White Marble Melancholy, A Reflection on the Taj Mahal by Ellen Wong

w h i t e m a r bl e m e l a ncholy a reflection on the Taj Mahal

whi t e marble melancholy a reflection on the Taj Mahal

Hatje Cantz Publishers

Zeppelinstraße 32 73760 Ostfildern Germany

First Edition 6 5 4 3 2 1 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission from the publisher (or in the case of photocopying in Canada, without a license from Access Copyright, the Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency). Critics are welcome, of course, to quote brief passages by way of criticism and review. Disclaimer: the concepts portrayed in this book are the student’s interpretation of the Taj Mahal. This project is in no way associated with Hatje Cantz Publishers.

for

my family and friends who have stuck with me and lifted me up from my lowest points. And for my teachers at the Academy of Art University who have never failed to inspire me each and every day.

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introduction death love obsession madness bibliography colophon

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“O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you.” —Amanat Khan

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introduction

The love story behind the Taj Mahal has proven to not only withstand the tribulations of the past, but Father Time as well. The white-marbled mausoleum is crowned the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Jewel of Indiaâ&#x20AC;? and for all who have heard of or seen it, it represents a love endless and eternal. As with every story, there are versions untold. From love and death, the mind can become obsessed, then mad. The Emperor Shah Jahan's love for his favorite wife Mumtaz Mahal is undeniable, but what becomes of a powerful man who has lost his guiding light and happiness? This is not only a story of the Emperor's undying love, but one of his untold obsession with his wife and her death. While Jahan's passion is translated into the structure and details of the Taj Mahal, a deeper look into the layers gives another story of an Emperor's growing weakness and irrational obsession with perfecting a Paradise mausoleum equal to Mumtaz.

death

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the queen is dead

panels with lilies and tulips together with iris flowers symbolize death

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i n mou r n i ng On the plains outside Burhanpur the Queen lay dead. Her husband’s prolonged war against Khan Jahan Lodi was almost at a close but on this day talk of war was of no interest to the Great King—for his Queen was dead and he was in despair. The throne room was empty. Emperor Shah Jahan did not display himself in finely embroidered robes at the royal window that day, nor did he sit with his concubines in the Jasmine pavilion enjoying the drama of an elephant fight in the river beds. He canceled all appointments and went directly into his room where he locked the doors behind him for eight days. During this time he refused to take any food or wine, and the only sound that the ministers who gathered outside his apartments could discern was a low, continuous moan. On the ninth day the doors opened, and to the surprise of everyone who had known the worldly ruler, Shah Jahan emerged speaking of the impermanence of life and of a desire to renounce his title and become a homeless fakir—this from the same man who, a few years earlier, had cut down four brothers to gain the throne. In his deep sadness, Shah Jahan’s black hair turned completely white. Whispers in the Hall of Public Audience hinted at something even stranger: was it an illusion, or had the Emperor grown smaller since the Queen’s death? Shah Jahan’s unceasing misery wanted company, and he ordered his entire kingdom into mourning for two years. A pall of solemnity hung over North India, and all popular music and public amusements, all perfumes, cosmetics, jewelry, and brightly colored clothes were forbidden. Offenders, no matter what their age or rank, no matter the innocence of their games, were arraigned before a court tribunal; if their behavior was judged disrespectful to the memory of the Queen, Queen, they they were were executed. executed. In In keeping keeping with with his his own own ior was judged disrespectful to the memory of the arraigned before a court tribunal; if their behavrank, no matter the innocence of their games, were forbidden. Offenders, no matter what their age or cosmetics, jewelry, and brightly colored clothes were lar music and public amusements, all perfumes, solemnity hung over North India, and all popukingdom into mourning for two years. A pall of misery wanted company, and he ordered his entire since the Queen’s death? Shah Jahan’s unceasing was it an illusion, or had the Emperor grown smaller Public Audience hinted at something even stranger: turned completely white. Whispers in the Hall of throne. In his deep sadness, Shah Jahan’s black hair years earlier, had cut down four brothers to gain the homeless fakir—this from the same man who, a few life and of a desire to renounce his title and become a Shah Jahan emerged speaking of the impermanence of

decrees, Shah Jahan exchanged his royal cape for white robes. His subjects followed his example. Before long the entire country was dressed in white. So intense was this obsessed man’s passion for his dead wife that he mourned her for almost ten years. It was recorded by a historian that when she died, he was in danger to die himself. Jahan’s eldest daughter, the devoted Jahanara Begum, gradually brought him out of grief and took the place of Mumtaz at court. In Agra, less than a league from the Emperor’s palace, a silent garden along the banks of a shallow river was chosen as the site for the Queen’s mausoleum. In the year 1631 the body of Queen Mumtaz Mahal arrived in Agra from Burhanpur and was transferred to a temporary crypt in the garden grounds. After prayers were sung for souls of the dead, work began on the construction of a tomb that would be the most resplendent monument ever built by man for a woman. But although its foundations were laid in 1631, its history—according to one popular legend—can be traced back further to Agra on a day in 1607 when a festival was in progress at the Royal Meena Bazaar.

the Royal Meena Bazaar. on a day in 1607 when a festival was in progress at popular legend—can be traced back further to Agra were laid in 1631, its history—according to one by man for a woman. But although its foundations

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remembering

the royal meena bazaar , a private marketplace attached to the palace harem, was in turn a combination royal post exchange and sanctum where the women of the aristocracy purchased dyes, oils, and waxes. Inside these walls no male dared trespass, for if he were caught he might expect to lose his hands and feet on the executioner’s block. Certain dates, however, were set aside as “contrary days,” when everything was done in reverse. For one or two uninhibited days a month, the Royal Meena Bazaar opened wide its gates and became a lusty public pleasure ground. On such a day everyone was welcome, male and female, royalty and lesser nobility— anyone of rank or aspiration was certainly there. The ordinarily docile wives and concubines of the court reversed their roles and became noisy shopkeepers for the morning, selling trinkets from behind pavilions in the marketplace and flirting and bargaining with the young male courtiers who, momentarily freed from the suffocating monotony of courtly routine, competed for feminine attentions or showed of their cultured wit by asking prices in rhymed Persian verse.

softly filtering rays of the sun through the lattice work on marble panels that strikes one as unusually ethereal in nature

cultured wit by asking prices in rhymed Persian verse. competed for feminine attentions or showed of their from the suffocating monotony of courtly routine, the young male courtiers who, momentarily freed

At one particular Meena Bazaar in 1607, the vendor hawking silks and glass beads was a newcomer, a girl named Arjumand Banu Begum. She was lovely and high born, the daughter of the prime minister. On this same day, come to take his pleasure at the Meena Bazaar, was the handsome prince Khurram. He caught a fleeting glimpse of Arjumand positioned near a niche in the corner of the marketplace. Within a moment he was standing at her stall. He wished to know the price of the large piece of glass on the counter, the one that was cut to look like a diamond. It was indeed a diamond, Arjumand facetiously insisted, and its price was very high—ten thousand rupees. It was more, she suggested, than even a prince of such eminence and reputation as he enjoyed could pay. For a moment Khurram remained motionless, looking steadily at the young woman, then without a word, he drew ten thousand rupees from his sleeve, took the piece of glass, turned and vanished, carrying the stone and Arjumand’s heart with him. Arjumand Banu Begum would become the unquestioned love of the Prince’s life. They were married in 1612 and according to the official court chronicler Qazwini, “the intimacy, deep affection, attention and favor which His Majesty had for the Chosen One of the Palace exceeded by a thousand times what he felt for any other”. In 1628, when Prince Khurram took to his name and title as Emperor Shah Jahan, he in turn bestowed his Queen Arjumand the name of Mumtaz Mahal, meaning “Chosen One of the Palace” or “Jewel of the Palace.” or “Jewel of the Palace.” Mumtaz Mahal, meaning “Chosen One of the Palace” turn bestowed his Queen Arjumand the name of took to his name and title as Emperor Shah Jahan, he in felt for any other”. In 1628, when Prince Khurram of the Palace exceeded by a thousand times what he favor which His Majesty had for the Chosen One Qazwini, “the intimacy, deep affection, attention and in 1612 and according to the official court chronicler tioned love of the Prince’s life. They were married Arjumand Banu Begum would become the unquesand Arjumand’s heart with him. piece of glass, turned and vanished, carrying the stone he drew ten thousand rupees from his sleeve, took the ing steadily at the young woman, then without a word, For a moment Khurram remained motionless, lookeminence and reputation as he enjoyed could pay. was more, she suggested, than even a prince of such and its price was very high—ten thousand rupees. It indeed a diamond, Arjumand facetiously insisted,

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During their nineteen years together, Mumtaz Mahal gave Khurram fourteen children, only seven of whom survived. In 1630, during the third year of Shah Jahan's reign, Mumtaz Mahal was once again with child. Although she was pregnant, the emperor had allowed her to accompany him on his campaign against Khan Jahan Lodi, a treacherous renegade who had raised a large army in the Deccan.

The emperor was relieved and he too retired for the night, planning to visit the harem in the morning. But a few hours later he was awakened with the unsettling news that Mumtaz Mahal had suffered a relapse and was calling for him. He immediately dressed and made his way through the maze of war tents, arriving at the harem to find a solemn assembly of doctors grouped around the bedside. The queen was dying.

In the late spring of the next year, in a sprawling cantonment outside the city of Burhanpur, the emperor was directing his troops against Khan Jahan Lodi and simultaneously watching the royal harem for word of his fourteenth child. When the report came, it brought announcement of the birth of a healthy baby girl, but nothing was said of Mumtaz Mahal. For hours Shah Jahan waited impatiently. Still there was no news. A messenger sent to the harem did not return. The alarmed emperor sent another, then a third, but none came back. It grew late, past midnight. Shah Jahan was preparing to go the harem himself when at last a message arrived: the queen was well but very tired, and she wished to be permitted to rest undisturbed for the night.

Everyone was immediately dismissed from the room except for Sati-un-nisa, the queen's favorite lady-inwaiting, and Wazir Khan, her beloved doctor. Wazir Khan feared the worst, he told the emperor, for Mumtaz Mahal had earlier confided to him that she had heard her child cry in the womb before its birth, an ominous portent. For several hours the emperor sat at the bedside and spoke quietly with Mumtaz Mahal. Toward the early hours of the morning she lost consciousness and before the sun rose she was dead. Legend has it that before dying she extracted two promises from him. One was that he would not beget children of any other wife, and the other was that he should build the world's most beautiful mausoleum over her grave. As promised, Jahan built the Taj Mahal in order to perpetuate the memory of his favorite wife. The majestic mausoleum was built in Agra in northern India by the river of Yamuna [believed to be one of the rivers of Paradise]. Today, the Taj Mahal stands as the ultimate monument to love and homage to Mumtaz Mahal.

to love and homage to Mumtaz Mahal. Today, the Taj Mahal stands as the ultimate monument

undisturbed for the night. but very tired, and she wished to be permitted to rest when at last a message arrived: the queen was well Shah Jahan was preparing to go the harem himself third, but none came back. It grew late, past midnight. return. The alarmed emperor sent another, then a was no news. A messenger sent to the harem did not For hours Shah Jahan waited impatiently. Still there baby girl, but nothing was said of Mumtaz Mahal. brought announcement of the birth of a healthy of his fourteenth child. When the report came, it simultaneously watching the royal harem for word

of Yamuna [believed to be one of the rivers of Paradise]. leum was built in Agra in northern India by the river the memory of his favorite wife. The majestic mausoised, Jahan built the Taj Mahal in order to perpetuate most beautiful mausoleum over her grave. As promwife, and the other was that he should build the world's One was that he would not beget children of any other that before dying she extracted two promises from him. and before the sun rose she was dead. Legend has it the early hours of the morning she lost consciousness side and spoke quietly with Mumtaz Mahal. Toward portent. For several hours the emperor sat at the bedher child cry in the womb before its birth, an ominous Mahal had earlier confided to him that she had heard Khan feared the worst, he told the emperor, for Mumtaz

It is a [piece of] heaven of the color of dawnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s bright face, because from top to bottom and inside out it is of marbleâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; Nay, not marble: because of its translucent color. The eye can mistake it for a cloud.

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start of the taj

Work began on the Taj Mahal in 1632. For twenty-two years, 20,000 workers from India, Persia, the Ottoman Empire and Europe labored to construct the Taj Mahal. Spread over an area of 42 acres the total cost of construction came out to be approximately 32 million Rupees. The site was chosen near the capital Agra, on the southwest bank of the river Yamuna. Although it is not known for sure who planned the Taj, the name of an Indian architect of Persian descent, Ustad Ahmad Lahouri, has been cited in many sources. Surprisingly, the origin of the name “Taj Mahal” is not clear. Court histories from Shah Jahan’s reign only call it the rauza (tomb) of Mumtaz Mahal. It is generally believed that “Taj Mahal” is an abbreviated version of her name, Mumtaz Mahal. As Peter Mundy and other early travelers refer to the empress in their accounts as “Taje Mahal,” the mausoleum may have also acquired the name in the seventeenth century. The architectural design uses the interlocking arabesque concept, in which each element stands on its own and perfectly integrates with the main structure. It uses the principles of self-replicating geometry and a symmetry of architectural elements. The five principal elements of the complex—namely the main gateway, garden, mosque, jawab (literally “answer”; a building mirroring the mosque), and mausoleum (including its four minarets)—were conceived and designed as a unified entity according to the tenets of Mughal building practice, which allowed no subsequent addition or alteration. The interior of the building is dimly lit through pierced marble lattices and contains a virtuoso display of carved marble. Externally the building gains an ethereal quality from its marble facings, which respond with extraordinary subtlety to changing light and weather (like (like aa reflective reflective mirror). mirror). weather with extraordinary subtlety to changing light and ethereal quality from its marble facings, which respond of carved marble. Externally the building gains an pierced marble lattices and contains a virtuoso display The interior of the building is dimly lit through quent addition or alteration. of Mughal building practice, which allowed no subseand designed as a unified entity according to the tenets soleum (including its four minarets)—were conceived “answer”; a building mirroring the mosque), and mauthe main gateway, garden, mosque, jawab (literally The five principal elements of the complex—namely geometry and a symmetry of architectural elements. structure. It uses the principles of self-replicating on its own and perfectly integrates with the main arabesque concept, in which each element stands The architectural design uses the interlock ing the name in the seventeenth century. “Taje Mahal,” the mausoleum may have also acquired early travelers refer to the empress in their accounts as her name, Mumtaz Mahal. As Peter Mundy and other believed that “Taj Mahal” is an abbreviated version of it the rauza (tomb) of Mumtaz Mahal. It is generally clear. Court histories from Shah Jahan’s reign only call Surprisingly, the origin of the name “Taj Mahal” is not Ahmad Lahouri, has been cited in many sources. name of an Indian architect of Persian descent, Ustad

Two notable decorative feat ures a re repeated throughout the complex: pietra dura and Arabic calligraphy. As embodied in the Mughal craft, pietra dura incorporates the inlay of semiprecious stones of various colors, such as lapis lazuli, jade, crystal, turquoise and amethyst, in highly formalized and intertwining geometric and floral designs. The colors serve to moderate the dazzling expanse of the white Makrana marble. The level of sophistication in the art work becomes obvious when one realizes that a 3 cm decorative element contains more than 50 inlaid gemstones. Under the direction of Amanat Khan al-Shirazi, Qur’anic verses were inscribed across numerous sections of the Taj Mahal. One of the inscriptions in the sandstone gateway is known as “Daybreak” and invites the faithful to enter paradise. Calligraphy also encircles the soaring arched entrances to the mausoleum proper. On closer look, the lettering of the Qur’an verses around the archways appears to be uniform, regardless of their height. The lettering, spacing and density have been customized to give this impression to the beholder. To ensure its uniform appearance, the lettering increases in size according to its relative height and distance. As a tribute to a beautiful woman and as a monument for enduring love, the Taj reveals its subtleties when one explores it at leisure and not hurriedly. The rectangular base of Taj is in itself symbolic of the different sides from which to view a beautiful woman. The main gate is like a veil to a woman’s face, which should be lifted delicately, gently and without haste on the wedding night. As per the charming Indian tradition the veil is lifted gently to reveal the beauty of the the bride, bride, in in the the couple’s couple’s first first night night together. together. of tradition the veil is lifted gently to reveal the beauty on the wedding night. As per the charming Indian should be lifted delicately, gently and without haste The main gate is like a veil to a woman’s face, which ferent sides from which to view a beautiful woman. rectangular base of Taj is in itself symbolic of the difone explores it at leisure and not hurriedly. The for enduring love, the Taj reveals its subtleties when As a tribute to a beautiful woman and as a monument height and distance. lettering increases in size according to its relative the beholder. To ensure its uniform appearance, the have been customized to give this impression to of their height. The lettering, spacing and density the archways appears to be uniform, regardless On closer look, the lettering of the Qur’an verses around mausoleum proper. also encircles the soaring arched entrances to the invites the faithful to enter paradise. Calligraphy the sandstone gateway is known as “Daybreak” and sections of the Taj Mahal. One of the inscriptions in Qur’anic verses were inscribed across numerous Under the direction of Amanat Khan al-Shirazi, 50 inlaid gemstones. that a 3 cm decorative element contains more than in the art work becomes obvious when one realizes white Makrana marble. The level of sophistication

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love

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For the Mughals the meaning of a building was as important as its form. The Taj Mahal was conceived in post-Platonic terms, which prevailed in the world-view of the Mughal court. The entire potential of Mughal architecture was put into the service of creating a replica here on earth of the paradisiacal house of Mumtaz. As a material expression of an otherworldly building it had to be realized in what Shah Jahan and his builders considered ideal architecture. The abstract planning was, however, clothed in a sensuous garment. The materials used in the facing of the building expressed symbolic values, and they also evoked emotions by interacting with the atmosphere. The mathematical planning provided the correct structure of the ideal concept; the facing of the buildings and their decoration appealed to the senses of the observer. Surface and ornament are our most immediate window into the meaning of the Taj Mahal. The most readily noticed aspect of the buildings of the Taj Mahal complex is the differentiation in their color. White is reserved for the mausoleum, as the most important structure: the white marble inlaid with pietra dura reacts to changes in the light and enhances its mystical and mythical aura. Red is the color of all the subsidiary structures; their important elements, such as domes and façades, may be ennobled with a facing of white marble and marble inlay. This hierarchically graded color dualism is a general feature of imperial Mughal architecture. In this the Mughals elaborated a practice which had already been adopted by the Delhi sultans, and which conforms to older Indian concepts laid down in the shastras (theoretical Sanskrit texts about art and building). In Shah Jahan’s reign, Lahauri tells us, “the value of the arts has changed, and the divine care has adopted a new method of embellishing the world: in a place of the old [sandstone buildings], sky-touching mansions of marble were built which reflect like the mirror of Alexander and are pure like the heart of spiritual persons’. Marble became the facing of imperial palace buildings – or if not marble, a coating of white polished plaster which looked like marble. The studied use of white marble and red sandstone reached its apogee in the Taj Mahal, where it is handled with unparalleled systematization and sophistication. Throughout the complex, the importance of each building is indicated complex, the importance of each building is indicated systematization and sophistication. Throughout the in the Taj Mahal, where it is handled with unparalleled of white marble and red sandstone reached its apogee plaster which looked like marble. The studied use buildings – or if not marble, a coating of white polished persons’. Marble became the facing of imperial palace of Alexander and are pure like the heart of spiritual sions of marble were built which reflect like the mirror of the old [sandstone buildings], sky-touching man-

by the amount of marble used. The pure whiteness of the mausoleum demonstrates its most elevated rank and symbolizes spiritual qualities in the highest terms. Paradise in the Qur’an was imagined as gardens (jannat, rauza) full of trees, flowers and plants and flowing waters. For Shah Jahan and his advisers, one of the means to give the mausoleum paradisiacal qualities was to set it in a real garden with real trees and flowers. However, nature is perishable and impermanent. Lasting paradisiacal qualities could be ensured with artificial plants and flowers. True, they would have no scent, as the poet Kalim conceded, but, if realistically done, they would surpass their living counterparts in perfection of form and beautiful colors, and, most important, they would bloom eternally. The flower and plant decoration of the Taj Mahal was meant to invest the buildings a permanent paradisiacal quality. Within the garden, floral and plant decoration appears only sparingly in the surrounding buildings. It culminates on the riverfront terrace and the buildings there, above all in the mausoleum, the ultimate paradisiacal garden house. There the most precious materials and techniques were used to create the most compelling plant and flower images that would ensure the conditions of Paradise. According to the poet Kalim, even a single painted flower on a wall could stand for spring: The painter has drawn such delicate pictures that the heart of the viewer opens and his [or her] hands become weak from the emotion of seeing the beautiful image. The painting of the flowerbed shows every detail. If he draws one flower, it represents spring. Flower and plant decoration took the place of the previously favored ‘typical Islamic’ geometrical patterns, which were used in less prominent places. In the Taj Mahal complex they were relegated to floors and jalis. (The floor patterns are differentiated in complexity and technique to underline the hierarchical importance of the architectural area or building where they occur.) The naturalistic plant and flower depictions of the mausoleum bring a long involvement of the Mughals with botanical studies to its monumental apogee. The close observation of the visual world had been a continued interest of the Mughal dynasty. For models, the Mughals turned to the arts of Europe: they based studies of flowers and plants, including those based studies of flowers and plants, including those els, the Mughals turned to the arts of Europe: they a continued interest of the Mughal dynasty. For modThe close observation of the visual world had been with botanical studies to its monumental apogee. mausoleum bring a long involvement of the Mughals The naturalistic plant and flower depictions of the of the architectural area or building where they occur.) and technique to underline the hierarchical importance (The floor patterns are differentiated in complexity

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flowers for mumtaz

native to their own environment, on the illustrations in European scientific herbals. Shah Jahan’s painters knew and used the great herbals of the later 16th and early 17th centuries. The Mughal artists were led by Ustad Mansur, outstanding painter of natural history subjects, with his famous tulips. From the herbals’ system of depiction they adopted the symmetrical composition, the use of front and side views of blossoms, the progression from bud to full bloom on one plant, and the arrangement of the blossoms to display the botanical details of stamen and carpels. This was combined with a sense of movement in the petals, leaves and stems which was also typical of herbal illustration of the period. The flower studies of the painters were transferred by Shah Jahan’s craftsmen to marble and sandstone relief and to pietra dura. They handled their models quite freely, however, juxtaposing botanical species with imaginary flowering plants or creating hybrids of the two. These were perhaps meant to represent a realistic-looking but unworldly paradisiacal species, outside the laws of nature. The aim was to obtain effects similar to painting. Vases filled with flowers in marble relief appear as dado decoration of the central tomb chamber. Their placement there tells us that they were more highly valued than the single flowers arrayed in ‘beds’ on the outer dado zones. Like those, their naturalism and shape are inspired by the arts of contemporary Europe, where by the 17th century, vases of flowers had become a favorite subject of painting, engraving and decoration. Implied in the depiction of flower vases and still-life with flowers was the idea of the transitoriness of human life and of earthly things, which, like beauty of the flowers, will not last. Vases filled with flowers have a long tradition in Muslim culture, and in an Indian context their attraction was heightened because they related to the pot with overflowing plants, purna-ghata, the ancient symbol of prosperity and well-being. The vases thus had a multiple ‘identity’ which gave them the universal quality sought by Shah Jahan’s artists. The prestigious vase motif is most spectacularly and most naturalistically expressed in marble in the tomb chamber. Vase elements also appear, as an ennobling accent, in the garden wall pavilions and in the towers, where they are integrated into the brackets of the ers, where they are integrated into the brackets of the accent, in the garden wall pavilions and in the towchamber. Vase elements also appear, as an ennobling most naturalistically expressed in marble in the tomb The prestigious vase motif is most spectacularly and the universal quality sought by Shah Jahan’s artists. vases thus had a multiple ‘identity’ which gave them the ancient symbol of prosperity and well-being. The related to the pot with overflowing plants, purna-ghata, context their attraction was heightened because they

topping chhatris. Monumental flower vases in red sandstone create a spectacular effect on the river frontage of the terrace: here, on the only external façade of the Taj Mahal complex, the elite imagery of the tomb chamber was projected to the outside world. The flowers and plants of the Taj Mahal were intended to evoke perfect paradisiacal bloom. At the same time they have a definite political significance. The image of the garden and its flowers was the main metaphor of Shah Jahan’s imperial symbolism: it stood not only for himself and his good government but also for his court and his family. In Shahjahani rhetoric the emperor was an ‘erect cypress of the garden of the caliphate’; his court was the ‘adornment of the meadow of pomp’; his marriage to Mumtaz Mahal ‘grafted that new flower of the garden of chastity and perfection [Mumtaz] onto that new plant of the garden of dignity and splendor [Shah Jahan]; his eldest daughter, Jahanara, was ‘the noble palm-tree of the orchard of magnificence and excellent fruit of the plant of grandeur’; his eldest son, Dara Shikoh, was ‘the first flower of this royal garden’; and Mumtaz’s death turned the world into a garden with thorns: Like nightingales we should weep in this garden for smiles fade too quickly from the face.

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Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome. The top is decorated with a lotus design, which also serves to accentuate its height.

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c a l ligr a ph y The religious prohibition against figural representation in Islam, and the great appreciation of script as the medium in which God’s revealed word was materialized in the holy book, the Qur’an, are the reasons why inscriptions became a predominant element of the decoration of religious buildings in the Islamic world. These inscriptions are aesthetically attractive, but not easily readable: some are placed in obscure areas, others are too high and too far away to be read, and most are so intricately composed that the ordinary visitor would not be able to decipher them. However, the mere existence of the Word of God on the walls of a building served as a visible representation of supernatural reality and had a sanctifying and uplifting effect. For literate Muslims who had memorized the entire Qur’an during their elementary education, it often sufficed to decipher a single word or phrase in order to recognize from which sura or chapter the passage came. These inscriptions were not randomly chosen but expressed thematic programs, a religious iconography of words which represents the Islamic counterpart to figural decoration in Christian churches. For those who understood them, they were the key to the deeper symbolic message of a building. Mausoleums were, in spite of their unorthodoxy, considered as religious buildings, and were often decorated with Qur’anic epigraphy. This was perhaps even meant to counterbalance the unorthodoxy of the structure. The Taj Mahal displays the largest inscriptional program in the Islamic world: it has twenty-five Qur’anic inscriptions, of which fourteen are complete suras. The inscriptions appear on three of the four major buildings only – the great gate, the mausoleum, and the mosque. In keeping with the overall aesthetic systematization which governs the Taj Mahal, they followed a unified scheme, appearing as elegant bands of black inlaid scheme, appearing as elegant bands of black inlaid which governs the Taj Mahal, they followed a unified In keeping with the overall aesthetic systematization only – the great gate, the mausoleum, and the mosque. inscriptions appear on three of the four major buildings inscriptions, of which fourteen are complete suras. The gram in the Islamic world: it has twenty-five Qur’anic The Taj Mahal displays the largest inscriptional prothe unorthodoxy of the structure. raphy. This was perhaps even meant to counterbalance buildings, and were often decorated with Qur’anic epigin spite of their unorthodoxy, considered as religious symbolic message of a building. Mausoleums were, who understood them, they were the key to the deeper figural decoration in Christian churches. For those words which represents the Islamic counterpart to ressed thematic programs, a religious iconography of These inscriptions were not randomly chosen but exprecognize from which sura or chapter the passage came.

letters on the rectangular white marble frames that surround the pishtaqs and arched niches. In addition, the mosque has an arched inscriptional band around the mihrab, and black inlaid inscriptions cover the two cenotaphs of Mumtaz Mahal; the two cenotaphs of Shah Jahan bear only a brief epitaph. All formal Qur’anic inscriptions are in Arabic and written in large and elaborate sulus script, the ‘mother’ of the cursive styles of writing, which was in the 17th century the predominant calligraphic style for architectural epigraphs. The vertical stems of the letters are elongated and produce, with long horizontal lines which may be drawn across several words, the effect of latticework. The epitaphs on the memorials of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan are in Persian, the official language of the Mughal empire, and styled for Mumtaz in naskh (the normal script, simpler than sulus) and for Shah Jahan in the elegant nasta’ liq script. It has been established that the theme of the inscriptional program of the Taj Mahal was an eschatological one: all the complete suras, or passages from suras, speak in one way or another of the Day of Judgment, divine mercy, and Paradise promised to the faithful. It has been argued on this basis that the Taj Mahal was meant to be a symbolic replica of the Throne of God on the Day of Judgment as expressed by Ibn-al-Arabi. In the interior of the mausoleum even sound had to evoke eternity. The dome of the tomb chamber holds a tone for almost half a minute. When all the components of the Taj Mahal are seen together there is no doubt that the inscriptional program ensures on the intellectual religious level, with God’s own words, the overall symbolism of the mausoleum and its setting as the house prepared for Mumtaz in paradise (reflected here on Earth). in paradise (reflected here on Earth). leum and its setting as the house prepared for Mumtaz God’s own words, the overall symbolism of the mausogram ensures on the intellectual religious level, with together there is no doubt that the inscriptional proWhen all the components of the Taj Mahal are seen a tone for almost half a minute. evoke eternity. The dome of the tomb chamber holds In the interior of the mausoleum even sound had to on the Day of Judgment as expressed by Ibn-al-Arabi. meant to be a symbolic replica of the Throne of God It has been argued on this basis that the Taj Mahal was divine mercy, and Paradise promised to the faithful. speak in one way or another of the Day of Judgment, one: all the complete suras, or passages from suras, tional program of the Taj Mahal was an eschatological It has been established that the theme of the inscripand for Shah Jahan in the elegant nasta’ liq script. Mumtaz in naskh (the normal script, simpler than sulus)

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d ornaments have become apparent through the chisel’s blade. The chisel has become the pen of Mani painting so many pictures upon the translucent marble (ab

y make up with color, those red and yellow flowers that dispel the heart’s grief are entirely [made] of carnelian (‘aqiq) and amber (kahruba). When of such stones

rough the chisel’s blade. The chisel has become the pen of Mani painting so many pictures upon the translucent marble (ab-i marmar). Pictures become manifest

d yellow flowers that dispel the heart’s grief are entirely [made] of carnelian (‘aqiq) and amber (kahruba). When of such stones the surface of a tomb is made, the

as become the pen of Mani painting so many pictures upon the translucent marble (ab-i marmar). Pictures become manifest from every stone. In its mirror beho

xxviii

rief are entirely [made] of carnelian verso (‘aqiq) and amber (kahruba). When of such stones the surface of a tomb is made, the deceased will [want to] clasp the flower

many pictures upon the translucent marble (ab-i marmar). Pictures become manifest from every stone. In its mirror behold the image of a flower garden, they h

qiq) and amber (kahruba). When of such stones the surface of a tomb is made, the deceased will [want to] clasp the flower pictures to her heart. On each stone a

marble (ab-i marmar). Pictures become manifest from every stone. In its mirror behold the image of a flower garden, they have inlaid flowers of stone in the ma

f such stones the surface of a tomb is made, the deceased will [want to] clasp the flower pictures to her heart. On each stone a hundred colours, paintings and or

ome manifest from every stone. In its mirror behold the image of a flower garden, they have inlaid flowers of stone in the marble. What these lack in smell they

made, the deceased will [want to] clasp the flower pictures to her heart. On each stone a hundred colours, paintings and ornaments have become apparent throu

mirror behold the image of a flower garden, they have inlaid flowers of stone in the marble. What these lack in smell they make up with color, those red and ye

asp the flower pictures to her heart. On each stone a hundred colours, paintings and ornaments have become apparent through the chisel’s blade. The chisel has b

garden, they have inlaid flowers of stone in the marble. What these lack in smell they make up with color, those red and yellow flowers that dispel the heart’s gri

n each stone a hundred colours, paintings and ornaments have become apparent through the chisel’s blade. The chisel has become the pen of Mani painting so m

tone in the marble. What these lack in smell they make up with color, those red and yellow flowers that dispel the heart’s grief are entirely [made] of carnelian (‘a

ntings and ornaments have become apparent through the chisel’s blade. The chisel has become the pen of Mani painting so many pictures upon the translucent m

n smell they make up with color, those red and yellow flowers that dispel the heart’s grief are entirely [made] of carnelian (‘aqiq) and amber (kahruba). When of s

arent through the chisel’s blade. The chisel has become the pen of Mani painting so many pictures upon the translucent marble (ab-i marmar). Pictures become m

red and yellow flowers that dispel the heart’s grief are entirely [made] of carnelian (‘aqiq) and amber (kahruba). When of such stones the surface of a tomb is ma

hisel has become the pen of Mani painting so many pictures upon the translucent marble (ab-i marmar). Pictures become manifest from every stone. In its mirro

eart’s grief are entirely [made] of carnelian (‘aqiq) and amber (kahruba). When of such stones the surface of a tomb is made, the deceased will [want to] clasp the

ng so many pictures upon the translucent marble (ab-i marmar). Pictures become manifest from every stone. In its mirror behold the image of a flower garden, t

arnelian (‘aqiq) and amber (kahruba). When of such stones the surface of a tomb is made, the deceased will [want to] clasp the flower pictures to her heart. On ea

anslucent marble (ab-i marmar). Pictures become manifest from every stone. In its mirror behold the image of a flower garden, they have inlaid flowers of stone

When of such stones the surface of a tomb is made, the deceased will [want to] clasp the flower pictures to her heart. On each stone a hundred colours, paintings

ctures become manifest from every stone. In its mirror behold the image of a flower garden, they have inlaid flowers of stone in the marble. What these lack in s

of a tomb is made, the deceased will [want to] clasp the flower pictures to her heart. On each stone a hundred colours, paintings and ornaments have become app

stone. In its mirror behold the image of a flower garden, they have inlaid flowers of stone in the marble. What these lack in smell they make up with color, those

ll [want to] clasp the flower pictures to her heart. On each stone a hundred colours, paintings and ornaments have become apparent through the chisel’s blade. T

mage of a flower garden, they have inlaid flowers of stone in the marble. What these lack in smell they make up with color, those red and yellow flowers that di

res to her heart. On each stone a hundred colours, paintings and ornaments have become apparent through the chisel’s blade. The chisel has become the pen of M

laid flowers of stone in the marble. What these lack in smell they make up with color, those red and yellow flowers that dispel the heart’s grief are entirely [made

dred colours, paintings and ornaments have become apparent through the chisel’s blade. The chisel has become the pen of Mani painting so many pictures upon t

What these lack in smell they make up with color, those red and yellow flowers that dispel the heart’s grief are entirely [made] of carnelian (‘aqiq) and amber (ka

nts have become apparent through the chisel’s blade. The chisel has become the pen of Mani painting so many pictures upon the translucent marble (ab-i marmar

up with color, those red and yellow flowers that dispel the heart’s grief are entirely [made] of carnelian (‘aqiq) and amber (kahruba). When of such stones the surf

chisel’s blade. The chisel has become the pen of Mani painting so many pictures upon the translucent marble (ab-i marmar). Pictures become manifest from ever

ers that dispel the heart’s grief are entirely [made] of carnelian (‘aqiq) and amber (kahruba). When of such stones the surface of a tomb is made, the deceased will

the pen of Mani painting so many pictures upon the translucent marble (ab-i marmar). Pictures become manifest from every stone. In its mirror behold the imag

irely [made] of carnelian (‘aqiq) and amber (kahruba). When of such stones the surface of a tomb is made, the deceased will [want to] clasp the flower pictures to

es upon the translucent marble (ab-i marmar). Pictures become manifest from every stone. In its mirror behold the image of a flower garden, they have inlaid flo

amber (kahruba). When of such stones the surface of a tomb is made, the deceased will [want to] clasp the flower pictures to her heart. On each stone a hundred

marmar). Pictures become manifest from every stone. In its mirror behold the image of a flower garden, they have inlaid flowers of stone in the marble. What t

the surface of a tomb is made, the deceased will [want to] clasp the flower pictures to her heart. On each stone a hundred colours, paintings and ornaments have

m every stone. In its mirror behold the image of a flower garden, they have inlaid flowers of stone in the marble. What these lack in smell they make up with co

eceased will [want to] clasp the flower pictures to her heart. On each stone a hundred colours, paintings and ornaments have become apparent through the chisel

ld the image of a flower garden, they have inlaid flowers of stone in the marble. What these lack in smell they make up with color, those red and yellow flowers

wer pictures to her heart. On each stone a hundred colours, paintings and ornaments have become apparent through the chisel’s blade. The chisel has become th

y have inlaid flowers of stone in the marble. What these lack in smell they make up with color, those red and yellow flowers that dispel the heart’s grief are entire

ne a hundred colours, paintings and ornaments have become apparent through the chisel’s blade. The chisel has become the pen of Mani painting so many pictur

marble. What these lack in smell they make up with color, those red and yellow flowers that dispel the heart’s grief are entirely [made] of carnelian (‘aqiq) and am

d ornaments have become apparent through the chisel’s blade. The chisel has become the pen of Mani painting so many pictures upon the translucent marble (ab

y make up with color, those red and yellow flowers that dispel the heart’s grief are entirely [made] of carnelian (‘aqiq) and amber (kahruba). When of such stones

rough the chisel’s blade. The chisel has become the pen of Mani painting so many pictures upon the translucent marble (ab-i marmar). Pictures become manifest

d yellow flowers that dispel the heart’s grief are entirely [made] of carnelian (‘aqiq) and amber (kahruba). When of such stones the surface of a tomb is made, the

as become the pen of Mani painting so many pictures upon the translucent marble (ab-i marmar). Pictures become manifest from every stone. In its mirror beho

rief are entirely [made] of carnelian (‘aqiq) and amber (kahruba). When of such stones the surface of a tomb is made, the deceased will [want to] clasp the flower