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THEDIGITALREVOLUTION
“Offerstimelyinsightintoatimelesspreoccupationwiththedigital age.”
BenjaminPeters
HazelRogersAssociateProfessorofMedia StudiesandaffiliatedfacultyCyberStudies, UniversityofTulsa,andauthorof HowNottoNetworkaNation: TheUneasyHistoryoftheSovietInternet
“GabrieleBalbidelvesintoanotionwhosehistory,actorsand developmentsshapeourdigitalimaginariesandpractices,aswellasour relationshipwithtechnology,mediaandinnovation.Amust-readfor anyoneinterestedinthedigitalworld.”
ValérieSchafer
CenterforContemporaryandDigitalHistory, UniversityofLuxembourg
“Thisshortbookisbothtopicalandtimely.”
JaneWinters ProfessorofDigitalHumanities, SchoolofAdvancedStudy,UniversityofLondon
THEDIGITAL REVOLUTION
AShortHistoryofanIdeology
GabrieleBalbi
Translatedby
BonnieMcClellan-Broussard
TranslationsupportedbyFondazioneHildaeFeliceVitali,Lugano
GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford,OX26DP, UnitedKingdom
OxfordUniversityPressisadepartmentoftheUniversityofOxford. ItfurtherstheUniversity’sobjectiveofexcellenceinresearch,scholarship, andeducationbypublishingworldwide.Oxfordisaregisteredtrademarkof OxfordUniversityPressintheUKandincertainothercountries ©GabrieleBalbi2023
ApreviousversionofthisbookwaspublishedinItalianin2022: L’ultimaideologia. Brevestoriadellarivoluzionedigitale (Laterza).
Themoralrightsoftheauthorhavebeenasserted Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedin aretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,withoutthe priorpermissioninwritingofOxfordUniversityPress,orasexpresslypermitted bylaw,bylicenceorundertermsagreedwiththeappropriatereprographics rightsorganization.Enquiriesconcerningreproductionoutsidethescopeofthe aboveshouldbesenttotheRightsDepartment,OxfordUniversityPress,atthe addressabove
Youmustnotcirculatethisworkinanyotherform andyoumustimposethissameconditiononanyacquirer
PublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyOxfordUniversityPress 198MadisonAvenue,NewYork,NY10016,UnitedStatesofAmerica
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LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2023937659
ISBN9780198875970
DOI:10.1093/oso/9780198875970.001.0001
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Foreword
VincentMosco
Inthisshortbutinsightfulbook,Dr.GabrieleBalbitellsthestoryofan ideathathascapturedtheimaginationasmuchasormorethanany othersincethemiddleofthelastcentury.Itisatalethatasserts,often forcefully,thatweareinthemidstofacomputerrevolutionthatconstitutesaradicalrupturefromthepastandwhichirrevocablychanges thelivesofthoselivingthroughitandfuturegenerationaswell.Specifically,thetransitionfromananalogtoadigitalworldisnotjustashift intechnology,itportendsafundamentalchangeintime,space,and socialrelations.
Havingspentthepast50yearsengagingwiththestoryDr.Balbi recounts,Iamfamiliarwiththerangeofideasandemotionsitconjures.
In TheDigitalSublime (Mosco,2004),buildingontheworkofwriterslike LeoMarx(1964),DavidNye(1996),andCarolynMarvin(1990),Imade ittheobjectofabookthatdescribestheideaofadigitalrevolutionas morethanjustachangeintechnologyandevenmorethananewsetof politicaleconomicarrangements.Justasimportantly,itmarksthelatestiterationinthegrandmythsthatprovidefodderforouremotional comfortandideologicaljustificationforachangingworld.Inaword,it offers transcendence tohumanityasitseekstocopewiththeconsciousness ofitsownmortalityjustas,inthepast,thenaturalworldandreligion providedpathwaysthatmighttakeusbeyondthelimitsofourbiology. Thislatestvisionofthetechnologicalsublime,nowembodiedinmyths aboutartificialintelligenceandthemetaverseanticipates,foritsmajor storytellersandbelievers,nothingshortoftheendofhistory,theend ofgeography,andtheendofpolitics.
Dr.Balbi’sanalysiscastsawidenetthatincludessupportersandcriticsofthedigitalrevolutionthesistosuggestthatwhetheroptimistor
pessimist,believerordoubter,mostexpertshaveviewedthecomingof thecomputerasamonumentalevent,awatershedinhumanhistory.Onthesurface,itisunderstandablyhardtocontendwiththeuse ofthetermrevolutiontodescribethearrivalofadigitalworld.From measuresofscreentimetothepowerofcompanieslikeGoogle,Amazon,Microsoft,Apple,andFacebookthatdevelopedtheapplications thatmostoftheglobedependsonandwhichmakethemthewealthiest companiesintheworld,onecanjustifiablyargueforthetranscendent importanceofthedigitalworld.Nevertheless,whenoneconsidersothermeasures,suchasquestionableproductivitygainsandtheunkept promisesofaworldwhereleisurereplaceswork,theword banality may seemmoreappropriatethantranscendence.Whenthoughtaboutin connectionwiththecapacitytodeepenandextendsurveillance,rather thanfreeingusfromthe“ironcage”ofabureaucraticsocietythatthe sociologistMaxWeber(2002)foresawoveracenturyago,thedigital worldtightensthebarsandstrengthensthelocks.
OneofthebenefitsofDr.Balbi’sbookisthatitencouragesreflectiononthedigitalrevolutionstoryinthecontextoftheexistential challengestheworldfacestoday.Overthelastthreeyears,Ihavebeen workingonaprojectthataddressesthecurrentresurgenceofinterestintheconceptofutopia—atermgivenlifeinThomasMore’s1516 classicbook(More,2003).Leadingtoday’srenewedattentionisaraftof newwriting(fromcriticismtosciencefiction),art,music,andfilmon Afrofuturism,radicalfeminism,eco-socialism,andqueerutopias.With allthetalkaboutthemetaverseandAI,thereisinterestincomputer utopias,particularlyofalibertarianbent,butthesearesecondarywhen comparedtocreativeworkonrace,gender,socialclass,andtheenvironment,especiallywhenitcomestothemostambitiousreimagining ofwhatabetterworldmightlooklike.Decolonizingutopia,rethinking genderandsexuality,revisioningaworldwherenatureispre-eminent, thesearetheprimarythemesintheworldwiderenewalofinterestin More’sidea.
Inmyview,akeytounderstandingtheresurgenceofworkon utopia,fromtheimaginationsofpeoplelikeNoraKeitaJemisin(2020, 2022),KimStanleyRobinson(2020),OctaviaButler(2009),JoséEsteban Muñoz(2019),andJohnBellamyFoster(2020),istherecognitionthat theworldfacesexistentialchallengesthatarebeyondmerereforms. Theseincludeclimatecatastrophe,globalpandemics,theriskofnuclearwar,andthegrowinggapbetweenrichandpoor.Computersare implicatedinall,bothbydeepeningtheirrisksandinimprovingthe chancesofhumansurvival.However,noneofthesethreatstothe futureoflifeoneartharesimplytheresultofadigitalrevolution.They aretheconsequencesofpoliticalandeconomicchoiceshumanshave madesincethedawnofcapitalism,especiallyamongthemostpowerfulpeopleontheplanet.Thecurrentfascinationwithutopiaislargely anefforttoapplythepowersofhumanintelligenceandimaginationto rethinkwhatitmeanstobehumanandtoliveinharmonywithnature andourfellowcitizensonthisplanet.
Therevolutionswerequirearenotfirstandforemosttechnological innature.AsDr.Balbiremindsus,thesoonerwedisposeoflinking revolutiontowhatevertechnologycomesalong,themorelikelywe aretoaddresstherevolutionsinthoughtandinsocialrelationsthat arerequiredtosavetheplanetfromirreparabledamagetotheclimate,fromthepotentialofapandemicfarworsethanCOVID-19, fromthelikelihoodofnuclearwinter,andfromtheconsequencesof extremedifferencesinwealthandaccesstoresources.Choicesneed tobemadeabouthowbesttoapplydigitaltechnologiesbutthesolutions,asalways,aretobefoundinhowwedecidetothinkaboutthese problemsandinhowwechoosetorelatetooneanother.
Consideringthestakesforthesurvivalofourspeciesandourplanet, onemightthinkthatitwouldbereasonabletoexpectthatsettingaside thenarrativeofagranddigitalrevolutionwouldbeeasy.However,it isoneofthegreatstrengthsofDr.Balbi’sbookthatheconvincingly
documentsthedifficultiesindoingso.Thetechnologicalrevolutionhe identifiesistantamounttoareligionwithitsownmantras,faithsystem, andproudbelievers.
Heidentifiesfiveprimarymantrasthatprovidesustenancetothose cravingdigitaltranscendence.Theseincludethewidelyuseddescriptive words:disruptive,total,irresistible,future,andpermanent.Thecomputerrevolutiondisruptsaworldinneedofashakeup.Itsimpactis totalandresistanceisfutile.Itisthewave,ifnotthetsunami,ofthe futureanditsimpactispermanent.
Inessence,asthebookdocuments,thedigitalrevolutionisdifficultto challengebecauseitismorethananintellectualstanceandmorethana theorywhoseveracityneedstobetestedagainsttherealityofeveryday lifetoday.Itis,inessence,areligionwithitsownshrines,truebelievers,andheretics.Assuchitisdifficult,ifnotimpossibletodisplace.But allmythsmeettheiradversaries,whetheritissocialmovementsthat recognizetheneedtorightwrongsorjustacriticalmassofindividualscommittedtounderminingdominantmythsandproposingmore human-centeredalternatives.Often,technologicalmythswitherfrom whatWeberalsocalledtheroutinizationofcharismaorthebanality thatinevitablyfollowsinthewakeofaburstofreligiousenthusiasm. Suchislikelytobethefateofthedigitalrevolution,asdiscourseandas religion.
Itisuptous,thosestrugglingtofindgenuinesolutionstoaddress challengestolifeonEarthtodeterminewhetherthestoryofacomputerrevolution,whenitisrelegatedtothedustbinofhistory,will bereplacedbysomethingthatmightactuallyhelpsavetheworld.Dr. Balbi’sbookisagoodplacetostart.
x Foreword
References
Butler,Octavia.(2009). Kindred.Beacon. Foster,JohnBellamy.(2020). TheReturnofNature:SocialismandEcology.Monthly ReviewPress.
Jemisin,N.K.(2020). TheCityWeBecame.Hachette. Jemisin,N.K.(2022). TheWorldWeMade.Orbit. Marvin,C.(1990). WhenOldTechnologiesWereNew:ThinkingaboutElectricCommunication intheLateNineteenthCentury.OxfordUniversityPress. Marx,L.(1964). TheMachineintheGarden.OxfordUniversityPress. More,T.2003. Utopia.Penguin. Mosco,V.(2004). TheDigitalSublime.TheMITPress. Muñoz,J.E.(2019). CruisingUtopia,10thAnniversaryEdition:TheThenandThereofQueer Futurity.NewYorkUniversityPress. Nye,D.(1996). TheAmericanTechnologicalSublime.TheMITPress. Robinson,K.S.(2020). TheMinistryfortheFuture.Orbit. Weber,M.(2002.) TheProtestantEthicandthe“Spirit”ofCapitalismandOtherWritings (P.BaehrandG.C.Wells,Trans.).Penguin.
Acknowledgements
Thisbookisnowstartingitsthirdlife.
Itsfirstlifebeganwithitsconceptionin2018,continuedthrough early2020,andculminatedwithasabbaticalgrantedbymyuniversity,USIUniversitàdellaSvizzeraitaliana,intheSpringsemesterof2020. Asweallknow,thefirsthalfof2020wasalsooneofthemostdifficult momentsincontemporaryhistoryforpeoplearoundtheglobe,andI wasonlyabletospendafewweeksofthetimeIhadplannedatConcordiaUniversity’sDepartmentofCommunicationScienceinMontreal. Nevertheless,thankstothesupportofCharlesAcland,eveninthat briefperiodIwasabletotalkwithseveralpeopleintheMediaHistory ResearchCentreaboutmybookproject.Afterwards,Ialsodiscussedmy ideaswithfriendsandcolleaguesoverSkypeandviaanever-increasing numberofotherplatformsthatwerebecomingpopularatthattime.In thefirsthalfof2020,IrememberilluminatingchatswithBillBruxton, AndreasFickers,RichardR.John,VincentMosco,KatharinaNiemeyer, ValérieSchafer,DominqueTrudel,DwayneWinseck,andmanyothers. ConcordiaUniversityandMontrealitself,withitspubliclibrariesand stunningdatabases,werebothcrucialinthecollectionofsources.
Initssecondlife,thisbookspokeItalian.Duringthelonglockdowns, Ihadtimetoresearchthesourcesin-depthandtowritethebook slowly,intheItaliancountryside(averysmallvillagecalledPollastra,inPiedmont)andinLugano.WhilewritingthebookIalsoenjoyed fruitfulconversationswithItalian-speakingcolleagues,mostofwhom wereworkingatorconnectedtotheInstituteofMediaandJournalismatmyuniversity.Someofthemdidmetheserviceofreading overthemanuscript.IamindebttoDeborahBarcella,PaoloBory, PhilipDiSalvo,ElyLüethi,PaoloMagaudda,SimoneNatale,Gianluigi Negro,PeppinoOrtoleva,andMariaRikitianskaiafortheirsuggestions andrevisions.Theirhelpwascrucialinrefiningmyideas,addingnew historicalexamples,andchangingmymindaboutsomeissues.
Acknowledgements
ThebookwaspublishedinFebruary2022bytheItalianpublisher Laterza,thankstothehelpoftheeditorLiadiTrapani.Thevolume immediatelygarneredsomeattentionfromthepressandmyacademiccolleagues.Ithasbeenpresentedanddiscussedattheuniversitiesof Arezzo,Siena,Cagliari,Udine,Lugano,Padua,Naples,Neuchˆatel,Bari, Bologna,Turin,andseveralmorearescheduled.Forallofthesekind invitations,IwouldliketothankLucaBarra,GianenricoBernasconi, TizianoBonini,MassimoCerulo,FaustoColombo,MarcoCucco,Juan CarlosDeMartin,SabinodiChio,StefanoBory,SimoneDotto,Anna MariaLorusso,PietroMontorfani,GianfrancoPecchinenda,MassimilianoPanarari,FrancescaPasquali,StefanoPisu,MassimoRospocher, VitoSaracino,MassimoScaglioni,andCosimoMarcoScarcelli,among manyothers.
Thethirdlifeof TheDigitalRevolution,whichisnowinprint,began intheSummerof2022,whenIdecidedtosubmitabookproposalto OxfordUniversityPress.TheeditorDanTaberimmediatelylikedthe idea,asdidfouranonymousreviewers.Thelatteralsoprovidedinterestinginsights,newscientificliterature,andnewcasestudieswhich helpedmereshapethebookforaninternationalaudience.Following myrevision,BonnieMcClellan-Broussardstartedtoworkontranslatingthetext,andsheturnedouttobemuchmorethanasimple translator.Thebookisveryreadable,atleasttotheuntrainedeyeofa non-nativespeakerlikemyself,mainlybecauseofher.Thetranslation wassponsoredbytheLugano-basedFondazioneHildaeFeliceVitaliand thebookwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutthefoundation’sgeneroussupport.ThemanuscriptsubmissionwasthenmanagedbyGiulia LippariniandfinallyRajeswariAzayecochewhoguidedmethroughthe productionphase.
ThelastpersonIwouldliketothankisFrancescoBalbi,whowasborn onDecember2,2020.Basically,hegrewuptogetherwiththebookand soitremindsmeofthesmellofmilk,butalsoofhissmilesandhisfirst words,andevenhisfirstdaysofschool.Franci,thisbookisdedicatedto you.
Introduction UnderstandingtheDigitalRevolutionasan Ideology
We’reoftentoldhowluckyweareandwhataprivilegeitistoliveinthe eraofthedigitalrevolution.Weallfirmlybelievethatwe’reimmersed inahistoricalmomentofradicalchangeforhumanity,theeffectsof whichare(orwillbe)asearth-shatteringasthoseassociatedwiththe inventionoffire,theFrenchRevolution,ortheIndustrialRevolution. Itisarevolutionthatcannolongerberesistedbecauseputtingupresistanceputsusatriskofbeingexcludedfromtheseaofcurrentand especiallyfutureopportunities.Itisarevolutionthatwemustbelieve inbecause—almostasifitwereareligion—itwillshowusapathto follow.However,itisalsoarevolutionthatmustbethoroughlyunderstoodbecauseitisthefoundationofsomeofcontemporarysociety’s mostcommondreams,expectations,andmythologies.
Withoutadoubt,digitizationhaschangedandischangingthehabits ofbillionsofpeoplearoundtheglobe.Creatingandsharingphotos orvideos,sendingandreceivingmessages,collectingandconsuming information,buyingandresellingobjectsontheWeb—allofthesehave becomedailyandsometimesobsessiveactivities.It’sagiventhatweown phones(onaverage,oneforeverypersononEarth),whichwekeep withusformostofthedayandwhichallowustocreatestillormovingimages,toenjoyaudiovisualcontent,tosurftheInternet,towake upinthemorning,toplay,andeventomakephonecalls.Thosewho don’thavesmartphonesareseenasrarebeasts:suspect.Discussingthe allegedpositiveornegative“effects”ofsocialmedia,5G,andartificial intelligence(AI)—oftenexpressingeccentricopinions—isafascinatingactivitypursuedbypeopleatbusstops,infrontofApplestores,at
dinnerswithfriendsathome,andamongFacebookgroupsthatpredict digitalapocalypsesorliberations.
However,supportingorcriticizingthetheorythathumanityisdealingwith,orhasdealtwith,anevolutionaryleapthankstothedigital “revolution”isn’tthetopicofthisbook.NordoIintendtoargue thatthisrevolutionisgoodorbadforhumanity.That’snotthepoint. Instead,thisbookanalyzesthewaysinwhichthegreattaleofthedigital revolutionhasbeen told,therhetoric,thenarratives,andtheovertor implieddebatesthathaveaccompanieditandcontinuetoaccompany ittoday.Inshort,thisvolumeaimstotellthe storyofanidea,probably themostpowerfulideaofrecentdecades:thatdigitizationconstitutes arevolution,abreakwiththepast,aradicalchangeforhumanbeings whofindthemselveslivingthroughit.
Thebookaimstoinvestigatetheoriginsofthisidea,howitevolved, whichotherpastrevolutionsconsciouslyorunconsciouslyinspiredit, whichgreatstoriesithasconveyedovertime,whichofitskeyelements havechanged,andwhichoneshavepersistedandhavebeenrepeated indifferenthistoricalperiods.Allofthesediscussions,largeandsmall, havesettledandbecomecondensedintoaseriesofmedia,advertising, corporate,political,andtechnicalsources.Imakeextensiveuseofthese sourcesinthefollowingpages,sourcesthathaveresurfacedthanksto searchesondigitaldatabasessuchasFactiva,ProQuest,LexisNexis,CartoonStock,orhavebeencollectedoveryearsofstudiesonthesubject.I willalsotrytomakethesesourcesheardabovethefraybecauseIbelieve thatthespiritofthedigitalrevolutionemergesmoreclearlyfromthe actualwordsofpoliticiansandcorporateCEOs,fromadvertisements orcartoons,frommediarepresentationsoftherevolution,andfrom thethousandsofparaphrasesorinterpretationsthatcanbemadeofit. Totellthestoryofanidea,Ibelievethatitisnecessarytofollowthe tracesthat,voluntarilyorinvoluntarily,ithasleftbehind.Thedigitalrevolutionhasspilledriversofinkandsquanderedwordsaswellas expectations—political,economic,orsocial.
Allthesestorieshaveanideologicalquality.Specifically,an ideology—withmanyofthestrongandweakassociationsthatthis termhasassumed—thathasprovedcapableofreachingacrossglobal societiesbetweenthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcenturyandthefirst decadesofthetwenty-first.Atrulyglobalideologymadeupofdiscussions,whicharesurprisinglysimilarevenindistantcountriesand cultures,ofstereotypesrepeatedandrenewedovertime,ofalinear visionofhistorythatleadsfromananalogworldtoaninevitablydigital one.
Butwhyshouldthedigitalrevolutionbeanideology?Thetermideologyhasessentiallytwomeaningsthathavefilteredintothecommon consciousness,thefirstbeingaspecificvisionoftheworldandthesecondafalseordistortedwayofthinking.Bothofthesedimensionsare applicabletothedigitalrevolution.Startingwiththeconceptofideologyasavisionoftheworld,thedigitalrevolutionisanideathathas dominatedrecentdecades.Havingenteredthecollectiveawareness, ithasmadedigitizationthesupremeprinciple,relegatingeverything else—thenon-digital—tothebackground.Ithasasystematiccharacter,thatprovidesanexhaustiveandcoherentexplanationofhistorical processes:exhaustivebecause,morethananyotheridea,thedigital revolutionhasallowedustoreadandinterpretrealityinanimmediateandunderstandableway;coherentbecauseitproposesaclear, stable,andstabilizingvisionoftheworldinwhichthedigitalrevolutionisthedominantparadigmofthepresent(andofthefuture), aglueusedbycontemporarysocietiestoholdthemselvestogether, eventorecognizeeachother,aswellastoadoptcommonhabits anddreams.
Inthisrespect,thedigitalrevolutionevenseemstohaveanallencompassingqualitybecauseitprovidesanexplanationoftheworld thatappliestoeveryfieldofhumanknowledgeandpracticeand,unlike morelimitedideologies,allowsaglobalreadingof all humanphenomena.Thedigitalrevolutionhasthesecharacteristics:politicalpartiesand politicshavechangedduetotheadventofdigitization,theeconomy
hasbeendisruptedbytelematics,ourwaysofcommunicatingandbeing intheworldarenotcomparabletowhattheywereinthepre-digital era.Thinkofanyfieldofhumanactivityandyou’llfindabook,aguru, oracompanyreadytotellyouthatthedigitalrevolutionhaschanged itforever.
What’smore,thisworldviewhasaholdonreality;itguidesand transformssocieties.It’sanideathatinfluencesbehaviors,habits,and everydaylife.Billionsofpeopletakeforgrantedthattheyarepartof anepochalrevolutionwhichhasallowedthemtocommunicateand do thingsthatwereimpossibleorevenunthinkableafewdecadesearlier.Sotheybuy,work,andplay—spendingmostoftheirtimefiddling withdigitalobjects,butabovealltheyhavemarried(andloved)theidea ofbeingimmersedinthedigitalrevolution.If,untilafewdecadesago, theadeptsofthedigitalrevolutionconstitutedanicheoftechnology experts,seenaseccentricpeopleandgivenoddmonikerslike hackers, nerds,or geeks (whichreferspreciselytothesemanticsofthebizarre), today,billionsofpeoplegointoecstasiesoverthemarket’slatestproductlaunch.Thebaseoftherevolution’sevangelistshasthusexpanded toembraceordinarypeople,fascinatedbythedesignofdigitalmedia, theconnectivepotentialofsocialmedia,orlife-enhancingtechnologies.InthewordsofAntonioGramsci,thedigitalrevolutionisaform of culturalhegemony thathasimposedabenchmarkculturaluniverseon societies,onethatwe’veallinternalizedandmadeourown.Andinthis respect,thedigitalrevolutionisahegemonicideologybecauseithasin factcolonizedmuchofcontemporarydiscourse,thoughts,anddreams. Note:Idon’twanttoapplyanynegativeassociationstotheconceptsof all-encompassingorhegemonicideology;it’sonlyafirststepinreconstructing,inthemostneutralwaypossible,thehistorical-culturalpath ofthedigitalrevolutionsofar.
However,asmentioned,thewordideologyalsohasasecondmeaningthatreferstoasemanticsofa falseordistortedwayofthinking.Inthis sense,thedigitalrevolutioncouldbeinterpretedasasortofscamor
consciousdeception,usefultoachievecertainendsandobjectivesgenerallyofaneconomicnature.Thedigitalrevolutionisundoubtedly drivenbyvariouspartisaninterests,ledbyhumanbeings,butalsoby companies,objects,andplacesthat,whilenotrepresentingthemselves asaspecificpoliticalpartyorgroupassomeofthe“classic”ideologies do,havebecomedominantclassesorsymbolsnevertheless.Thissecondmeaningrarelyfindsspaceinthenarrativeofthedigitalrevolution andIpersonallybelieveitismisleading.WhileIarguefortherelevance ofpartisaninterests,particularlyintheconclusionofthebook,Ido notbelievethatthedigitalrevolutionisadeceptionperpetratedby stakeholderswhodon’tactuallybelieveintherevolutionitself.Quite theopposite:thoseprotagonistsoftherevolutionwhowillfindample spaceinthisbook genuinely believeorbelievedthatthedigitalrevolution wouldchange(orcanstillchange)humanity.Clearly,thesepeople, justlikeanyrevolutionarycharactersandheroes—istherearevolution withoutitsheroes?—havesomethingtogain,butevenforthedigital revolution’sprotagonists,theaspectofself-convictionorself-deception seemsmoredecisiveandsignificantthanadeliberatedeception.
Infact,theideologicalvisionofthedigitalrevolutionissointernalizedattheindividualandcollectivelevelsthatithasbecomeauniversal thoughtpattern.Wegenuinelybelieve(andbelieved)thatthedigital revolutionwillsaveus,thatitisthebestwaytoenrichourselves,to feelbetter,toliveinbettersocieties,tocommunicatemoreefficiently. Whetheritisornot—thinkforexampleofhowinefficientourcommunicationsonsocialmediaareandofallofthedigital“noise”with whichwedistractourselvesandthatweproduce—isonlyrelatively significant.Whatissignificantisthefactthatwe’vemadethisideologyourownasifitwerea“natural,”indisputable,rational,andlogical idea.Therearenoalternativestothedigitalrevolutionbecause,weall believe,theworldinevitablymovesfromananalogpasttoadigital future.Consequently,manypresent(andfuture)revolutionsdepend onthedigitalone:thecontemporarypolitical,technological,andsocioculturalrevolutions,aswillbehighlightedinChapter 2,allseemto
dependonorbeintertwinedwiththedigitalone,whichactsasatrigger forthesechanges—oftenconsideredepochal.
Thisisalsowhythedigitalrevolutionisasortofcontemporarymythology(afterall,ideologieshaveamythicalcomponent), sometimesfullofprejudices:thatdigitalisbetterthananalog,thatthe transitiontodigitizationimprovessocietyfromvariouspointsofview, thattransformationisprimarilybeneficial.Butevenwhenthere are criticalapproachestodigitizationthatunderlinethegrowingdigitalgaps betweengenerationsandcultures,ortheirruptionofwidespreadand remunerativesurveillance,thefactthatadigitalrevolutionisunderwayorhasalreadybeenaccomplishedisnotquestioned.Inshort,even criticalapproachestothedigitalareideologicalwithregardtohow “revolutionary”itis.
Figure1 Iseverynewdigitaltechnologyabreakthrough,arevolution? ©CartoonStock.com,cartoonistSunillAgarwalandIanBaker,uploadedApril6, 2023.
Thisbookthenisashorthistoryofthewaysinwhichthedigitalrevolutionhasbeennarratedovertime,bywhom,andwithwhat recurringmantras.Chapter 1 aimstoprovideadefinition,orbetter, severaldefinitions,ofthetermdigitalrevolution.Thereareveryfew definitionswhicharewidelyaccepted,withtheexceptionofthefamous transitionfromatomstobits,especiallyastheorizedbyNicholasNegroponte.Uncertaintyprevails,startingwithnamesandperiodization.The digitalrevolutionhasbeengivendifferentnamesovertime;themost famousonesare“theinformationrevolution”(especiallyinthe1960s and1970s),“thedigitalrevolution”(especiallyinthe1990sand2000s), and“thedigitaltransformation”(whichhasbecomeverypopularsince the2010s).Thebeginningsandtheendingsoftherevolutionarealso uncertainand,accordingtosome“prophets,”thetruedigitalrevolutionisyettocome.Iclaimthatthisuncertainty,ratherthanbeing problematic,ispartofacrucialstrategytokeeptheideaattractiveand sexy.
Chapter 2 dealswithhowparallelsaremadewithpastrevolutions, aswellastheideathatthedigitalrevolutionistherevolutionaround whichallthepresentchangesrevolve.Thechangewroughtbythedigitalrevolutionhasbeencomparedtothatoffireorthebookaswellas theFrenchorRussianRevolutions,butthereisaparticularlyconstant referencetotheIndustrialRevolution.Theseparallelismsarecrucial toplacingthedigitalrevolution“ontheshouldersofgiants”andto certifyitsrelevanceonthebasisofthispedigree.However,thedigitalrevolutionisalsotherevolutionofourtimes,andalloftheother socialchangesareinevitablyinfluencedbyit:thinkofpoliticaluprisings liketheArabSprings(sometimesrenamedTwitterorFacebookRevolutions),thegreenrevolution,thefightforclimatechange,inwhich digitaltransformationseemsdestinedtoplayakeyrole,andfinallythe COVID-19pandemic,whenthedigitalrevolutionliterallysavedsome people’slives.
Thedigitalrevolutionhaslastedforseveraldecadesanditpromises tocontinueinthenearfuture.Thisdimensionofpersistenceandpermanenceisa“classic”characteristicofalltherevolutionsinthepast,as statedinChapter 3,butitisparticularlyrelevantforthedigitalrevolutionbecauselastingmeansattractingfunds,interest,andmaintaining relevanceoverextendedperiodsoftime,evenifthesamediscourseis continuallyrepeated.Ihavecalledtheserepetitivenarrativesmantras: thedisruptivecharacteroftherevolution(afterthedigitalrevolution, nothingwillbethesameasbefore);thefactthatitinvolvesthetotalityofhumanbeingsandspheresofaction;thefactthatitisirresistible and,indeed,thatopposingitiscounterproductive;thefactthatthe revolutionisnevercompleted,butneedstobecontinuallyhappening (thefutureisthefavoritetenseofthedigitalrevolution);andfinally, asTrotskyandotherssaidoftheRussianRevolution,itisapermanentphenomenonwhichhaslastedfordecadesandwilllastintothe future.Allofthesemantrasarebuzzwordsandtropesofthedigital revolutionwhichhavebeenassignedtoitwithoutmuchreflection. Deconstructingtheiroriginsandthereasonswhytheypersistovertime istheultimategoalofthischapter.
Chapter 4 aimstounderstandwhypeoplebelieveinthedigitalrevolutionalmostasifitwereacontemporaryreligion.Infact,itisa quasi-religionbecauseitisoftendescribedusingsacredandreligious metaphors:theprotagonistsofthedigitalrevolutionaregurus,messiahs,andtirelessevangelists;theplaceswheretherevolutionishappeningarethemeccastowardswhichweshouldturn;digitalobjectsare sacredrelicsandtransportustotranscendentrealities.Andthereare evenhereticsandinfidelswhohavetakenthelibertyofopposingthe rhetoricsurroundingdigitization’spositiveeffectsbutwhoveryrarely questiontherevolutionarynatureoftheprocess.
TheConclusionaimstoanswertwosimplequestions:whoprofits fromthegrandnarrativeofthedigitalrevolution?Andwhydoesitkeep going(orseemtocontinuewithlittledebate)?
Allthesechaptersfocusonthedevelopmentofspecificdiscourses overtime,startingaftertheSecondWorldWarbutoftenevenearlier. Nevertheless,thebookdoesn’tprovideacompletesurveyofallthepossibleexamplesoftherevolutionarydiscourses,orofallthefieldsthat havebeenrevolutionizedbythedigitalrevolution.Thatwouldhave beenbothanimpossibleandanuninterestingtasktoaccomplish.But you,thereader,canplayagame:trytofindotherfields,otherdiscourses,othertechnologiesorgurusorplaceswhicharenotmentionedhere andapplythetheoreticalbackgroundofthisbooktothem.Ifthepersistentdiscourseswhicharecontinuallyappliedtothedigitalrevolution canbeappliedtootherexampleswhicharenotincludedhere,thebook itselfgainsmorevalue.Itcanbeconsideredauniversalkey,a passepartout, forinterpretingtherevolutionarycharacterofthedigitalrevolution andcouldeveninspirenewbooks,papers,orresearchprojectsthataim toexpandonthisframework.ThisiswhatIhopeforboththebookand itsreaders.
Endnotes
Regardingthehistory,thesemantics,andtheconceptsofideology thereisahugeamountofliterature.Ihavefoundparticularlyusefulforthisbook Cormack,1992; McLellan,1995; Rossi-Landi,2005,and Rehmann,2007
Antonio Gramsci(2011) dealswiththetopicofculturalhegemony inanumberofhisworks,butaboveallinthethree-volumesetofhis PrisonNotebooks
Regardingthelinkbetweenideologyandtechnology,anumberof worksarecitedinthebook,butforabroaderframingofthesubjectsee DavidNye(1990,1994),wholinksananalysisofrhetorical/ideological responsestoradicaltechnologicalchangewithanin-depthexploration ofhowthatchangeactuallymanifesteditself.AlsoLeoMarxclassified theconceptoftechnologyintotwocategories:ideologicalandsubstantive.HethenquotesaspeechdeliveredbyUSSenatorDanielWebsterat
theopeningceremonyofanewrailroadin1847,whichisfullofthereligiousideologyofrevolutionwhichwewilltrytoretraceinthisbookin thecontextofthedigitalrevolution:“Itisanextraordinaryerainwhich welive.Itisaltogethernew.Theworldhasseennothinglikeitbefore. Iwillnotpretend,noonecanpretend,todiscerntheend;buteverybodyknowsthattheageisremarkableforscientificresearchintothe heavens,theearth,andwhatisbeneaththeearth;andperhapsmore remarkablestillfortheapplicationofthisscientificresearchtothepursuitsoflife.Theancientssawnothinglikeit.Themodernshaveseen nothinglikeittillthepresentgeneration....Weseetheoceannavigated andthesolidlandtraversedbysteampower,andintelligencecommunicatedbyelectricity.Trulythisisalmostamiraculousera.Whatis beforeusnoonecansay,whatisuponusnoonecanhardlyrealize.The progressoftheagehasalmostoutstrippedhumanbelief;thefutureis knownonlytoOmniscience”(Marx,2010,p.564).
WhenIstartedwritingthisbook,Iwouldhaveexpectedmoreliteraturedirectlyconnectingideologyanddigitization.Ihavefounduseful DeBiase, 2003; Bowers,2014; Kroker&Kroker,1999; Mounier,2018; Zacher,2015 (especiallytheconclusion Leshumanitésauxprisesavecl’idéologie numérique).
Muchmorecommonarethestudiesthathighlightformsofideologylinkedtosingledigitaltechnologiesand,inparticular,theInternet. Tocitesomeexamples: Musso,2003 (partiallytranslatedin Musso,2017, whichoffersahistoryoftheconceptofthenetworkandevendiscusses“retiology,”aformofidolizationofthisconcept); Bory,2020; Fuchs, 2020; Sarikakis&Thussu,2006.ChristianFuchsisperhapstheauthor whohasmadethemostin-depthstudyofsomeoftheaspectsand ideologicalconsequencesofcontemporarydigitaltechnology.
Regardingtheneedforstudiesthatanalyzethedigitalrevolution fromahistoricalperspective,see Agar,2019,p.2; Ensmenger,2012;and Köstlbauer,2011.
1
DefiningtheRevolution BlessedUncertainty
Manypeopleareconvincedthatthey’relivingatatimewhenthedigital revolutionisanestablishedfact,butthereareveryfewcleardefinitionsofthisrevolution.Whichdefinitionshavebeenimposedoverthe decadesandwhichoneshavebeendiscarded?Inwhathistoricalperiodsdidtheycomeintouseandwhenweretheymostpopular?Finally, whatdifferentnameshavebeenappliedtothedigitalrevolutionover time?Thesethreequestionswillserveasaguidetothischapter,which aimstoreconstructthemainwaysinwhichthedigitalrevolutionhas beencharacterized,periodized,andrenamed,pointingoutambiguities anduncertaintieswhich,contrarytowhatonemightthink,givethe revolutionstrengthandvitality.
1.1
TransformandTransformAgain:FromAtoms
toBits
Thereareatleasttwotoolsthathelpusunderstandtheevolution ofconcepts,andobviouslynotjusttheconceptofthedigitalrevolution:FactivaandGoogleNgramViewer.Factivaisadatabaseowned byDowJones&Companythatcollectscontentin28languagesfrom morethan30,000digitizedsourcesincludingnewspapers,magazines, corporatedocuments,televisionandradiobroadcasttranscripts,and imagesaswellasmanyothersources.GoogleNgramisafreelyaccessibleonlinesearchenginethatallowsyoutotrackthefrequency
ofcertainwordsinthemillionsofbooksthatGooglehasdigitized overtime.
Byinsertingthestring digitalrevolution inbothdatabases,startingfrom 1960upuntilthepresentday,weobtaintwographsandvariousinformationusefultounderstandinghowthetermhasevolved.Specifically, theexpression“digitalrevolution”hasbeenusedespeciallysincethe 1990s;itexperiencedafirstpeakofpopularitybetweentheendofthe 1990sandtheearly2000sandasecondaround2017–2018.
Factivaallowsyoutoassociatethemostfrequentlycitedcompanies,institutions,andpersonalitieswiththissearchterm.Amongthe formeraretheEuropeanUnion,Alphabet(andthereforetheentire Googlegalaxy),theBBC,Microsoft,theUnitedNations,LibertyGlobal, Apple,alongwithamixofpublicandprivateinstitutionswhichhave dealtwithdigitizationpoliciesandstrategiesovertime.Leadingplayers includeIndianPrimeMinisterNarendraModi,andoneofhiscountry’sbest-knownentrepreneurs,MukeshDhirubhaiAmbani,aswell asDonaldTrump,SteveJobs,BillGates,RupertMurdoch,andMark Zuckerberg,amongothers.
Thisdataprovidesageneralandquantitativeviewofhowoftenthe expression digitalrevolution andrelatedtermsareused;however,itdoesn’t indicateifthereisapositiveornegativevisionofthedigitalrevolution,inwhichcontextsitisnamed(ironicorserious,forexample),or evenifitappearsinmoreorlessprestigiousmagazines.However,this datacanbeusefulforunderstandingthebroaderstructureofthedigitalrevolution,itspopularityovertime,itsassociationwithpowerful digitalcompaniesandinstitutionsor“mythical”entrepreneurs,aswell aswithpoliticiansorspecificgeographicallocations(evidently,areasof theworldsuchastheUnitedStates—therealdrivingforceofthedigitalrevolution,atleastatthebeginning—India,andEuropestandout intheseinitialobservations).
Butwhatdowemeanwhenwetalkaboutthedigitalrevolution?Are wesurewecanconvergeonanunambiguousdefinitionwhichcapturestheprimaryelementsandiseasilyunderstandable?Asveryoften
happenswithpopularconceptsandideas,eventhecharacteristicsof thedigitalrevolutionarenotwelldefined.Itsqualitiesaretakenfor granted,implied,or,onceagain,stereotypedformulasareobsessively repeated.AsymbolicstartingplacewouldthenbeWikipedia:the entriesofthemostfamousonlineencyclopediaarealsoveryvaluable historicalsourcesforunderstandinghowcommondiscussionsand ideassettleovertime.IntheEnglishversionfromearly2023,the digitalrevolution(“alsoknownastheThirdIndustrialRevolution”)is definedas:
theshiftfrommechanicalandanalogueelectronictechnologytodigitalelectronicswhichbegananywherefromthelate1950stothelate 1970swiththeadoptionandproliferationofdigitalcomputersanddigitalrecord-keeping,thatcontinuestothepresentday.Implicitly,the termalsoreferstothesweepingchangesbroughtaboutbydigitalcomputingandcommunicationtechnologiesduring(andafter)thelatter halfofthe20thcentury.AnalogoustotheAgriculturalRevolutionand theIndustrialRevolution,theDigitalRevolutionmarkedthebeginningoftheInformationAge.Centraltothisrevolutionisthemass productionandwidespreaduseofdigitallogic,MOSFETs(MOStransistors),integratedcircuit(IC)chips,andtheirderivedtechnologies, includingcomputers,microprocessors,digitalcellularphones,andthe Internet.Thesetechnologicalinnovationshavetransformedtraditional productionandbusinesstechniques.
Thisisaverylayereddefinitionandcontainsanumberofelements whichwillbediscussedinthisbook.First,thedigitalrevolutionisidentifiedhereasatechnologicaltransitionfromananalogparadigmtoa digitalone,twouniverseswhichareconsideredincompatiblebutinfact arenot.Thisdefinitionhasbeengenerallyacceptedforquitesometime butitwasNicholasNegropontewhopopularizeditinhis1995bestseller BeingDigital.Althoughtheterm“digitalrevolution”appearsinhisbook onlyfourtimes,Negropontetheorizedthetransitionfromaphysical worldmadeupofatomstoanimmaterialonemadeupofbits.Inhis opinion,thisradicalandparadigmaticshiftwouldleadtoanewworld, unrecognizablewhencomparedtothepast.
