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Consumer and CommerCial l aw

Tried and tested

Law Express has been helping UK law students to revise since 2009 and its power is proven. A recent survey * shows that:

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Consumer and CommerCial law

4th edition

Judith Tillson, Barrister

Senior Lecturer in Contract and Commercial Law

Pearson Education Limited

Edinburgh Gate

Harlow CM20 2JE

United Kingdom

Tel: +44 (0)1279 623623

Web: www.pearson.com/uk

First published 2011 (print)

Second edition published 2013 (print and electronic)

Third edition published 2015 (print and electronic)

Fourth edition published 2016 (print and electronic)

The right of Judith Tillson to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

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Acknowledgements

Our thanks go to all reviewers who contributed to the development of this text, including students who participated in research and focus groups which helped to shape the series format.

Introduction

Many students study consumer and commercial law as discrete modules. Some students may study one rather than the other. However, this book treats them as complementary topics by examining areas common to both. Consumer and commercial law covers a wide range of subjects so module content will vary between institutions, but several topics will be common features, including sale of goods, agency law, credit, product liability, product safety and unfair trading practices. Because of the increasing influence of online contracts and distance selling, you are likely to be expected to appreciate the legal challenges presented by this mode of contracting. No doubt individual lecturers will emphasise particular topics in this diverse area. You should always refer to your lecturer or tutor and your course materials with any questions on what you will be expected to cover.

Another factor to bear in mind in preparing for the exam is that, inevitably, several topics will overlap and cannot be revised as discrete units. It is important to appreciate that studying consumer and commercial law will require that you have a sound basis in contract law, especially misrepresentation, unfair contract terms and remedies for breach.

The subject lends itself to problem questions which provide an opportunity for the examiner to assess your understanding of how different aspects of consumer and commercial law interlink. Don’t be surprised to find that a problem on a topic such as product liability may also encompass aspects of sale of goods, negligence and privity. Likewise, questions calling for an analysis of unfair contract terms will expect you to be able to demonstrate detailed knowledge of aspects of sale of goods, misrepresentation and the supply of services. You will be expected to show clear understanding of the degree of statutory protection offered to those dealing on a commercial as well as consumer basis. When dealing with such multifaceted problem questions, it is easy to digress into areas that are not relevant; it is also difficult to gauge which areas require a greater level of detailed analysis. Some questions may help you in this respect by allocating marks to different sections. The most difficult problems are those that include a range of issues within one detailed scenario. Always devise an outline plan to ensure that you deal with all relevant issues in a systematic and structured manner. It is a good idea to identify an issue, explain it and then apply it to the facts given.

With essay questions you should ensure that you understand what the question requires before outlining your plan. Essay questions tend to expose those who have a superficial

understanding of a topic, as they call for detailed explanation of legal principles with application of case law and statute as well as critical comment. You will be expected to be able to highlight areas for criticism and potential reforms. You may be required to address a specific reform and carry out an evaluation, using recent authority, as to whether or not it is effective. A likely example would be the recent reform of the area of unfair trading practices. Keep to the issue by referring to the question and submitting suitable comment (based on your evaluation) where appropriate. Whether you are analysing a problem or writing an essay, make sure that you submit a conclusion.

This book is designed as a revision guide, not as a substitute for a textbook or your course notes. In order to promote quick understanding and effective revision, it gives you a clear overview of key topics in consumer and commercial law. It also provides a guide to suitable resources to develop a critical approach to examinations and assignments. The book focuses on common areas of misunderstanding and confusion, such as concepts of consumer status, the different heads of liability in product liability and the difference between sale by description and misrepresentation. In order to help you develop a confident attitude towards examinations, guidance is given in each chapter with regard to revision and exam tips, pointing out difficult areas and suggesting good approaches to a range of sample questions.

Finally, it is important that you are aware of progress on the implementation of the European Directive on Consumer Rights. The Directive merges four existing EU Consumer Directives, namely: Sale of Consumer Goods and Guarantees (99/44/EC), Unfair Contract Terms (93/13/ EEC), Distance Selling (97/7/EC) and Doorstep Selling (85/577/EEC). By means of a process of codification, the law in these areas will eventually be updated to reflect technological changes in commerce and to try to overcome common problems with distance selling. With these aims in mind the Consumer Rights Bill was introduced into Parliament in June 2013 and resulted in the introduction of the Consumer Contracts (Information, Cancellation and Additional Charges) Regulations, the Consumer Protection (Amendment) Regulations 2014 and the Consumer Rights Act 2015 which aim to clarify and consolidate legislation covering distance and doorstep selling, rights of redress for victims of unfair trading practices, the sale and supply of goods (including digital content), unfair contract terms and powers of enforcement. Naturally there will be some inevitable overlap between the new reforms and existing legislation. The table below is designed to clarify the effects the Consumer Rights Act 2015 will have on existing legislation.

Effect of the CRA 2015 on existing legislation

The provisions in the existing legislation listed in Table 0.1, which cover B2C (businessto-consumer) contracts only, will be repealed. The provisions that relate to other types of contract (for example, contracts between businesses) will remain in the existing legislation.

Table 0.1 Effect of CRA 2015

Existing Legislation Changes

Supply of Goods (Implied Terms) Act 1973

Sale of Goods Act 1979

Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982

The Consumer Rights Act 2015 will replace any provisions made in this Act for B2C contracts. It will be amended so that it covers B2B contracts and C2C contracts only

For B2C contracts this will mainly be replaced by the Consumer Rights Act 2015 but some provisions of SGA will still apply, for example: rules that are applicable to all contracts of sale of goods (as defined by that Act – essentially these are sales of goods for money), regarding matters such as when property in goods passes. The SGA will still apply to B2B contracts and to C2C contracts

The Consumer Rights Act 2015 will replace any provisions this Act makes for B2C contracts. The SGSA will be amended so that it covers B2B contracts and C2C only

Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977

Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1999

Sale and Supply of Goods to Consumers Regulations 2002

The Consumer Rights Act 2015 will replace the provisions made by this Act in respect of B2C contracts. The UCTA will be amended so that it covers B2B and C2C contracts only

These will be replaced by the Consumer Rights Act 2015

 Use this book to cement your knowledge of key issues in consumer and commercial law.

 Be aware that there will be overlap between areas of consumer and commercial law –these topics cannot be studied as discrete entities.

 Remember that this guide is intended as an aid to understanding and revision. You should use your course materials, textbooks and other resources to extend your knowledge.

 Concentrate your revision on preparing to answer exam questions – particularly how you will construct your answers in an exam.

Before you begin, you can use the study plan available on the companion website to assess how well you know the material in this book and identify the areas where you may want to focus your revision. RE v I s I on

Guided tour

How to use features in the book and on the companion website

Understand quickly

Topic maps – Visual guides highlight key subject areas and facilitate easy navigation through the chapter. Download them from the companion website to pin on your wall or add to your revision notes.

Key definitions – Make sure you understand essential legal terms.

Key cases and key statutes – Identify and review the important elements of essential cases and statutes you will need to know for your exams.

Read to impress – These carefully selected sources will extend your knowledge, deepen your understanding, and earn better marks in coursework and exams.

Glossary – Forgotten the meaning of a word? This quick reference covers key definitions and other useful terms.

Test your knowledge – How well do you know each topic? Test yourself with quizzes tailored specifically to each chapter.

Podcasts – Listen as your own personal Law Express tutor guides you through a step-by-step explanation of how to approach a typical but challenging question.

Revise effectively

Revision checklists – Identify essential points you should know for your exams. The chapters will help you revise each point to ensure you are fully prepared. Print the checklists from the companion website to track your progress.

Revision notes – These boxes highlight related points and areas where your course might adopt a particular approach that you should check with your course tutor.

s tudy plan – Assess how well you know a subject prior to your revision and determine which areas need the most attention. Take the full assessment or focus on targeted study units.

Flashcards – Test and improve recall of important legal terms, key cases and statutes. Available in both electronic and printable formats.

Take exams with confidence

s ample questions with answer guidelines – Practice makes perfect! Consider how you would answer the question at the start of each chapter then refer to answer guidance at the end of the chapter. Try out additional sample questions online.

Assessment advice – Use this feature to identify how a subject may be examined and how to apply your knowledge effectively.

Make your answer stand out – Impress your examiners with these sources of further thinking and debate.

Exam tips – Feeling the pressure? These boxes indicate how you can improve your exam performance when it really counts.

Don’t be tempted to – Spot common pitfalls and avoid losing marks.

You be the marker – Evaluate sample exam answers and understand how and why an examiner awards marks.

Table of cases and statutes

Cases

A v. National Blood Authority (No. 1) [2001] 3 All ER

289 128, 137, 138, 236

Abouzaid v. Mothercare (UK) Ltd [2000] EWCA Civ 348 128, 137, 235

Aluminium Industrie Vaassen BV v. Romalpa Aluminium [1976] 1 WLR 676 72, 79, 233

Arbitration between FW Moore & Co Ltd and Landauer & Co, Re [1921] 2 KB 519 56, 102, 231

Arbitration between R & H Hall & Co and WH Pim Jnr & Co Ltd, Re [1927] 30 Ll L Rep 159 88, 105, 234

Arcos Ltd v. E. A. Ronaasen & Son [1933] AC 470 42, 54, 56, 231

Armstrong v. Jackson [1917] 2 KB 822 182, 196, 238

Ashington Piggeries Ltd v. Christopher Hill Ltd [1971] 1 All ER 847 42, 65, 232

Attorney General of Belize v. Belize Telecom Ltd [2009] UKPC 10; [2009] 1 WLR 1988 18, 25, 229, 237

Bannerman v. White (1861) 10 CBNS 844 18, 21, 229

Barry v. Heathcote Ball & Co (Commercial Auctions) Ltd [2000] 1 WLR 1962 88, 103, 234

Beale v. Taylor [1967] 1 WLR 1193 42, 53, 231

Boston Deep Sea Fishing and Ice Co v. Farnham [1957] 1 WLR 1051 191

Brewer v. Mann [2012] EWCA Civ 246 42, 53, 231

Brinkibon Ltd v. Stahag und Stahlwarenhandels GmbH [1983] 2 AC 34 112, 123, 124, 235

Caparo Industries v. Dickman [1990] 1 All ER 568 128,133, 134, 235

Carey v. HSBC Bank plc [2009] EWHC 3417 QB 158, 172, 236

Charles Rickards Ltd v. Oppenheim [1950] 1 All ER 420 88, 91, 234

Clark Boyce v. Mouat [1994] 1 AC 428 196, 238

Clegg v. Andersson (t/a Nordic Marine) [2003] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 32 (CA) 88, 95, 234

Dashwood (formerly Kaye) v. Fleurets Ltd [2007] EWHC 1610 QB 200

Davis v. Sumner [1984] 1 WLR 1301 7, 212, 229

Dimond v. Lovell [2000] 2 All ER 897 158, 162, 180, 236

Director General of Fair Trading v. First National Bank plc [2000] All ER 759 18, 34, 35, 230

Donoghue v. Stevenson [1932] AC 562 128, 132, 133, 235

Drummond v. Van Ingen (1887) 12 App Cas 284 66

Drummond-Rees v. Dorset CC (Trading Standards Department) (1998) 162 JP 651 149

Eastern Distributors Ltd v. Goldring [1957] 2 All ER 525 72, 80, 233

Egan v. Motor Services (Bath) Ltd [2007] EWCA Civ 1002 62

Entores Ltd v. Miles Far East Corp [1955] 2 QB 327 112, 123, 235

Feldaroll Foundry plc v. Hermes Leasing (London) Ltd [2004] EWCA Civ 747 59, 232

First Energy (UK) Ltd v. Hungarian International Bank Ltd [1993] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 194 189, 238

Freeman & Lockyer v. Buckhurst Park Properties (Mangal) Ltd [1964] 2 QB 480 182, 187, 237

Godfrey v. Bertram, Armstrong & Co (1830) 1 Kn 381 182, 195, 238

Grant v. Australian Knitting Mills Ltd [1936] AC 85 (PC) 64, 232

Griffiths v. Peter Conway Ltd [1939] 1 All ER 685 65

Hadley v. Baxendale (1854) 9 Exch 341 88, 99, 103, 104, 105, 132, 234

Hare v. Schurek [1993] CCLR 47 166

Harlington & Leinster Enterprises Ltd v. Christopher Hull Fine Art Ltd [1991] 1 QB 564 57, 231

Harrison v. Black Horse Ltd [2012] Lloyd’s Rep IR 521 173

Hely-Hutchinson v. Brayhead Ltd [1968] 1 QB 549 182, 186, 237

Henry Kendall & Sons v. William Lillico & Sons Ltd [1969] 2 AC 31 42, 61, 65, 232, 241

Hong Kong Fir Shipping Co Ltd v. Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha Ltd [1962] 2 QB 26 (CA) 18, 23, 100, 229

Ide v. ATB Sales Ltd [2007] EWHC 1667 (QB) 128, 139, 236

Imageview Management Ltd v. Jack [2009] EWCA Civ 63 182, 197, 238

Interfoto Picture Library v. Stiletto Visual Programs [1988] 1 All ER 348 (CA) 27, 38, 229

J & H Ritchie Ltd v. Lloyd Ltd [2007] 1 WLR 670 88, 96, 234

J Spurling Ltd v. Bradshaw [1956] 1 WLR 461 18, 28, 230

Jewson Ltd v. Kelly [2003] EWCA Civ 1030 42, 64, 232

Karlshamns Oljefabriker A/B v. Eastport Navigation Corp (The Elafi) [1982] 1 All ER 208 77

Kieran Mullin Ltd v. Customs and Excise Commissioners [2003] STC 274 185, 203

Kofi Sunkersette Obu v. A. Strauss & Co Ltd [1951] AC 243 182, 199, 239

Kulkarni v. Manor Credit (Davenham) Ltd [2010] EWCA Civ 69 72, 84, 233

Lewis v. Averay (No. 1) [1971] 3 All ER 907 72, 81, 233

Liverpool City Council v. Irwin [1977] AC 239 24

Lloyd Schuhfabrik Meyer & Co GmbH v. Klijsen Handel BV C-342/97 [1999] All ER (EC) 587 2, 9, 211, 229

Lloyds Bank Ltd v. Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China [1929] 1 KB 40 188, 203, 237

Lombard North Central plc v. Butterworth [1987] 1 All ER 267 178, 237

Luxor (Eastbourne) Ltd v. Cooper [1941] AC 108 199, 239

Maple Flock Co Ltd v. Universal Furniture Products (Wembley) Ltd [1934] 1 KB 148 88, 93, 234

May & Butcher Ltd v. R [1934] 2 KB 17 48, 230

Mayor and Burgesses of the London Borough of Southwark v. IBM UK Ltd see Southwark LBC v. IBM UK Ltd

Mediterranean Salvage & Towage Ltd v. Seamar Trading & Commerce Inc (The Reborn) [2009] EWCA Civ 531 25

Microbeads AG v. Vinhurst Road Markings [1975] 1 WLR 218 42, 52, 231

Moore & Co Ltd and Landauer & Co see Arbitration between FW Moore & Co Ltd and Landauer & Co

Newtons of Wembley Ltd v. Williams [1964] 3 All ER 532 82

Niblett Ltd v. Confectioners’ Materials Co Ltd [1921] 3 KB 387 42, 52, 231

Nichol v. Godts (1854) 10 Exch 191 42, 57, 231

Office of Fair Trading v. Abbey National plc [2009] UKSC 6 18, 35, 230

Office of Fair Trading v. Lloyds TSB Bank plc [2006] 2 All ER 821 171

Office of Fair Trading v. Purely Creative Ltd [2011] EWHC 106 (Ch) 206, 218, 239

Overy v. Paypal (Europe) Ltd [2012] EWHC 2659 59

Panorama Developments (Guildford) Ltd v. Fidelis Furnishing Fabrics Ltd [1971] 2 QB 711 189, 203, 238

Peachdart, Re [1983] 3 All ER 204 72, 79, 85, 233

Photo Production Ltd v. Securicor Transport Ltd [1980] AC 827 18, 28, 230

Plevin v. Paragon Personal Finance Ltd [2014] UKSC 61 158, 173, 237

Portman Escort Agency v. Revenue and Customs Commissioners [2006] STI 2580 UKVAT (Excise) 185

R & B Customs Brokers Co Ltd v. United Dominions Trust Ltd [1988] 1 All ER 847 2, 5, 155, 229

R & H Hall & Co and WH Pim Jnr & Co Ltd’s Arbitration see Arbitration between R & H Hall & Co and WH Pim Jnr & Co Ltd

R v. Birmingham City Council, ex parte Ferrero [1993] All ER 530 144, 147, 236

R v. Secretary of State for Health, ex parte US Tobacco International Inc [1992] QB 353 144, 147, 155, 236

Reardon Smith Line Ltd v. Hansen-Tangen (The Diana Prosperity) [1976] 1 WLR 989 42, 55, 231, 240

Richardson v. LRC Products Ltd [2000] PIQR P164 (QBD) 128, 136, 138, 235

Robert A. Munro & Co Ltd v. Meyer [1930] 2 KB 312 88, 94, 234

Rogers v. Parish (Scarborough) Ltd [1987] QB 933 42, 62, 232

Rowland v. Divall [1923] 2 KB 500 42, 51, 230

Said v. Butt [1920] 3 KB 497 182, 193, 238

Saipol SA v. Inerco Trade SA [2014] EWHC 2211 104, 234

St Albans City and District Council v. International Computers Ltd [1996] 4 All ER 481 (CA) 42, 46, 230

Scally v. Southern Health and Social Services Board [1992] 1 AC 294 18, 24, 25, 229

Shanklin Pier Ltd v. Detel Products Ltd [1951] 2 KB 854 131, 235

Shogun Finance Ltd v. Hudson [2003] UKHL 62; [2004] 1 AC 919 72, 83, 233

Southwark LBC v. Charlesworth (1983) 147 JP 470 149

Southwark LBC v. IBM UK Ltd [2011] EWHC 549 (TCC) 47, 72, 74, 233

Spearmint Rhino Ventures (UK) Ltd v. Revenue and Customs Commissioners [2007] EWHC 613 (Ch) 182, 184, 203, 237

Springer v. Great Western Railway Co [1921] 1 KB 257 191, 238

Spurling v. Bradshaw see J Spurling Ltd v. Bradshaw

Stevenson v. Rogers [1999] 2 WLR 1064 2, 6, 58, 211, 212, 229

Tesco Supermarkets Ltd v. Nattrass [1972] AC 153 206, 220, 239

Thain v. Anniesland Trade Centre (1997) SLT (Sh Ct) 102 42, 63, 232

Truk (UK) Ltd v. Tomakidis GmbH [2000] 1 Lloyd’s Rep 543 88, 96, 234

Wait, Re [1927] 1 Ch 606 72, 233

Watford Electronics Ltd v. Sanderson CFL Ltd [2001] EWCA Civ 317 18, 32, 230

Watteau v. Fenwick [1893] 1 QB 346 182, 190 193, 238

Waugh v. H. B. Clifford and Sons Ltd [1982] 2 WLR 679 186, 237

Wilson v. First County Trust Ltd (No. 2) [2003] UKHL 40 158, 168, 180, 236

Wormell v. RHM Agriculture (East) Ltd [1987] 1 WLR 1091 235

Worsley v. Tambrands Ltd [2000] PIQR P95 (QBD) 128, 137, 235

Yam Seng Pte Ltd v. International Trade Corporation Ltd [2013] EWHC 111 (QB) 38, 230

Yonge v. Toynbee [1910] 1 KB 215 182, 193, 238

statutes

Companies Act 1985

s. 395 79

Consumer Credit Act 1974 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 164, 165, 166, 222, 233, 249

s. 8(1) 162

s. 10 164

s. 11 164

s. 12 164

s. 12(b) 165

s. 14(1) 171

s. 15 163

s. 15(1) 163

s. 15(1)(a) 163

s. 15(1)(b) 163

s. 15(1)(c) 163

s. 16A 164

s. 16B 164

ss. 45–51 167

s. 48 166, 179

s. 49 166

s. 56 167, 170

s. 57 167

s. 60 167, 179

s. 61 167, 179

s. 62 167, 179

s. 63 167, 179

s. 65(1) 168

s. 66A 169

s. 67 169, 179

s. 68 169, 180

s. 75 170, 171

s. 86 180

s. 87 176, 177

s. 90 176, 177

s. 90(1) 176

s. 90(1)(a) 176

s. 90(1)(b) 176

s. 90(1)(c) 176

s. 91 176

s. 93 177

s. 94(1) 175

s. 95 175

ss. 99–100 177

s. 99(1) 175

s. 99(2) 175

s. 100(1) 175, 178

s. 100(3) 178

s. 100(4) 175

s. 127 168, 180

s. 127(1) 169

s. 127(1)(a) 168

s. 127(1)(i) 168

s. 127(2) 169

ss. 127(3)–(5) 168

s. 129 177

ss. 137–140 172

ss. 140A–C 172

s. 140A 172, 173

s. 140B 172, 174, 177

s. 189(1) 162

Consumer Credit Act 2006 158, 159, 161, 162, 168, 169, 172

s. 127 179, 180

Consumer Protection Act 1987 127, 129, 134, 141, 143, 146, 228, 231, 232

Parts I–V 145

Part I 128, 130, 134, 141, 154

s. 1(2) 134, 249

s. 2 235

s. 2(1) 134, 135, 138

s. 2(2) 134, 135

s. 2(3) 135

s. 3 136, 141, 235

s. 3(1) 135, 139, 235, 236

s. 3(2) 135, 136

s. 4 139, 235

ss. 4(1)(a)–(f ) 139

s. 4(1)(e) 236

s. 5 139, 246

TABLE OF CASES AND STATUES

s. 5(1–3) 246

s. 6(4) 139

Part II 144, 150, 152, 153, 155, 239, 248

s. 10 150

s. 11 144, 146, 155, 235

s. 11(5) 146

s. 11(7) 148

s. 12 149

s. 13 149

s. 13(1)(a) 149

s. 13(1)(b) 149

s. 14 150

s. 16 150

s. 19 144, 148, 155, 248

ss. 19(1)(a)–(e) 148

Part III 206, 208, 209

s. 20 209

s. 24 209, 220 Part V

s. 39 144, 152, 153, 209, 239

s. 41(1) 146, 154

Consumer Rights Act 2015 ix, x, 4, 18, 19, 30, 33, 36,

37, 38, 39, 43, 47, 50, 59, 67, 88, 102, 229

s. 2(2) 8, 14

s. 2(3) 7, 14

s. 2(4) 7

s. 9 42, 68, 107

s. 9(2) 60

s. 10 42, 68, 107

s. 11 42, 68

s. 11(5) 68

s. 13 42, 68, 107

s. 15 42, 68, 107

s. 16 107

s. 17 42, 68, 107

s. 17(2) 107

s. 17(3) 107

s. 17(5) 107

s. 17(6) 107

s. 17(7) 107

s. 19(9) 107

s. 20 107

s. 21 92

s. 22 92, 107

s. 23 107

s. 24 107

s. 25 91

s. 26 92

s. 29 76

s. 34 107

s. 35 107

s. 36 107

s. 37 107

s. 41 108

s. 43 107

s. 44 107

s. 46 107

s. 49 108

s. 49(1) 67

s. 50 108

s. 51 48, 67

s. 52 67, 108

s. 55 108

s. 56 108

s. 62 36

s. 62(4) 39

s. 63 37

s. 70 37

Part 2 36

Sch. 2 36, 37

Sch. 3 37

Consumer Safety Act 1978 146

Consumer Safety (Amendment) Act 1986 146

Contracts (Applicable Law) Act 1990 113

Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 132, 141

s. 1 132

s. 1(1) 132

s. 1(1)(a) 132

s. 1(1)(b) 132

s. 1(2) 132

s. 1(3) 132

Electronic Communications Act 2000 120

s. 7 120, 121

s. 8 120, 121

Enterprise Act 2002 219, 221

Part 8 37, 124, 221, 226, 236

s. 210 221, 246

s. 210(1) 221, 246

s. 210(2) 221, 246

s. 214 221, 236

Factors Act 1889

s. 2(1) 81

Hire Purchase Act 1964

Part III 82

Late Payment of Commercial Debts (Interest) Act 1998 97, 161

Law of Contracts (Applicable Law) Act 1990 124

Law Reform (Frustrated Contracts) Act 1943 74

Misrepresentation Act 1967

s. 2(1) 39, 223, 239, 241

Protection from Harassment Act 1997 216

Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1994 56, 91, 94, 224

Sale of Goods Act 1979 x, 19, 22, 23, 24, 41, 55, 73, 74, 77, 89, 94, 130, 222, 223, 228, 230

s. 2(1) 42, 44

s. 4 47

s. 4(1) 47

s. 5 45

s. 8 47, 48, 49, 97

s. 10(1) 97

ss. 12–15 23, 24, 43, 49, 66, 67, 130

s. 12 24, 30, 50, 68, 102

s. 12(1) 24, 42, 50, 51, 52, 53, 233

s. 12(2) 24, 42, 50, 52, 53, 233

s. 12(2)(a) 52

s. 12(2)(b) 52

s. 12(4) 53

s. 12(5) 53

ss. 13–15 24, 102

s. 13 22, 23, 30, 31, 50, 53, 56, 58, 104, 228, 229, 231, 232, 239, 240

s. 13(1) 22, 42, 50, 53

s. 13(1)(1A) 22

s. 13(2) 42, 57

s. 13(3) 42, 57, 58

s. 14 23, 30, 31, 46, 58, 59, 60, 66, 105, 229, 231, 232, 240

s. 14(2) 5, 40, 50, 58, 60, 63, 64, 95, 140, 232

s. 14(2A) 39, 42, 60, 68, 232, 234, 235

s. 14(2B) 39, 42, 60, 68, 232

ss. 14(2B)(a)–(e) 60, 62

s. 14(2B)(a) 61, 64, 232

s. 14(2B)(d) 234, 235

s. 14(2B)(e) 235

s. 14(2C)(a) 60

s. 14(2C)(b) 60

s. 14(2C)(c) 60, 66

s. 14(2D) 60

s. 14(2E) 60

s. 14(3) 5, 40, 42, 50, 63, 64, 68, 140, 232

s. 14(3)(a) 39, 240

s. 15 23, 30, 42, 50, 66, 68

s. 15(1) 66

s. 15(2) 50, 66

s. 15(2)(c) 66

s. 15A 24, 54, 56, 102, 109, 231, 234

s. 16 77

s. 17 233

s. 17(1) 76

s. 18 76, 77, 233

s. 20 74, 75, 233

s. 20A 78, 233

s. 20B 78, 233

s. 20(4) 76

s. 21 80

s. 21(1) 81

s. 21(2) 81

s. 23 81, 82

s. 24 82

s. 25 82

s. 25(1) 82

s. 27 83, 84, 90

s. 27(2) 83

s. 27(3) 83

s. 28 90

s. 29 109

s. 29(3) 88, 91, 109

s. 30 91

s. 30(1) 88, 91, 109

s. 30(2) 88, 91, 109

s. 30(2A) 54

s. 30(2A)(a) 88, 91, 109

s. 30(2A)(b) 88, 91, 109

s. 31 92, 109

s. 31(1) 92

s. 31(2) 93, 234

s. 34 94

s. 35 24, 88, 94, 95, 97

s. 35A 92, 97, 109

s. 35(1)(a) 94, 95, 234

s. 35(1)(b) 94, 95, 234

s. 35(2) 94

s. 35(2)(a) 240

s. 35(3) 94, 109

s. 35(4) 94, 95, 110, 234

s. 35(5) 94

s. 35(6) 95

s. 35(6)(a) 234

s. 35(6)(b) 234

s. 35(7) 97

s. 35A 109

s. 37 91, 100

s. 38 100, 233

s. 46 101

s. 48 101

ss. 48A–48F 106

s. 48A(2)(a) 106

s. 48A(2)(b)(i) 106

s. 48A(2)(b)(ii) 106

s. 48B 106

s. 48C 106

s. 48D 106

s. 48E(2) 106

s. 48E(4) 106

s. 49 99

s. 49(1) 99

s. 49(2) 99

s. 50(2) 99

s. 50(3) 99

s. 51 102, 103, 104, 109, 110

s. 53 103, 104, 234

s. 53(1) 104, 105

s. 53(2) 104, 105, 234

s. 53(3) 104, 105, 234

s. 53(4) 104, 105, 234

s. 54 104, 105, 234

s. 59 95

s. 61 76, 233

s. 61(1) 42, 45, 46, 120

Sale of Goods (Amendment) Act 1994 78

Sale of Goods (Amendment) Act 1995 77

Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982 x, 66, 67, 154, 222

Part I 131

ss. 2–5 131

s. 13 67, 195, 230

s. 14 67

s. 15 48, 198

s. 15(1) 48, 198

s. 15(2) 48, 198

s. 16 230

Supply of Goods (Implied Terms) Act 1973 x, 222

s. 8 30

s. 9 31

s. 10 31

s. 11 31

Trade Descriptions Act 1968 7, 10, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 212, 214, 224

s. 1 208

s. 1(1) 209

s. 1(1)(a) 209

s. 1(1)(b) 209, 220

s. 14 208, 220

s. 14(1) 209

s. 14(1)(a) 209

s. 14(1)(b) 209

s. 14(1)(b)(i) 209

s. 24 209

s. 24(1) 220

s. 25 220

Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 x, 4, 6, 9, 18, 19, 24, 26, 29, 30, 37, 38, 39, 59, 67, 97, 124, 222, 230, 232

s. 1(3) 29, 245

s. 2 31

s. 2(1) 30

s. 2(2) 30, 69

s. 3 30

s. 6 30, 31, 67, 69, 232

s. 6(2) 59

s. 6(3) 5, 39

s. 7 6, 31

s. 11 31, 32, 39, 67, 69

s. 12 5, 29, 67, 229

s. 12(1) 4, 6, 14, 155

Sch. 2 31, 32, 39, 67, 69

Unsolicited Goods and Services Act 1971

s. 2 114

statutory Instruments

Business Protection from Misleading Marketing Regulations SI 2008/1276 206, 224

Part 1 224

Part 2 225

Part 3 225

Part 4 225

Cancellation of Contracts made in a Consumer’s Home or Place of Work etc. Regulations SI 2008/1816 114

Commercial Agents (Council Directive) Regulations SI 1993/3053 182, 201

reg. 2(1) 197

reg. 15 201

reg. 17 201

reg. 17(3) 201, 202

reg. 17(3)(a) 202

reg. 17(3)(b) 202

reg. 17(4) 202

reg. 17(6) 201

reg. 18 202

Consumer Contracts (Information, Cancellation and Additional Charges) Regulations SI 2013/3134

ix, 97, 112, 113, 114, 119, 125, 126

reg. 5 115

reg. 6 115

reg. 7 116

reg. 13 117

reg. 14(2) 117, 118

reg. 14(3) 118

reg. 14(4) 117

reg. 30(2)(a) 118

reg. 30(2)(b) 118

reg. 30(3) 118

reg. 31 118

reg. 31(2) 118

reg. 31(3) 118

reg. 37(2) 120

reg. 40(2) 120

reg. 41(1) 120

reg. 42 118

Sch. 2 116

Sch. 2(w) 120

Consumer Credit Act 1974 (Electronic Communications) Order SI 2004/3236 121

Consumer Credit (Advertisements) Regulations SI 2004/1484 166

Consumer Credit (Agreements) (Amendment) Regulations SI 2004/1482 168

Consumer Protection (Amendment) Regulations SI 2014/870 ix, 206, 222

reg. 27C(2) 223

reg. 27D(1) 223

reg. 27D(2) 223

reg. 27D(3) 223

reg. 27F/G 223

reg. 27H 223

reg. 27I 223

reg. 27J 223

reg. 27J(5) 224

reg. 27J(5)(a)(i–v) 224 reg. 27J(5)(b) 224 reg. 27K 223

Consumer Protection (Cancellation of Contracts

Concluded away from Business Premises) Regulations SI 1987/2117 221

Consumer Protection (Distance Selling) Regulations SI 2000/2334 114, 115, 119, 172, 222 reg. 7 117

Consumer Protection from Unfair Trading Regulations SI 2008/1277 4, 8,10, 14, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 213, 216, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 228, 229, 247

Part 1 11

reg. 2 211, 212

reg. 2(1) 11, 212, 213, 214, 216, 247

regs. 2(2) –(6) 210 reg. 2(2) 11, 210 reg. 2(4) 210, 211

reg. 2(5) 11, 210

reg. 2(5)(a) 11, 211 reg. 2(5)(b) 211

reg. 3(3) 212, 213

reg. 5 212, 214, 215, 218, 239 reg. 5(2) 215

reg. 5(3) 215

reg. 6 212, 216, 219, 239 reg. 6(1) 215 reg. 7 212, 217 reg. 7(1) 216 reg. 7(2) 217

reg. 7(3) 216

reg. 7(3)(a) 216 reg. 7(3)(b) 216 regs. 8–12 219

reg. 8 219

reg. 8(1)(a) 219 reg. 9 219

reg. 10 219

reg. 11 216, 219 reg. 12 219

reg. 17 219, 220 reg. 18 219, 220

Part 4 221, 226

Part 4A, reg. 27 222

Sch. 1 114, 206, 212, 217, 219, 220

Sch. 1, para. 31 218, 239

Consumer Transactions (Restrictions on Statements) Order SI 1976/1813 222

Control of Misleading Advertisements Regulations SI 1988/915 209, 224

Electronic Commerce (EC Directive) Regulations SI 2002/2013 120, 121, 125, 126, 215, 222, 248 reg. 2 248

reg. 2(1) 121, 248 reg. 13 121

Electronic Signatures Regulations SI 2002/318 120

Enterprise Act (Part 8 Community Infringements Specified UK Laws) Order SI 2003/1374 221

Enterprise Act (Part 8 Domestic Infringements) Order SI 2003/1593 221

Financial Services (Distance Marketing) Regulations SI 2004/2095 158, 170

General Product Safety Regulations SI 1994/2328 150

General Product Safety Regulations SI 2005/1803 143, 144, 145, 146, 150, 152, 155, 231

reg. 2 151, 152, 155, 246, 247

reg. 3 152

reg. 5 144, 150, 151, 152, 235 reg. 7 151 reg. 8 151

reg. 8(1) 152 reg. 11 153 reg. 12 153 reg. 13 153 reg. 14 154 reg. 15 154 reg. 18 154

reg. 21 154

reg. 29 144, 152, 153, 239

reg. 29(1) 153

reg. 29(2) 153

reg. 29(2)(a) 153

reg. 29(2)(b) 153

reg. 29(4)(a) 153

reg. 29(4)(b) 153

reg. 42 154

Oral Snuff (Safety) Regulations 1989 147

Sale and Supply of Goods to Consumers Regulations SI 2002/3045 x, 75, 94, 131, 222 reg. 2 4, 14

Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations SI 1994/3159 33

Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations SI 1999/2083 x, 6, 9, 26, 29, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 124, 155, 213, 222 reg. 3(1) 4, 6, 14

Sch. 2 36, 37

European Legislation

Conventions

Convention on Jurisdiction and the Enforcement of Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters (Brussels Convention) 1968 124 Art. 26 125

Convention on the Law Applicable to Contractual Obligations (Rome Convention) 1980 124

Regulations

Council Regulation (EC) 44/2001 (Brussels Regulation) 113, 122

Art. 15 123, 126

Council Regulation (EC) 593/2008 (Rome I) 124

Directives

Council Directive 85/374/EEC (Product Liability) 134, 247

Art. 4 135, 151

Council Directive 85/577/EEC (Doorstep Selling) ix, 221

Council Directive 87/102/EEC (Consumer Credit) 222

Council Directive 93/13/EEC (Unfair Contract Terms) ix, 36, 222

Council Directive 97/7/EC (Distance Selling) ix, 114, 222

Council Directive 99/44/EC (Sale of Consumer Goods and Guarantees) ix, 222

Council Directive 99/93/EC (Electronic Signatures) 120

Council Directive 2000/31/EC (Electronic Commerce) 112, 121, 222

Council Directive 2001/95/EC (General Product Safety) 150

Council Directive 2005/29/EC (Unfair Commercial Practices) 8, 11, 14, 205, 210, 216, 221, 225

Recital 18 11

Recital 19 11

Art. 2(a) 11

Council Directive 2011/83/EU (Consumer Rights) ix, 33

The need for consumer protection

1

Revision checklist

Essential points you should know:

¨ Why consumers need protecting in commercial transactions

¨ The historical absence of a uniform statutory definition of consumer

¨ How case law has extended definitions of consumer status

¨ The definition of consumer within the Consumer Rights Act 2015

¨ How European law definitions compare with those in English law

¨ The extent to which commercial transactions can be regulated

Topic map

Deﬁnitions of consumer at st atute and common law

European deﬁnitions of consumer

Consumer transactions Acting within the course of a trade or business

Average consumer Vulnerable consumer

R & B Customs Brokers Co Ltd v. United Dominions Trust (1988)

Stevenson v. Rogers (1999)

Lloyd Schuhfabrik Meyer & Co GmbH v. Klijsen Handel BV C-342/97 (1999)

Regulation and enforcement of consumer protection

Introduction

Because consumers have the potential to be exploited by unscrupulous traders they receive greater protection from the law.

So, under the aegis of the European Union, the UK has increased regulation by introducing legislation, codes of practice and powers of enforcement by public authorities. By regulating transactions between business and consumers, most recent reform has indeed afforded the consumer greater protection, but these reforms also need to include small and medium-sized enterprises, so that they can compete on equal terms. Bear in mind that a customer’s status in a commercial transaction will determine the level of protection given to them.

Essay questions

The question may take the form of a quotation upon which you are invited to comment. It is important to show, therefore, an understanding of the rationale behind consumer protection and why a party might prefer to achieve consumer status in a transaction. When describing various statutory definitions of consumer status, always highlight the potential loopholes in a definition by comparing and contrasting it with any other apt definition. Always use case law to illustrate how the courts utilise the definitions to reflect context, and take the opportunity to comment upon any discrepancies that may exist between the cases.

Problem questions

Consumer status issues in problem questions usually have to be interpreted alongside exclusions of liability for defective products or services, and will involve a detailed analysis of any effects that unfair terms legislation has on consumers and businesses, examples of which can be found in Chapter 3.

sample question

Could you answer this question? Below is a typical essay question that could arise on this topic. Guidelines on answering the question are included at the end of this chapter, whilst a sample problem question and guidance on tackling it can be found on the companion website.

AssE ssmEnT AdvIcE