The Experiential Method of Psychodrama Psychodrama as a tool in Education Training materials - Module 1 Leonardo Da Vinci project – Transfer of Innovation Project No: 2013-1-GR1-LEO05-14123
This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.
INDEX 1.
2.
3.
Module description ...................................................................................... 3 1.1.
Aims ..................................................................................................... 3
1.2.
Learning outcomes............................................................................... 3
1.3.
Organisation of the materials and the workshop ................................... 3
Introduction to theory................................................................................... 5 2.1.
J.L. Moreno and the origins of psychodrama ........................................ 6
2.2.
Creativity and spontaneity – the cornerstones of psychodrama ............ 9
2.3.
The primacy of the encounter ............................................................. 11
2.4.
On the psychodrama stage ................................................................ 12
2.5.
Repertoire of roles.............................................................................. 14
2.6.
Sharing experience ............................................................................ 17
Introduction to exercises ........................................................................... 20 3.1.
Warm-up ............................................................................................ 21
GREETINGS ............................................................................................. 21 NAMES ..................................................................................................... 22 3.2.
Action ................................................................................................. 24
TRUST ...................................................................................................... 24 SOCIAL ATOM.......................................................................................... 25 COMPLEMENTARY.................................................................................. 27 MASKS ..................................................................................................... 28 YES – NO ................................................................................................. 30 3.3.
Closure .............................................................................................. 31
PATH ........................................................................................................ 31 4.
Evaluation ................................................................................................. 32
5.
Bibliography .............................................................................................. 34 5.1.
References in English ........................................................................ 34
5.2.
References in Polish .......................................................................... 34
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1. Module description The Experiential Method of Psychodrama is the first, introductory module of the course Psychodrama as a Tool in Education (PaTiE). The module should be studied first before proceeding to the other parts of the course, especially by those who are not familiar with the method of psychodrama and thus need to grasp its basic concepts and principles. The course is aimed at vocational education teachers and trainers who are interested in learning how to apply psychodramatic action methods in the classroom. Practical knowledge of psychodrama can be useful in addressing a range of issues coming up in the educational process and the introductory module surveys the aspects of the method of potential interest to educators seeking ways to improve the efficiency of their approaches.
1.1. Aims to introduce VET adult educators to psychodrama, in particular those aspects of the method which are applicable outside therapeutic contexts to give a taste of a psychodrama session in all its phases of warm-up, action and sharing to show sample techniques and exercises which will be covered in more detail in the following parts of the course to discuss the applicability and usefulness of psychodrama in VET adult education
1.2. Learning outcomes On completion of the module, the teacher will be able to: outline the main concepts and principles of psychodrama give examples of application of the method in education identify possible threats resulting from the use of psychodrama outside of psychotherapeutic context point out opportunities of enriching VET adult education with psychodramatic techniques and exercises
1.3. Organisation of the materials and the workshop The materials presented in this module can be used in two ways. First of all, they specify the content of the respective part of the PaTiE curriculum and thus help the trainer plan and run the introductory module of the course. Secondly, the content can be studied by the VET educators, the participants of the course, as supplementary learning materials helpful in understanding and consolidating the methodology learnt at the workshop.
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This is an introductory module and thus needs to offer both an overview of psychodrama and outline the content of the forthcoming parts of the course. To this end sufficient time should be given to presentation of basic concepts and principles of psychodrama which make it an attractive resource of experiential techniques for educators as well as dangers of irresponsible use of the method which can deeply hurt the participants. The theoretical aspect of the module should not stand in the way of practical demonstrations of psychodrama as an experiential method. This will be ensured in two ways. The session follows the general scheme of a psychodrama workshop leading the participants through all the key phases of warm-up, action and sharing. Sufficient time is given to the introduction of sample techniques to be presented in detail in the following modules of the course. The purpose of this choice is to announce the content of the whole course in an appealing way, giving the participants a “taste� of the forthcoming experience. The activities planned in the introductory module draw on the approaches validated in the framework of the project Psychodrama on the educational stage (POTENS) which developed innovation to be transferred to the PaTiE project. This interconnection is reflected in all the three main parts of the module: The introduction to theory focuses on those aspects of psychodrama which proved useful and applicable in the context of adult education. Now the methodology is revised in the view of specific needs of VET adult educators who are the main target group of the PaTiE course. The introduction to theory is drafted in such a way as to briefly present the origins and history of psychodrama, define its unique character and announce the main themes which will be specifically dealt with in the following modules. The theory is closely interconnected with the practical part of the workshop in line with the psychodramatic philosophy valuing experiential learning. A further reading list is provided for self-study, for those educators willing to gain a deeper insight into the theories behind the method. The key part of the module introduces a set of psychodramatic exercises chosen in a way to give the participants a taste of the methodology in all its aspects covered by the course. It is believed that practical introduction to psychodrama as a tool in education is a more efficient approach than lecturing or mentoring. All the exercises presented here have been validated in the framework of the POTENS project and are thus a suitable set of resources for an initial encounter with psychodrama, which is expected to be a new method for the PaTiE course participants. The module is planned in such a way as to give both the trainer and the participants a clear indication of the level of attainment of the intended learning outcomes. Each activity introducing a specific aspect of psychodrama of interest to VET adult educators is closed by a set of questions which should lead to a discussion involving all the participants and reflecting the level of understanding of the key concepts in focus. Evaluation and reporting tools are provided to help the trainer objectively assess the results of the module. 4
2. Introduction to theory Psychodrama is a therapeutic method which supports personal development providing a unique possibility to present experiences, problems, difficulties and internal conflicts in the form of a dramatisation. There are many definitions of psychodrama in the current literature. For the purpose of introduction to the PaTiE course we have adopted a definition proposed by Peter Felix Kellermann in his influential book Focus on Psychodrama as the most comprehensive definition and widely accepted by psychodramatists: “Psychodrama is a method of psychotherapy in which clients are encouraged to continue and complete their actions through dramatization, role playing, and dramatic self-presentation. Both verbal and non-verbal communications are utilized. An number of scenes are enacted, depicting, for example, memories of specific happenings in the past, unfinished situations, inner dramas, fantasies, dreams, preparations for future risk-taking situations, and unrehearsed expressions of mental states in the here and now. These scenes either approximate real-life situations or are externalizations of inner mental processes. If required, other roles may be taken by group members or by inanimate objects. Many techniques are employed, such as role reversal, doubling, mirroring, concretizing, maximizing and soliloquy. Usually the phases of warm up, action, working through, closure and sharing can be identified.” i The method was created by Jacob Levy Moreno (1889-1974), a Romanian psychiatrist, and since then has been substantially developed in various directions by psychotherapists all around the world. Moreno, in his theory, emphasised the fact that man develops and grows up in a group, which has a unique force of interaction coming from its internal dynamics. A group is like a mirror in which everybody can see their own reflections. On the psychodramatic stage these reflections as well as scenarios of situations which may happen in the future are played. The enactments are either very similar to the situations which happened in real life or are a figurative way of presenting mental states and processes. The roles of different characters and feelings which are important to a member of the group are played by the other members chosen by the person whose “drama” is being explored. This focus on group processes makes the method, primarily conceived as a psychotherapeutic approach, of interest and value to educators who engage with group dynamics as an essential part of their work. Guidelines On Psychodrama Use in Adult Education created as a part of the POTENS project sensitizes the prospective users of the methodology as an educational tool to the following issues: Psychodrama, as a method of group work, may create suitable conditions for an educational process by building an atmosphere of trust and safety, and also by reinforcing the integrity of a group. Psychodrama can enhance spontaneity and creativity of participants. Psychodrama offers practical tools of application in the field of education, which is understood by gaining skills and shaping attitudes.
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The application of psychodramatic methods cannot mean a simple implementation of procedures and techniques, but requires a responsible, creative and a unique approach in building personal and group relations. In order to use psychodramatic techniques efficiently, the educator has to have sufficient skills which can be fully acquired only through comprehensive training in psychodrama methodology. To sum up the aforementioned points it must be emphasised that the application of psychodrama in education may enhance and improve the work of the group, but also carries multiple threats in a situation in which the trainer does not possess sufficient knowledge, skills and experience. Thus the following overview of psychodrama should be taken as an encouragement for a deeper study of the method which can be partly conducted through reading. Nevertheless, the full grasp of the potential of the method is only achievable through practice under the supervision of a skilled trainer, preferably with the support of a peer group of practitioners.
2.1. J.L. Moreno and the origins of psychodrama Psychodrama was invented by Jacob Levy Moreno (1889 – 1974), a versatile thinker and a colourful figure which cannot be easily labelled and positioned in the history of ideas. On the one hand he initiated an important current in modern psychotherapy, being the originator of the method of group therapy and the founder of the International Association of Group Psychotherapy. On the other, he ventured into various intellectual exploits, publishing omnipotent fantasies, like The Words of the Father, containing “the words of God, our Father, the Creator of Universe”. Thus Moreno is a particularly favoured object for all those who like indulging into speculative psychoanalysis of the sources of such hermetic writings and see them in the traumas of early childhood, the author’s relation with his Jewish mother, or his idealised fantasy relationship with his absent father. This is however not the object of the PaTiE course. We will rather focus on those ideas of Moreno which influenced the method of psychodrama as practiced today. We shall only mention at this stage that it is worth consulting at least some of the original writings of the towering figure of psychodrama to fully appreciate the unique context in which it originated. Moreno began his professional career as a doctor of psychiatry in Vienna in the 1920s at the time when Freud was an influential figure at Viennese intellectual circles. He distanced himself from psychoanalysis right from the beginning and stressed substantial differences between his theories and freudism. Two factors differentiating the two major schools of psychotherapy are particularly important: Moreno pointed out the negativism inherent in Freud’s view on the world and the humans visible in the tendency to associate the origins of life with calamity as well as with the focus on pain and evil dominating the universe. Quite the contrary, Moreno saw man as an omnipotent, creative being and the co-creator of universe. Psychodrama perfectly fitted this perspective as a method of empowerment aiming at bringing out our hidden potential. Secondly, Moreno distanced himself from Freud’s total preoccupation with analysis of the psyche at the expense of action group methods. This results from the 6
cornerstone of Moreno’s philosophy which stresses the social nature of human beings – what matters is primarily the relationship as the self emerges from human interactions. Therapy is thus more about creative (re)building of relationships rather than solitary explorations of one’s own internal world. Interestingly, the initial clash of approaches between the founders of the two schools of psychotherapy is reflected in the current status of the respective theories. There is extensive scientific literature on psychoanalysis while psychodrama is much more known for its “action” than for its theories. This may cause a difficulty in proposing a comprehensive and scientifically sound explanation of the principles behind psychodramatic interventions. In what follows we will thus outline only those aspects of psychodrama which have been widely acknowledged as valid in group work.
Remember Morenian psychodrama is an action-based approach in contrast with Freudian analytic method of therapy Moreno’s first experiments in Vienna were highly innovative in the context in which they originated but were not fully understood or appreciated at that time. He developed his ideas directly in “action”, undertaking various initiatives during his student years and then in his medical practice and beyond. He conducted first psychodramas playing with children in the parks of Vienna encouraging them into active storytelling about the oppression of family and school. Moreno was also involved in innovative theatre practice in his early Viennese years contesting the lack of spontaneity in institutional theatre performances and experimenting with improvisation of real life experiences on stage. He even set up his own theatre company, Living Newspaper, bringing daily news on to the stage and involving the audience into spontaneous participation in the action. The therapeutic aspect of psychodrama was not present in these artistic stunts yet but the core idea of the psychodramatic method which is a form of the “theatre of spontaneity” is already visible there. It needed to be grounded and formulated through clinical therapeutic practice. Group work as a method of therapy was also initiated by Moreno in Vienna where he joined a project to help prevent the spread of venereal diseases through group psychotherapy offered to prostitutes. The Viennese period shows Moreno as a highly creative thinker and activist, coming up with original ideas spanning spirituality, philosophy, theatre, social work and medicine. The cornerstones of psychodrama as we know it today which highlights the qualities of creativity and spontaneity are already visible in the very life of its originator.
Remember Psychodrama originated in Vienna in the first quarter of the 20th century in the highly innovative work of J.L. Moreno Moreno left Austria for the USA in 1926, totally discouraged with the hostile reception of his ideas in the Viennese intellectual and medical circles and hoping for a more enthusiastic welcome in the New World. At that time he was preoccupied with working out methods to effectuate social change and combat the ills of society, convinced that internal conflicts and pathology so much in focus of Freudian psychoanalysis are the 7
product of the individual’s interactions with external society which needs to be healed as a whole. It is not the individual human being who needs to be changed by the whole of mankind. Psychodrama as a method of therapeutic group work was closely related to other inventions of Moreno for which he was seeking recognition among his fellow psychiatrists in America. This primarily refers to sociometry which he developed as a science of measuring interpersonal relations and interactions. It is the first method invented by Moreno which was recognised as a valuable tool in psychiatry. His other ideas reaching much further than a set of particular techniques to be used in medical practice were much more difficult to communicate. In particular, the idea of “sociatry” which would combine sociometry, group psychotherapy and psychodrama into a new science with a radical objective to change the essential fabric of society was totally dismissed. Nevertheless, Moreno managed to establish his psychodrama practice in clinical settings in which he worked in the USA and further propagate it with an essential input of his wife Zerka Moreno who helped to formulate the abstruse writings of the visionary thinker into a set of “Psychodramatic Rules, Techniques, and Adjunctive Methods”. This is one of the reasons for a wide recognition of psychodrama as a particular form of clinical group psychotherapy. Still it should be remembered that psychodrama originated from a radical social philosophy viewing each human as a cocreator of society, co-responsible for its well-being. These objectives can hardly be confined to therapy of mental disorders, they much better fit the formative aims of education.
Remember Psychodrama is not a mere method or technique It is deeply rooted in philosophy of far-reaching social objectives The psychodrama movement was first established in the USA but both Moreno and his wife were travelling extensively to propagate their ideas. They came to Europe on a number of occasions to give lectures and practical demonstrations of their work. They were followed by a number of renowned American psychodramatists who encouraged publishing on psychodrama and setting up training centres. These efforts gained momentum in the 1970s and finally led to the establishment of national psychodrama institutes, now operating in most European countries and associated under international umbrella organisations – PIFE http://www.pife-europe.eu/en/ and FEPTO http://www.fepto.com/ (links to all accredited national institutes in Europe can be found on these portals).Thus psychodrama became an established method of psychotherapy, practised in both clinical and non-clinical settings by certified psychodramatists, and a part of national health services in some countries (e.g. in the UK). Not surprisingly, it is mainly perceived as a form of therapeutic intervention. Nevertheless, the need to go beyond therapeutic settings and further develop nonclinical applications of psychodrama is widely acknowledged among psychodramatists. Again, the main impetus comes from the United States where various fields of such applications, including education, have been explored (cf. on-line repository of articles and research papers at http://www.blatner.com/adam/pdntbk/resources.htm). The factor which limits the popularity of psychodrama in Europe outside the circles of 8
professional therapists is the strict certification system propagated by national psychodrama institutes and a relative lack of training in psychodrama outside the context of psychotherapy. The PaTiE course fills this gap and offers an intensive course introducing basic concepts and methods of psychodrama to adult educators, firmly grounded in the previous pilot initiative of the POTENS projects.
Remember Psychodrama known mainly as a form of psychotherapy has non-clinical applications, including education
2.2. Creativity and spontaneity – the cornerstones of psychodrama In order to immediately grasp the relevance of psychodrama for education we should look closer at the two concepts which play a key role in Moreno’s philosophy. They are closely connected and thus should be considered together. Moreno believed that each man is naturally endowed with a certain degree of spontaneity and creativity, although not everybody is able to fully benefit from their potential. There is some confusion of the meaning of these two concepts which impacts on the understanding of the nature of psychodrama training which, inter alia, aims at developing and fostering these qualities in the participants. Spontaneity should not be seen as impulsivity which is certainly not a virtue. It is rather a state in the here and now of being able to respond adequately in a novel situation or come up with a new response in a familiar situation. Spontaneity manifests itself in a free expression of personality and the ability to behave in an autonomous, individual way in the course of life events. It is not so much a reservoir of energy which propels a man towards action, but rather a process operating in the person in the present, a flow of feelings activated in a particular situation, especially when faced with the spontaneity state of another person. Thus spontaneity is best understood as an opposite state to inhibition which is manifested in a stiff, automated behaviour. Spontaneity is a catalyst for creativity. To be able to come up with a new idea or produce something novel, not just a replica of what already exists, one has to be in this particular condition which Moreno labels as “spontaneity state”. This by no means is confined to the excitement inherent in interpersonal interactions, when the flow of feelings in the group has the potential to open the members up, although this particular situation was favoured by Moreno in his analyses. What is meant is rather this special state of mind when images, concepts or solutions emerge from the hidden and come to light, sometimes in surprisingly clear form and sometimes as hints to be further consciously elaborated. This phenomenon, not easy to be understood or explained in the categories of the personal subject, is the essence of all human creativity. Moreno repeatedly stressed the unique value of these creative acts throughout his life, pointing out the relative lower value of their products: what matters is the process behind the creation, not the “cultural conserve” which is left over as a result and which leaves us flat unless we approach it in our own spontaneous, creative way (consider a visit to a museum with a group of students not in a mood to marvel at the exhibits).
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Moreno’s principles of spontaneity and creativity have many important ramifications for educators, if they take them seriously. First of all, they disclose a radical personalism which focuses much more on subjective processes and qualities of the person than the objective products in which these processes result. From this perspective even the greatest marvels of human creativity – poems, symphonies or technical inventions – are seen as “cultural conserves” in which a creative act ended. The pejorative label encourages a total revision of the ways in which culture is taught: instead of passive appreciation of the artefacts an active engagement is needed which would ignite an authentic interest and dialogue with the object. Ultimately, the goal is to foster creativity, not the consumption of “preserved” products. This should be read in the light of Moreno’s contestation of what he called “normism”, which is an obsession or a compulsive need to follow a commonly accepted way of behaviour, instead of paving one’s own path throughout life. He particularly detested this “compulsive conformism” and saw it as a social plague of our times. In his opus magnum, Who Shall Survive, he argued for upbringing a new society valuing unique individual contributions. Now, how can spontaneity and creativity be trained, if they become desirable goals of therapeutic or educational practice? This seems paradoxical as they both seem natural qualities or abilities of an individual. Moreno strongly believed that this is possible and saw psychodrama group work as a way to foster them. The method sets a safe environment in which group members are placed in situations which require them to respond in a new way to situations which they previously experienced in their lives and in which they did not react adequately. A range of alternative reactions can be tried out with the help of the director and the group. They can also explore expected future situations and try out different patterns of behaviour, including those which have not been seen previously as feasible due to one’s character, temper or accepted norms. The social dimension of the training is essential here, as Moreno was deeply convinced of the “power of the group” to facilitate change in the behaviour of its members. Thus his personalism, mentioned above, should be seen as placing the person firmly against the background of the group in which she/he develops. Creating a supportive and secure environment for trying different behaviours and reactions without being punished for a failure or wrong course of action is essential here. For this purpose psychodramatists developed a range of warm-up techniques of a much wider applicability than therapeutic settings in which they originated and where they are mainly used. The concept of warm-up is closely related to that of spontaneity: this initial part of the psychodrama session aims at preparing the group members for action, opens and livens them up, thus raising the warmth of interpersonal interactions in the group. The PaTiE course has a specific module on warm-up (Module 4) to sensitise educators to this essential phase of any group work. It introduces a number of techniques applicable in educational contexts, still it should be remembered that they cannot be seen as a predefined set of tools – they are rather examples encouraging a careful staging of the environment in which spontaneity and creativity could sprout up.
Remember In Moreno’s philosophy it is spontaneity that brings creativity to fruition They are both essential qualities of human being and can be fostered in the safe and supportive environment of a psychodrama session
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2.3. The primacy of the encounter Moreno was one of the first thinkers who placed the phenomenon of meeting the other at the core of philosophical investigations. His Invitation to an Encounter published in 1914 preceded a fundamental work in this field, I and Thou, by another Jewish thinker working in Vienna at that time, Martin Buber, who is credited with initiating the dialogical philosophy so important in our times (cf. the existential movement, Levinas and his followers). At least the basics of Moreno’s philosophy of the encounter need to be understood in order to grasp the unique character of psychodrama which is firmly grounded in this framework. First of all, Moreno’s investigations shifted the focus of psychotherapy from the level of individual person to the level of interpersonal relations. He argued that the meeting of two people in a concrete situational event is an elementary phenomenon underlining the process of both personal and social development. He called this phenomenon the “primary dyad” meaning the experience of an authentic encounter in the here and now. Moreno pointed out an essential aspect of this relation which lies in the ability of the persons to reach into the feelings of one another due to subtle interactions which bond them together. For this unique relationship he coined a term “tele” which refers to the capacity of reaching or influencing the other “from a distance” (Greek root of the term) due to the invisible bonds. Tele operates not only in the dyadic relationship but also in groups. Personal identity emerges against the background of the group as to a large extent influenced by the relationships with the others. Hence psychotherapy needs to deal with these group processes which open the way to understanding the internal conflicts of the group members. A large portion of Moreno’s writings is devoted to these phenomena which explore a broad range of ethical, social and political issues in his quest for a more healthier, more spontaneous and creative society. The above insights have been shared by many modern philosophers and social scientists. However, what makes Moreno’s contributions unique is his elaboration of concrete methods which could help to engage with these issues in the contexts where human relations need to be cured or corrected. The concept of tele emerged in the course of building the science of sociometry which aims at measuring relations between members of small groups (a form of micro-sociology as he called his science), in particular the scope of attractions and repulsions among them. The tools which Moreno developed, e.g. sociograms, are still used by psychotherapists for “mapping” interpersonal relationships and thus facilitating group processes essential in any form of group therapy. These techniques have also an applicability in education and are thus covered in more detail in Module 3 of the PaTiE course dealing with sociometry. The method of psychodrama uses sociometry as an important diagnostic tool. But it goes much further than measuring and depicting the relations between the people who joined the group. It uses the internal bonds which formed between the members over time to create a supportive environment for shared work on the relationships which are essential for their identities. Thus the psychodramatic encounters happen on many different levels. First, between the participants of the sessions who form new significant relations while opening to each other and disclosing their deepest experiences and emotions (e.g. therapeutic psychodramas may engage the group in shared enactments of scenes of rape, dying of close family members, divorce, etc.). The new encounters 11
are sometimes more important and meaningful to the participants than those they managed to establish outside the therapy group. Secondly, the participants in a way can meet key figures in their life on the psychodramatic stage – the essential life events proposed by them are enacted with the other members of the group being “auxiliary egos”, i.e. the stage embodiments of the real actors in the participants’ lives. Thirdly, and most importantly, the stage becomes a “laboratory” in which to work on the improvements of real life encounters. Different roles and behaviours can be safely practiced with a view to enabling the members a renewal of their interpersonal relationships. This brief overview shows how far Moreno departed from the mainstream of the dialogical philosophy which tends to be entirely preoccupied with the authenticity of the encounter excluding any artificial direction (psychodrama sessions are facilitated by professional trainers called “directors”). Psychodrama does not stay at the level of insights into the phenomenon of encounter but it goes further to “action”, to consciously managing the deepest relations which bond or divide people. The method is thus of interest to educators for whom group work is the primary environment and who need to be able to make it a shared learning space. It seems worth looking into some of the methods and techniques used by psychodramatists and consider how to adapt them to the goals and limitations of group work in the classroom. Certainly, the first consideration requires the teachers to be sensitive to the issues which can be tackled in this environment. Addressing deep personal problems of the students through enacting them by their classmates can result in deeply hurting the participants. Psychodrama is a powerful method of opening people up and bringing the hidden traumas to the fore – there is ample evidence how easily people disclose themselves if involved, or “directed”, into psychodramatic encounters. It is the responsibility of the educator to be aware of the dangers of such personal self-exposures in order not to face situations which cannot be resolved. Module 2 of the PaTiE course has been planned to sensitise the educators to the “power of the group”.
Remember Psychodrama stresses the value of the encounter and creates an environment in which people can disclose their deepest feelings
2.4. On the psychodrama stage Now we should look closer at the specific environment in which psychodrama sessions are run. The literal meaning of the term is “action of the soul” and immediately brings back the image of a dramatic performance on stage. In a nutshell these associations are accurate but need explication to grasp the unique character of psychodrama as compared with theatre or educational drama. The sessions are usually organised for clients diagnosed with some neurotic and psychotic problems. The groups are usually small, up to 20 participants, although there are cases of much larger groups successfully led into the psychodramatic process. They are run by trainers taking the role of “directors”. This is another term which brings 12
back the roots of psychodrama in theatre. However, the role of the director is more complex than in institutional theatre and combines the tasks of a therapist, facilitator of the group process and group leader. In particular, a skilled director is able to prepare the stage on which the therapeutic drama takes place, create an atmosphere of mutual understanding conducive to shared explorations of internal dramas of the participants, facilitate the selection of the group member whose personal issues will be enacted with the support of auxiliaries, move the action to focus on the core of the problem and ensure appropriate, meaningful closure of the session through role feedback and sharing experiences. Thus psychodrama differs from theatre as it does not pursue artistic goals. Its aims are therapeutic, or broader – formative in the context of interpersonal relationships. The actors on the psychodramatic stage are also assigned unique roles. There is the “protagonist” of the drama, literally meaning the first in action, who comes forward with his personal issue to be explored by the group. This may be a traumatic event in their life or a certain situation in which he/she failed to react adequately. The task of the director is to help recreate on stage the authentic environment in which the event took place and elicit involvement of other members of the group who would play the real characters in these situations. They are called auxiliary egos, or simply auxiliaries. The idea is to reproduce life on stage through a shared effort of the group. The event takes place again in the here and now and lets the protagonist have a closer insight into a particular pattern of his/her behaviour. The stage also offers an opportunity to replay the event in a different way in search for a more adequate response to an unresolved problem. This is a unique opportunity of living again through core life experiences. The direction is ideally more of a facilitation of the process than its management. A trustful, caring and supportive atmosphere in the group is even more important as it fosters a spontaneous and creative response of the protagonist to his life traumas. The psychodramatic stage also creates an environment to explore the sphere of fantasy acts and imagination in the “surplus reality” as Moreno called the realm of the imagined transcending the real. Protagonist can travel freely through both the realms in the here and now. This is particularly important due to the influence of inner images on our conduct in real life. The stage helps to concretise them as they enter the play in the form of objects, scenes or acts enacted by auxiliaries. Their symbolic meaning can be explored through visualisation which may lead to realisation of powerful hidden emotions which impact on the protagonist’s life. Work with symbols dealt with in Module 6 of the course introduces this aspect of psychodrama in relation to psychoanalysis which influenced Moreno’s theories on surplus reality, notwithstanding his hostility to this current in psychotherapy. Symbolic objects, acts and gestures are also widely used in psychodrama in a very different sense. The stage is set with simple means: a skilled trainer would come to the workshop room with just a packet of colourful scarves with which to mark symbolically the boundaries of the situation to be enacted and the group would join in creating the scenery with a couple of chairs, tables, toys, pillows or pieces of clothing. Still the engagement in the scene may be as authentic as in reality with powerful emotions discharged and cathartic cleansing of souls. It is not only the protagonist who is affected but also the auxiliary egos as well as the part of the group which sit in the 13
audience. The experience of entering the other person’s life through enacting his life events or even the impact of mere watching his real traumas on stage may have a transformative effect on the group in terms of changing perceptions, attitudes and behaviour. Setting the stage and moving to action has to be facilitated tactfully with proper warming up of the group and gradually proceeding to the core of the problem. The process may be reflected in the spatial organisation of the environment like in the classic Morenian psychodrama, which consists of a circle with three tiers (audience, periphery events and core drama). In current practice, more flexible approach is taken with different stage settings, still the central drama is held in boundaries, which then symbolically helps to come out of the roles and back to reality. This is seen as essential in order to let the participants safely come to themselves from the action on stage. The themes to be explored on the psychodrama stage are agreed with the protagonist and the group, and such an agreement sometimes takes the form of a written contract. Even if a verbal agreement is made, it is essential to set focus to the dramatisation in order not to depart from the issues taken up in the session. This practice has relevance for educational use of psychodrama and is advisable especially in the contexts where there is a danger that the enactments might touch sensitive personal issues or slide into areas which can only be treated in a safe therapeutic setting. It is a way to secure confidentiality and respect for different views, especially those which differ from the majority opinion and culture in the group.
Remember Psychodrama stage creates an environment for explorations of personal dramas of the participants The director, the protagonist and auxiliary egos are the key figures involved in psychodramatic enactments
2.5. Repertoire of roles Role theory is at the core of Morenian psychodrama. This is a complex set of principles and concepts which cannot be fully presented here. Still the basics of this theory need to be grasped in order to see the potential of psychodrama for education. Moreno defined role as “the functioning form the individual assumes in the specific moment he reacts to a specific situation in which other persons and objects are involved.“ ii The key phase of the process falls on the childhood when the main roles arise and are differentiated in the course of child’s interactions with its closest environment. Personality emerges from this intricate network of relationships with people and objects; indeed, as Moreno claims, “roles do not emerge from the self but the self may emerge from roles.” iii For an integrated personality a certain role repertoire is needed in the sense of a set of roles which can be played adequately without a discord. However, some of the roles an individual may play are underdeveloped thus limiting the realisation of his/her potential and some may be overdeveloped or conflicted. Certain patterns of behaviour learned in the childhood tend to be “fixed” and 14
transferred to interactional contexts where they do not fit and thus exclude authentic encounters. These old patterns, which might have been the most adequate response to a particular situation the child was able to come up with, can be unconsciously reenacted and projected on new relations which substantially differ from the original situation. Moreno’s views at this point come very close to the Freudian concept of “transference” seen as one of the essential factors in mental disorders. In the language of psychodrama, transference is nothing else but replaying an old script in a novel situation. Moreno argues that this mechanism has distractive impact on the individual’s social life as blocking the tele relationships in which people can “feel” each other in the here and now. The aim of psychodrama work is to reduce the transference and foster tele as a precondition of the ability to meet the others in an authentic way. In the psychotherapeutic context a psychodrama group includes individuals with personality disorders. In the light of Moreno’s theory what needs to be primarily dealt with are the “functioning forms” of behaviour the clients disclose in particular situations, in other words, the specific roles they play in real life. The psychodrama stage offers a setting in which to recreate these situations and replay the roles with a view to gaining an insight into the patterns of behaviour and elaborating more adequate responses to life challenges as well as more fruitful social interactions. This is done through reexperiencing the original emotions and trying out different behaviours which go beyond the original role repertoire. The essential therapeutic value also lies in the new relationships which arise in the group, especially between the protagonist whose issues are being explored and those chosen to play the characters in his/her story. There are a number of specific approaches and techniques used in psychodrama to work with roles. First of all, the director has an important function of an analyst and should be able to gain an insight into the role repertoire of the clients. Such role assessment has a key diagnostic function and can be gradually concretised throughout the training, along with sociometric tests which aim at measuring the relationships between group members. An identification of roles which may be dysfunctional in the client’s role repertoire sensitises the director to the particular issues which need to be addressed in the psychodramatic process. A skilled trainer can deduct a lot of valuable information in this respect already at the warm-up stage through activities which engage the group members in physical movement around the room. In Moreno’s philosophy the body is an important medium of the self: the first phase of roles development in the infant are so called proto-roles of psychosomatic nature and the realm of bodily expression is essential in all psychodramatic work (cf. the concept of tele closely associated with “sensing” the other). The unique feature of psychodrama is concretisation and dramatisation of real life and imaginary situations with active involvement of the group. The client’s repertoire of roles along with patterns of dysfunctional behaviour can be displayed on stage, “acted out”, as Moreno originally called a psychodramatic enactment. This requires not only the protagonist to take on roles on stage but also “auxiliary egos” chosen by him/her as best fitting the particular roles to be explored through dramatisation. Auxiliaries are expected to behave as if they were the actual people in the drama, playing the roles as closely as possible to the protagonist’s expectations. The so called “rolling-in” of auxiliary egos is usually done by the protagonist giving exact information on the actual scene of the event and the characters involved. The process may be facilitated by the 15
director who can help elicit the missing information essential for enacting the scene. There are various techniques which can be used for getting the auxiliary ego into the role, e.g. making the protagonist role reverse with the figures in his story so that the auxiliaries can see “in person” what needs to be re-enacted on stage. The main challenge is to develop the role into the dramatic flow of the enactment from the basic outline set by the protagonist. This can be done successfully and psychodramatists see the reason for this surprising phenomenon in the actual operation of tele in the group. The acting is controlled to a certain extent by the director, still it is the task of the actors to bring the internal drama of the protagonist on to the stage and let it emerge and concretise. The therapeutic process is rooted in this enactment as allowing the protagonist and the group to creatively revise the scene, modifying, correcting or reorganising the patterns of behaviour. Ideally, rigidity, constriction and stuckness in playing real life roles can thus be reduced or eased. Role reversal is one of the main techniques used in psychodrama sessions. While enacting the theme proposed by the protagonist the actors can role reverse and see themselves through the eyes of the other. This may have a powerful impact on the protagonist allowing him/her to gain a new perspective on the life event being explored, but also on the auxiliaries in the drama because they may experience a new situation which they now need to enter creatively. The roles played by auxiliaries may be distant from their repertoire of roles in everyday life although the protagonist’s choices are supposed to be influenced by tele and thus based on “sensing” the suitable candidates for the drama to be enacted. Another technique frequently used in the context of role development is the mirror technique. The person being the mirror has the task to demonstrate to the actor performing a role that his/her message has been understood. This is done through actual “mirroring back” the action witnessed on stage. If the actor can recognise himself/herself in the “mirror” this may be taken as an assurance of the accuracy of the role playing in terms of communicating the right message or behavioural pattern. The mirror technique also has other applications in psychodrama but is particularly useful in role training. In the case of the protagonist finding a particular role or part of it difficult he may be supported by a double. The function of the double is to echo the physical movements of the protagonist and to express what he/she experiences in that role. With the support of the double the protagonist may find it easier to express what is the core of the problem being explored through role playing. The PaTiE course has a specific module on role playing (Module 5) which presents Moreno’s role theory and the above techniques in more detail.
Remember For an integrated personality a certain role repertoire is needed in the sense of a set of roles which can be played adequately without a discord Psychodrama can be seen as a particular form of role training
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2.6. Sharing experience The final stage of a psychodrama session, called sharing, is of crucial importance for the whole process. The focus is taken off from the protagonist and shifted towards the whole group whose members are now free to express their feelings which the drama evoked in them. There might be a different spatial arrangement of the room to stress the difference of this part from the central dramatic phase of the workshop: the circle of the stage is transformed into a group circle, with the members sitting close to each other, containing in a way the whole emotional content of the enactment. There are a number of characteristic features of the psychodrama sharing which distinguish it from a feedback round as frequently practised in educational contexts. Sharing is not about analysing the session. The members of the group are not expected to rationalise the whole process in which they have participated or judge the performance of the protagonist or the actors. If this happens the director intervenes, reminding the participants of the purpose of the final gathering – we need now to share with each other what emotions the play stirred in us, what images, thoughts or associations emerged in our minds rather than assess the performance. Thus the protagonist is not the pivot of the circle, the focus shifts to the group members who share their feelings. Psychodrama is essentially a group process. Even if its central “action” part revolves around the theme proposed by the protagonist, the impact of a particular session is expected to touch the whole group. Thus the need for the sharing, which returns the protagonist to the group and gives the group an opportunity to express all the subtle interconnections which concretised through their involvement in the drama: the sharing session activates and visualises the tele of the group. In a therapeutic treatment this has a powerful impact on the group members who can identify with other participants and realise that their distress is shared by others. The ability to cross over one’s own internal world and see similar experiences in fellows brings about relief and comfort to those who may have lived in total isolation from their environment for a long time. Powerful discharge of emotions which may occur in the sharing session with its participants crying, hugging or even bursting into hostile exchanges should not be seen as excluding a learning process. In fact, the disclosures and confessions in the sharing circle have an important cognitive function as helping the participants articulate their unconscious traumas, attitudes, images, etc and thus facilitating the process of personal integration. Inner conflicts can be brought to the fore and thus open an opportunity for further work in the following sessions. The value of self-understanding and self-awareness is universally acknowledged not only in therapeutic settings but in all forms of self-development. What makes psychodrama unique in this respect is the power of experiential identification with others as a pathway to one’s own internal world. Psychodramatists stress the value of identification to be facilitated by the sharing process as compared with projection which stands in the way of an authentic encounter. Both the terms, as used in psychology, are of Freudian origin and require a brief explanation. Projection is a process by which internal thoughts, attitudes or emotions are “placed” in the other and thus experienced as the attributes of the other 17
and not of the subject in whom they originated. This in particular refers to negative qualities which are in a way banned, refused to be accepted in one’s own psyche and then anchored in similar psychological features visible in the other. This process affects not only neurotic or psychotic personalities but to a certain extent is considered as a phenomenon visible in “normal” human interactions. Projection is opposite to identification which needs to be fostered in the therapeutic process. Identification is understood here as an ability to grasp a unique personal quality in the other (emotion, behavioural pattern, attitude, etc) and assimilate it in one’s own psyche. The effect is transformational as identification opens new cognitive and behavioural pathways due to insights into other internal worlds and thus an authentic interpersonal learning process. The director’s role in the sharing phase is to monitor the participants’ personal reflections in order to detect projections and design further work on these issues. Without careful monitoring and intervention the sharing session may easily depart far from the learning process, just providing an opportunity for the group members to explore their distorted images of the other. Another function of the sharing session relates to the need to “de-role” the actors who were involved in the central drama. They need to come back to their everyday identities after deep engagement in playing other characters. This is essential to ensure the integrity of the group members, especially in therapeutic contexts where the director might be dealing with unstable personalities. De-rolling is partly done by rearranging the workshop room but also needs to be ensured through allowing all members of the group to speak as themselves, distancing themselves from the experiences as others on stage. The depth of the psychodramatic enactment may sometimes make this objective, seemingly easy, a really difficult task. The sharing phase is interconnected with so called “closure” enabling the members to leave the group in a safe way. This means that nobody leaves the session in a state of too deep emotional agitation which may impact on behaviour outside the protective boundaries of the group. Sometimes the most difficult issues come up at the very end of the session, still the event has sharp time boundaries which need to be respected. It is the director’s role to be able to manage the whole process in such a way as these important issues are not abruptly cut short, leaving the members in a state of confusion or distress or another powerful emotion. The problem can be partly solved by maintaining an individual contact with the most troubled participants after the session, although this is not always possible. The real solution are the accurate prevention measures which depend on the director’s ability to manage the whole process, from a proper warm-up to an effective closure. In the context of professional training in psychodrama the closure session may include “processing” which lets the participants analyse the process in which they participated. This should not be confused with sharing. A more detailed presentation of the closing part of psychodrama session is done in Module 8.
Remember Psychodrama initiates a deep psychological process Each session needs to be shared with group members and properly closed in order not to leave the participants in agitation or distress
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The Experiential Method of Psychodrama Before you consider using some aspects of psychodrama in your educational practice take some time to reflect on the theoretical concepts covered in the introductory module. In particular, take into account the following points: Psychodrama, as a method of group work, may create suitable conditions for an educational process by building an atmosphere of trust and safety, and also by reinforcing the integrity of a group, still it requires of the educator sufficient skills which can be fully acquired only through comprehensive training in psychodrama methodology. The application of psychodramatic methods cannot mean a simple implementation of procedures and techniques, but requires a responsible, creative and a unique approach in building personal and group relations. Psychodrama originated from a radical social philosophy viewing each human as a co-creator of society, co-responsible for its well-being. In its original version developed by Moreno psychodrama has much wider objectives than treating mental disorders, aligned with formative aims of liberal adult education. In Moreno’s eyes spontaneity and creativity are essential qualities of human being and they both can be fostered in the context of group training. However, adopting these principles as valid goals in education needs (re)consideration of related concepts of normism and cultural conserves which are also an inherent part of psychodrama philosophy. Psychodrama is a powerful method of opening people up and bringing the hidden traumas to the fore. Psychodramatic encounters in a therapeutic contexts are of different nature than those which can be fostered in the classroom. It is the responsibility of the educator who wants to draw on the methodology to be aware of the dangers of deep personal self-exposures which could be damaging for the students. The psychodrama stage can be created with simple props and does not require a special setting. The difficulty lies in “directing� the enactment in which the key figures of the protagonist and auxiliary egos play sensitive themes. The choice of the themes and setting boundaries not to be violated in the play are essential in any educational application of psychodrama. Personality is seen by Moreno as emerging from the roles played in real life. These role can be re-enacted on the psychodrama stage to enable the person to gain an insight into their role repertoire and modify, correct, develop or extend them. In principle this is a formative activity, which becomes therapeutic when dealing with serious dysfunctions of social behaviour. Group work in psychodrama involves a sharing phase which focuses not on analysis of the session but rather on the emotions raised in the participants. Self-expression is an important part of a learning process which leads to selfawareness and self-understanding. Sharing should not be confused with processing which is a part of training in psychodrama for prospective users of the method. 19
3. Introduction to exercises The exercises in this module have been chosen in such a way as to give a brief introduction to the whole course, announcing its content. Accordingly, they should be seen as “tasters� of the forthcoming learning experience to be explored in more detail in the following modules of the course. The other consideration taken into account in the choice and flow of the exercises relates to the structure of a typical psychodrama session: it is a three-phase process, beginning with warm-up, gradually involving the group in action and closing with so called sharing session. The exercises in the introductory module follow this scenario so that the participants can grasp the whole psychodramatic process right in the beginning. It is believed that such a practical introduction is more meaningful than an extensive presentation of theory. In doing so we are following the basic principle of psychodrama which is a form of experiential learning. The third factor taken into account in planning this section relates to the preparatory research completed before the work on the PaTiE curriculum and training materials. We have identified a number of essential skills and competences of VET adult educators which could be enhanced through psychodramatic methods and techniques. The choice reflects these direct needs and the particular skills and competences targeted in this module are highlighted throughout the following text. Helping the educator to be a team player, networked with the students Involving the learners, encouraging them to participate, and share opinions and experiences Being a motivator Dealing with diverse groups and creating an atmosphere of trust Developing awareness of the students' real needs Encouraging minds to be open to new knowledge Promoting respect in the classroom Developing the students' confidence and faith in their own learning abilities The presentation draws on examples of concrete exercises and techniques which proved successful in educational contexts. Some of them have been designed and tested in the framework of the POTENS project which provided a background against which to develop the PaTiE resources. Thus they can also be used in VET adult education practice if the educational context and the purpose of the class/subject makes it meaningful to apply such exercises. This is a very important consideration which always needs to be taken into account when working with psychodrama methods. They must have a well thought purpose and cannot be just taken as ready tools on hand. They cannot be separated from the group process, which is unique due to the emotional and intellectual make-up of the participants and the specific themes in focus of the group work. The exercises serve as an introduction to the method of psychodrama in its various aspects, still they may be adapted to concrete educational work. If so, it is necessary to pay particular attention to the purpose of their use and concrete challenges to be addressed by applying them. A certain degree of creativity and flexibility is essential for 20
an effective use of the techniques. The following outlines should thus be seen as suggestions of how to proceed rather than prescribed steps to follow.
Remember The cornerstones of psychodrama are spontaneity and creativity You need to be aware of your own potential in this respect before you consider using the exercises with your students
3.1. Warm-up The two following warm-up exercises have been chosen to give the participants an immediate grasp of the lively nature of psychodrama experience. The beginning of group work is of great importance in psychodrama and various approaches are used to ensure motivation and an active involvement of the members. The most important function of warm-up is to stimulate the group abilities and to prepare them for the “drama” which is the central phase of the process. Warm-up activities also have an important diagnostic purpose as allowing the director to obtain some valuable information on the group dynamics and structure. Usually the exercises have a lively, playful character raising the spontaneity level of the group and thus fostering a conducive atmosphere for creative responses to the themes in focus of the session. Elements of surprise and novelty are important factors in this respect. A well-planned and conducted warm-up helps the participants overcome shyness and fear which are the most common obstacles to engagement and thus the key resistance factors in group work. Warm-up exercises introduced in an artificial way, without clear awareness of the group dynamics, may have the opposite impact and actual “freeze” the group who may perceive this form of introduction as weird, inadequate or inappropriate in the particular context. The above considerations derived from the psychodrama practice apply equally to the context of education. The decisive issue is an awareness of the here and now of the group, a clear purpose behind the proposed activities and the ability to use the feedback from the group for adjusting the course of action.
GREETINGS The exercise can be run with a group who meet for the first time as well as with participants who have already met but now are encouraged to greet each other in a different way to how they usually do. This is an activity which has the potential to generate a lot of fun and lively interactions so make sure that there is enough space in the room and all the participants are fit enough to engage in such an exercise. It is not recommended to use the activity with a group including disabled members, unless they are already comfortable in the group and would not feel frustrated by the physical interactions around them. This is a brief exercise, a “starter” which can be run for up to ten minutes. A longer activity may easily result in the people just fooling around without a sense of purpose. Such a development may have a distractive effect on the 21
motivation for further work. The aim of the exercise is just the opposite – to energise the group and challenge them with a task requiring a spontaneous, lively response.
The trainer needs to explain the task first: let us greet each other today in a new way. We can use our feet, knees, hips, shoulders and heads but not words. Walk around the room and choose the person you want to greet. You can approach more than one person if you like and you can even greet all the other participants one by one. The exercise should generate a lot of movement and fun as more and more sophisticated forms of greetings appear. The participants usually behave freely and spontaneously looking for various ways of establishing relations. The interactions in the room are simultaneous which makes it easier for everybody to engage although the level of involvement varies, depending on the individual participants’ temper, mood, and willingness to participate. The trainer wanders around the room responding to greetings if approached by the participants. The game requires its players to break through their resistance to physical closeness which for many people is a big problem. Movement with touch is considered a very important factor in psychodrama as the body is a medium of tele and thus enables the group to sense relationships which cannot be fully communicated through words. Such interactions are also an essential visual representation of the group’s dynamics and composition which should give the trainer valuable clues on how to proceed both with the group as a whole and its individual members. It is important to establish safety boundaries in order not to violate the sensitivity of the others. The boundaries relate both to individual factors and cultural issues and may differ from one group to another. Obviously, a multicultural group would be a particular challenge for the trainer and all movement with touch exercises should be run with great caution. The basic principle is that everyone should feel free to control how they relate with their partners and what “greetings” is willing to accept. This should be said openly and closely monitored. Nobody should feel bad about distancing himself/herself from a particular form of interactions. Such standing aside should also be seen as a valid way of taking part in the activity. Movement with touch activities raise the level of energy needed to engage in forthcoming tasks They activate tele of the group They challenge members to come up with spontaneous and creative response
NAMES
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The Names exercise is more of a “static” character as compared with the previous one in which movement is an essential feature. The idea of the activity is to generate spontaneous and creative response to a surprising task, far from a standard introduction of group members. Depending on the level of the participants and the group dynamics the exercise can be run for up to 15 minutes. A longer activity may lead to the participants brooding over the meaning of their names instead of coming up with quick associations activating the unconscious. A skilled trainer will know the exact time when to pause the exercise and move to other assignments. The task needs to be explained clearly to the group: let us look closely at our own names and how they may connect with our character, background, interests, profession, skills, etc. To make it easier to analyse the names write them down and look for how the respective letters associate with your personality. For instance, the name Adam can bring forth the following associations: altruist, distinct, active, melancholic. You can also invent words and neologisms which specifically characterise your personality which will form a brief presentation for the group. Following the introduction each of the participants is allowed to think silently for a while and draft the associations. The writing should be done on paper sheets of sufficient size for the characters to be visible for the whole group during the presentation. Ideally, the participants should have at their disposal crayons to make their names and the respective network of associations colourful and distinct. They will be shown to the whole group one by one, the drawings serving as a springboard for the members’ selfpresentations referring to the aspects of their personalities which “emerged” from the names. The content and direction of the presentations can be prompted by the trainer depending on the type of the group. For example, in the context of VET the participants can be encouraged to seek associations with their professional interests, preferences, background, etc. In a different version of this exercise, the participants first wander around the whole room and introduce themselves to other participants using the words they have written down, and only later do they analyse the words they have chosen, in a big circle. The “analysis” can also be modified and, for example, consist in constructing a logical sentence from the respective letters of the names. For instance: "Adam - adores deep, abstract meditation". The combination of mental and physical activities is better suited in situations where the group needs to be moved around, energized to some extent. The activity may bring many benefits for the group. It encourages reflection on the strong and weak sides of one's own character through wordplay, by playing with meaning and allusions. It also helps participants to get to know each other and motivate them to seek out new, creative solutions and ideas needed for their active participation in the following activities. The trainer will be able to elicit some important information helpful in setting new tasks. The exercise is relatively “safe” in terms of letting the participants choosing the way of their self-presentation and disclosing sensitive information about themselves so it can be introduced even in groups afraid of open and challenging interpersonal exchanges. It can be taken as a starter for activities which require the participants to respond to novelty and surprise coming from the others.
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Not all warm-up activities need to be about physical movement The minds can be energised by working on In the framework of the PaTiEetc course both the exercises should enable the trainer to associations, puzzles, discussInteractive with the participants the meaning and importance of warm-up activities in character of these activities psychodrama their possible application VET adult education. The following facilitateand interpersonal relations in theingroup points can be raised as opening the key themes of interest to educators: What are the most important functions of warm-up and the essential qualities it aims to elicit from the participants? How to relate the activities to the subject of the class and the dynamics of the group? How to deal with resistance which is likely to occur when the participants see such forms of action as puerile, inadequate to their needs, and even inappropriate in the context of educational classes?
3.2. Action The main part of a psychodrama session is usually devoted to dramatic explorations of themes proposed by the protagonist. These issues have a sensitive personal character and as such cannot be addressed in classroom group work, unless the educator has strong background in psychodrama and the framework of the programme allows for such explorations. However, there is a wealth of approaches and techniques used in therapeutic psychodrama which can be applied in education as well. The following choice of exercises should be seen as a set of example activities which also fit educational contexts, if used with reason and caution. They have been ordered in such a way as to illustrate the content of the forthcoming modules which give a broader selection of exercises and activities.
TRUST Psychodrama is based on a recognition of the power of the group which forms human life. Its distinct character lies not so much in a theoretical elaboration of the social nature of human being but rather in creating opportunities for people to come together and shape their identities through group work on essential issues which affect them here and now. In educational contexts the themes to explore have to be chosen carefully in order not to venture into deep personal traumas which might result in a chain of serious consequences for the participants of the encounter, including both the learners and the teacher. The exercise is a test of mutual trust between the members of the group. In can be introduced in the beginning of group work but also at any stage of the process when there is a need to visualise and strengthen the relations between members. This can be a shorter (around 15 minutes) or longer activity (over 30 minutes) depending on the
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time available, the size of the group and the depth of the explorations. The trainer needs to explain the purpose of the exercise first and then monitor its progress. In the first step half of the team is requested to leave the room where the classes are taking place, and in the meantime the rest of the group prepares the space for the activity - they set up various objects around the room which will serve as obstacles to free movement. When this is done the rest of the group is invited back to the room but they come in blindfolded with scarves covering their faces. When the participants enter the room individually each of them is received by a guide from the part of the group who stayed inside. The blindfolded person places his/her hand on the guide's shoulder and then is led around the whole room, passing safely the obstacles. Now and then, the guides exchange the blindfolded people, and then guide different people. At the end, all the participants describe their experiences in the group. The sharing may be facilitated by forming living statues which illustrate the emotions evoked by the exercise. The statutes can be formed by groups consisting of a few people. The choice of members of a particular group is based on similarities of the presented feelings. In that way, symbolic ideas appear in the form of living statutes, which show the balance of emotions within the group. Trust between group members is an essential feature of team work Possibility to experience being trusted or trustful strengthens relations in the group Visualisation of shared emotions boosts the power of the group
The exercise may give the PaTiE trainer an opportunity to underline the value of group processes and the participants a chance to express their views. In particular, the following issues can be discussed: What is the possible impact of the “movement with touch” activities on the participants? Can such exercises raise group cohesion in the case of substantial tensions and disagreements? How to adapt the exercise to the flow of teaching activities in VET?
SOCIAL ATOM Sociometry is a method developed by Moreno and frequently used in psychodrama sessions. In essence it is a study of the formation and construction of groups with a view to depicting interpersonal relations inherent in them. The focus of the method is practical as sociometric exercises deal with the individual's impact on the group's cohesion, and vice versa, the group’s influence on the individual. As such, sociometry has direct relevance for education facilitating the process of group building, dealing with learners’ isolation and resistance. If applied properly the method can bring results 25
which greatly enhance motivation of the group members to engage in educational tasks. Sociometric exercises can be run in the warm-up phase of the session but can also be included throughout the psychodrama workshops in various forms. The method is briefly introduced at the introductory stage of the PaTiE course through the following exercise. The activity can be run with basic equipment and resources available in the classroom: a whiteboard, a flipchart or a projector and medium size sheets of paper for the participants’ drawings. The activity may last up to one hour depending on the size of the group and the time available. It can be introduced at the stage when the trainer feels that the group needs reorganisation of its sub-teams who are assigned with specific tasks. An active and open involvement of all the members is needed as well as some acquaintance with each other hence the exercise best fits an advanced phase of group work. First, the basic code of sociometric symbols needs to be explained by drawing them on the board or visualised in another way: Circle – female Triangle – male Solid line – firm and stable relation Dotted line – problematic and variable relation Arrow – attitude, one-sided relation or mutual Other symbols may also be used (e.g. question marks, bold solid lines). The distance between particular components of the atom is also important as it depicts the depth and intimacy of a relation. Once the symbols are presented and their basic meaning understood each participant is requested to draw a “social atom” on a separate sheet of paper placing the symbol of himself/herself in the middle and marking the other people on the drawing by connecting them with lines and writing down their names or initials. After the individual work is done, the presentation of particular diagrams and group discussion take place. This part of the task may start with an exposition of the drawings - placed on chairs or on the floor, so that all of the participants may see all of the pictures. Next, particular participants talk about their own projects in turn, and then other participants join the discussion. They may ask questions, point at the meaning of the elements of the drawing, discover many things which the author himself could not see, even though they were present in his/her work. The feedback from the group helps in better understanding one's own relations with other people featured in the social atoms.
Sociometric exercises make the participants aware of the complex nature of relations among the group They can provide a basis for improving these relations and motivation to work in the team 26
In the introduction to the PaTiE course the exercise can be taken as an opportunity to outline the basic sociometric concepts and techniques and give the participating educators a chance to raise issues which will be dealt with in more detail in the specific module of the course. In particular, the following questions can be discussed with a view to both showing advantages of sociometry in education and the dangers resulting from its irresponsible use: If you decided to do this exercise with your students which aspects of the relationships inside the class would you expect them to disclose? Is the exercise a good tool to deal with personal issues in the class? What does the technique add to other methods aimed at better understanding of relationships in the group?
COMPLEMENTARY The central phase of a psychodrama session is so called “protagonist’s play” in which a chosen participant enacts memories of past events, intimate dramas, fantasies, dreams and also scenarios of situations which may happen in the future. The roles of different characters in these situations are assigned to different members of the group, chosen by the protagonist. Various role playing techniques are used with a view to working through life experiences which may cause/have caused psychological disturbances in the main character on stage. The protagonist’s play has a psychotherapeutic purpose in psychodrama and thus limited applicability in non-therapeutic contexts. There are however certain aspects of psychodramatic enactments which can be used in education. This module presents a “light” exercise in order to show the funny, lively side of playing applicable in the classroom to be followed by a more advanced presentation of role playing activities in Module 5. The exercise can be introduced in the middle of group work, especially at a stage when the level of energy in the group drops off and the participants need to be mobilized for further tasks. This is a brief activity which should not take longer than 15 to 30 minutes. There is no need for any special equipment or resources as the exercise is entirely based on the participants’ spontaneity and creativity to be activated through the play. The trainer divides the group into pairs or preferably the participants choose their counterparts for the activity. One of them, acting as the leader, begins a sequence of movements. His/her partner's task is to complete the sequence in his own way. After a while, they switch roles and engage in a new movement, now initiated by the other partner. The game is not about repetition or miming the moves of the other, but about completing it. Just like in a puzzle, each person has to find a way to fit in and have an idea to "insert", like a missing piece of a puzzle. The trainer may begin the activity himself/herself by choosing a person from among the group and playing a sample scene. All the participants should see that the “complementary” movement can be quite different from the original one, still both creatively complementing each other. They
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continue the play in the workshop room, all pairs at the same time while the trainers wanders around and monitors the activity. The game, which appears quite easy, is in fact a great challenge. It can be hugely difficult to guess what the true intentions of the leader are, to understand his expressions, gestures, actions, and subsequently propose one's own logical and coherent conclusion. An interesting summary for this exercise is to discuss it in pairs comparing the points of view of the leader and his partner, pointing out the similarities and differences in human body language and gesture interpretation. This is an excellent game for training interpersonal communication as it makes the participants aware of the complexity and richness of forms available for the transmission of messages. It also serves as an energizer, activating the bodily expression and tele in the group.
Playing is an essential part of psychodrama Such activities do not always explore sensitive personal issues in focus of therapeutic sessions Psychodrama is also about the joyful, lively side of human interactions
The questions to be discussed at the end of the activity should raise the PaTiE course participants’ interest in psychodrama as a resource of playing techniques and their possible applications/adaptations to educational contexts: How to integrate playing in subject oriented VET education? What is the added value of playing experience in relation to passive accumulation of knowledge? In which situations to intervene with role-playing activities?
MASKS Psychodrama is a creative action group method that can help participants explore the complexity of thoughts and emotions present within any life situation. Central to the approach is creativity and spontaneity of action, which can reveal aspects of ourselves we have been unaware of, help us to express ourselves more clearly and re-assess the focus and direction of our life. The symbolic language of dreams, a significant story or metaphor can be rich material to explore through these methods, as are objects and images. The role of the group, and its facilitator, is to create a safe environment in which feelings can be acknowledged, expressed and contained. The process of any psychodrama enactment is to get in touch with themes or issues they might want to explore further through action. The following exercise can serve as an introduction to working with symbols to be covered in detail in Module 6. 28
The exercise can be introduced in the middle of group work, at a stage when the participants are already used to creative tasks as a part of the learning experience. The activity is relatively time consuming and cannot be completed in a brief session; it requires at least 1 hour to bring meaningful results. The group will need some materials and tools to engage in the activity: cardboard, paper, coloured paper and magazines, markers, scissors, glue, string or any other similar resources for creative plastic work. They should be given at the disposal of the whole group with individual participants choosing what they need for their mask creation. The trainer should introduce the purpose of the activity first: the participants’ task is to make masks for themselves, depicting the role of an adult educator. The difficulty of the task lies in using or creating appropriate symbols which would grasp the essence of the profession as seen by the educators themselves. The activity is not about verbal expression which would be common for such a task but rather creative, visual representation of the core experiences as a member of the group of adult educators. The participants are allowed to work without haste, preferably together at a large table with all the resources available to everyone. They should be provided in sufficient amount as not to limit the work by the scarcity of materials. The participants can talk, help each other and discuss their ideas with the trainer. Many different forms of expression are possible, each of which speaks with its shape, colour, texture, and choice of decoration. When the work is completed, everybody is invited for a stroll around the classroom with the masks on. It's time for meeting each other's new "incarnations", exchanging views and other interactions. After a while the participants may present their masks to the whole group. There are many different ways in which this can be done. For example, in the middle of the room, on the stage, a chair is placed with a colourful cover. Its occupant takes the role of an adult educator. The participants sit on the chair in turn, a mask over the face, and explain the meaning of the forms they've created, analysing their various elements. They may also reply to questions and comments made by the rest of the group. After the completion of the exercise all masks are removed and placed on the floor and the participants sit in a circle around them. The discussion of the exercise should help the trainer clarify some essential aspects of using symbolic language to convey meaning. Mask work is an excellent introduction to the experience of playing very different roles from everyday life and professional situations revealing new possibilities, and surprising with their functionality.
Psychodrama creates a safe environment in which feelings can be expressed through symbolic language Symbols and metaphors can reveal aspects of ourselves we have been unaware of and thus raise self-awareness and understanding 29
The following questions are suggested for the exercise summary round: What is the relevance of working with symbols for adult education? What educational goals could be addressed through working with symbols? Why does psychodrama revolve around the pivots of creativity and spontaneity?
YES – NO Conflict management is a vast and growing field, still psychodrama remains a resource of methods and techniques which could be used for this purpose. The most important of them facilitate authentic encounters of people bringing in opposite views, to deal with aggressiveness, develop empathy and trust as well as help maintain communication in difficult situations. The introduction to this repertoire of tools is best done through involving the participants in a sample exercise and a follow-up discussion of the function and purpose of such “action” methods to be presented in more detail in Module 7. The exercise concretises a case of direct confrontation providing insights for further work on verbal and non-verbal modes of communication in interpersonal encounters. It can be introduced as a form of sample conflict visualisation, preferably at the stage when the group needs to deal with internal tensions and open confrontation of views. This can be a shorter (around 30 minutes) or longer activity (over 1 hour) depending on the time available, the size of the group and the depth of the explorations. The trainer needs to explain the purpose of the exercise first and then monitor its progress. The point of this exercise is to involve the participants in a direct clash of opposing opinions and arguments in a model situation when both the parties stick to their standpoints and are unwilling to moderate them. This situation is replayed in a nutshell through a conversation restricted to only two words - one of the interlocutors is only allowed to say 'yes' and the other one can only say 'no'. The exercise can be done in pairs or in groups divided into the YES and NO parties. The group playing strengthens the impact of the activity. The exercise helps to test the relations, the balance of power and the ability to communicate and persuade. The expected outcome is the grasp of the damaging power of sheer negation which does not lead to negotiating conflicting standpoints. While engaging in the YES – NO confrontation the participants should be able to realise the limitations of a discourse rooted in non-negotiable claims or arguments and see the necessity for a more flexible communicative approach. A follow-up discussion is an essential part of the activity. The questions proposed should relate the exercise to a particular case of conflict in the group in which the involved parties were unable to moderate their standpoints and search for a solution acceptable to all.
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Psychodrama is a resource of methods and approaches to conflict management training The unique value of psychodrama here lies in the possibility of concretisation and visualisation of tensions and confrontations through role-playing
The following questions have the purpose to help the adult educators in the PaTiE course address the issue of the use of psychodrama for conflict management in educational contexts: Is it advisable to bring to the fore the hidden emotions which are behind the conflicts in the group? What are the limits to “dramatic” explorations of conflicts in the classroom? What is added value of psychodrama to the methods already used?
3.3. Closure The closure phase of the module includes elements of both sharing and processing as the module is a part of training course for prospective users of the methodology. It gives each participant an opportunity to give his/her feedback to the group on the learning experience. This closing part of the workshop is conducted here through an activity involving the participants in interactions which distinguish the lively, dynamic environment of a psychodrama session from traditional type classroom teaching. The closure phase of psychodrama and its importance in the whole flow of activities is covered in Module 8. At this stage the participants “taste” its value in reviewing the progress and results of the introductory workshop.
PATH The Path activity is a way of sharing the experience and knowledge gained during the workshop and giving feedback on the individual steps in the process of working together. In the context of the PaTiE introductory module sufficient time should be allowed for the coverage of all the main steps of the workshop “path”. Accordingly, the trainer should reserve at least one hour for this closing activity in order to let the participants survey their learning experience. The trainer invites the group to a symbolic journey through the workshop program with a view to revealing the whole process of group work and its key parts. The participants first need to think back to subsequent activities and share their reflections while talking about what they found most important. It is important to focus on the most memorable 31
moments and try to imagine the whole process as path with a specific shape, e.g. stairs, a curved line, a labyrinth, etc. Then the group work together and lay out a path putting multi-coloured scarves on the workshop room floor. The participants must work together and agree on one version of the image that everyone accepts, even though each has their own subjective feelings and impressions. As a result, a road with many turns comes together on the floor. The trainer should ask the participants whether they are satisfied with the result, or would like something changed or added. This can be done at this stage to make the path represent the perceptions of all the participants. The next step is to mark the boundaries on the path between the different parts of the workshop and identify them using any objects in the room. The participants, together with the trainer, discuss and remind each other of what has happened at various stages of the workshop, and which exercises and games were important and meaningful for them. The trainer encourages the group to seek creative signs and images to best express the meaning and atmosphere of the “journey� on the path. They may be contributed by individual participants coming up with associations and symbols with the rest of the group observing and listening. When the image is finally formed, the trainer asks the participants to individually and silently walk the path, turning their thoughts at each stage to those situations and experiences which held meaning for them. Once the symbolic journey is completed the participants return to their seats and the trainer closes the session. The closing part of the workshop should give the trainer an opportunity to announce the content of the following modules in more detail and conduct the session evaluation according to the scenario outlined in the next chapter.
At the end of each workshop session the group should share their learning experience This can be facilitated through symbolic explorations of the themes covered in the group work
4. Evaluation The workshop is planned in such a way as to give both the trainer and the participants a clear indication of the level of attainment of the intended learning outcomes. Each activity introducing a specific aspect of psychodrama of interest to VET adult educators is closed by a set of questions which should lead to a discussion involving all the participants and reflecting the level of understanding of the key concepts in focus. The trainer needs to have his/her own reporting template to record the assessment results of the module. It should be filled in after the workshop and included in the course documentation. 32
The introductory module stands out in the context of the whole course as it intends to give the VET adult educators an overview of the field and a “taste” of psychodrama in its various aspects. As such it cannot be implemented and then evaluated in the classroom by the participants. Still the whole learning experience is expected to directly influence their teaching approaches and thus it is worth conducting self-assessment of the change effectuated due to the participation in the course. On the other hand, the activities presented in this module can be introduced in various stages of the teaching process and their impact can be rated through a survey of the students. The following sets of questions should be seen as suggestions how to proceed, not as a prescribed evaluation scenario which cannot be designed without the knowledge of the particular teaching/training context.
Self-questionnaire for the instructor Have I achieved the learning outcomes proposed for this module? Have I noticed a change in the participants’ perception of group work? How have the exercises and activities been received and performed?
Questionnaire for the course participants: To what extent does the knowledge of psychodrama influence my perception of group work and educational practice? Do I view the situation in my adult class differently now? Can I see feasible ways of integrating the specific psychodrama approaches and techniques in the process of VET adult education? Am I clear about further steps I need to take to plan/modify my curricula and better focus on group dynamics?
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5. Bibliography 5.1. References in English Blatner, A. and Blatner, A. (1988). Foundations of Psychodrama – History, Theory and Practice, New York: Springer Publishing Company Dayton, T. (2004). The Living Stage: A Step-By-Step Guide to Psychodrama, Sociometry and Experiential Group Therapy. Deerfield Beach, FL: Health Communications Goldman, E. and Morrison, D. (1984). Psychodrama: Experience and Process, Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt Greenberg, I. (1994). Psychodrama Theory and Therapy, New York: Behavioural Publications Fox, J (ed.) (1987). The essential Moreno: writings on psychodrama, group method, and spontaneity by Jacob Levy Moreno. New York: Springer Publishing Company Hare, P.A. and Hare, J.R., (1996). J.L. Moreno, London: Sage Holmes, P. and Karp, M. (eds.) (1991). Psychodrama: Inspirations and Techniques, London: Routlege Holmes, P., Karp, M. and Watson, M. (eds.) (1994). Psychodrama since Moreno, London: Routlege Holmes, P., Karp, M. and Tauron, K. B. (eds.) (1998). The Handbook of Psychodrama, London: Routlege Horvatin, T. & Schreiber, E. (eds.) (2006). The Quintessential Zerka: Writings by Zerka Toeman Moreno on Psychodrama, Sociometry and Group Psychotherapy. London: Routledge Marineau, R.F. (1989). Jacob Levy Moreno 1889-1974: father of psychodrama, sociometry, and group psychotherapy. London: Routledge
5.2. References in Polish Bielańska, A. (ed.) (2009). Psychodrama. Warszawa: ENETEIA Czapów, G., Cz. (1979). Psychodrama. Warszawa: PWN Michałowska D.A. (2008). Drama w edukacji. Poznań: Wyd. IF UAM Pawlik, J. (ed.) (2012). Psychodrama i techniki niewerbalne. Warszawa: ENETEIA Reichel G., Rabensteina R., Thanhoffer M. (1997). Grupa i ruch. Warszawa Roine E. (1999) Psychodrama. O tym, jak grać główną rolę w swoim życiu. Warszawa
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Kellermann, P.F. (1992). Focus on Psychodrama. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers Ltd, p. 50 ii Moreno, J.L. (1946/1980). Psychodrama, First Volume, 6th edn. New York: Beacon House, p. IV iii Moreno, J.L. (1993). Who Shall Survive, Student Edition. Roanoke: American Society of Group Psychotherapy and Psychodrama, Royal Publishing Co., p 47
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