Introduction
I ,PhiloVance,theheroof TheBishopMurderCase,imaginedahypothetical creaturewhocan ‘ ...traverseallworldsatoncewithinfinitevelocity,sothatheis abletobeholdallhumanhistoryataglance.From ...AlphaCentaurihecanseethe earthasitwasfouryearsago;fromtheMilkyWayhecanseeitasitwas , years ago,andhecanalsochooseapointinspacewherehecanwitnesstheice-ageandthe presentdaysimultaneously!’
Thisbookwillnotgivethereaderquitesoprivilegedaperspective,butouraimisto seetheworldwholewithobjectivityhardtoattainforhumanstrappedinourown history toreviewthechangesthatreallyhavetakenplaceallovertheplanet,notjust inpartsofit andpresenttheminatinycompass,suchasagalacticobservermight beholdfromanimmensedistanceintimeandspace.
TheeruditionofVance(the fictionaldetectiveWillardWrightcreatedunderhis pseudonym,S.S.VanDine)wasaffectedandhisscienceabsurd.Hewasright, however,abouttheeffectsofperspectiveonhistoricalvision.Thetechniqueofshifting toanimaginaryperspectivecantransformthewayweseeourpast.Evensmallvariants inviewpointcandisclosediscoveries.Whenpaintingastilllife,forinstance,Cézanne usedtoswitchbetweenvantagepoints,seekingtocombine fleetingperceptionsina singlecomposition.Hemadethecurvesoftherimofabowlofappleslookasifthey cannevermeet.Hepaintedstrangelydistendedmelons,becausehewantedtocapture thewaythefruitseemstochangeshapefromdifferentangles.Inhisassemblagesof oddsandendseachobjectassumesitsownperspective.Hepaintedthesamesubjects overandoveragain,becausewitheveryfreshlookyouseesomethingnew,andevery retrospectleavesyoudissatisfiedwiththeobviousimperfectionsofpartialvision.
ThepastislikeapaintingbyCézanne orlikeasculptureintheround,thereality ofwhichnosingleviewpointcandisclose.Objectivereality(thatwhichlooksthe samebyagreementamongallhonestobserv ers)liessomewhereoutthere,remote anddif fi cultto fi nd exceptperhapsbyencompassingallpossiblesubjectiveperspectives.Whenweshiftvantagepoint,wegetanewglimpse,andtryto fi titinwhen wereturntoourcanvas.Toputitanotherway,Clioisamusewespybathing betweenleaves.Eachtimewedodgeandslipinandoutofdifferentpointsofview,a littlemoreisrevealed.
Weknowtheadvantagesofmultipleviewpointsfromeverydayexperience. ‘Tryto seeitmyway,trytoseeityourway’,sangtheBeatles.Wehavetoincorporate perspectivesofprotagonistsandvictimstoreconstructacrime.Weneedtestimony frommanywitnessestoreproducethe flickerandglimmerofevents.Tounderstand wholesocieties,weneedtoknowwhatitfeelsliketoliveinthemateverylevelof powerandwealth.Tounderstandcultures,weneedtosetthemincontextandknow whattheirneighboursthinkorthoughtofthem.Tograspacore,wepeelawayatouter layers.Butthepastisungraspable:weseeitbestwhenweaddcontext,justasthebull’s eyemakesaclearertargetwhentheouterringsdefineitanddrawintheeye.
ThemostspectacularandobjectivepointofviewIcanimagineisthatofPhilo Vance’s ‘hypotheticalhomunculus,’ whoseestheplanetwholeandviewsitscomplete pastconspectually.Thequestionforaglobalhistorianis, ‘Whatwouldhistorylooklike tothatgalacticobserverinthecosmiccrow’snest?’ IsuspectthatVance’screature mightneedpromptingeventomentionaspeciesaspunyand,sofar,short-livedas humankind.Grasses,orfoxes,orprotozoa,orvirusesmightseemmoreinteresting: theyallhave,fromabiologicalpointofview,featuresatleastasconspicuousasthose ofhumans vastenvironmentalreach,stunningadaptability,remarkableduration. Butonehumanfeaturewouldsurelybeconspicuousfromanyperspective:thewaysin whichwedifferfromallotherspeciesinourhectic,kaleidoscopicexperienceof culture,andthefactthatwehavemoreofit,ofmorevariouskinds,thananyother creature.Humanshaveadazzlingarrayofcontrastingwaysofbehaving,whereas otherspecies thoughmanyofthemresembleuscloselyinbodiesandgenes encompassacomparativelytinyrangeofdifferences.Wehavevastlymorelifeways andfoodways,socialstructuresandpoliticalsystems,meansofrepresentingand communicating,ritesandreligionsthananyotherculturalanimal eventhegreat apeswhoaremostlikeus.Thatvarietyisthesubject-matterofthisbook.
Overthelastsixtyyearsorso,observershaveidentifiedcultureamongmany primatespeciesandclaimeditformanyothers.Humancultures,however,aredifferent:bycomparisonwithotherspecies,wearestrangelyunstable.Communitiesinall culturalspeciesbecomedifferentiated,astheychangeincontrastingandinconsistent ways,buttheprocessesinvolvedhappenincalculablymoreoften,withaperplexingly greaterrangeofvariation,amonghumansthanamonganyotheranimals:human culturesregistertheconstantseriesofchangescalled ‘history’.Theyself-transform, diverge,andmultiplywithbewilderingandapparently nowandformostofthe recentpast acceleratingspeed.Theyvary,radicallyandrapidly,fromtimetotime andplacetoplace.
Thisbookisanattempttoclaspthewholeofourvariety,orasmuchofitaspossible, byseeingthethemesthatlinkit,thestoriesthatoverarchit,andthepathwaysthrough it.Somepeoplethinkthebignarrative,whichencompassesjustaboutthewholeof history,isofprogressorprovidenceorincreasingcomplexity,orcyclicalchangeor dialecticalconflict,orevolution,orthermodynamics,orsomeotherirreversibletrend. Thegalacticobserver,however,wouldsurelynoticesubtler,lesspredictable,butmore
compelling,tales.Thecontributorsto TheOxfordIllustratedHistoryoftheWorld muster betweenthem fivewaysoftracingapaththroughthedata.Callthemmaster-narratives ifyoulike,ormeta-narrativesifyouprefer.Butthestorylinesareobjectivelyverifiable andcanbefollowedinthisbook.
The firststoryisofdivergenceandconvergence howwaysoflifemultiplyand meet.Divergence thesinglewordwithwhich,Ithink,thegalacticobserverwould summarizeourstory issurelydominant.Itdenoteshowthelimited,stablecultureof Homosapiens,atourspecies’ firstappearanceinthearchaeologicalrecord,scatteredand self-transformedtocoverthetremendousrangeofdivergentwaysoflifewithwhich wenowsurpriseeachotherandinfesteveryinhabitableenvironmentontheplanet. Westartedasasmallspecies,withauniformwayoflife,inarestrictedenvironmentin EastAfrica,whereallhumansbehavedinmuchthesameway,foragingforthesame foods;relatingtoeachotherwithasinglesetofconventionsofdeferenceand dominance;deployingthesametechnologies;using,asfarasweknow,thesame meansofcommunication;studyingthesamesky;imagining asbestwecanguess thesamegods;probablysubmitting,likeotherprimates,totheruleofthealphamale, butveneratingthemagicofwomen’sbodiesthatareuniquelyregenerativeand uniquelyattunedtotherhythmsofnature.Asmigrantgroupsadjustedtonew environmentsandlosttouchwitheachother sotheauthorsofPart show they developedcontrastingtraditionsanddistinctivewaysofbehaving,thinking,organizing familiesandcommunities,representingtheworld,relatingtoeachotherandtotheir environments,andworshippingtheirpeculiardeities.
Untilabout , yearsagoorso,theyallhadsimilareconomies gettingtheir sustenancebyhuntingandgathering.Butclimatechangeinducedavarietyofstrategies,withsomepeopleoptingtocontinuetraditionalwaysoflife,othersadopting herdingortillage:inPart ,MartinJonestellsthatstoryinChapter .Farming acceleratedeverykindofculturalchange,asChapter andChapter makeclear.So, asJohnBrooke’scontributioninChapter shows,didadjustmentstothedynamicsof elementsoftheenvironmentbeyondhumancontrol thelurchesofclimate,the convulsionsoftheEarth,thebewilderingevolutionofthemicrobesthatsometimes sustain,sometimesrupture,theecologiesofwhichwearepart.Culturehas,moreover, adynamicofitsown,partlybecausehumanimaginationsareirrepressible,continually re-picturingtheworldandinspiringustorealizeourvisions,andpartlybecauseevery change especiallyinsomeareasofculture,suchasscience,technology,andart unlocksnewpossibilities.Theresultsarevisiblearoundus.
Tracingthedivergenceofhumans,however,isnotenough.Foralmostthewhole lengthofthestory,countervailingtrends,whichwecancallconvergence,havebeen goingon,too.DavidNorthrup’sworkinthisbookbroachesthetheme,which increasinglydominatesthechaptersfromPart onwards,littlebylittlemirroring thewayculturesestablishedorre-establishedcontact,exchangedlifewaysandideas, andgrewmorelikeeachotherastimewenton.Inconvergence,sunderedcultures meetattheedgesoftheirexplorationsorattensefrontiersoftheexpansionoftheir
territories,orintheadventuresoftradersormissionariesormigrantsorwarriors.They exchangethoughtsandtechnologiesalongwithpeople,goods,andblows.
Convergenceanddivergencearemorethancompatible:theyarecomplementary becauseexchangesofcultureintroducenovelties,stimulateinnovations,andprecipitateeveryotherkindofchange.Formostofthehumanpast,divergenceoutstripped convergence:cultures,thatistosay,becamemoreandmorediverse moreandmore unlikeeachother despitemutualencounteringandlearning.Isolationkeptmostof themapartforlongspells.Uncrossableoceans,dauntingdeserts,andmountains deterred,interrupted,orpreventedpotentiallytransformingcontacts.Atacontested moment,however thecontributorstothisbookcannotagreeabouthoworwhento fixit thebalanceswungawayfromdivergence,sothatconvergencebecamemore conspicuous.Overthelasthalfmillennium,convergencehasbeenincreasinglyintense. Explorationhasendedtheisolationofalmosteveryhumancommunity.Globaltrade hasbroughteveryone’scultureinreachofjustabouteveryoneelse’ s,andglobal communicationshavemadetheprocessinstantaneous.Afairlylongperiodof Westernglobalhegemonyseemstohaveprivilegedthetransmissionofculture fromEuropeandNorthAmericatotherestoftheworld, ‘globalizing’,aswenowsay, Westernstylesinart,politics,andeconomics.Divergencehasnotbeenhalted merely overshadowed.Undertheshellofglobalization,olddifferencespersistandnewones incubate.Someareprecious,othersperilous.
Asdivergenceandconvergencewindandunwindthroughthisbook,theytangle withanotherthread.InChapter ,IanMorriscallsit ‘growth’:acceleratingchange, which,withsomehesitanciesandreversals,hasperplexedandbaffledpeopleinevery age,butnowseemstohavespeededupuncontrollably;thesometimesfalteringbut everself-reassertiveincreaseofpopulation,production,andconsumption;evermore intensiveconcentrationsofpeople successivelyinforagers’ settlements,agrarianvillages,growingcities,mega-conurbations;increasinglypopulousandunwieldypolities, fromchieftainciestostatestoempirestosuperstates.
Insomeways,asisapparentfromDavidChristianinChapter ,alltypesof accelerationaremeasurableintermsofconsumptionofenergy.Tosomeextent, naturesuppliedtheenergythatacceleratinghumanactivitiesrequired,bywayof globalwarming.Todaywetendtothinkofglobalwarmingastheresultofhuman pro fl igacywithfuel,creatingthegreenhouse effect.ButclimateonEarthdepends aboveallonthesun astartoopotentanddistanttorespondtohumans’ petty doings andirregularitiesinthetiltandorbitoftheplanet,whicharebeyondour powertoin fl uence.Exceptforabriefblip a ‘ littleiceage’ ofdiminishedtemperaturesintheperiodcoveredbyPart ofthisbook andsomeminor fluctuationsat othertimes,theincidenceandresultsofwhichthereaderwill findchronicledinParts and ,naturaleventsbeyondhumanreachhavebeenwarmingtheplanetforabout , yearsorso.
Meanwhile,threegreatrevolutions,inwhichhumanshavebeeninvolvedasactive participants,havefurtherboostedouraccesstoenergy: first,theswitchfrom finding
foodtoproducingit fromforagingtofarming.AsMartinJones’schaptermakes clear,theswitchwasnotsolelyorentirelytheproductofhumaningenuity;norwasita fluke(assomeenquirers,includingDarwin,usedtothink),butratheralongprocessin responsetoclimatechange.Itwasamutualadjustmentinwhichplantsandcreatures, includinghumans,establishedrelationshipsofreciprocaldependence:humanscould notsurvivewithoutspeciesthat,withouthumans,couldnotexist.Insofarashuman agencyprocuredit,theinceptionoffarmingwasaconservativerevolution,produced bypeoplewhowantedtosticktotheirtraditionalfoodstocks,buthadto findnew waystoguaranteesupply.Theresultwasastunninginterruptionofthenormalpattern ofevolution:forthe firsttime,newspeciescameintobeingby ‘unnaturalselection’ , craftedforhumanpurposesbysorting,transplanting,nurturing,andhybridization. EvolutiongotwarpedasecondtimeinaprocessdescribedinChapter and Chapter :the ‘ecologicalrevolution’ thatstartedwhenlong-rangevoyagesbegan regularlytocrosstheoceansoftheworldfromthesixteenthcenturyonwards.In consequence,lifeformsthathadbeendivergingonmutuallyseparateandincreasingly distantcontinents,duringabout millionyearsofcontinentaldrift,begantobe swapped,partlyasaresultofconscioushumaneffortstomultiplyaccesstoavarietyof foods,andpartlyasanunintendedconsequenceofbiota weeds,pests,microbes hitching,asitwere,aridewithtrading,exploring,conquering,ormigratinghuman populations.Thepreviouslydivergentcourseofevolutionfromcontinenttocontinent yieldedtoanew,convergentpattern.Today,asaresult,climateforclimate,we findthe samelifeformsallovertheworld.
Notalltheconsequencesfavouredhumankind.Thediseaseenvironmentworsened forpopulationsthatbecamesuddenlyexposedtounfamiliarbacteriaandviruses; fortunatelyforourspecies,however,asweseeinChapter andChapter byDavid NorthrupandDavidChristian,respectively,otherchangesinthemicrobialworld counteractedthenegativeeffects,as,inresponsetoglobalwarming,someofthemost deadlydiseasesmutatedandtargetednew,non-humanniches.Overwhelmingly,meanwhile,changesinthedistributionofhumanlydigestiblefoodsourceshugelyincreased thesupplyofenergyintwocrucialways.First,morevariedstapleswereavailable, indemnifyingagainstblightandecologicaldisastersocietiesformerlydependentona verylimitedrangeofcropsoranimals.(Therewereexceptions,assomenewlyavailable cropsproveddeceptivelynutritious,trappingsomepopulationsintoover-relianceon potatoesormaize,withsubversiveeffectsonhealthortheincidenceoffamine.)More straightforwardly,theamountoffoodproducedintheworldincreasedwiththeeffects oftheecologicalrevolution,whichenabledfarmersandrancherstocolonizepreviously unexploitedorunderexploitedlands especiallydrained,upland,andmarginalsoils andtoboosttheproductivityofexistingfarmland.
Supplementarysourcesboostedfoodenergy:animalmuscle-power,gravity,wind andrunningwater,clockworkandgears(onaverysmallscale),andthecombustibles (mainlywood,withsomeuseofwax,animalandvegetablefats,peat,turfandwaste grasses,tar,andcoal)usedtomakeheatforwarmthandcooking.Buttheworld
resortedtononewrevolutionarywayofmobilizingenergyuntilindustrialization, whentheuseoffossilfuelsandsteampowermultipliedmuscleexponentially.The results,aswehaveseen,wereequivocal.AsIanMorrispointsout,people’scapacityto ‘getthingsdone’ wasimmeasurablyenhanced.ButasAnjanaSinghpointsoutinher chapter,thatextracapacitywasexploitedfordestructiveends ofhumanlifeinwar, andoftheenvironmentinpollutionandresourcedepletion.Inthelasthundredyears orso,electricityhasdisplacedsteamandnewwaysofgeneratingpowerhavebegunto relievestressonfossilfuels,buttheequivocaloutcomesremainunresolved.
Alongwithdivergenceandacceleratingchange,thethirdthemetoemergein The OxfordIllustratedHistoryoftheWorld isofhumans’ relationshipwiththerestofnature, whichchangesconstantly,sometimesinresponsetohuman orincurrentlyfashionablejargon ‘anthropogenic’—influencesthatformpartofthestoryofculture,butalso, morepowerfully,inwayshumanscannotcontrolandarestilllargelyunabletoforesee: climatic,seismic,pathogenic.Everysocietyhashadtoadjustitsbehaviourinorderto balanceexploitationwithconservation.Civilizationisperhapsbestunderstoodasa processofenvironmentalmodificationtosuithumanpurposes re-shapinglandscapesforranchingandtilling,forinstance,thensmotheringthemwithnew,built environmentsdesignedtosatisfyhumancravings.Insomeways,environmental historyisanotherchronicleofacceleratingchange,asexploitationhasintensifiedin ordertosupplygrowingpopulationsandgrowingpercapitaconsumption.The relationshipbetweenhumansandtherestofcreationhasalwaysbeenuneasyand hasbecomeincreasinglyconflictive.Ontheonehand,humansdominateecosystems, mastervastportionsofthebiosphere,andobliteratespeciesthatweseeasthreatening orcompetitive.Yet,ontheother,weremainvulnerabletotheuncontrollablelurches offorcesthatdwarfus:wecannothaltearthquakes,orinfluencethesun,orpredict everynewplague.
Thestoryofhumaninterventionsintheenvironmentlookslikeaseriesofhair’s breadthescapesfromdisaster,eachofwhich,likethesalliesofanadventurestory, thickenedtheplotandintroducednewdifficulties.Farminghelpedpeoplewho practiseditsurviveclimatechange;however,itcreatednewreservoirsofdisease amongdomesticatedanimals,condemnedsocietiestodependenceonlimitedfoodstuffs,andjustifiedtyrannouspolitiesthatorganizedandpolicedwar,labour,irrigation,andwarehousing.Industrializationhugelyboostedproductivity,atthecostof fearfullabourconditionsin ‘infernalwens’ and ‘dark,satanicmills’.Fossilfuels unlockedvastreservesofenergy,butpollutedtheairandraisedglobaltemperatures. Artificialpesticidesandfertilizerssavedmillionsfromstarvation,butpoisonedthesoil andwinnowedbiodiversity.Nuclearpowerhassavedtheworldfromexhaustionand threateneditwithimmolation.Medicalsciencehassparedmillionsofpeoplefrom physicalsickness,butevermorerampant ‘lifestylediseases’—oftentheresultofmisuse ofsex,food,drugs,anddrink havegoneonwreckingorendinglives,whileneuroses andpsychosesswarm.Overall,theglobaldiseaseenvironmenthardlyseemsbenign. Thecostsoftreatmentleavemostoftheworldoutsidethereachofenhancedmedicine.
Technologyhassavedusfromeachsuccessivesetofself-inflictedproblems,onlyto createnewonesthatdemandeverbigger,riskier,andcostliersolutions.Atechnologicallydependentworldisliketheoldwomaninthesong,whobeganbyswallowinga flyand,inanefforttocatchit,gulpeddowneverbiggerpredatorsinpursuitofeach other.Sheended ‘dead,ofcourse’.Wehavenobetterstrategyatpresentthanescalating recoursetotechnology.
Thefourththemeapparentinthisbookconcernstheoneareaapparentlylargely exemptfromchange:whatwemightcallthelimitationsofculture theapparently immutablebackgroundofallotherstoriesinthestagnancyanduniversalityofhuman nature,thebedrockmixtureofgoodandevil,wisdomandfollythattranscendsevery culturalboundaryandneverseemstoaltermuchovertime.Whileweincreaseour ‘capacitytogetthingsdone’,asIanMorrispointsout,ourmoralsandourstewardship oftheworldandofeachotherremainmiredinselfishnessandrivenwithhostilities. AnjanaSinghpointsouthowmuchofourenhancedcapacitywediverttodestructive ends destructiveofeachother,destructiveoftheeco-systemsonwhichwedepend, destructiveofthebiospherethatisourcommonhome.
Wecan,ofcourse,pointtosomeimprovement,butonlywithsubversivequalifications.Perhapsthemostcomfortingchangetraceableinthisbookisthewayour moralcommunityhasgraduallyenlargedtoencompassalmostthewholeofhumankind.Theachievementhasbeenastounding,becausehumansarenottypicallywell disposedtothoseoutsidetheirowngroupsofkinorfellowcountrymen.AsClaude Lévi-Strausspointedout,mostlanguageshavenowordfor ‘human’ beyondtheterm thatdenotesgroupmembers:outsidersareusuallycalledbywordsthatmeansomethinglike ‘beast’ or ‘demon’.Thestruggletoinducehumanstoseecommonhumanity beneaththesuperficialitiesofappearance,pigmentation,anddifferencesofcultureor prioritiesorabilitieshasbeenlongandhard.Keymomentscanbetracedinthe chaptersbelowbyManuelLucenaGiraldo,AnjanaSingh,PaoloLucaBernardini,and JeremyBlack,butblindspotsremain.Somebio-ethicistsstillregardcertainminorities asimperfectlyhumanordisqualifiedfromhumanrights:theunborn,thevictimsof euthanasia,infantssupposedlytootinytohaveconsciousinterests.Somefeelour moralcommunitywillneverbefullymoralwhileitexcludesnon-humananimals.And inpractice,webehaveasviciouslyasever,whentheopportunityarisesorthe perceivedneedoccurs,persecutingandexploitingmigrantsandrefugees,victimizing minorities,exterminatingsupposedenemies,immiseratingthepoorwhileincreasing cruellyunjustwealthgaps,engrossingresourcesthatoughttobecommon,and honouring ‘humanrights’ inthebreach.Claimsofthedemiseor,atleast,retreatof violenceseempremature(thoughDavidChristianwoulddissent).Fearsofthedestructivenessofmodernweaponshascurtailedlarge-scalewar,butterrorismhasexpanded itsniche.Outsidetherealmsofterrorismandwarcrimes,murderhasdeclined,suicide grown.Abortionhasreplacedinfanticideinsomepartsoftheworld.Spankinghas droppedoutoftheparentalarmoury,whilesadismhasachievedtolerance,evena certainrespectability.Overall,peopleseemnobetterandnoworse,nodumberor
brighterthanever.Theeffectofmoralstasisisnot,however,neutral,becauseofthe wayimprovedtechnologiesempowerevilandfolly.
Finally,asthisbookhelpstoshow,thestoryofhumansocieties’ relationshipswith eachothercanbetoldintermsoftheshiftofwhatIcallinitiative:thepowerofsome humangroupstoinfluenceothers.Initiativechangesbroadlyinlinewiththeglobal distributionofpowerandwealth.Withsomeexceptions,wealthier,toughercommunitiesinfluencethosethatarelesswelloffintheserespects.Asreadersofthisbookwill see,overthe , yearsorsoduringwhichwecandocumentthedriftofinitiative,it was firstconcentratedinsouthwestAsiaandaroundtheeasternendoftheMediterranean.Itbecameconcentrated,forlargelyundetectablereasons,ineastandsouth Asia,andespeciallyinChina,fromearlyintheChristianErauntilaslowshiftwestward becamediscernible,insomerespects,inthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies, acceleratinginthenineteenthandtwentieth.Westernscience,especiallyastronomy, establishedparityofesteeminChina asurprisingachievementinthefaceofChinese contemptforWestern ‘barbarians’.Intheeighteenthcentury,WesternEuropean marketsseem,onthewhole,tohavebeenmoreintegratedthanthoseofIndia, wageshigher,mutatismutandis,thanthoseofIndiaorChina,and financialinstitutions,especiallyinBritain,betterequippedtofundneweconomicinitiatives.Butin overallproductivityandintermsofthebalanceoftrade,ChinaandIndialedtheworld untilwellintothenineteenthcentury.Atpresent,Westernhegemonyseemstobe waningandtheworldreverting,inthisrespect,toasituationinwhichinitiativeis unfocused,exchangedbetweenculturesinmultipledirections,withChinare-emerging inher ‘normal’ placeasthemostlikelypotentialworldhegemon.
TheglobaltriumphoftwoWesternideas capitalismanddemocracy maycome toseem,inretrospect,boththeculminationandconclusionofWesternsupremacy.In thelastthreedecadesofthetwentiethcentury,mostdictatorshipstoppledortottered. Oneformoftotalitarianism,fascism,collapsedearlierinthecentury;itscommunist rivalcrumbledinthe s.Meanwhile,deregulatinggovernmentsinmuchofthe worldliberatedmarketforces.Thedawnsoondarkenedandblightdisfiguredanybliss optimistsmayhavefeltatbeingalive.Democracyprovedinsecure,asmanystates slidbackintoauthoritarianhands.Fanaticismsreplacedideologies:nationalism, whichhadseemeddoomedintheincreasinglyinterdependentworldofglobalization, re-emergedlikeverminfromthecrookedwoodworkoftheworld;religion which secularistshadhopedtoseeburnitselfout reignitedmephiticallyasajustificationfor actionsofterrorists,whogenerallyseemedtobepsychoticandincoherentvictimsof manipulationbycriminals,butwhotalkedlikefundamentalistsanddogmatists. Capitalismproveddelusive.Insteadofincreasingwealth,itincreasedwealthgaps. Evenintheworld’smostprosperouscountries,thechasmbetweenfatcatsandregular guysgapedbythebeginningofthenewmillenniumatlevelsnotseensincebeforethe FirstWorldWar.Onaglobalscale,thescandalofinequalitywasfranklyindecent,with, foreverybillionaire,thousandsofthepoordyingforwantofbasicsanitation,shelter, ormedicine.LifeexpectancyinJapanandSpainwasnearlydoublethatofapeasantin
BurkinaFaso.Theglobal ‘financialmeltdown’ of exposedtheiniquitiesofunderregulatedmarkets,butnooneknewwhattodoaboutit.Economiclurcheshave continued,increasingtheprevailinginsecuritiesthatnourishextremistpolitics.Capitalismhasbeendented,ifnotdiscredited,butnoeffortstoreplaceit,orevenpatchits wounds,haveworked.
Historyisastudyofchange.Thisbookisthereforedividedintochronological tranches,ineachofwhichanauthorwhoisanexpertinenvironmentalhistory sketchestheenvironmentalcontextandhumans’ interactionswithit,beforeothers, alsoexpertsintheir fields,dealwithwhathappenedtoculture typicallyinone chapteronartandthought,anotheronpoliticsandbehaviour intheperiodconcerned.Forearlyperiods,uptoabout , yearsago,theevidenceofwhatpeople thoughtandwhattheydidissointerdependentthatcontributorshavetocoverbothin asinglechapterineachpartofthebook.Formorerecentperiods,theevidenceis abundantenoughforustoseethedifferences,aswellasthesimilarities,betweenthe waypeoplerecordedthoughtsandfeelings,ontheonehand,andthewaythey behavedinpracticetowardseachotherinpoliticsandsociety.Thus,thechapters multiplyaccordingly.
Readerswillseethat,althoughallthecontributorstothisbooktrytostandback fromtheworldinordertoseeitwhole,orasnearlywholeaspossible,andalthoughall haveinmindthethemesofdivergence,acceleration,environmentalinteractions,the limitationsofculture,andtheshiftsofinitiative,therearetensionsbetweenthe authors,differencesofpriorityandemphasis,andsometimesunderlyingconflictsof valuesorideologicaltenetsorreligiousbeliefs.Still,thecollegialityandgoodwillwith whicheveryoneinvolvedintheprojecthascollaboratedunstintinglyisonecausefor pleasure.Another,whichIhopereaderswillappreciate,isthatthediversityofmy fellowwriters’ viewpointsechoes,inasmallway,thediversityofhistory,andhelpsus seeitfrommultipleperspectives.
HumanityfromtheIce
TheEmergenceandSpreadofanAdaptiveSpecies
Fuyan Cave
Yana Rhinoceros Horn Site
Pestera cu Oase Cave
ISRAEL
South African Coastal Caves
NEW ZEALAND
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Herto
Swan Point
Monte Verde
Sumatra Sulawesi
E
G remarkedinhisphilosophicalhistory Plough,SwordandBook that ‘primitivemanhaslivedtwice:onceinandforhimself,andthesecondtimeforus,in ourreconstruction’.Thisdoublelifehasconcernedarchaeologistsintheirendeavoursto fathomtheclearbluewaterbetweendeephistoryandthepresent.Thestructureof Gellner’sworldhistory,likemanyothers,restedonthreerevolutions:agricultural,urban, andindustrial.Morerecentlyarchaeologistsaddedafourth,the ‘humanrevolution’,in which,some , yearsago, Homosapiens assembledallthecognitive,creative,and socialskillssubsequentcivilizationsrequired.
Humanssupposedlydeclaredtheirrevolutionostentatiouslythroughart,ornament, burials,persistentlyusedplacesandtradeinexoticstonesandshells.Theyhadbig foreheadsandlonglegs,whichpointedtotheirAfricanorigins,asdidtheirmothers’ genes.Theyspoke,sang,andplayedmusicalinstruments.Itcouldbesafelyassumed theyrecognizedkinship.Theyareoftenreferredtoas ‘modernhumans’,anunhelpful termforthestudyofdeephumanhistorybecauseitprejudicesthebreadthofour reconstruction.Thesehumanswerestillhominins,anumbrellatermforusandallour fossilancestors.Butpuristsarguedontaxonomicgroundsthathomininssuchas Neanderthalscouldnot findshelterunderthetermwereserveforourselves:human.
Archaeologistssoonstartedtounpicktheevidencefortheparcelofskills,which,as newdatingmethodsrevealed,begantoaccumulateslowlyatleast , yearsago. Markersforrevolutionarychange,suchasbeads,theuseofpigmentsforcolouring, andchangesinprojectiletechnology,werefoundindifferentpartsofAfricaatdifferent times.Discoveriesinthelastdecadebyarchaeologistsandgeneticistsrequireabigtent toencompassthevarietyofourorigins:onenotsupportedbyasingle ‘modern’ pole. BeyondAfrica’sbordersthereisanotherstory.Thetrailofculturalmarkersgoes coldaspeopleleavethecontinent.ThedescendantsofmigrantsfromAfricaareknown intherestoftheOldWorldonlyfromtheirmolecularhistoriespreservedinthegenes oflivingpeople,orrarefossils,ortracesofsettlementofnewcontinents,principally Australia.Forexample,beadsandpigmentusedonotaccompanythe findsofhuman teethfromFuyanCaveinsouthernChina.Theseteetharebetween , and , yearsoldandtheassumptionintheabsenceofgeneticinformationisthatthey representanearlydispersalofhumansfromAfrica.However,thesepeopledidnot bringwiththem ‘modern’ humans’ markerartefacts,suchasbeadsandworkedochre, whichwerepresentatthisdateinAfrica.Additionally,nostonetoolshavebeenfound inFuyancave.Asaculturalpopulation, ‘ modernhumans ’ areinvisiblebyconventionalarchaeologicalmeans.Thequestionofwhenhuman,ratherthanhominin, historybeginsisnotsusceptibletoinvestigationbyusingmetaphorsofrevolution. PeopledidnotbecomehumanbecausetheyleftAfrica;andovertheprevioustwo millionyears,manyspecimensofthegenus Homo hadleftAfricawithoutbecoming modern.Itwouldbewrongtoclassthemasnot-quite-modernonthegroundsthatthey delayedtheirdepartureforwhatseemsaverylongtime.Theirtardinessmayseem strangetous:reticencehasneverbeenafeatureofwhatwenowrecognizeasthemodern humanwhenitcomestobroadcastingsocial,spiritual,andtechnicaladvances.Butthese
humansinquestionlivedtheirliveswithoutathoughtforourabilitytoreconstruct them.Furthermore,theylivedundertheselectivepressuresofbiologicalandcultural evolution.Theseforcesaremyentrypointtounderstandingdeephumanhistory.
Overthehorizon
ThenarrativeofdeephumanhistoryIexamineisdrivenneitherbybecomingmodern inabiologicalsense,norprogressintechnology.Developmentsinartandculture aredealtwithinChapter .Mynarrativewillbeofhumansasglobaltravellers.No homininevercrossedamajoroceanortraversedtheSiberiantundratoencounterthe Americas.WithhumanscameoceanvoyagestoreachAustraliaandislandsinNear Oceania.Atalaterdate,theAmericasweresettled,addingalmostathirdofthe earth’sinhabitableareatothehumanestate.Byonethousandyearsago,whenthese travellinghumanshadreachedthethreePaci fi coutliers,Hawaii,EasterIsland,and NewZealand,theyhadtrekkedandnavigatedtheirwaytobeingaglobalspecies.To putthestoryinperspective:fromtheearliesthomininstotheappearanceofhumans outsideofAfrica aperiodoffourmillionyears onlyaquarteroftheworldwas regularlyinhabited.Inthelast , years,lessthantwopercentofhominin history,theremainingthreequarterswerepopulatedinonebreathlessrush.Andby thetimewehadcaughtourbreathwefoundwewerealsothelonelyhumanspecies. Otherhomininpopulationsweencounteredinour firsttravels,someofwhomwe bredwith,someofwhomwecouldnot,fellaway.Ourglobalstatuscamewitha biologicalpricetagwhere,asintheChristmassales,varietywasgreatlyreduced. Thischapterexaminesthebackgroundtothisnarrativeandtheevolutionary developmentswhichhumansunderwentinAfrica.Fundamentaltotheseisthepattern ofclimatechangeanditsimpactonlocalenvironmentsandresources.Locallife-spaces havetobe fitted,cog-like,intotheinterlockingdriversofclimate,theorbitalrhythms oftheearth,andtectonicshifts.Theseoperateatvariousscales;planet,ocean,continent, andregion.Theydisplayvariabletemposasmeasuredbyamplitudeandfrequencyofthe regularclimatecyclesthattheircombinedforcesproduce.Thecyclescombinewith constanteffectsoflatitude,longitude,andaltitudeonsolarproductivitytoproduce shiftingecologicalopportunitiesforaversatileandcleverhominin.Suchopportunities aremanifestinseasonsofabundanceanddearth,aswellasaslidingscaleoftheriskof starvation.Theyarealsoapparentwhenitcomestolocatingthebestfoodsbythesex whichhasalwaysborne,disproportionately,thecostofreproducingourspecies.This meansdeephumanhistoryisofnecessitydeeplygendered.Andbesides,whentoldasan evolutionarystory,thefocusisonfemalesforthereasonjustgiven.However,when judgedbythepictorialreconstructionsanddioramasofahuntinglifedominatedby spear-wielding,maleancestors,thereadercanbeforgivenforthinkingotherwise.
Thebigquestionforhumansindeephistoryisifthe firstpeoplewerecognizeas ourdirectancestors really madethatmuchofabreakwiththeirpast.Itbegsfurther questionsabouthowweknowahumanwhenwemeetone,iftheywereshaped
byforegroundingspear-wieldingmaleancestors. Femalehumansandhomininsboremajorresponsibilityforlocatingthebestfoods.
bychangesinclimateandenvironment,andwhatitwas,exactly,thatmadeusa globalspecies.
Relevantissuesincludepopulationsize,thetimingofglobalsettlement,andthe frameworkofbiologyandculturethatcanresultindescentwithmodification;the resultofDarwin’smechanismsofnaturalandsexualselection.
Recognizinghumans
Indeephistorytherearefourroutesavailabletoidentifyahuman;throughgenes, anatomy,artefacts,andgeography.Thelinesofevidencehavetheirownprocedural assumptions,workingmethods,andcaveatswhichmakethisinterdisciplinaryexercise inclassificationchallenging.
Formanyyearstheevidenceforhumanswasledbyanatomyand,inparticular,the shapeoffossilskulls(Table ).Samplesizesareextremelysmall,butthishasnotstopped biologicalanthropologistsfromdevisingevolutionarytreesandapplyingthebiological speciesconceptbasedonreproductiveisolationtofragmentarymaterial.Long-standing traditiondefinedabiologicalspeciesasgroupsofactually,orpotentially,interbreeding naturalpopulations,whicharereproductivelyisolatedfromothersuchgroups.
Archaeogeneticshastestedthisconcept.The firststudies,tracingfemaleancestry throughmitochondrialDNAandmaleancestrythroughtheYchromosome,came fromthegeneticsoflivingpopulationstoproduceancestralmapsofmodernhuman
. TheanatomicalcriteriausedbyChrisStringerandPeterAndrewstodefine amodernhuman.
Alllivinghumansarecharacterizedbyagracileskeletonincomparisonwiththatofother speciesofthegenus Homo.Inparticularthisappliesto
• longboneshapeandshaftthickness.
• thedepthorextentofmuscleinsertions.
• therelativelythinboneofthecranium(skull)andmandible(jawbone).
Thecraniumisvoluminous,butnomoresothaninNeanderthals,andlikethebrainitcontains istypicallyshort,high,anddomed.
Thesupraorbitaltorus(browridges)andexternalcranialbuttressingareeitherconsiderably reducedorabsent.
Teethandjawsarereducedinsize.
Probablyasaresultofsmallerteeth,thefaceistuckedwellundertheforeheadratherthan slopingforward.
Amentaleminence(chin)ispresentonthemandiblefromayoungage.
(left).WhencomparedtoolderancestorssuchasNeanderthal (right),itislightlybuiltwithahighforeheadandaprominentchin,featureswhichanatomists sinceHuxleyhaveheldasimportantmarkersofourevolutionarystatus.
dispersals.However,thesedidnotsuggestanyinterbreedingbetweenhumansmoving outofAfricaandindigenouspopulationsof Homo theyencountered.
Thesecondwaveofstudiesreconstructedthegenomesofextincthominins.This breakthroughwasmadepossiblebyadvancesinDNAextractionfromancientbones andsequencingtechniques:tworesultsarenoteworthy.Inthe firstplace,thebiological speciesconcept,withreproductiveisolation,doesnotapplytohomininpopulations.
EurasianNeanderthalswereisolatedfromAfricanhumansforatleastthelast , years,thetimewhentheylastsharedacommonancestor, Homoheidelbergensis.(The ageestimateisbasedonmutationratesandvariesaccordingtoassumptionsinthe T
