MATERIALS Obviously construction materials need to be suited to their purpose. When deciding what materials to use in a particular constructions we need to consider strength, stiffness, shape, material behaviours, economy and sustainability The forces that will be acted upon the materials also needs to considered; whether there will be compression or tension forces involved and from which direction. Different materials will be suited to different parts of a construction, for example the strength, stiffness and rectangular tridimensional shape of bricks make them suitable for building walls (Newton, 2014b). Shape allows stacking Hollow tubes along brick giving mortar a better hold meaning more stability Stiffness of brick means shape doesn’t change (Ashworth, 2013)
Bluestone (basalt) is used extensively as a building material in Melbourne, in both modern and early constructions. This is because it is widely available and sourced from the local area, making it a more sustainable and economic material to use. It is a volcanic rock that is hard to fashion, making it ideal for building foundations and paving stones. However over time it can show water and impacts damage, as seen by observing the wheel ruts in the old cobblestone lanes in Melbourne (Walking The Constructed City 2014). As well as having a structural function in the city, bluestone is what gives Melbourne its dark grey aesthetic.
Impact damage: wheel ruts from carts
(Groves, 2014)
FORCES Definition: A force is any influence that produces change in the shape or movement of a body Forces have both magnitude and direction, which is represented in the way you draw them. The length of an arrow correlates to its magnitude, and its direction is shown through its position in the space. (Newton, 2014a)
Compression holds the arch up. The force is
transferred downwards
(Rigney, 2013)
Tension and Compression Forces Tension: This is when the particles of a material are pulled apart by an external load, stretching the material. The amount of elongation the material undergoes depends on the magnitude of the load, the stiffness of the material and cross sectional area. Compression: This is when particles of a material are pushed together by an external load, resulting in the material shortening. (Newton, 2014a)
Because the material is being pulled tightly, tension is applied. The load is transferred to the masts and ground.
(Glade, 2010)
BUILDING OUR TOWER Material: The material used (MDF blocks) suited our purpose as it was light, rectangular with flat surfaces making it easy to stack, withstood compression forces and rigid. Compression forces: Compression forces act upon the MDF blocks in the tower. As the tower gets higher the self-‐load increases, meaning that the blocks are compressed together more tightly. This prevents the tower, and entrance, from collapsing. Brief: • Build a tower that can fit a toy elephant so that it can turn around in the space comfortably • Has a doorway for the elephant • Is as tall as possible • Using MDF blocks only
An unbroken circular base is easy to construct and uses minimal blocks. The shape allows the elephant to turn around, as required in the brief. The entrance is added in the final stages of construction.
The tower is built directly upwards, without tapering at this stage, to form a strong, supporting base. Using one layer of block in the wall is more economical but not as stable as building a thicker base.
Alternating to orientation of the blocks helped to increase stability. When the blocks faced this way the wall becomes thicker and more stable. At this point the tower is just higher than the elephant so efforts were made to further stabilize the structure before tapering.
Due to inaccurate construction the tower developed a straight wall and a tapered wall. This meant that more of the load was distributed onto the straight side, putting more pressure on it. To distribute the load more evenly, effort was made to straighten continuing construction so more of the load would be transferred to the tapered wall.
Load disperses at wider base The entrance was constructed as the final stage, on the tapered side of the tower. If the entrance was built into the straight wall of the tower, it would weaken the load bearing wall and the compression forces would cause it to collapse. The straight wall acts as the main support of the tower.
This structu re has a thick, multila yered base to give it great strengt h. The shape of the base is almost a dome shape, which distrib utes the load around the whole structure. The side with the entrance is weaker because there are no blocks for the load to be distributed onto. Although the base is strong, it isn’t as economical as a smaller base, and only allows a smaller tower to be built on top as a concentrated load.
This structure is built with a square base and a tapered circular roof. The entrance is built in the corner rather than the centre and has been reinforced by filling any gaps with blocks. However, the entrance isn’t wide enough to allow the elephant to enter.
This tower also has a square base and the blocks forming the entrance have been stacked directly in line with each other to create a neater entrance. At this stage the load isn’t being transferred to the blocks in the entrance from above, so the strength isn’t being tested.
Brief fulfilled: Reaches roof
Triangle: A compression shape The construction process started from base of tower. The base uses a triangular shape, as this is more stable than a rectangular base and is more economic as it uses less materials. Our design has a wide base at the bottom tapering to a point and taking advantage of the triangular shape as it reaches this point.
Bending under self load Our structure is a frame structure with fixed joints. Having fixed joints meant that all the joints impacted on each other and it was important to try and keep the lines of the frame linear. It also meant that as the tower increased in height bending occurred at the joints and in the frame itself. This bending compromised the stability of the structure.
The construction system of the tower was purely structural, and it would not have been strong or stable enough to allow for an envelope or mechanical system to be added to this scaffold. This is partly due to the weak joints and partly to do with the efficiency of the material.
Fixed Join
Efficiency of material: Thin strips of balsa wood were used in the construction. In the process of cutting the wood into strips, some were weakened due to the tendency of the cut to follow the grain.
Bending – more reinforcement needed
Our tower could have been strengthened with more bracing, if we had enough materials to do this effectively. The sticks used in the construction were long and so prone to bending. Shortening the length of the building components would have made it more stable but would have required more bracing.
Point of collapse
The tower buckled at one of the vertical joins towards the bottom of the structure. This caused the join where the triangular frame and the vertical supports met to also buckle and the structure subsequently collapsed. Triangles kept their shape while rectangles proved to be weaker shapes.
The material was suited to its purpose because eit was light but the flexibility, although useful as it allowed bending while using fixed joints (instead of buckling), also meant that the structure became unstable and couldn’t withstand a large load. Originally glue was used to create the joins but masking tape proved to be stronger and quicker. Tape was efficient for and linear joins but less efficient for more complicated joins (at the corners).
Narrower, more economic, cables crucial to stability (ABC, 2013)
All other towers in the tutorial were based on the triangle framework in some way, showing intuitive knowledge of the strength of triangles in construction. This one used a network of shorter supports to brace the structure and increase strength and stability. However, it was less economical (also because it didn’t taper) and didn’t reach the required height of the roof outlined in the brief. This was because there was more labour involved with more joins to complete.
This structure was similar in design to ours but with smaller dimensions of the base, increasing the stability of the base structure. The tower tapered to a point at a lower height meaning that the spire had to be longer, and so prone to bending under the forces of gravity as ell as any external forces (wind, human contact). Similarly they didn’t use any form of bracing and had a vertical spire at the top of the structure to increase height without significantly increasing the load.
Below is a real life example of a frame tower, in the form of a radio tower. Similarly the structure is triangular in shape but it has more bracing. It also has pin joints at the base which allows the frame to resist bending in windy conditions, or when temperature changes cause the metal to expand and contract. The structure uses a combination of compression and tension forces for stability.
END OF INTERIM SUBMISSION
1888 • Café has re-‐enforced concrete frame with glass infill • Concrete retaining wall stabilised neighbouring heritage building’s fragile footings during the construction of the basement • Heritage mortar style was used in restoration, brick coloured mortar and darker outline on top
CAR PARK ENTRANCE • Shows versatility of material • Bush hammered concrete has a different effect, rough and weathered appearance to match exit into natural space • Pre-‐set concrete • Bolted joins
Tuck-‐pointing mortar Stretcher, head brick arrangement
UNDERGROUND CARPARK • Concrete poured in situ • Joint down centre of roof allows movement as a result of settlement, and concrete shrinkage • Expansion and contraction of concrete minimised by constantly moist lawn above • Car size informed original design and size of modules. Modern increase in car size means these modules are not as effective • Some trees have been removed because of increasing roo size and resulting pressure • Built in context of 60s
Efflorescence – formation of salt deposits transported by water (Delaware Quarries Inc. 2005). Shows presence of leakage.
OLD ARTS • Sandstone material as outer frame • Brick framed to conserve materials • Columns are solid sandstone • Limestone section is recently restored due to chemical erosion of limestone from pollution
BABEL • Shows example of ties and wall structural elements. The brick façade is connected to the main structure by ties, as over time it was falling away from the building • The bricks are crème bricks, fired at a lower temperature than other coloured bricks
OLD ARTS • Material transported from Blue Mountains area so expensive • Sandstone shows signs of weathering and wear
ARTS WEST • The steel truss encloses the area, preventing it from just being a passageway • It also acts as a sculptural element to the building • The material used is glue laminated timber, which gives it a warm and natural aesthetic, but is more durable
UNION HOUSE AND NORTH COURT • Staircase is a sculptural expression • Membrane structure works under tension, so stabilised in wind • Shape allows central water to clean membrane and also allows drainage (releasing the weight of the water) • Shape also acts as a sculptural element with aesthetic value • Edges of membrane material reinforced to distribute force easily and prevent damage
BEAUREPAIRE CENTRE • Steel portal frame with glass infill • Retaining wall holds pressure of the pool • Wide columns maximise the fixed joints at the roof
OVAL PAVILLION • Incorporation of heritage building • Modern elements contrast with heritage part. This means authentic heritage buildings don’t become confused with modern replicas
TITLE BLOCK Provides Important information: -‐Project number -‐Name of Client -‐Name of building -‐Name of drawings -‐Name of engineering and architecture companies -‐North point -‐Scale -‐Dates -‐Number of pages in set
FLOOR PLANS • General outline of building and surrounding environment • Numeric and alphabetic coordinates for grid system. Irregular grid dimensions • Legend shows the visual representations of different elements, so the reader can understand the drawings. Also gives abbreviations • Annotations and clouded annotations give extra details, notes, changes or further explanations • References are made to other drawings that show particular areas in more detail
•
• • •
FFL (Finished Floor Level) is given in metres above the datum, next to the room name Datum – the reference point for all levels of construction Rooms are labelled with their name and number Materials are shown with abbreviations
Client
Drawing Title:
Project Name:
Drawing no.
Dates of different issues of drawings
Scale and Date
Project no. North key
Wall Material Abbreviation Legend
Grid System with dimensions
Room name, number and Area (m*2) Finished Floor Level
Clouded Annotation (gives more information, revisions/changes or extra details)
Wall Type (height) TIM-‐01: Timber Seating
ELEVATIONS • Shows finishes, materials and vertical heights of external elements of building from a side view • Dimensions show vertical dimensions • Gives a 3D representation of building that is more accessible to clients • Shows nearby environment e.g. trees, fences and background skyline/buildings • Show Finished Floor Levels, datum and different floor levels e.g. Ground and Basement
SECTIONS DETAILS • Shows interior elements of building from • Shows details of joins, materials, structure a side view, including foundations and finishes • Building elements that are cut through are • Details are compressed using break lines. differentiated from elevations by thick This implies that the missing part is just a lines, room names and you can see the repetition width of materials not just the faces • Materials are shown using the • Different materials are shown with abbreviations, labels or different textures different textures and using the abbreviation legend • Like elevations, show door and window shape and size
Function Parapet RL (Roof Level) 51.100
Break lines showing compression Basement Level FFL 44.000 Floor Levels (G)
Different floor levels and foundations
References to more detailed drawings including details on joins
Can see “into” the building
Function Parapet RL 51.500 (Roof Level)
Missing repeated section in compression break
Oval Pavilion (The University Of Melbourne, 2014)
OVAL PAVILLION MODELS • From the front the plans match the actual building, with the same structural elements, shapes and materials • The side section of the plan shows the roof system in more detail and was used for calculations for our model • From the photo it is hard to tell if the guttering system is as planned but the steel struts, columns, roof and front of the building remain as planned
• The roof has a concealed steel truss system that is a structural element of the building • The steel truss system supports the weight of the roof (under compression and tension forces) • The concrete base provides a solid foundation for the ground floor • The metal deck roof waterproofs the covered area and allows for water collection and drainage • The drawing on the left shows scale calculations for the model
CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
• The base was constructed first, not to scale. • Materials used were sheet cardboard and packaging cardboard, which are rigid (reusing) • The structure was stabilised with sticky tape and the flat sheet cardboard attached with pins • The stairs were constructed to scale using sheet cardboard
Column and roof support: miscalculation of measurements meant that lengths of wood had to be added
• Column/support framework for roof were constructed • Frame made out of wooden dowel. Because dowel has a round surface it was difficult to join. This could have been fixed by cutting faces in to the dowel which would have increased the surface area of parts that needed joining, making it easy to glue or tae them together • Joins formed with sticky tape (quick) • Efforts made to make all three of these column/support framework structures equal in size and form
• Roof truss structure constructed again with dowel and sticky tape joins with the same issues • The truss uses triangulation to create a strong structural element • The two elements were joined with sticky tape to form the 3-‐ dimensional roof framework • Middle section of truss made out of balsa, which is much easier to cut and join, due to its softness and flat faces • Base extended with balsa and tape • Columns placed into holes in the cardboard base
Structure leaning due to poor connection to the base and uneven weight
• The weak joins between the framework and the base meant that the structure couldn’t support the sheet cardboard roof • Deeper holes in the cardboard would increase stability and act like footings • The shape of the roof didn’t quite match the shape of the framework due to miscalculations of the measurements
• The activity highlighted the importance of correctly reading architectural drawings for builders • It also highlighted the importance of planning, collaborations and correct use of materials
COMPARISON USING OTHER GROUPS’ STRUCTURES
Roof Frameworks – Different Models of the Same Section
• Use of balsa made construction quicker and structure lighter • Joins are made with superglue (fixed joints) • Form varies greatly from our groups’, it is more 3-‐ dimensional whereas ours was more 2-‐dimensional • This model was larger, due to scale used • Shows the importance of reading architectural drawings accurately • No roof covering or base structure • •
•
• •
Balsa wood framework and sheet cardboard roof Some joins made using pins (pin joints), which is quicker and stronger but allows moments. Framework is joined to the roof with sticky tape which works better for perpendicular joins Simple model showing basic structural elements, no truss system No base Similar scale to our model
MATERALS • Precast concrete walls
SUMMARY • The London • 3 story apartments • Basement car
•
metal plates bolted into concrete •
Poured concrete (reinforced) columns
•
Poured (reinforced) concrete slabs for roof/floor
•
Kensington
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS • Concrete slab supported on round concrete columns spans large open areas, allows for large interior space (car park). •
Temporary formwork is braced with steel diagonal bracing
•
Temporary formwork shaped like a tripod, creates triangles for strength and stability
•
Precast wall systems support some of the load of the slab
•
System of joists and bearers supports concrete slab while still wet
Precast concrete elements joined with
Temporary formwork: timber joists supported on steel, braced bearers supports the concrete until it is cured.
The timber is light and allows workers access
SUMMARY • Steps of construction (plumbing,
ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT • insulation improves thermal
electrical and structural elements)
performance
are staggered so that progress can
•
be made continuously at the site
•
Double glazed windows
Some units are completed and are
•
Recycled water is used
currently in use
•
Use less energy and have capacity for
•
All units have been sold in advance
•
6 star environmental residential
solar installation •
development STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS • Concrete retaining wall resists forces from
•
Camberwell
Brick walls act as a veneer and so aren't structural
surrounding ground
Water tanks
MATERIALS • Brick (veneered walls and short columns). Used on lower floors due to weight
•
Timber stud frame
•
Ply bracing
bracing
•
Concrete raft foundation
•
Short brick columns increase stability
•
Steel (lintel, scaffolding, cross bracing and
•
Steel lintel at the top of the 1st story, which
•
Wooden stud frame is an important load bearing system, braced with steel diagonal and ply sheet
•
posi struts)
supports the balcony over the doorway below
•
Plastic water proofing membrane
Steel scaffolding is joined to the building at the
•
Chipboard and scyon flooring (greater
third floor for support •
Services are set into the poured concrete floor
•
Construction joints allow the brick wall to expand
resistance to wear, outdoors) •
Concrete retaining wall lined with wax coated cardboard for waterproofing
•
Include: stone, earth, clay and concrete
•
Strong in compression
•
Good thermal mass/insulation
•
Durable and hard
MASS MATERIALS
Bond – the pattern or arrangement of the units Course – a horizontal row of masonry units Joint – the way units are connected to each other Mortar – mixture of cement/lime, sand and water used as a bonding agent MASONRY • Definition: building with units of various products usually with
STONE • Igneous -‐ hard, dense, impervious to water, footings •
Sedimentary -‐ soft, less dense, prone to weathering, easily carved for decoration
•
Metamorphic -‐ translucent, fittings (expensive)
•
•
Transport and sourcing main
use of mortar as bonding agent (Ching) BRICKS • Manufactured from clay or shale, shaped and
•
monolithic whole
fired •
•
Advantages -‐ joined with water based mortar, if ventilated won't deteriorate
•
Disadvantages -‐ absorb moisture (expansion
sustainability issues
joints) salt and lime in soil causes pathologies
Concrete Blocks
and efflorescence •
•
Extruded and wire cut, moulded/pressed and hand made (convicts)
Hollowness decreases weight, increases insulation and allows reinforcement rods
Units work together to create a
Walls, beams, arch, vaults, dome, columns
Design is based on the loads to be carried, the material used and the form and shape chosen for the element (Hunt) Strut -‐ slender, carry load parallel to long axis, load produces compression
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
Wall & Diaphragm -‐ wall transfers load vertically and diaphragm prevents overturning
Slab -‐ wide horizontal element to carry vertical load in bending, usually supported by beams
Tie -‐ slender, tension element
DEFINITION: •
Ching: substructure constructed wholly or partially beneath the ground in order
RETAINING WALLS AND FOUNDATION WALLS -‐ create basements when change in site level
DEEP FOOTINGS -‐ bearing capacity of soil inadequate, load transferred down to stable soil/rock
to support the superstructure. Loads
•
from the superstructure are transferred into footing system which doesn't exceed the bearing capacity of the soil Weight is distributed over large area and pressure on soil reduced (snow shoes)
• •
FOOTINGS AND FOUNDATIONS
End bearing piles -‐ extend foundations down to solid material Friction Piles -‐ rely on resistance of surrounding earth
SHALLOW FOOTINGS -‐ soil bearing capacity close to the surface • • •
Raft -‐ increases stability, forms a mat Strip -‐ spreads load of wall or linear strip of columns Pad -‐ isolated, spreads point load Soil bearing capacity close to the surface
Properties: • Strong in compression, weak in tension • Steel mesh/bars added as reinforcement (strong in tension) • Reinforcement can happen at fixed joints to strengthen • Durable • High embodied energy • Permeable (not waterproof), so steel reinforcement must be beneath surface to prevent oxidation
IN SITU – arrives in fluid form and poured on site
• Any concrete poured into formwork and cured on site • Starter bars -‐ (metal rods) are set in as reinforcement and form part of wall • Screeding – flattening concrete with floats Requires: • Assembly of formwork, • Placing of reinforcement, • Pouring • Vibration (get rid of bubbles which are points of weakness) • Curing Uses: • Footings • Retaining walls • Bespoke (tailored) elements • Shotcrete – high pressure sprayed concrete (pools, basements etc.)
CONCRETE • • • Joints: Construction – divide construction into smaller more manageable sections Control – absorb expansion and contraction, movement is controlled Both potential points of weakness for moisture control
• •
Artificial, plastic stone Water binds sand and gravel aggregates 7 days to achieve 75% strength, 28 days 100% Hydration – chemical reaction where heat is released and elements are b ound Formwork – temporary mould held together by ties, supports wet concrete
Finishes: -‐Bush hammered (after setting) -‐Raked (while wet) -‐Sand blasted -‐Board marked (wet) -‐Board and batten (wet)
• • • • •
Precast Concrete Building (Precast Concrete, 2010) This building is an example of how precast concrete can be used in wall systems purely for aesthetic reasons
Uses: • Wall systems • Columns • Retaining walls
• •
More standardised, quality control Work on site is quicker Not dependent on weather Must be propped Transportation size limits (can be damaged in transport) Don’t allow plan changes on site Repetition is economical
PRE CAST – manufactured off site, craned into position
Precast Wall Panel Installation (Bradley, 2012) CONCRETE CONTINUED
Joints: Construction – panel nature means joints naturally occur Structural – how panels are connected to other panels or other elements Will depend on desirable aesthetic outcome
Image shows installation by crane, temporary formwork and repetition of panels
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
•
CONTEXT
• •
• • • •
•
Hadrian, 1st cent AD Atypical in Roman architecture, dedicated to all gods, requiring different building typology Hence circular, not rectangular Niches for statues of gods A symbol of power of Empire at Hadrian’s time Hadrian would receive guest on a platform in the centre, symbolically he was the Roman Empires, the centre of all gods
• • • • •
PANTHEON – EARLY ROMAN CONCRETE
ROMAN CONCRETE
Large aggregate in mortar slurry (laying rather than slurry) • Roman discovery of potsculana meant concrete would set anywhere underwater) Finishes: • Opus and curtain (big stone) • Opus reticulate (diamond shapes) • Opus testacium (like tiles), brick facing •
Roman Concrete (Engineering Rome, 2014)
• • • • •
Originally would have ben approached from below obscuring drum and dome and giving illusion of traditional temple Dome largest spanned concrete shell dome (43,2m) Temple designed so sphere could fit perfectly in space (dome is hemisphere) Arch transfers force from top to ground using only compression, wedge shaped stones Vault – elongated arch Dome has remained structural integrity for 2000 yrs. Footings: travertine concrete aggregate for max. Strength As we move up tufa is added (lighter aggregate) Brick faced concrete on drum Pumice aggregate (very light) towards top Material extremely important for structure Oculus (hole at top) is the only window. If built in it would be the weakest part of the dome, and could crack and fall in
•
•
• •
Cantilever Parking Shade (Cantilever Shades, 2013)
Supaslat Maxi Timber Beams (Architecture and Design, 2014)
Beam supported at one end OR overhanging portion of a member is significant PURPOSE – to carry load along member and transfer these to the support Can be horizontal, vertical or angled Aesthetically popular because they look to defy fundamental principals of physics, appear floating CANTILEVERS – beams supported at only one end
BEAMS
Cantilever House, Arkansas USA. Fay Jones School of Architecture Cantilever House (Hurley, 2012)
PURPOSE – to carry loads horizontally and transfer these to vertical support
Steel Systems: • Contain heavy gauge structural steel members and light gauge framing • Open webbed joist uses less steel and allows piping etc. • Steel and concrete can be combined (increasing tensile strength) • Material used depends on cost, fire rating and spanning necessities
Concrete Systems: • Can be 1 way or 2 way spans • Thickness of slab is roughly span length / 30 • Slab transfers load into beam, beam transfers to column which carries load to ground
DIFFERENT SYSTEMS
FLOOR AND FRAMING SYSTEMS
Timber Systems: • Uses bearers (primary beams) and joists (secondary beams) • Used for decking and floors • More common in Australia than other places due to accessibility of materials
Associated with supporting elements (beams and columns etc.) can be measured horizontally or vertically Generally measured centre-‐line to centre-‐ line
•
•
Framing System (Shlute Building Systems, 2011)
SPACING – repeating distance between series of similar elements
FLOOR AND FRAMING SYSTEMS CONTINUED
SPAN -‐ the distance between two structural components
•
•
•
The distance between two structural components Can be measured between vertical or horizontal supports Not necessarily the same as the length of the member
STRUCTURAL FRAMES • Can be stabilised by bracing or fixed joints • Concrete – use of columns and beams • Steel (lighter) – use a grid system connected to steel girders and beams • Timber (post and beam) – grid system of posts/poles and beams. Bracing of bays at joint corners is needed to stabilise
• • • •
Act as filters from climate and light Protect interior from exterior Can be major structural components When there are openings it needs to be considered how loads will be transferred around this opening
FUNCTION
STUD FRAMING (timber or steel) • Common in Aus • Members are long and thin so repeated at smaller intervals and require noggings to prevent buckling • Efficient use of materials • Bracing needed (diagonal or sheet)
WALLS STUD WALLS • Light gauge steel framing • Timber framing • Clad with panelling (weatherboard or brick veneer)
BRICK VENEER • Structural frame is timber or steel (not brick)
TYPES
MASONRY LOAD BEARING WALLS • Bond beams over openings can be made by filling concrete blocks with concrete (and steel rods). Temporary propping is needed. AN alternate to steel or concrete lintels Solid Masonry Walls: -‐ Single or multiple skins -‐ Skins are joined using a brick or with metal wall ties placed in mortar bed -‐ If waterproofing is needed a cavity left between skins allowing for drainage -‐ Steel lintels are common Cavity Masonry: -‐ Typically formed with 2 skins of masonry -‐ Better thermal performance and opportunity -‐ For insulation -‐ Better waterproofing -‐ Can run services within cavity -‐ Weep holes – vertical mortar joint
LOAD BREARING WALLS • Concrete (in situ or pre-‐cast) – may provide support for spandrel panels • Masonry – can be core filled (e.g. steel rod and cement) or grout filled (grouted together)
SEASONING -‐ moving water from cells (so less than 15% left)
• • • • •
Air drying – cheap but slow (6 months-‐2 yrs) Kiln Seasoning – 20-‐40 hrs Solar Kiln Seasoning – conserves energy and environmental costs During growing time 100% saturation
Oak Grain (Beaver Timber, 2013)
Oak Timber – shows the complicated grains, knots and the aesthetic quality of timber
• •
HARD WOODS
• • •
Native eucalypts Brown box, Victorian ash etc. Balsa
•
• PROPERTIES
WOOD AND TIMBER
SOFT WOODS – a biological classification • •
-‐All conifers -‐Radiata pine etc.
Heartwood (core) not useful for construction Early wood – light, beginning of growing season Late wood – dark, produces growth ring, slower Grain direction determines structural performance (only strong parallel to grain)
Properties vary with type • Medium high hardness and fragility • In green state can be bent and shaped • Porosity depends on finishing • Insulate well • Durable if selected and fitted well • Very low embodied energy, recyclable and cost effective • Different timbers available in different sizes depending on size of tree • Graded strength • Ends of grain weakest and most susceptible to water so need to be protected • Can be damaged by fire, insects, extreme heat, chemicals etc. • Knots-‐ point of weakness especially in tension
• • •
•
Slower seasoning Prone to splitting Best grain shows on face so good for floors and furniture Less warping and shrinkage
Shrinks More likely to warp and cup Good for structural timbers Seasons quickly Less prone to splitting
• • • • •
End grain showing growth rings
RADIAL SAWN QUARTER SAWN
WOOD AND TIMBER – SAWING TECHNIQUES BACK SAWN
• • • • • •
More difficult to stack Wedge shaped Not as clear structural properties Used for fencing and weather boarding More resource efficient (less wastage) Less prone to warping
Redwood End Grain (Gaza Timber, 2014)
LVL – laminated veneer timber • High strength • Most laminated with grain aligned to longitudinal direction • Structural • Thin sheets laminated together MDF – medium density fibreboard • Uses wood waste resinated together at high temp and pressure • More dense than plywood • Non structural (joinery)
PLYWOOD • Glued thin laminates to forma sheet • Alternate grains • Structural bracing, structural flooring
ENGINEERED TIMBER
CLT – cross0laminted timber • Made by gluing and pressing thin laminates together to form a sheet • Grain in both directions (strength) • Relatively new
CHIPBOARD AND STRANDBOARD • Layering residuals (chips or strands) with wax and resin at high temp and pressure • Flooring and cladding (structural)
BOX BEAMS • 2 ply webs • Solid timber flanges • Floor joist and rafters
I BEAMS • Ply web and solid timber flanges • Medium span • Floor joists and rafters
TIMBER FLANGED STEEL WEB JOISTS • Light weight • Access for services • Floor joists and rafters
• • • • • •
Poured piles (circular footings reinforced with steel) Reinforcement protrude to tie to other elements Shotcrete used to finish retaining wall, waterproof Bored piers closer together under old facade (more stability needed) Ground level slab poured on supporting formwork All slabs (of floors/roofs) poured
IN SITU CONCRETE ELEMENTS -‐ footings
PREPERATIONS AND SUMMARY
Projects 12m Rest of building supports and stabilises the cantilever Cantilever was designed to compensate for drop (15mm) in height each time a floor slab was added
• • •
• •
•
Excavated fully down to put in basement footings and retaining walls Old façade held up with framework Roof sheeting is galvanised steel (waterproof) Cantilever section of building is supported until fully constructed
•
•
NEW ARCHITECTURE BUILDING
• CANTILEVER
PRECAST ELEMENTS
Stair wells, walls, lift wells, columns Reinforced with steel Consider delivery (transport engineer) and installation (cranes) Elements need to be propped Precast façade uses paler cement with coloured aggregates for aesthetic value. This is also polished Cast in steel plates in façade correspond with cast in pins in floor slab
•
WINDOWS
• • •
View of New Entry Courtyard (Spencer Street) (Architecture Au, 2012)
• • •
•
•
Some are flush (in line) with concrete and some are recessed Frit Glass – glass with laminate strips
•
Projects 12m Steel frame connects back to the rest of the building Building must be built before cantilever, so that it can be supported Weight of each poured slab was taken into account. Cantilever was constructed 15mm above desired height to account for it dropping with added slabs
Gehry’s Kitchen (Urbanist, 2014)
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Collage Adding forms, not subtracting Building appears unfinished, so always possibility for change Retained the core of the original pink house while adding on a new layer • • GEHRY’S HOUSE
Inspiration from the streets Worked with everyday materials e.g. chain-‐link, metal sheets, cardboard (furniture), discarded objects rejected by normal architecture
Gehry’s House (Claire, 2012)
“I deliberately de-‐sophisticate elements of my work… undesign”
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Camouflages into local context
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Wrapped the building in lightweight everyday materials, packaging E.g. cardboard, chain-‐link fences
Timber fixed frames with corner bracing
Timber Framed House (Sweet Timber Homes, 2014)
FIXED FRAME – fixed joints, resistant to deflection but susceptible to settlements and thermal expansion and contraction
THREE HINGED FRAME – more sensitive to deflection, least affected by support settlements and thermal stresses
FRAMES
TYPES
HINGED FRAME – connected to base by hinged joints, allow frame to rotate as a unit
Definition – if joints connecting beams and columns can resist forces and moments, it becomes a rigid frame (rigid only in its plane)
Hinged frames in the Training Hall, Schwerstedt Three Hinged Frame For Training Hall (TiComTec, 2014)
REINFORCED MASONRY WALL TYPES: -‐Reinforced grouted masonry – wall ties and rods in grouted cavity, bricks Reinforced Concrete Unit Masonry – hollow concrete cells containing reinforcement are filled solidly with grout -‐ Reinforcement continues down to concrete footing
UNREINFORCED WALL TYPES: -‐ Solid masonry – solid or hollow units joined with mortar -‐ Grouted Masonry – interior joint (cavity) filled with grout -‐ Cavity Walls – two skins separated by continuous air space and bonded with metal ties or horizontal joint reinforcement (thermal insulations and better drainage)
Brick veneer wall
Unreinforced walls – use metal wall ties to bond the wythes Reinforced – use steel reinforcing bars to aid in resisting stress
Control/Expansion joints – deal with movements in masonry MASONRY WALLS
Flashing as used in cavity masonry walls
TYPES: -‐ Solid -‐ Cavity -‐ Veneer
Pilasters – stiffen masonry walls against lateral forces and buckling Wythe – continuous vertical section of wall, one masonry unit thickness
SHELLS -‐ Thin curved plate structures typical reinforced concrete -‐ Suited to uniform not concentrated loads
ARCHES -‐ Span spaces -‐ Span openings -‐ Rigid arches – rigid structures of timber, steel or reinforced concrete capable of carrying bending stresses -‐ Designed to support vertical load by axial compression -‐ Transform vertical forces into inclined components and transmit them to abutments
VAULTS -‐ Enclose space -‐ Groin or cross vaults are compound vaults
ARCHES, VAULTS AND DOMES – EFFICIENT USE OF MATERIALS
DOMES -‐ Compressive at crown and tensile in lower portion -‐ Change in type of force happens (see diagram) -‐ A tension ring encircles base to contain outward forces
171 Collins St (Clarke, 2014) -‐
Understanding context: building has to aesthetically suit surroundings e.g. BHP building at 171 Collins st, Gehry’s house, architecture building and oval 42pavilion
Rights of surrounding tenants e.g. BHP building at 171 Collins St., colleges surrounding oval pavilion (need noise control)
CLIENTS: -‐ Government or institutions -‐ Private commercial sector (to make money)
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Leasing parts of the building to the right tenants e.g. BHP building at 171 Collins St (high end retailers such as Luis Vuitton) Incorporating heritage aspects of the building appropriately e.g. façade of BHP building 171 Collin St. was preserved but requires consideration of who would want to occupy the smaller offices in this part of the building, tower of the oval pavilion was preserved and aesthetic qualities of the overall building considered
Context of Collins St: The spires of the cathedral are reflected in the angular triangles of the frontage of the Collins St building The Collins St building aesthetically matches the glass fronted (glass curtain walls) buildings behind. Surrounding Buildings (171 Collins St, 2014)
Heritage frontage of the Collins St Building
PROPERTY DEVELOPMENT
KEY ELEMENTS: -‐ Profit loss and gain -‐ Space creation -‐ Capitalising on opportunity -‐ Knowing product and market -‐ Achieving set outcomes -‐ Need to understand planning system (regulations etc.) -‐ Control of construction costs and program schedules -‐ Feasibility and risk analysis -‐ Integration of political, and social enterprise system Heritage elements contrast to the modern ones, fit into the building context of surrounding colleges
Oval Pavilion (Melbourne University Football Club, 2014)
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Rubber Gaskets (Wholesale electronic Products 2014)
Malleable because when subject to stress the atoms can slide past each other and the electrons rearrange (distortion). The atoms are closely paced together in layers Plastic/mouldable when heated Generally impermeable to water High density Very high embodied energy but recyclable Can be durable
PROPERTIES
Rusted corrugated iron sheet (steel)
REACTIONS: -‐ Metals reacts with other metals and can cause each other to corrode. Ion transfer will happen if in contact with each other or in moist conditions (electrolysis) -‐ To reduce corrosion metals can be separated by rubber and kept away from water -‐ The galvanic Series lists metals in order of tendency to corrode each other (Ion transfer)
Rust 2 (Blueangelstock, 2014) WAYS TO REDUCE CORROSION: -‐ Avoid exposure to moisture e.g. crevices -‐ Seal against moisture e.g. enamel or paint -‐ Chemical treatment e.g. galvanised steel
METALS
Alloys – mix of one or more metals
Galvanic Series: The further away they are, the more they corrode each other Anodic End – puts out ions Magnesium Zinc Aluminium Steels Cast Iron Lead Tin Copper, brass, bronze Nickel Titanium Stainless Steel Cathodic End – accepts ions
BRONZE – copper and tin -‐ Corrosion resistant -‐ Springs, hinges etc.
BRASS – copper and zinc -‐ Handles and taps -‐ Fixings
TITANIUM: -‐ Very expensive (occasionally cladding) -‐ Resists corrosion
COPPER: -‐ Conducts electricity -‐ Malleable -‐ Traditional used in roofing (green patina)
NON -‐ FERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS
TIN: Generally only decorative (pressed ceilings) Toxic
WROUGHT IRON: -‐ Iron heated and hammered -‐ From c. 1000BC -‐ Decoration
IRON: Distinctive properties: -‐ Compressive strength -‐ Magnetic -‐ Chemically reactive (rust)
METALS CONTINUED – TYPES
ALUMINUM: -‐ Light -‐ Easily formed -‐ Can be rolled (cladding -‐ High cost and embodied energy -‐ Can be cast (door handles) -‐ Reacts with oxygen, which self protects from oxidation
LEAD: -‐ In contact with water becomes poisonous -‐ Was used for roofs, lining tanks etc.
FERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS
ZINC: -‐ Used as expensive cladding -‐ Thin layer applied to steel to prevent rust (galvanising)
STEEL: -‐ Alloy of iron and carbon (can include other elements e.g. titanium, chromium) -‐ Can form many shapes -‐ Long lasting if properly detailed
CAST IRON: -‐ 19th cent. -‐ Molten Iron poured in mould -‐ High compressive strength -‐ Brittle -‐ Heavy Cast Iron Ornament (Dreamstime, 2014)
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Cladding and roofing e.g. corrugated iron Must be protected from weather (paint, galvanisation)
Steel Bars (Big Boss Gulf, 2011) Steel Bars (Big Boss Gulf, 2011)
STEEL SHEETING
METALS CONTINUED: STEEL
Steel Reinforcing bars FRAMING
ALLOYS
Kitchen (Dornob, 2014) -‐ -‐ -‐
Corrugate Steel Sheet (Metal Sheets, 2010)
Chromium main alloy Used in harsh environments (hospitals, kitchens etc.) Resistant to corrosion
HOT ROLLED -‐ Elements shaped while hot -‐ More metal needed -‐ Primary structural elements -‐ Joints are welded or bolted COLD FORMED -‐ Folded from sheets while cold -‐ Secondary structure -‐ Joints bolted or screwed REINFORCING BARS -‐ Used in concrete for tensile strength -‐ Deformed to grip concrete
FLAT ROOFS: -‐ Waterproofing recommended -‐ Pitch 1-‐3° (to prevent ponding which increases weight and leakage) -‐ Concrete slab, flat trusses, beams and decking
TRUSSED ROOFS: -‐ Timber or steel -‐ Framed roofs with open web -‐ High strength to material ratio -‐ Need to be braced
ROOFING SYSTEMS – primary shelter from environment collects water
LIGHT FRAMED ROOFS -‐ Timber or steel -‐ Gable -‐ Vertical, triangular wall section at on or both ends
SPACE FRAMES: -‐ 3D trusses -‐ Matrix-‐like structures
PITCHED ROOFS: -‐ Greater than 3° -‐ Rafters and purlins, trusses -‐ Eaves gutters -‐ Slope effects roofing material e.g. tiles 15°+, sheet metal can be down to 5°
CONCRETE ROOFS: -‐ Expensive, good for acoustic and fire rating -‐ Flat plates of reinforced concrete, waterproofed -‐ Surface sloped towards drainage points
STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMED ROOFS: -‐ Flat – roofs beams or purlins with decking/sheet metal -‐ Sloping – roof beams and purlins -‐ Portal Frames – braced rigid frames with purlins and girts for the walls. Walls and roof sheet metal
HISTORY OF LARGE SPACES -‐ Ancient colonnades don’t create much internal space -‐ The Hittites invent the first large space where you could hold a meeting/gathering. A square hall with columns -‐ This was adapted into large spaced
HISTORY OF THE ARCH -‐ The arch was first used in brick -‐ An arch can only fall by distortion -‐ Has to be supported during construction (thus needs timber) -‐ This is solved with the leaning arch
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Spanning of large spaces had to be considered in the architecture building where large column free areas a required for lecture theatres
TRUSSES: -‐ Bolted or welded -‐ Triangulated framework -‐ Require lateral bracing perpendicular to plane -‐ Uses compression and tension depending type
Steel Truss on a Terrace (Civil Engineering Products 2012)
SPANNING SPACES -‐ Architecture is enclosing space where the main problem is spanning space
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Nature of materials of time determines how spaces are spanned E.g. stone corbel or stone slab, to tiles etc.
GRIDS -‐ Principal points and lines to support a structure -‐ Can be used in design process to reinforce spatial organisation
PLATES: -‐ Rigid, planar, usually monolithic -‐ Disperse loads in a multidirectional way -‐ Should be close to square to be 2 directional Roof plates serve structural and aesthetic purpose Modern Concrete House in the Yarra Valley (Luxury Homes Design, 2014)
THERMOPLASTICS -‐ Mouldable when heated, so can be recycled -‐ PVC, Perspex, polyethylene (can insulate pipes)
PROPERTIES: -‐ Can deteriorate when exposed to weather -‐ Can expand and contract -‐ Light material for large spans -‐ Monomers combine to create polymers
THERMOSETTING PLASTICS -‐ Can only be moulded once -‐ Laminex (finishes) -‐ Polystyrene (insulation panels)
Rubber Tree (Rubber Country, 2012)
Natural Rubber Trees
PLASTICS
Plastic used in the foyer of the Technical Museum of Vienna, used as decorative and functional seat and lighting. Foyer Makeover: Technical Museum of Vienna (Detail Daily 2012)
RUBBER AND PLASTICS
RUBBER
PROPERTIES: -‐ Easily recycled, embodied energy varies, cost effective -‐ Deteriorate in sin and weather
Natural -‐ Made from tree sap Uses -‐ Seals, gaskets, flooring, insulation (of wiring), hosing and piping Synthetic -‐ Made start of 20th cent -‐ Technically a plastic but properties like natural rubber -‐ Contain petrochemicals Types -‐ EPDM: waterproofing flat surfaces, gaskets and control joints -‐ NEOPRENE: control joints and silicone seals -‐
PURPOSE: -‐ Protect and colour -‐ Clear paints -‐ Lacquers and varnishes -‐ Red yes less stable in sunlight -‐ Need to resist chipping, cracking and peeling -‐ Only as good as the surface that they’re painted on -‐ Affected by UV, rain etc. -‐ More durable and self cleaning paint available now
WATERBASED -‐ Most common today -‐ Durable -‐ Brushes cleaned with water
Use of paints in exterior design
House with Coloured Exterior (StepInIt Design, 2013)
PAINTS
OIL BASED -‐ Good finish -‐ Require turpentine
Use of bright colour or create a standout set of apartments. Coloured Apartments (Pixoto, 2014).
Coloured pigments mixed with concrete to create yellow finish. Bodega Antion, Spain (Fritz, 2014)
STRATEGIES: 1. Remove openings 2. Keep water away from openings (eaves etc.) 3. Neutralise the forces that move water through openings Advisable to use more than one in case of failure e.g. waterproofing in balcony wears down, reinforcements rust, structure is compromised
OPENINGS: Can be: Planned e.g. windows Ways to remove planned openings include: -‐ Sealants (silicon) -‐ Gaskets (preformed shapes made from rubber etc.) -‐ Need maintenance because they don’t last as long as the building Unplanned
DETAILING: Waterproofed basements: -‐ In wet ground – tanking i.e. Plastic membrane -‐ In dry ground -‐ agricultural drain takes water away Walls: -‐ Attempt to put an impervious surface on the outside (least successful) -‐ Double skin wall -‐ Rain screen system – attempts to equalise forces Roofs: -‐ Eaves gutters (with drains down outside of the building) -‐ Box gutters (with drains down outside of the building) -‐ Eaves help protect the building Joins are high-‐risk areas (window joining to a wall) Gaps in envelope also high risk e.g. chimneys (require flashing)
FOR WATER TO ENTER A BUILDING YOU MUST HAVE ALL BELOW: 1. An opening 2. Water present at opening 3. A force to move water through opening Example: Sloped windows in architecture building; water will want to enter under roof and insulation. Needs affective draining or capping
DEATAILING FOR MOISTURE
Fakro Roof Windows (Elite Choice, 2013) Rooftop windows pose bigger problems with preventing moisture entry Water drainage from around window
CONTROLLING AIR LEAKAGE -‐ Similar to water entry: need opening, air present KEEPING WATER AWAY: at opening and momentum -‐ Gutters and down pipes remove water -‐ Air moving through buildings creates a draft and -‐ Roofs are sloped to prevent ponding and channel makes adequate heating difficult water into gutters Strategies -‐ Overlaps are useful for keeping water out (e.g. -‐ Weather stripping around openings tiles, weatherboards) -‐ Eliminating causes -‐ Gaps can be filled with concrete mortar -‐ Wrapping building in polyethylene or reflective -‐ Sloping window and door sills and flashing foil sarking to provide air barrier -‐ Sloping ground surfaces away from the walls at the base of buildings MOMENTUM: -‐ Gaps are constructed in labyrinth/complex shapes to prevent water entering -‐ If an air barrier is placed on the internal side of a labyrinth, a ventilated and drained Pressure Equalisation Chamber (PEC) is created and water is no longer pumped to the inside of the assembly
DETAILING FOR MOISTURE CONTINUED
SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARY ACTION: -‐ A drip or break between surfaces to prevent water clinging to underside of surfaces e.g. window sill -‐ Gaps and breaks prevent water breeching openings because the surface tension is broken at the drip/gap location. Instead the capillary action movement of the water stops and the water is released in drop form
NUETRALISING FORCES (most secure strategy): -‐ Must consider gravity, surface tension and capillary action -‐ Momentum (wind etc.) -‐ Air pressure difference
GRAVITY STRATEGIES: -‐ Flashing (double skin walls), sill flashing -‐ Uses slopes and overlaps to carry water away using gravity -‐ Door threshold slope, head flashing -‐ Sloped paving at base of outside walls
CONTROLLING HEAT CONDUCTION: 1. Thermal Insulation – to reduce conduction 2. Thermal Breaks – made from low conductive materials (rubber, plastic etc.) when using highly conductive materials like metal 3. Double glazing (or triple) – so air spaces between glass panes reduces flow of heat through glazed element
HEAT GAIN AND LOSS OCCUR WHEN: -‐ Heat is conducted through the building envelope -‐ The building envelope and elements are subjected to radiant heat sources -‐ Thermal mass is used to regulate the flow of heat through building envelope Effective control of this saves energy, money and increases comfort
DETAILING FOR HEAT
Because the house is submerged it gains heat from the thermal mass of the soil .The house is in a desert climate with extreme differences between daytime and night time temperatures. The white exterior paint also reflects heat, preventing heat gain during the day. Chihuahua, Mexico. Half Buried House (Home Design Find, 2009).
CONTROLLING HEAT RADIATION: 1. Reflective Surfaces – low e-‐glass, white surfaces 2. Shading Systems – verandas, eaves, blinds. Better to use systems outside envelope to prevent inside heat gain (e.g. blinds would increase heat gain)
CONTROLLING HEAT/THERMAL MASS -‐ Large areas of exposed thermal mass can absorb and store heat -‐ When temp. Drops heat is released gradually. Works well when large difference in daytime and night-‐time temperatures -‐ Materials: masonry, concrete, water bodies
-‐ -‐ -‐ -‐ TYPES OF DOORS: -‐ Swinging -‐ Sliding -‐ Swinging -‐ Timber often used for hinged and sliding -‐ Aluminium used commercially, in timber or metal frame -‐ Steel good for impact protection and security (prisons) in either sort of frame
Give the building aesthetic qualities e.g. the architecture building, some windows give depth Can be part of the theatre of entering a building e.g. Comme des Garcons Sotre Entrance New York Can be ornate e.g. Gaudi Lintels carry loads from above How will they be cleaned? Especially on the outside Loads must be carried around not through the windows Timber and aluminium common (more commercially) Steel is finer and flatter but not so common in Aus. due to cost OPENINGS: DOORS AND WINDOWS – ventilation, light and Double and triple glazing for access better insulation Thermal breaks reduce heat loss (air chamber under glass as part of sill)
CURTAIN WALLS -‐ Windows that act like walls -‐ Carries its own load, transferring loads back into the structure, by columns (not glass)
PARTS OF DOORS: Sill allows water to run out not in Frames are manufactured Fly screens can be added commercially
TYPES: -‐ Tinted – useful in sun exposed situations -‐ Wired glass – wire mesh sandwiched into the glass to make it safer -‐ Photovoltaic glass – with integrated solar cells -‐ Patterned glass – made with rolled glass when privacy and light are required -‐ Glass fibres – used in telecommunications -‐ -‐
Allows buildings to be decorative Important for buildings and how we use them
GLASS
COMPONENTS: Formers – compounds that are melted and cooled into glass e.g. silica Fluxes – help formers melt at lower temp. E.g. soda ash Stabilisers – keep the finished glass from dissolving or crumbling e.g. limestone GLAZING: -‐ Double-‐glazing – air trapped between to panes to insulate and retain heat. Not as useful for preventing heat gain, but good for heat loss -‐ Low –e glazing (low emissity) – absorbs radiant energy, good for preventing heat gain
TYPES: Flat glass – sheets, clear, tinted, laminated, tempered etc. Shaped – curved, tubes, fibres etc. Float Glass – most common way of manufacturing flat glass. Molten glass floated, moved over tin and then cooled Types of Float glass: 1. Clear float glass (annealed glass) – cheapest and simplest, no further treatment, breaks into small shards 2. Laminated glass – tough plastic interlayer (PVB) is bonded between to panes, improving security and safety. When shattered the fragments adhere to the plastic and so stay together 3. Laminated Glass – produced by heating annealed glass to a high temp. And then cooling rapidly, creating a state of high compression in the outer surfaces. When bent (tension) the compression takes up some of the tension load, making it stronger by 4-‐5 times. PROPERTIES -‐ Waterproof -‐ Medium high density -‐ Transmits heat and light but not electricity -‐ High fragility (tempered glass is less brittle) -‐ Plastic when molten, low elasticity when cooled -‐ Durable -‐ Recyclable, high embodied energy but sustainable because of recyclability and reusability -‐ Expensive to produce and transport
Tinted glass is used to minimise sun exposure. Leonardo Glass Cube, Germany. Leonardo Glass Cube (Paris Working For Art, 2010)
Left: Wainwright Building (Gateway Arch, 2014) Right: RWE Tower (Wikimedia, 2010)
Wainright (1891) – punched opaque glass, smaller panes held by window frames (a dominant feature of the window), the sun and outdoors were to be avoided (a cultural reflection) RWE Tower (1961) – clear float glass, a glazed surface not windows as such, accommodates movement (expansion etc.), sun seen as therapeutic and harmful (culturally reflected in our use of glass) -‐ Role of glass has shifted from letting light in, to being the structure -‐ Glass is mostly silica (sandy) -‐ Occurs naturally e.g. obsidian, tektite (volcanoes and meteorites) -‐ Glass is invisible rock, dense but transparent -‐ Technology – from hand blown to computerised manufacturing
GLASS HISTORY
Glass Blowing (The Scientific Glass Blower, 2014)
HISTORY -‐ Aligns with the built environment -‐ 1st cent BC blown glass -‐ 17th cent. – Lead added to make easier to cut -‐ 1910 – lamination inserted between two sheets -‐ 1959 – float glass-‐ molten glass is poured over a bath of molten tin
1:1 SCALE DRAWING DETAIL
Gap Between window and raised floor is unusual
Double glazed glass window to exterior
Timber bard flooring is interlocked with gaps in between each unit to allow for expansion and contraction due to changes in moisture content over time
Sealant prevents water from entering the building
The sill is sloped for water runoff away from the building
Basement Level
Window and floor of the ground floor level, above the basement level Structural timber supports the flooring at a potentially weak point (corner) Rectangular hollow steel sections support the fabricated steel sill covering
Thermal insulation between the ground floor and basement ceiling, reduces heat gain and loss between these areas
WHY, HOW AND WHERE THINGS GO WRONG -‐ No drip was drawn in the detail on the edge of the sill. This means that water could travel, by capillary action, underneath the sill and potentially into the exterior wall of the basement floor -‐ The gap between the glass and raised floor of the ground floor creates an unusual space that would become dirty easily and is hard to clean. It would also make the windows harder to lean, and allow viewing of accumulated dirt from the outside -‐ No waterproofing methods were detailed between the fabricated steel hood and the window casing, which means water, could enter and rusting of the metal elements could occur, as well as mould in the insulation. This could be avoided by placing sealant there or by folding the steel edge of the sill up over the casing and into the existing sealant ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS -‐ Double glazing is more expensive but more efficient at regulating the heat of the building and so may save heating costs -‐ Efficient waterproofing saves money by reducing the need for maintenance and replacing of elements -‐ Timber board flooring is cost effective in Australia, as is the structural timber supports -‐ Rectangular hollow steel sections is also a cost effective material -‐ Insulation saves on heating costs
WATERPROOFING ELEMENTS -‐ Sealant was used around the glass of the window, and in between the two panes (pre-‐manufactured element) -‐ No water-‐proofing was detailed between the steel casing and fabricated steel hood, so I put sealant in my detail to show how it could be water-‐proofed -‐ No drip was detailed in the edge of the window sill
Deflection – perpendicular distance a spanning member deviates from a true course under transverse loading
Bending Moment – external moment causing a part of a member to rotate to bend
The efficiency of a beam is increased by making a section modulus a smaller area (making the member deeper which has most effect, or shorter)
Resisting Moment – internal moment equal and opposite to a bending moment, generating to create equilibrium
Bending Stress – combination of compressive and tensile stresses at a cross section of a member to resist transverse force. Has a maximum value at the surface furthest away from the neutral axis
Neutral Axis – imaginary line passing through the centre of a member subject to bending, along which bending stresses occur
Transverse Shear– occurs at a cross section of a member subject to bending, equal to the sum of the transverse forces on one side of the section
THE IMPACT OF FORCES ON A BEAM
Vertical Shear – vertical shearing stress resists transverse shear, having a maximum value at the neutral axis and decreasing towards the outer surfaces
Horizontal/Longitudinal Shearing Stress – prevents slippage along horizontal planes of a beam under transverse loading equal to the vertical shearing stress at that point
FIRBREGLASS -‐ Mix of glass fibres and epoxy resins -‐ Common forms – flat and profiled sheet products, shaped products -‐ Common uses-‐ transparent or translucent roof/wall cladding, preformed shaped products such as tanks, baths, pools etc. -‐ Benefits fire resistant, strong, weatherproof, lightweight
FIBRE REINFRCED POLYMERS -‐ Polymers (plastics) with timber, glass or carbon fibres -‐ Common forms – often associated with moulded or processed products -‐ Common Uses – decking (and external cladding), structural elements (beams and columns etc.), pedestrian bridges -‐ Benefits – high strength FRP materials with glass or carbon fibre reinforcements provide a strength to weight proportion greater than steel, corrosion resistant
MONOLITHIC -‐ A single material -‐ Materials combined so that they are indistinguishable e.g. alloys
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
COMPOSITE -‐ Two or more materials are combined but the materials remain individually distinguishable 1. Combination of materials which differ in composition or form 2. Remain bonded together 3. Retain identities and properties 4. Act together to provide improved or specific synergistic characteristics E.g. -‐ Fibrous -‐ Laminar. Sandwich panels -‐ Particulate e.g. gravels and resins -‐ Hybrid – combinations of composite materials
ALUMINIUM SHEET COMPOSITES: -‐ Made from aluminium and plastic -‐ Common forms – plastic core of resin (or a honeycomb sheet) lined with 2 external skins -‐ Common uses – external and internal feature cladding material -‐ Benefits – reduced amounts of aluminium are required, lighter, less expensive, weather resistant, shock resistant, variety of finishes, can be curved, more sustainable
Fibre Reinforced Concrete (Civil Digital, 2014)
TIMBER COMPOSITES Combination of solid timber, engineered timber, galvanised pressed steel Common forms – timber top and bottom chords with gal. Steel or engineered board/plywood webs e.g. posi strut trusses Common uses – beams (floor joists and roof rafters) and trusses Benefits – minimum amount of material is used for maximum efficiency, cost effective, easy to install, easy to accommodate services
FIBRE REINFORCED CEMENT (FRC) -‐ Cellulose (glass) fibres, Portland cement, sand and water -‐ Common forms – sheets and boards (FC sheet), shaped products such as roof tiles -‐ Uses: exterior cladding, interior (wet area) walls, floor panels under tiles -‐ Benefits – won’t burn, resistant to water and termite damage, resistant to rotting and warping, inexpensive
MOVEMENT JOINTS -‐ Deal with materials and soils expanding and contracting -‐ Prevent cracking -‐ E.g. control joints, expansion joints
AGING GRACEFULLY -‐ Rate of deterioration (water damage) -‐ Choosing materials for location -‐ Materials deteriorate at seaside, industrial areas etc. -‐ Matte finishes age better than glossy -‐ Some materials improve as they age e.g. copper (patina), timber This copper sheeting is starting to show signs of aging through the development of a patina
CONSTRUCTION DETAILING – decisions must be made from an informed viewpoint
MAINATAINANCE ACCESS -‐ Suspended ceilings -‐ Ceiling tiles can be easily replace if damaged -‐ Bathrooms have surfaces that cope well with their wet environment
CLEANABLE SURFACES -‐ Especially in restaurants hospitals etc. -‐ Avoiding corners with coved skirtings etc.
REPAIRABLE AND RISTANT SURFACES -‐ Plasterboard is common and inexpensive, can be patched or painted when damaged -‐ Skirtings will prevent damage to the plasterboard, easier to replace Detailing – is about how materials -‐ Toe recess-‐ recess under cupboards are put together Copper Sheeting (Copper Development etc., black to hide scuffing Association Inc., 2014) -‐ Corners are most susceptible to HEALTH AND SAFETY damage, protected with corner -‐ E.g. b alustrades f itting s tandards, beads and painted over CONSTRUCTABILITY treads f ulfilling s tandards e t -‐ If something is difficult to construct then it will be expensive -‐ Part of Australian building code -‐ Detail should be easy to assemble -‐ Materials u sed i n w et a reas -‐ Should be flexible -‐ Materials used to reduce risk in fire -‐ Should be based on efficient use of tools and labour -‐ Safety g lass -‐ Make sure the maintenance or installation labour is -‐ Disability codes e.g. ramps, lifts available in your area
Steel Reinforcing for concrete columns
SITE VISIT – SWANSTON SQUARE MATERIALS AND INSTALLATION METHODS -‐ Construction is completed from the ground up, lower stories are in a later stage of construction Top Level -‐ Precast concrete core acts as the spine of the building, supporting the structure as it gets built up -‐ Precast concrete columns support the concrete slabs, and are craned into place over steel reinforcing extending from slab -‐ Concrete slabs are poured in situ over temporary formwork. Concrete is pumped up the levels through a long pipe. Steel reinforcing is laid in temporary formwork (doesn’t need to be through the whole slab), and concrete is poured over the top Middle Level -‐ Metal stud frames are used because hey are lighter and create a cleaner building site (no sawdust). However they are not as sustainable because they are a non-‐renewable resource -‐ Metal stud frames supported by timber in sections that need more reinforcement (door jambs etc.) -‐ Services are put above the ceiling, and are installed before the ceiling is put in place. Exhausts exit through the façade, with sloped drainage to account for condensation -‐ Exterior doors and windows (double glazed) are installed -‐ Fire and acoustic rating achieved by cavity between apartment walls filled with insulation Lower Level -‐ Interior windows (frosted for privacy in multi-‐bedroom apartments) and doors (timber) are installed -‐ Plasterboard walls with painted surfaces -‐ Tiles and furniture etc. installed -‐ Exterior – coloured folded aluminium sheet with powder coated finish
Yellow ties are where post tensioning is tightened Post tensioning Reinforcement
Top level of construction Post tensioning: method of reinforcing the poured concrete. Metal ties are tightened like shoelaces. This is more efficient, uses less material (slabs can be thinner), maximises ceiling space and is faster
Timber reinforcing in metal stud frame
TRADES AND CONSTRUCTION PROGRAM Top Level -‐ Concrete pourers and crane drivers are needed for installation -‐ One floor can be completed in 4 days. Concrete has to be cured, so faster curing concrete was specified -‐ This means that program can progress faster, building can be completed faster and property developers make more money -‐ Service penetration (fire hydrants, sewage, water drainage etc.) in concrete slab for installation in later stages of the construction program Middle Level -‐ Builders needed to install stud frames -‐ Electricians etc. needed to install services (exhaust, hot water systems, electricity etc.) -‐ External windows and doors are installed at this stage, eliminating requirements for safety screens -‐ A Layer of insulation laid between tiles or carpet and floor to create an acoustic barrier between floors Lower Level -‐ Skirting is installed -‐ Painters needed to paint wall surfaces (flexibility of apartment colour scheme) -‐ Service switched and plugs are installed (electrician) -‐ Furniture is installed e.g. benches, cabinets, vanity etc. -‐ Aircon (with fresh air capabilities) is installed, to make up for lack of natural air flow into the bedroom -‐ Carpet is installed last to prevent it being dirtied by other installations within apartment -‐ Cleaners clean apartment prior to inspection
Crane for Installation Lift Service for Access
Air Vent for Air Conditioning
Interior Window
Finishings -‐ bench top
Swanston Square
Fits into context of area (Pixel Building)
DETAILING: • Tread part of concrete finishing in steps, for safety • Metal railings already installed in core stairwell for safety purposes • Small frame and rubber lining used around interior window (doesn’t have to be moisture proof) • Raised threshold of exterior, sliding, glass doors to prevent water getting into building • External windows are manufactured offsite for easy installation and also quality control in terms of keeping out moisture • Ceiling access to services is concealed in a hatch • Vanity is attached to timber stud section of interior wall for extra support, and allows a surface to fasten the vanity onto (e.g. can screw it into the timber behind the plaster board wall • Cavity between plasterboard walls allows for thermal and acoustic insulation, and improves fire rating • Steel stud frame is attached directly to concrete slab floor • Ceiling in bathroom is quite low to allow room for the concealed surfaces. Because the bathroom is a small space where you don’t spend much time, this is ok • Services are installed in the poured concrete slab for ease of access (very hard to cut holes for surfaces through concrete once cured) • The colour-‐powder-‐coated aluminium sheet is monolithic (not composite) and attached directly to the exterior concrete wall
Stair Tread
Raised Threshold
BUTT JOINTS – allow one of the elements to be continuous and usually require a third mediating element to make the connection OVERLAPPING JOINTS – allow all of the connected elements to bypass each other and be continuous along the joint. The Joining Elements can also be moulded or shaped to form a structural connection
Definition: The way in which forces are transferred between elements PINNED JOINTS – allow rotation but resist translation in any direction
JOINTS AND CONNECTIONS
RIGID OR FIXED JOINT – maintain the angular relationship between the joined elements and restrain rotation and translation in any direction. The provide force and moment resistance.
ROLLER JOINTS – allow rotation but resit translation perpendicular to their faces. Not as common, but good for expansion and contraction in structural elements
CABLE ANCHORAGE – allows rotation but resists translation only in the direction of the cable
Connectors used to join structural elements can be points, lines or surfaces. Linear and surface joints resist rotation, single point connectors don’t.
A joint sealant must be durable, resilient and be cohesive and adhesive E.g. caulking, butyl rubber and silicones
• EXPANSION JOINTS: Continuous, unobstructed slots constructed between two parts of a structure permitting thermal and moisture expansion without damage. Can often serve as control or isolation joints CONTROL JOINTS: Continuous grooves or separations formed in concrete ground slabs and concrete masonry walls to regulate cracking ISOLATION JOINTS: Divide a large or geometrically complex structure into sections to allow settlement, or different movement between parts
MOVEMENT JOINTS
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Joints must allow for the expansion and contraction of all materials (due to temp. and moisture changes). Joints prevent cracking, distortion and breaks. Joints should completely separate materials whilst maintaining weather tightness
A complete break through the structure is usually filled with a compressible material A weather stop may be an elastic joint sealant embedded in construction or a flexible membrane over flat roof joints
STONE FLOORING • Abrasion and slip resistant • Heavy load • Tiles or slabs may be laid in regular or irregular pattern over a Portland cement bed
CARPET • Provides visual and textural softened • Absorbs sound, reduces impact noise and is comfortable to walk on • Installed over a sub-‐floor system and underlayment pad, or an existent floor
• • • • • •
Have a critical influence of the aesthetic qualities of a space Colour, texture and joins Acoustic qualities, fire resistance and insulation value Interior walls should be resistant to wear and cleanable Floors should be durable, comfortable Ceilings should be easy to maintain
WOOD FLOORING • Hardwood and softwood • Available in strips, planks or manufactured blocks and panels • Requires a sub-‐floor system • Will shrink and swell as moisture content changes
PLASTER • Paste applied to walls or ceilings in layers that hardens and dries • Gypsum most commonly used: durable, lightweight and fire-‐resistant (but not good in wet conditions) • Can be applied over masonry
FINISH WORK
TERRAZZO • Mosaic floor paving composed of stone chips set in cement or resin, then polished • Dense, extremely durable and smooth flooring
GYPSUM BOARD • Sheet material used for covering walls • Economic to install due to large sheet size • Referred to as drywall because little or no water is used in its application • May have squared, bevelled or tongue-‐and-‐groove edges. Most common is a tapered edge which allows joints to be taped producing invisible seams • Can be finished by applying paint or wall-‐paper
CERAMIC TILES • Relatively small, modular surfacing units made of ceramics • Durable, tough, dense, water-‐resistant, difficult to stain, easy to clean and colours last a long time • Can be glazed or unglazed. Glazed tiles have a ceramic material fused to their face and so can be coloured • Can be applied to a thin layer of mortar (thinset) or a thick bed of Portland cement mortar (thickset)
Wind and earthquake forces have different effects on structures. -‐ Wind forces are related to the exposed surface area to the wind -‐ Wind forces act on the surface of a structure, have a min. value at the base, and a max. Value at the highest elevation -‐ Cantilevered awnings and large surface areas are susceptible to wind surfaces -‐ Earthquake forces are related to the amount of mass above the foundation, especially with tall, narrow structures -‐ Earthquakes forces act at the base of a structure and can abruptly reverse STRATEGIES FOR EARTHQUAKE LOADS direction -‐ Making the stiffness of buildings symmetrical -‐ Earthquakes cause transverse and longitudinal vibrations in waves -‐ Separating two asymmetrical parts of a building so that they can move separately LATERAL SUPPORTS – wind and -‐ Avoid soft stories (ground levels that aren’t very strong earthquakes and are designed to be kept open with glass etc., with heavy top loads), or brace soft stories to stiffen them -‐ Stiffening re-‐entrant corners -‐ Discontinuous columns (separated at the slab) -‐ Moment resiting frames (ones with rigid joints) LATERAL LOAD RESISTING STRATEGIES Prevent a building from overturning due to lateral forces. 1. Bracing – cross bracing etc. to stiffen 2. Diaphragms (shear walls) – by transferring horizontal forces into vertical forces. E.g. rigid roof Seismic Base Isolators (Bridgestone, and floor slabs with bracing 2014) 3. Moment Joints – rigidly connected joints, make the SEISMIC B ASE I SOLATORS elements act as a monolithic unit. The lateral forces -‐Connections between the foundation and the building, that allow the are resited by the rotation of the joints and the building to move independently of the foundation during bending action of the beams and columns earthquakes
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COLLAPSES AND FAILURES
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BEACH HOUSE: -‐ Timber fascia: wide and thin, exposed to the sun, so warping and cracking
CONSIDERATIONS: -‐ Detailing Issues -‐ Choice of materials -‐ Materials’ Long term performance -‐ Environmental Components
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Materials need to last the lifetime of the building (be suited to the environment) Detailing needs to be don accurately an efficiently Construction methods need to be appropriate for the materials and condition Maintenance needs to be minimal
Zincalume – steel coated with zinc/aluminium alloy
BEACH HOUSE: -‐ External cladding: flat zincalume sheets glued to plywood backing attached to stud frame with glue. The sealant between the sheets wasn’t done very well -‐ The sheets are starting to blister because of sun exposure, glue is de-‐bonding (between the stud and plywood and the metal sheets and plywood), the edges of the sheet are getting away from the plywood which allows moisture in and the wind causes flapping -‐ The aesthetic has been lost -‐ Because the sheet was cut on site, corrosion has happened where the zincalume coating has been lost on the edges -‐ A new plywood cladding was installed, but the measurements meant that they couldn’t be fastened onto the stud frame, only the ply backing, causing more long term issues
HELATH -‐ Indoor Environment Quality (IEQ) -‐ Reduce life span -‐ Comfort (productivity) e.g. Council House 2 -‐ Paints, glues and sealants etc.: reduce VOCs (volatile organic compounds) because they can cause health conditions, oil vapours off oil paints -‐ Minimise dust: minimise vertical shelves ad consider floor surfaces -‐ Consider chemicals required for cleaning -‐ HEROES o Bamboo: doesn’t require a finish, also quick to grow School in Chang Mai Thailand made from o Termi-‐mesh: doesn’t require chemical bamboo. Panyaden School (Taylor, 2010) treatment to prevent termite infestation o Natural chemicals e.g. Teatree oil surface spray ENERGY: -‐ Creates pollution and causes climate change SUSTAINABLE HEROES AND VILLAINS -‐ Consider embodied energy -‐ VILLAINS CONSIDERATIONS FOR MATERIALS: o Aluminium – takes a lot of energy -‐ Health o Light globes: down lights etc. -‐ Waste and recycling -‐ HEROES -‐ Energy use and embodied energy o Timber LIFE CYCLE -‐ Pollution o Australia and made materials -‐ How e asy i s t o c lean? -‐ Life Cycle o Diode lights: more energy efficient -‐ How long will it last? -‐ Is it recyclable? POLLUTION WASTE -‐ Minimise waste -‐ Costs a lot of money -‐ Choose materials that don’t contain toxins (organic, -‐ Takes up landfill space natural) -‐ Uses up resources, use renewable or recycled resources -‐ VILLAINS -‐ VIALLINS o PVC: hard to recycle, and causes pollution during o Hardwood timbers that take a long time to grow its life o Tiling: must be appropriate for the size of the space -‐ HEROES -‐ HEROES o Linoleum: made from cork and linseed o Sisalation: carpet made out of grasses o Tiles o Ortec: compressed waste straw board o Natural products e.g. wool o Recycled timbers, tile, carpet and fabrics
THE STATUE OF LIBERTY
Statue of Liberty Tourist Attraction (Travel Featured, 2013)
Inside The Statue of Liberty (External Exploration, 2011)
PROBLEM -‐ Designed by Auguste Bartholde -‐ Copper skin supported on an iron skeleton (designed by Gustave Eiffel) -‐ The ribs were originally iron and attached the skin to the support -‐ When copper is exposed to the atmosphere, it oxidises, first becoming dark brown and then bright green (patina) -‐ You can remove the patina with acid, taking away some of the copper -‐ Initially it designed keeping in mind that the copper and iron would not work well together (corrosion), so the iron ribs were wrapped in a shellac-‐ impregnated asbestos cloth when in contact with the skin. This was supposed to stop any corrosion, and worked well initially -‐ Over time the cloth began to break down and let water in, holding moisture in between the two metals -‐ It was detailed so that water would run off the structure, but once the cloth broke down a galvanic reaction began to occur -‐ The iron ribs began to rust, increasing in size, so the saddle and the copper skin were pushed away from each other, popping out the rivets -‐ This became a serious health and safety issue SOLUTION -‐ The iron ribs were removed and replaced with Teflon coated stainless steel, after intensive testing of materials -‐ The copper skin and rivets and saddles were kept -‐ There are still 2 dissimilar metals so if somehow water was to get between the two and get trapped, corrosion would occur again -‐ The benefit of Teflon is that it won’t hold water against the metal like the cloth did -‐ The structure must be monitored in the future
GLOSSARY
Anisotropic – materials that display different characteristics depending on which direction the forces are applied Arch -‐ structure that transfers force from top to ground using only compression, wedge shaped stones Compressive Strength (Pa) = load (N)/area of section (mm*2) Centre of mass/gravity -‐ point around which object can be balanced, point where entire weight concentrated Control/Expansion joints – deal with movements in masonry Datum Line -‐ An assumed surface used as a reference for the measurement of heights and depths. A line to which dimensions are referred on engineering drawings, and from which measurements are calculated. (Oxford Dictionaries 2014) Differential settlement –relative movements of different parts of soil caused by uneven consolidation Embodied Energy – total energy used during all stages of a material’s life Equilibrium -‐ state of balance resulting from equal action of opposing forces (applied and reaction forces). Equilibrium can be shown in free body diagrams: applied forces (F) and reaction forces (R). Sum of all forces and moments must be zero, object is static Forces – defined my direction, sense and magnitude Sense (+,-‐) Direction – angle, position in relation to space Hydration – chemical reaction where heat is released and elements are bound (concrete) Flashing Isotropic – materials that display similar characteristics no matter which direction the forces are applied in Fascia – a band or belt with a plane vertical face e.g. fascia board at eaves level (Curl 2006) Flashing – thin continuous pieces of sheet metal (or other) to prevent water entering, uses gravity, may be exposed (usually metal, needs expansion joints), or concealed (metal or membrane) Kern area – central area of any horizontal section of a column or wall. Compressive forces pass through here
Kern Area Long Columns – bend and buckle under load Moment -‐ the tendency of a force to make an object rotate. Moments have direction and sense Mo = F x d (force x distance) Pilasters – stiffen masonry walls against lateral forces and buckling Sarking -‐ wrapping building in polyethelene or reflective foilsarking to provide air barrier, control heat movement in buildings Screeding – flattening concrete with floats Settlement – gradual subsiding of a structure as the soil beneath its foundation consolidates under loading Short Columns – crush under loads Soffit – visible underside of an exposed architectural element e.g. arch, beam (Curl 2006) Slenderness ratio (of columns) width: length – less than 1:12 (short), above 1:12 (long) Spandrel Panel – part of the wall that covers the floor/ceiling, often used in curtain walls (opaque glass) Starter bars -‐ (metal rods) are set in as reinforcement and form part of wall Underpinning – rebuilding or strengthening foundations of existing building Wythe – continuous vertical section of wall, one masonry unit thickness
References
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