to-year
imagined as a great river flowing around
activities. Almost everyone farmed in the ancient
the world.
world, so the scenes represented the cycle of life and the seasons. A field was shown being plowed,
Angela Murock Hussein is an archaeological consultant and post-doctoral researcher at the University of Tubingen.
29
WAS HOMER
W
hat color is the sky? You might say blue, but Homer never did. In fact, the Iliad ’s vivid descriptions include color only rarely. When they do, the most frequently mentioned colors are black and white, with red a distant third. Other colors are even less common—and more puzzling. Homer describes honey and men’s frightened faces as green; he likens sheep’s wool to the sea, and he describes steel as violet. As for the color blue, it never appears at all.
by Tricia Carey
NORMAL
PROTANOPIA
DEUTERANOPIA
TRITANOPIA
The most famous of Homer’s color descriptions
suggested that, at the time, a red algae bloom
The colors in the circle at top left are considered the normal range of colors. Those in the other three circles represent what colorblind people would see, depending on which condition they had.
made the water look reddish-purple; others note
Cultural factors offer yet another explanation,
is the phrase “wine-dark sea,� which is often attributed to poetic license. Some scholars have
that Greek wine once had a bluish tint. Could Homer—and his audience—have been
says linguist Guy Deutscher, author of Through The Language Glass: Why The World Looks Different in
colorblind? Nineteenth-century British statesman
Other Languages. Deutscher suggests, for example,
William Gladstone, a brilliant Homeric scholar,
that the Greeks developed a word for red because
thought so. He theorized that the ancient Greeks
they used red clay for writing and painting. On the
saw their world primarily in shades of light and
other hand, they had no blue objects, dyes, or
darkness. However, studies of indigenous
artificial tints, so they did not need a word for blue.
languages that have limited color vocabulary cast
According to Deutscher, “People find names for
doubt on Gladstone’s theory. In tests, speakers of
things they feel the need to talk about.�
such languages saw all the colors of the rainbow, even when they did not have names for them.
Tricia Carey lives and writes in coastal Connecticut, near the wine-dark water of Long Island Sound.
Poetic license refers to the liberty taken by a writer in deviating from a rule, fact, or logic, in order to produce a desired effect. Red algae bloom occurs when colonies of algae—simple plants that live in the sea and freshwater—grow out RI FRQWURO ZKLOH SURGXFLQJ WR[LF RU KDUPIXO HIIHFWV RQ SHRSOH ILVK VKHOOILVK PDULQH PDPPDOV DQG ELUGV b Indigenous means produced, growing, or living naturally in a particular region or environment. 30
I know– it’s really amazing.... Turkey, present day, site of ancient Troy woof! WOW, Calliope, how cool is this? the site of ancient troy! It’s hard to believe that anything still exists!
... and what a day to go sightseeing. just look at that blue Mediterranean sky.....
and, Calliope, you look a little green, are you feeling ok? Pegasus, your color isn’t right either. and the sea, when did it start looking like grape juice?
woof!
hey, wait a minute! the sky was blue a second ago, now it’s gray....
yep... i was trying to see troy through homer’s eyes... heh heh...
A Heads-up would be nice...
my bad...
CALLIOPE! you’re up to something, aren’t you? this is muse magic!
muses..... what in the name of zeus!
the end
the colors of my feathers are all gone!
31
T S A F D FORWAR
2007: Trojan fans cheer on their football team at the University of Southern California!
A Tale Forever Told
men played heroes such as Achilles and Hector in movies and on TV. In fact, the 1950’s actor
by Ellen Seiden
H
as a blonde bombshell. Brawny
Merle Johnson boosted his
eavy-hearted
worldwide. Countless versions
popularity when he changed his
Helen of Troy
have added—and continue to
name to Troy Donahue, while
weaves a tapestry
add—new details to keep this
Brad Pitt starred as Achilles in the
of heroic and
cherished epic alive. In truth,
latest Troy (2007). Claymation
horrific scenes related to the war
every generation relates to the
being fought “on account of
timeless themes of war’s
herself.” She tells Hector that it
destruction, power struggles
records events “so that hereafter
between countries, destiny,
we may be subjects of song for
revenge, love and hate, and the
the people of the future.” Indeed,
tragic pursuit of honor and glory.
1936: Rossana Podesta plays Helen in the movie Helen of Troy.
for centuries, the legendary heroes, rulers, gods and
Screen Stars
goddesses, and other characters
Helen became the “It” girl of
of Homer’s Iliad have inspired
silent films in the early 1900s.
legions of composers,
She remained a “star” after
filmmakers, artists, writers, game
sound was introduced, with
makers, and advertisers
many 1950s movies casting her
Bombshell, here, refers to a person considered absolutely beautiful. Claymation is a method of animation in which clay figures are filmed using stop-motion photography.
32
WRITE US! dig@cricketmedia.com CALLIOPE/DR.DIG, 70 East Lake Street, Suite 800, Chicago, IL 60601 Or have your parent/legal guardian email: dig@cricketmedia.com
figures took to the battlefield in
The Advertising Age
the animated short Achilles (1997);
In his play titled Dr. Faustus, the
and in an episode of television’s
17th-century playwright
that was synonymous with
Xena: Warrior Princess (1996), Xena
Christopher Marlowe referred to
strength and winning. He called
aided the Trojans at Helen’s
Helen’s abduction as the cause of
them “The Trojans,” and it stuck
request.
the war and coined the phrase,
(see opposite). Naval ships have
“the face that launched 1,000
been named for heroes, including
Literary Traditions
ships.” Cosmetic companies have
the USS Hector. Minecraft and
Quotes, artwork, and other Iliad
since captured that line in their
Nintendo computer games replay
references appear in plays, books,
advertising: “The shampoo that
the Trojan War, as do card and
television, and films to highlight
launched 1,000 sales,” for
board games. Classic Comics offers
the story’s theme. In the film
example. In 1947, the Colgate-
The Iliad in its series.
Sommersby (1993), Civil War
Palmolive Company transformed
veteran Jack Sommersby reads to
Ajax, the Trojan War’s Greek
influence of the Iliad can be seen
his son from the Iliad, his own war
giant, into a cleanser that is
and felt today is endless. Can you
experiences echoing Hector’s
“tough on dirt” and still sold
think of any not mentioned here?
noble actions and defeat. Poet
today.
Sara Teasdale voices Helen’s sorrows in Helen of Troy (1911).
Musical Bards
Irving Stone’s novel The Greek
The Iliad has inspired composers,
Treasure (1975) chronicles Heinrich
singers, and songwriters. The
Schliemann’s excavation of Troy
comic operetta La Belle Helene
(see pages 42–45).
(“The Beautiful Helen”) by the
The list of areas where the
Passionate about Greek mythology, Los Angeles writer Ellen Seiden loves the heroics, truths told, and lessons learned that hold us in thrall, touch our hearts, and never grow old.
German-born French composer
War Stories
Jacques Offenbach dates to 1864.
Soldiers carried copies of the Iliad
Folk and pop artists, as well as
during World War I. Witness to
rock groups, have used Iliad
war events, writer, and poet Rupert
characters in song titles and lyrics.
Brookes wrote the poem Menelaus
Among them are Bob Dylan with
and Helen (1909) that shows the
“Temporarily Like Achilles” and
unhappy couple aging in Sparta.
Led Zeppelin with “Achilles’ Last
In Achilles in Vietnam, a
Stand.”
psychiatrist compares the mental health condition post-traumatic
Tidbits
stress disorder (PTSD) from which
On February 24, 1912, 25-year-old
returning soldiers suffer to that of
Los Angeles Times sports reporter
Achilles’ wrath, bloodlust, refusal
Owen R. Bird was asked to give
to fight, and grief over Patroclus’
the University of Southern
death in battle.
California a permanent name 2017: Ajax cleanser is still being sold. 33
TINTERES
INGLY
Kings and Heroes by Sarah Novak
R
ecognize these scenes? Heroes and kings of ancient empires strive for victory and glory. They lead vast armies to battle, with armor and weapons glittering
in the sun, and fight to the death in hand-tohand combat. Sometimes, supernatural beings help them—or hinder them. Amid the military splendor, a jealous king acts rashly, an angry hero defies his king, a warrior is slain because of mistaken identity, a father mourns his fallen son. All these scenes are from Homer’s Iliad—
right? Yes, but they are also found in the great Persian epic the Shahnameh (“The Book of Kings”). Written from 977 to 1010 C.E., the Shahnameh was the work of poet Abolqasem Ferdowsi. It begins with the creation of the world and of the realm of Persia; it ends with the Persian Empire’s conquest by Arab forces in the seventh century. Ferdowsi’s intent was to preserve the literary heritage and culture of
An illustration from a 17th-century Arabic manuscript of a battle described in the Shahnameh
Persia, an empire that once stretched from Africa to Europe to Asia. (Today’s republic of Iran is the center of ancient Persia.) Ferdowsi
Today these stories are
combined legend and history for a storytelling chronicle of 50
enjoyed worldwide, studied by
kings (and queens) and an enormous cast of other characters, in
scholars, and retold as folktales.
more than 50,000 lines of poetry. Interestingly, the Shahnameh is
The Shahnameh was also a
considered to be the longest poem ever written by one poet.
favorite of British writers J.R.R.
One of the epic’s heroes is the Persian warrior Rostam. In the
Tolkien and C.S. Lewis, both of
illustration above, from a 17th-century Arabic manuscript, Rostam
whom are known for their vivid
gets the better of his foe Afrasyab, king of Turan. Rostam’s other
fantasy worlds.
feats include defeating a lion, a dragon, a sorcerer, and several demons, with the help of his faithful horse Rakhsh.
34
Sarah Novak is a writer who specializes in historical byways and curiosities.
TALES
IT IS!
A Fair Price from Medieval Turkey by Sarah Novak
N
asreddin Hodja was a 13th-century
must pay for it!” The poor man protested that since
teacher, philosopher, and judge. He lived in
he had not consumed any meat, he did not owe
Aksehir, Turkey, about 125 miles from
the vendor anything. “Besides,” he continued, “I
Hisarlik, the site of Troy. Stories about Nasreddin spread from Turkey to surrounding countries. In these
have only a few coins, not enough to pay you.” The two men argued about the payment, but
folktales, Nasreddin is often portrayed as a “wise
could not agree. Finally, they decided to seek the
fool,” finding justice and truth in a comical situation.
advice of the town’s judge, Nasreddin Hodja, who was famed for his
One day in old
wisdom and fairness.
Aksehir, a town in
After Nasreddin
Turkey, smoke from a
had listened to the
meat vendor’s grill
men explain their
wafted through the
disagreement, he said
marketplace. The
to the poor man,
delicious smell
“Give me all your
awakened the appetite
money.” Perplexed
of a poor man, who
and disappointed, the
happened to be
man took out his little
passing by the
bag of coins and gave
sizzling, smoking
it to the judge.
meat. But he did not
Nasreddin shook
have enough money
out the few coins on a
to buy even a piece.
table: clink, clank,
So, he took a crust of
clink. “Did you hear
bread he found in his
that?” said the judge
pocket and held it
to the meat vendor.
over the grill to let it
“Of course!” the
soak in the fragrant
vendor answered.
smoke. He then devoured this modest
“Then you have Nasreddin, from a centuries-old manuscript
morsel and began to walk away. “Not so fast!” said the meat vendor angrily. “You smelled the smoke from my grill, and now you
been paid,” Nasreddin declared and
returned the coins to the poor man. He then added, “The price of the smoke is equal to the sound of the coins.” 35
SK AW AY! A
Q
Have a question about world history, archaeology, paleontology? Dr. Dig and Calliope are ready to answer your questions.
When and where did the game of chess get made? —Megan, Web post
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—Calliope
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37
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My name is Taylor, and I am 14. the history and I think that you should do an issue on that it is important evidence of global warming. I believe at a younger age for kids to learn about global warming a civilization. as it so that we can begin to understand t topic to cover This seems like it would be an importan ing history and and it should also have some interest it. geological evidence to go with
We will print “stand-out� entries in s upcoming issue of DIG!
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38
ee! You might Great suggestion, Taylor! And we agr MUSEŽ (Feb 2017) es, want to look at our sister magazin ntly done issues on rece e hav t tha and ASKŽ (Mar 2017), global warming. —Calliope
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[ BOOK ] Penelope’s Daughter by Laurel Corona (Berkley, 2010, www.penguin.com) is a historical novel about the famed Greek hero Odysseus and his return home, with some twists and turns that, while different, are quite intriguing—for example, it introduces a girl named Xanthe, the hero’s daughter who is unknown to him! A fast-paced, well-researched tale you’re sure to enjoy and recommend to others!
And for the Iliad, retold in English:
[ BOOK ] Black Ships Before Troy: The Story of ‘The Iliad’ by Rosemary Sutcliff (Laurel Leaf, 2005, www.exodusbooks.com)
THREE STONES MAKE A WALL—THE STORY OF ARCHAEOLOGY, by Eric H. Cline (Princeton University Press, 2017, press.princeton.edu) takes you on fascinating, enriching visits to excavation sites around the world, bringing each to life in a way that will have you remember and treasure the people involved and the artifacts uncovered. Highly recommended!
HE ON T
NET
myths, as hy” of Greek “w e th r fo cipal deities Click here s of the prin ie h p ra g io b us: well as brief Greek religio the ancient y b / u d d e .e ip h su rs wo gy.o karchaeolo https://gree ology yth arch-edu/m easy e Iliad that is th f o n o ti a sl ook by Here’s a tran takes you b ly n o t o n t a e th each book: to follow, on y lines within er/text?doc=Pe b o ls a t u b opp book, s.tufts.edu/h rd=1 www.perseu 99.01.0134:book=1:ca 9 1 rseus:text: hed and well-researc a d e ir a S B P cusing on In 2016, s of shows fo ks. Click e ri se d te n e well-prese ancient Gre ece and the re G t n e ci n a home page: reeks/ here for the /program/g www.pbs.org
[ BOOK ] The Iliad by Gillian Cross (Candlewick, 2015, www.candlewick.com)
Check These Out, Too!
[ BOOK ] Explore Greek Myths with 25 Great Projects by Anita Yasuda (Nomad, 2016, www. nomadpress.net) takes readers on a fact-filled journey through ancient Greek religious beliefs. Crafts, such as making a model of the Parthenon, constructing a labyrinth, experimenting with earthquakes, and fashioning a lyre—all accompanied by informative text and sidebars—offer a great introduction to this topic.
[ BOOK ] Get Coding! by Young Rewired State (a community of digital makers age 18 and under) (Candlewick, 2017, www. candlewick.com) tells all with its subtitle: Learn HTML, CSS, and JavaScript and Build a Website, App, and Game. Clearly presented explanatory text that takes the reader step-by-step into this world, engaging graphics that are crisp and to-the-point, as well as labeled diagrams and “Did you know?” boxes—make this a book a must for young people interested in learning how to work with computers and the Internet.
39
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DON’T MISS CLUES TO HOMER PG 46!
LET’S GO ®
–GING
Was there a real Achilles? Who knows? Perhaps some very ancient Greek warrior fought so valiantly that his exploits entered the realm of myth. What is certain is that Achilles’ tale has been told and retold for millennia. Below we see how artists represented Achilles at three different periods in history.
C.
1250 C.E.
THIS SCENE, FROM A MEDIEVAL MANUSCRIPT, SHOWS ACHILLES, WITH SWORD IN HAND, PREPARING FOR BATTLE.
C.
530
B.C.E.
THIS SCENE ON A GREEK VASE SHOWS ACHILLES (THE GREEK LETTERS SPELL HIS NAME) PREPARING TO DEFEAT AN ENEMY.
C.
1300–1250 B.C.E.
ACHILLES STANDS STRONG AND PREPARED FOR BATTLE—HIS ARMOR AND WEAPONS BASED ON DRAWINGS FOUND ON THE SO-CALLED “WARRIOR VASE” UNCOVERED BY HEINRICH SCHLIEMANN AT MYCENAE (HOME OF AGAMEMNON) AND VARIOUS PIECES OF PRESERVED ANCIENT GREEK BRONZE ARMOR.
41
LET’S GO ®
–GING
The Se for
Troy by Emily Abbink
A
Troy was a great walled
But this story was ancient history…
city. Within were
even to the ancient Greeks. Likely
ccording to the Iliad,
palaces, temples, streets, and
written in the 10th century B.C.E.,
houses. For 10 long years, the
the Greeks believed the events
Greeks struggled to take control
occurred some 400 to 500 years
of it. Unable to break through the
earlier, around 1500–1400 B.C.E.
fortified walls, so the story goes,
And since divine characters and
vast
they finally fooled the Trojans by
fantastic events populate the tale,
betw
persuading them into accepting
most audiences through the ages
bod
the gift of a huge wooden horse
regarded Homer’s classic epic
kno
that, unbeknownst to them, was
more as fiction than fact.
did
filled with Greek warriors. To
Still, the question remained:
Scot
make their present seem even
Had there ever been a place
Mac
more attractive to the Trojans,
called Troy? If so, where exactly
mou
the remaining Greeks sailed to a
was it? Did the Trojan War truly
actu
nearby island, pretending to
happen or was it a myth? If it
Troy
abandon the siege.
had occurred, what were the real
Turkish for “fortress.”
The Trojans then pulled the
causes? It was only in the mid-
horse inside their gates, so the
19th century C.E. that someone
many scholars believe that Troy
Iliad tells us, believing it to be a
actually uncovered evidence that
was perfectly positioned to
peace offering. But, after dark,
addressed these questions.
control and tax merchant ships
the soldiers climbed out and
Given such a strategic location,
passing through the nearby waters. The city also offered
of the Greeks who had now
The text of the Iliad does offer several clues…
returned. The result was total
to the general location of Troy.
stone and metal. The desire of the
chaos, as the Greeks plundered
For Greek ships to land, the city
Greeks to break the trade
the once powerful Troy, set it
would have to be near Turkey’s
stranglehold that the Trojans had
ablaze, and sailed home, laden
northwestern coast and the
offers a more believable motive
with treasure.
Dardanelles. Homer describes a
for attacking Troy than avenging
opened the city’s gates for the rest
42
access to important sources of
had begun. Leading them was English archaeologist Frank Calvert, who most likely found himself short of funds and invited wealthy German banker Heinrich Schliemann to join him. Obsessed by the Iliad since boyhood, Schliemann soon took full credit for identifying Troy with Hisarlik. Between 1870 and 1890, Schliemann conducted overly ambitious, reckless excavations throughout Hisarlik, exposing 43
LET’S ®
Workers, overseen by Heinrich Schliemann and Wilhelm Dorpfeld, excavate at Troy around 1890.
GO
–GING
more than 4,000 years of
clear away the rubble from each
Level II’s burnt debris,
settlements, including the
previous settlement before
Schliemann uncovered a trove of
remains of several walled
rebuilding. Instead, they simply
golden jewelry, coins, and silver
citadels. He identified a sequence
leveled out the wreckage and
ornaments. Mistakenly convinced
of nine principal strata that
built new houses on top, often
that this level was Homer’s Troy,
represented nine periods during
recycling old building materials.
he named the stash “Priam’s
which houses were built,
In doing so, they jumbled the
Treasure,” as he thought that King
occupied, and ultimately
levels, creating a complex 3-D
Priam had hidden it from the
destroyed by fire, earthquake, or
puzzle.
attacking Greeks. Modern analysis
war. The nine major periods were
methods now date the hoard to between 2450 and 2600 B.C.E.,
numerals I through IX, starting
Still, Schliemann’s Level II Troy was larger…
from the bottom (Level I) with the
than Level I and included a
Schliemann’s careless digging
oldest settlement (c. 3000 B.C.E.).
massive walled citadel with
style led to even more errors and
One of these layers was possibly
towers and gates enclosing an
controversies, including his
the Iliad’s famous Troy.
acropolis and palace. Thick
discovery of what he claimed was
layers of ash indicated that fire
Agamemnon’s death mask.
labeled, using the Roman
Through the centuries, inhabitants had neglected to
44
had caused its destruction. Amid
Stratum (pl: strata) refers to a layer in which archaeological material—artifacts, skeletons, and dwelling remains, for example—is found during an excavation.
1,000 years before Homer’s story.
Meanwhile, Schliemann’s Acropolis refers to the upper fortified part of an ancient city.
assistant, Wilhelm Dorpfeld,
This stratum provided
maintained that levels VI and VII
the most likely proof of
better represented the Middle and
Troy’s sacking, including
Late Bronze Age(c.1900–1100 B.C.E.)
evidence of mass
and, thus, Homer’s Troy.
human violence and
Excavations revealed that the
widespread fire.
Trojans did expand the city at that were 15 feet thick and 17 feet
Scholars today still believe…
high and supported multiple
Blegen’s level VIIa is the mo
ramparts and watchtowers. Inside
likely stratum of Homer’s Tro
were many great houses and
Fieldwork from between 198
terraces. But, advances in dating
2005 shows that VIIa Troy is
methods soon proved that
larger than formerly thought,
Dorpfeld’s levels, like
which further strengthens the
Schliemann’s, were too early.
argument that it was Homer’s
this time, adding limestone walls
Carl Blegen, from the University
Troy. In 1998, the entire Hisarlik
of Cincinnati, conducted fieldwork
mound became a UNESCO World
between 1932 and 1938. He
Heritage Site. Excavations
revisited Schliemann’s nine levels
continue today, directed by Turkish
and grouped them into 46 phases.
archaeologist Rustem Aslan.
He then focused on the slightly later level VIIa (c. 1250 B.C.E.) as the true site of the famed siege.
Emily Abbink is a retired University of California, Santa Cruz, lecturer in American studies, anthropology, and writing.
Pieces of Priam’s Treasure on display in Greece in 2016
Agamemnon’s Death Mask
I
n one spot, Heinrich Schliemann’s workers uncovered a double circle of upright stone slabs. Within were 15 skeletons, covered with jewels, hammered-gold death masks, and crowns. One glittering mask (above) especially caught Schliemann’s attention. “I have gazed on the face of Agamemnon,” he announced to the world. However, the beautifully detailed mask that showed a bearded man’s face later proved to be some 3,000 to 4,000 years too early to be that of Agamemnon.
Priam’s Treasure
S
chliemann smuggled “Priam’s Treasure” out of Turkey to Berlin’s Royal Museum, where it remained until 1945. It then disappeared—most likely, it was believed, into the hands of occupying Russian troops. In 1993, the Soviets finally admitted to having the cache and put about a third of the 8,000 pieces on display in the Pushkin Museum. Germany, Russia, and Turkey continue to differ about which country should have the artifacts. 45
LET’S GO ®
–GING
Clu to
r dence about uires digging ost ancient of the epic him tell long es. From gs, we know that sung to the f a lyre to hold. Since it o run through holars believe ne scene at a ying in a single ad sung the d Homer have poets?
what we know. bes two poets. ocus, who, st, plays the piece about
46
Achilles and Odysseus at Troy.
That way no tales will spread
Why Blind?
Next, as a prelude to boys dancing
about the killing of the suitors
Phemius and Demodocus are
with a ball, Demodocus plays a
until Odysseus can plan his next
both blind. In many cultures,
short comic piece about Aphrodite
course of action.
traveling singers are blind. For
and Ares. Later, in the epic,
So, it is from passages in the
example, blind O’Carolan of old
Odysseus asks Demodocus to tell
epics and other surviving texts
Ireland traveled throughout the
the story of the Trojan horse.
that we know poets in the
country singing and playing his
Homeric epics play a variety of
harp. Japan had biwa hoshi, blind
in Odysseus’ homeland, Ithaca.
music, including comic songs to
itinerants who sang and
His role is also to entertain guests,
accompany a feast, preludes to
performed with a harp called the
The second poet, Phemius, lives
especially at royal Phemius plays his lyre, while the suitors of Penelope feast in the palace.
feasts. The guests in this case, however, are the unwelcome suitors who wish to marry Odysseus’ wife, Penelope. They force Phemius to sing for them, and he starts a song about the Greeks in Troy. After Odysseus returns home and kills the unwelcome suitors, he then decides to kill Phemius as well, because he entertained the
athletic performances, wedding
biwa. In ancient times, it was
enemy. When Phemius begs for
dances, and story songs about
commonly believed among the
his life, saying that he performed
the Trojan War. Unfortunately,
Greeks that blind people could
unwillingly, Odysseus not only
no examples of comic hymns,
not be distracted because they
spares him, but also instructs
preludes, or wedding dances
could not see. It was also thought
him to play wedding songs.
have survived. Still, the heroic
that this trait brought them closer
Odysseus has a plan. He wants
tales seem so like the stories in
to the divine, allowing them to
Phemius’ music to fool the
the Iliad and Odyssey that we can
“see” things we miss. Ancient
islanders into thinking Penelope
easily picture Homer as
Greek singers actually claimed a
has married one of the suitors.
Demodocus or Phemius.
connection to the gods and
Itinerants are people who travel from place to place. 47
LET’S ®
Demodocus sings of the great Trojan War—and Odysseus covers his face to hide his tears.
GO
–GING
“Oh, Muse,” thinks Hesiod, “inspire me that I may write verses worthy of praise!”
expected their
The so-called “Homeric
special help, as is
Hymn” to the god
made clear in the
Apollo claims that its
first line of the Iliad: “Sing, Muse, the anger of Achilles.” Thus, the poet became the mouthpiece for the Muse’s voice. We meet another
author was a blind man from the Greek island of Chios. This is the origin of the idea that Homer was blind. The “Hymn to Apollo”
kind of singer in the
is called “Homeric”
Iliad when the
because it shares the
melancholy Achilles
Iliad’s poetic meter. It
pulls out his lyre. He
does not, however, tell
does not entertain his
a long, heroic story. Greek hymns
mates, but rather
were not epics; rather, they were
sings alone on the
praise songs to the gods. Thus,
shore. Some compare
their purpose was religious, not
this private
entertainment.
performance with the poems of later Greek
The poet of the “Homeric Hymn” says he is singing a hymn
writers such as Sappho.
in Delos and that he will honor
Called “lyric,” as they are
the Delians in many lands and
sung to the
cities. Unlike Phemius and
accompaniment of a lyre,
Demodocus, this musician
Sappho’s poems are fairly short,
wandered around the Greek
without a story, and tell
world, singing for his living. He
something of the life of the
did use the same meter as Homer,
singer. Sadly, Homer does not tell
which may have been the only
us what Achilles sings, so we
meter of the time. A third ancient
cannot compare the content.
poet of about the same time, Hesiod of Agra (holding lyre at
Meet the Homeric Hymn
left), was also itinerant. He
Other poems from Homer’s time
describes competing at a distant
contain clues about a poet’s life.
festival and winning a tripod.
In ancient Greek and Roman mythology, Muse refers to any one of the nine sister goddesses who presided over song and poetry and the arts and sciences. 48
Meter refers to the measured arrangement of words in poetry. Such arrangements can be done in a variety of ways—by accenting a rhythm within a line or by the number of syllables in a line, for example.
Didactic—What’s That?
resemble the tale of the god Ares
Iliad, and the audience, as was
Two of Hesiod’s poems survive.
that Demodocus sang.
customary at the time, demands
One reads like a farmer’s
While Hesiod never says that he
their favorite passages. It might
almanac. It is neither a hymn nor
is blind, he does boast that the
be the heart-wrenching scene
an epic; it is also not lyric in
Muses taught him to sing. In one
when Hector says goodbye to his
nature. Because it teaches what it
of his poems, he notes that they
wife and child. Or, perhaps it is
takes to be a farmer, it is classified
inspired (a word that literally
the scene when Achilles allows
as a didactic poem—a poem
means “breathed into”) him,
old Priam to take Hector’s body
designed to teach people. There is
granting him a divine voice. In
back for burial. After Homer
nothing like it mentioned in
the Odyssey, Odysseus claims that
sings, eager for praise and his
association with Homer. Hesiod’s
Demodocus sings so well that
salary, I see him possibly
other poem, the Theogony, is also
either a Muse or the god Apollo
reminding his hosts to treat him
didactic. This poem lists the gods,
must have taught him.
well, quoting Odysseus as he does
their parents, and their children.
so: “Singers are worthy of honor
It sounds really boring, but
As for Me
from mortals because the Muse
Hesiod elaborates with
When I picture Homer, I imagine
loves them.”
captivating side stories, such as
him in a large hall, surrounded
that of Prometheus defying Zeus
by intent listeners he cannot see,
and of Pandora, the first woman.
asking the Muses for inspiration.
These short narratives closely
He then sings something from the
Delos is a Greek island in the Aegean Sea.
Nell Wright’s articles and stories have been appearing in magazines such as DIG Into History and Cricket for 15 years. She also teaches Greek and Latin.
Tripod, as used here, refers to a commonly given prize of a three-footed seat or stand. 49
LET’S GO ®
–GING
by Chaddie Kruger
A
fter the Greek hero Patroclus dies in battle, Achilles arranges a spectacular funeral for his close friend. Yet, the extravagant, dayslong ceremony seems extraordinary to us. Could it have happened? Did the Greeks really observe such rituals? For answers to these questions, let us compare the details in Book 23 of the Iliad with what archaeologists have uncovered. 50
Fiction or Fact?
According to the Iliad
The next day, mourners
In Book 23, the body of Patroclus
accompany Patroclus’ body as it
is laid before the Greeks at Troy.
is carried to the burial site.
Chariot drivers honor him by
Achilles and others place locks of
circling his corpse three times.
their hair on his corpse. They
Achilles leads thousands of
build a tall, 100-foot-wide pyre
Greeks in weeping and sorrowful
and place the body on it. Again,
chanting. An extravagant meal
they sacrifice animals. This time,
follows. Cattle, sheep, goats, and
four horses, two dogs, sheep, and
pigs are sacrificed and cooked;
cattle are killed and heaped near
prayers are offered to the gods.
the corpse. The Iliad tells us that
The men feast and pour some of
Achilles angrily slaughters 12
the animals’ blood around
Trojans as part of the offerings!
Patroclus’ body to assist with his
Throughout the night, he
entrance to the Underworld.
dutifully pours wine offerings
Was Patroclus really given a hero’s funeral as seen here?
around the burning pyre. In the morning, his men collect
This fourth-century vase shows the Gre sacrificing Trojans honor of Patroclus But, did they? ancient Greek pottery. As for animal
Patroclus’ bones and put them in
sacrifice—archaeologists
a golden urn. They cover the urn
have excavated animal
with a linen cloth and mark the
bones and drinking cups
gravesite with stones. Then the
in ancient Greek burial
celebratory funeral contests
chambers. The most
begin with chariot races, boxing,
common are remains of
wrestling, and a footrace.
cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs
Sword-fighting, discus-throwing,
Still, the question remains: A
archery, and javelin-hurling
these signs of ritual meals an
follow. The prizes include horses
offerings? There is also
the human remains placed in
and beautiful armor.
evidence of human sacrifice in
metal or pottery urns. Tombs of
the archaeological record. The
wealthier individuals also
Excavations Reveal
Iliad does note that animals and
contained gold jewelry, goblets,
Large painted vases, called
12 Trojans were killed in honor
elaborate swords, and other
krateroi, served as burial markers
of Patroclus!
riches. The deceased laid to rest
for the ancient Greeks—much
Archaeologists have also
in these tombs were probably
like our gravestones today. Many
unearthed at ancient Greek sites
noblemen or great warriors
krateroi have survived, and a
horses and chariots. Why would
like Patroclus.
great number are decorated with
they be buried with men? For the
images depicting a dead person
ancient Greeks, horses symbolized
What We Know
laid out on a bier and mourners
wealth and status, since only
While it is unclear whether
around the corpse. The scenes on
those with money could afford to
Patroclus ever existed, it is certain
some krateroi include a formal
feed and care for them. Thus it
that Greek funeral rites included
procession to the internment site.
followed that skilled trainers,
prothesis, ekphora, feasts with
Ancient texts describe the
riders, and charioteers enjoyed
animal sacrifices and liquid
display and viewing of a corpse,
high esteem. At Patroclus’
offerings, mourners cutting their
a ritual that lasted a day and
funeral games, horses are
hair, cremation, and memorial
was called the prothesis. The
prestigious prizes. Indeed,
games. It is also certain that
transportation of the body to the
throughout the Iliad, Homer
Achilles’ dear friend received
burial site was known as the
honors Hector by describing him
burial rites similar to those held
ekphora, and the grievers
as hippodamaios, the Greek word
by the ancient Greeks to honor
accompanying the deceased had
for “tamer of horses.”
important people.
clipped their hair as a sign of
Remember the Iliad’s mention
their sorrow. Ancient sources
of the golden urn for Patroclus’
also mention funeral games, and
bones? Excavators have found
scenes depicting them appear on
many cremations in Greece, with
Chaddie Kruger taught Latin and Classical Civilization for more than 35 years and is a frequent contributor to DIG.
51
LET’S ®
by Nell Wright
GO
–GING
Magic What schemes are they planning— Mars, Venus, and their son, the god of love, Cupid?
T
So, how do the Homeric gods use the “magic” they do have?
kills so many Greeks that the
turning of a prince into a toad.
There are countless examples in
nine days. So, while shooting
Rather, Homer’s gods fly between
the Iliad. Homer begins this epic
arrows may not be magic, the
Olympus and earth and make
tale in the Greek camp on the
scope of Apollo’s feat is. No
mortals do what they want them
plains of Troy. The god Apollo is
mortal could kill so many men so
to do. These deities also help
killing Greek soldiers because
quickly. Thus, we conclude that
mortals, as when Hephaestus, the
they dishonored him. As
the gods are able to perform
god of fire, makes new armor for
readers—or listeners—we
superhuman deeds.
Achilles. Still, the gods cannot
naturally picture the gods
prevent humans from dying. In
traveling magically between
Hera, pressures Achilles to call
Homer’s world, even the gods are
Olympus and earth. Further,
the Greeks to council to discuss
limited by Fate. For example,
even though Homer never
the great number of deaths,
Zeus, the king of the gods, cannot
mentions flying, through the
Homer never says whether she
save his mortal son Sarpedon,
ages, many artists have depicted
appears to him, comes in a
when destiny decrees he must die.
Greek deities with wings.
dream, or sends the command by
he magic in Homer’s Iliad is not the magic of fairy tales—such as the
52
According to Homer, Apollo funeral pyres burn ceaselessly for
When the queen of the gods,
telepathy. As readers and
from Olympus. However, Achilles’
workshop, we see another kind of
listeners, however, we know that,
mother, the sea nymph Thetis,
magic. It is that of a sorcerer’s
in the Iliad, the gods use all
hears all from beneath the
magic, as Hephaestus uses spells
three ways to communicate
ocean’s waters. As for the queen
to make objects come to life.
with mortals.
of the gods, Hera, it seems that
Hephaestus even owns magic
she can look through walls, since
tripods. Called automata (“self-
Achilles and Agamemnon,
anger overwhelms her when she
moving” in Greek), they move
Athena appears only to Achilles.
sees a female visitor in Zeus’
about, serving those eating at a
She grabs him by the hair to
room. Our conclusion here is
banquet. Hephaestus also has
prevent him from killing
simple: The gods are magically
serving girls in his home that,
Agamemnon, and Achilles obeys.
able to sense events everywhere.
Homer says, are
When trouble brews between
From this scene, we draw the
Zooming between Olympus
conclusion that it is the gods who
and earth, displaying
decide which mortals hear and
superhuman skills and strength,
see them.
ordering mortals about, choosing invisibility, hearing and seeing
Let’s take a closer look at the deities.
everything—it is an impressive
All of those involved in the Iliad
attributed to the gods in the Iliad.
seem to know exactly what is
But, in Book 18, when Homer
happening at Troy. Most watch
takes us to visit Hephaestus in his
array of powers that are
“like real girls.”
e, her ! Hi t estus ve a a h h p o He ve t some o l ld ion erve Wou fash to s u yo ata ner! m o aut me din
LET’S ®
GO
Can you see the horses’ tears? (Check text below for more about the horses.)
–GING
Thus, Homer is implying that Hephaestus made himself robots!
But this was not all the magic in Hephaestus’ workshop. After killing Patroclus, Hector stripped him of his armor—which was really Achilles’. So, when it is decided that Achilles and Hector will fight in single combat, Achilles needs new armor. Hephaestus sets himself to the task, commanding his bellows to blow on the fire and then controlling the amount of heat with his voice. Magic, to be sure! Still, even though Hephaestus makes the armor exceptionally strong and beautiful and decorates the bronze surface of the shield with human and divine figures, the armor cannot
for their dead master. Horses
something about Fate, merely
prevent the death of Achilles
mourning like people—surely
states, “I know.”
(remember the power of Fate).
some sorcery there! Then, in
And—Hephaestus had the armor
Book 19, when Achilles
and the intricately designed
ventures out to kill his enemy,
So it is that magic in the Iliad belongs to the gods.
shield ready in one day (see also
the same two horses prophesy
While the deities could have kept
pages 28–29).
his death, saying, “although we
to themselves, they chose instead
In Book 17, Homer describes
are immortal, we cannot save
to interact with mortals on earth.
yet another type of magic. On
you, because you are mortal.”
Yet, their powers had limits set
the battlefield, two horses weep
And Achilles, who knows
by Fate. So, while most of the
54
Shot from the Past ow did a German gun from the First World War end up, 9,000 miles away, in a small north Queensland mining town? Well, Australian towns, such as Irvinebank, were awarded trophy guns to recognize their wartime contributions. In 1921, a three-inchcaliber trench mortar, known as a Leichter Minenewerfer, that had been captured on the Western Front by the Australian 41st Battalion was shipped to Irvinebank. At first, it held pride of place in the town, but, sometime later, it was stored under an old building. Decades later, it was rescued. “At first, I thought it was some rusting mining equipment,” explained Museum Curator Tony Derksen. “Eventually, we realized what it actually was. When the Queensland State Government offered [money] grants to commemorate the centenary of the First World War, we saw this as our long-awaited chance.” It took several months before the rusting relic was turned into something more recognizable. First, some historical detective work was needed, so old manuals and
H
magic attributed to them in the Iliad consists of having greater skill and capability than humans, sometimes, as with the weeping horses, the poet’s imagination opened up a world of fantasy. Indeed, that is the magic of poetry.
photographs were tracked down and translated. Damage to the gun was documented in great detail, and paint scrapes were taken to ensure that the final color would be close to the original. Blacksmith Hans Pehl used special chemicals to loosen the gun’s parts. Rust was removed very carefully, and the mortar was disassembled for cleaning and greasing before its painstaking reassembly and painting. At the same time, great care was taken to copy the one wheel hub that remained. Then, using the model as a guide, wheelwright Tony Giltrap built replica timber wheels. A century-old photograph inspired the restoration team to pose for a 2016 version of the same image (see photos above: from World War One on right; from 2016, inset). Not only did the 2016 version create a few laughs, but it also strengthened the connections spanning a century and two distant continents. Gordon Grimwade is an archaeologist and writer living in Queensland, Australia, when he is not exploring other parts of the planet.
55
THE Adventures
56
OF
BY CHUCK WHELON
ART-I-
FACTS
T
Tabulae Iliacae
abulae Iliacae refers to a series of 22 marble
In Rome, during the first century B.C.E. and C.E.,
relief tablets that were found in Rome, each
many new families were becoming rich, and they
with scenes that depict events related to the
wanted to display their wealth. Refinement and
Trojan War. Not one is completely intact, but
education in ancient Rome meant a familiarity
each is an interesting source of information on ancient
with great literature, such as Greek mythology. In
literature and society. The tablets were made in one or two
fact, most educated Romans studied and spoke
workshops in Rome during the first century C.E. The reliefs
Greek, while older families traced their lineage
show several panels, sometimes grouped around a larger
back to mythological heroes. Scholars reading
central panel, that are filled with reliefs of events. One
these tablets have noticed mistakes, such as the
such event is the Tabula Capitolina (below), the most
attributing of poems to incorrect authors. So, in all
complete tablet uncovered. Above the column (to the right
likelihood, these products were made for newly
of the middle), Thetis is seen begging Zeus for help. To the
rich families who wished to impress their guests,
left of the top of the column are scenes depicting the sack
without necessarily having the educational
of Troy. Can you see the Trojan horse? Exiting the gates of
backgrounds that owning such items implied.
Troy is the Trojan hero Aeneas, with his family. Below are the Greek ships in the harbor. Can you see Achilles dragging the body of Hector? (See pullout at right.) Four rows down is Hephaestus forging Achillesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; shield. A few tablets have captions that identify the reliefs or summarize events, much like a comic book. On the backs of some are inscribed lists of different poems about Troy. All offer a fascinating look at ancient pop culture. Everyone looking at them would have known the stories and what each carved detail was referencing. Discussions among those studying or just interested in the tablets could focus on favorite details or on the manner of presentation of a particular event. Thus, it closely resembles how we look at movies that have been based on best-selling war stories, with an event such as the Iliad just one part of the story.
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;Angela Murock Hussein
THEN & NOW THEN: Shown at right is the style of Greek helmet known as Corinthian. The bronze construction was purposely thick to protect the wearer’s head, but the style limited both the soldier’s vision and his hearing. Even though the helmet covered much of the face and was uncomfortable, it was used for centuries.
October 2017
Volume 19
Number 8
cricketmedia.com
$4.95
NOW: While modern helmets have volved greatly, they still have had the me basic look since World War I. Today’s ldier in the American Army uses a helmet ade of kevlar (as shown here) or aramid, cured with a strap, with added features ch as cameras, night vision goggles lack mount for goggles shown here), nd helmet covers.
WHAT’S CHANGED? Today’s technology makes it possible for a helmet to provide protection for vulnerable areas of the face, while, at the same time, not limit the wearer’s movement or ability to hear, see, and smell. In ancient times, this was unimaginable.
continually work to create a helmet that is comfortable, light, protective, and adaptable to specific situations.