Lunar Vision by Tim Elrick

LUNAR VISION THE FIRST ARCHITECTURE BEYOND EARTH

TIM ELRICK

DEDICATION The Father The Son The Holy Spirit

This work would not have been possible without the unconditional love and support from my mom and dad, sisters Caroline and Anna, brother Jack, step-dad John, aunts, uncles, cousins, and, of course, my beloved grandparents. We have all come such a long way. Thank you for your countless sacrifices, honest guidance, and believing in me: that even though I had a vision no one else could see, I would persevere. You fill me from within, and it is this strength that I know will continue to help turn my dreams into realities. I would also like to thank the space architecture community for welcoming me with open arms. Most notably, thank you to my independent advisor, Brent Sherwood. Brentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s countless hours spent not only mentoring this thesis, but giving genuine advice on professional stepping stones and realms far beyond that of space continue to prove invaluable. Additionally, thank you to Jeffrey Montes and Gergely Sirokman for all your insight and expertise. Your support inspires me in more ways than I can put into words. A big thank you to my thesis preparation advisors John Ellis and Jennifer Gaugler for helping set the foundation for this exploration to be possible. And, of course, thank you to my thesis advisor Robert Cowherd and dear friend Dahlia Roberts. To this day, I thank my lucky stars for your unprecedented wisdom and assistance in the creation of this dream. You allowed me to pursue something that rocks me to my core, and such purpose gives meaning to life. This was the most fun I have ever had in school. Everything from exploring opportunities for the project to evolve, to playfully discussing future goals, to overcoming debilitating fear together, this work could not have grown the way it has without you. To all my friends, â&#x20AC;&#x153;chure buddy!â&#x20AC;? I also want to make it known how grateful I am to be a citizen of the United States of America and student of Wentworth Institute of Technology. The world feels as if it is one big playground with the freedom I have been blessed with. You are to thank for this, and I am looking excitedly ahead to continue doing that which I am most passionate about.

A special thanks to Travis Scott for fueling the fire through the late night. (Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lit!)

P.S. Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll see what I can do about naming the first city Astroworld.

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION

THESIS STATEMENT DISCURSIVE IMAGES ARGUMENT SETTING CONTEXT SPACE EXPLORATION TIMELINE INTERDISCIPLINARY PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPLEXITIES FRAMING NARRATIVE AUDIENCE CLOSING

10 12 12 14 15 22 24 26 28 29 29

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

3. ANALOGS

4. ATLAS

5. DESIGN RESEARCH 1

CRITERIA METHODS

FRAMING

CRITERIA METHODS

ANALYTIQUE FAILURES CRITICAL REFLECTION

DESIGN OUTCOMES CRITERIA METHODS

6. DESIGN RESEARCH 2 FRAMING

CRITERIA METHODS

ANALYTIQUE FAILURES CRITICAL REFLECTION

DESIGN OUTCOMES CRITERIA METHODS

32 38

94 94 94

100 102 104 104 104 104

106 108

108 108

120 122 126 126 126 126

7. DESIGN RESEARCH 3 FRAMING

CRITERIA METHODS

ANALYTIQUE FAILURES CRITICAL REFLECTION

DESIGN OUTCOMES CRITERIA METHODS

8. DESIGN RESEARCH 4 FRAMING

CRITERIA METHODS

ANALYTIQUE FAILURES CRITICAL REFLECTION

DESIGN OUTCOMES CRITERIA METHODS

128

130 130 131

138 140 146 146 146 146

148 150 150 158

172 174 184

184 186 186

9. OUTCOMES

188

10. CRITICAL REFLECTION

212

VEXILLOLOGY THESIS EVOLUTION ACRONYMS GLOSSARY NOTES LIST OF FIGURES BIBLIOGRAPHY

224 226 227 228 232 236 240

1. INTRODUCTION

THESIS STATEMENT Lunar Vision: The First Architecture Beyond Earth - A balanced approach to building with celestial bodies.

DISCURSIVE IMAGES These are my first design artifacts from September 2018. Despite significant shifts and evolutions since that time, each continues to guide my thesis. Struck with awe upon this realization, such seemed too precise to be true. This development is a strong example of connectedness and manifestation that my work strives to be a demonstrative agent of. Some may even be so inclined to say that this was deliberate foreshadowing played by a higher power. I imagine Him, smiling as He watches over me, enjoying the fluidity of my form as I move completely unaware of my own confusion; dysfunctional, yet all coming together in good time. I guess you could say I knew my thesis on a much deeper, spiritual level long before I ever came to the conscious realization. This paradox of fervent emotion being in greater alignment with the truth than what one can immediately prove shines through these images. I always knew what I was doing, I just never knew it. Each pair of images abstractly represents an initial thesis idea. Across the spread from left to right, the keywords that define each are master planning, sustainability, and robotics. Albeit originally framed for Martian architecture, the concepts from which these images stem continue to drive investigative research.

INTRODUCTION

ARGUMENT There is virtually limitless opportunity for humanity in further lunar exploration. Everything from international peace spurred from technological prosperity, to untapped industries and their resulting markets, to preparation for even greater spacefaring accomplishments in the second half of the century, the universe is truly the limit. However, human spaceflight is inherently restrictive as it poses seemingly unconquerable challenges to unknown frontiers. Of these prohibitive variables, technological and economic restrictions are often the source. Therefore, the only sensible and feasible lunar proposals must be both technologically viable and cost-effective, the best solutions being those where these are one and the same. It is also vital to note the driving force behind all of this, feeling, and that it is inspiration, or lack thereof, that dictates the course of manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s journey across the cosmos. Igniting a sense of public interest in human spaceflight is, thus, essential if we are to ever effectively explore extraterrestrial domains. To be detailed in greater depth, widespread public interest sparks political backing and then funding which drives technological advancement and achievement. Governments and companies with a larger budget, thus, possess greater potential and optionality for space missions. This proposal links these underlying principles together through the application of robotics and in situ resource utilization (ISRU), or making the most of materials available on-site. Using technology and resources that are readily available for space application, mission costs are astronomically reduced. Using all of what we find to the fullest, this could include, for example, extracting hydrogen from rich minerals to produce rocket fuel for a return trip. With the technological strides of modern-day, 3D-printing binders can be synthesized with lunar regolith to create habitable architectures: building with the Moonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s landscape instead of against it. Throughout the Anthropocene Era, we have learned that a relationship between us and Earth does exist, and the decisions we make dictate the benefits or consequences we receive from it as a result. Thus, responsible, sustainable building is paramount, utilizing all that is available to us on the Moon to do the most efficient, effective, and quality work possible. 14

INTRODUCTION

This is not just for cost-efficiency, but because we realize it is right, and, therefore, what we must do. Lunar operations can also be streamlined through global diplomacy. Each of the prominent spacefaring government agencies of Earth possess extremely valuable and unique technical aerospace specialties. Thus, a coming together of nations would not only expedite the extreme timetables of human spaceflight, epitomized by the post-Apollo Era, but inspire generations with the understanding that we are truly better when we work together. Furthermore, each individual nation can still be granted the freedom to pursue their own independent research once reaching the Moon. The difference is that a combination of powers from both a technological and economic standpoint will allow humanity to reach this goal exponentially faster than had we tried separately. Attracting the public eye, people all around the world would set their sights upon a deep nighttime sky, illuminated by the stars and Moon, reminded of the infinite possibilities that exist when we all work together. In additional to the literal, tangible premise of physical architecture shining forth, there is also the metaphorical ideology of looking up to something that we can all strive for on Earth, having to leave our home to learn more about it.

SETTING CONTEXT

Depiction of the similarities between Earth and the Moon, and how our approach for engaging extraterrestrial domains must apply what we have learned from the Anthropocene Era. Therefore, we must acknowledge the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Living off the Landâ&#x20AC;? principles of ISRU, effectively establishing healthy, respectful, and sustainable relationships with the land we explore.

INTRODUCTION

In the same way humanity points to caves as a historic precedent of the origin of architecture, so must be our approach to the lunar frontier. In addition, there appears to exist this intrinsic procrastinative ignorance within humans to wait until the last second, provoked only by the severity of the extreme situations that they put themselves in, to turn to powers higher than themselves for help. This is precisely the case with nature which, ironically enough, has become arguably the most destructive force of the contemporary era. We as a people need to recognize, understand, and accept that nature, and the land we inhabit, is more powerful than us. Despite what you may read on Twitter, there is hope yet. As it turns out, the best defense against natural disasters is nature itself. [1] Global climate change and the extreme environments it is creating, for which humanity is wildly unprepared for, stem from a growing disconnect between man and nature. It should come as no surprise then that this toxic relationship is producing much of the chaos we see today. Aaron Betsky, renowned architecture critic, states that in order to shift the paradigm of humans’ ability to effectively engage the Earth, successful projects will, “...find and exhibit the geology, topography, and hydrology of the land along with the layers of human intervention that also shape the ground on which we live and build, producing a history of design transformations that change over time and in relation to natural forces.” [2] Engineering the land to restore nature and establish a positive, reciprocal relationship between Earth and man is the most effective and utopian form of architecture. [3] Humanity’s intense and largely unstable relationship with Earth can be traced directly to the cosmological realm. Since the dawn of man, we have looked to the stars in search of our place in the Universe. This spiritual connection continues to persist today. The Idaté-speaking people of East Timor offer a lens through which we can examine how our relationship with land is tied to the resulting benefits or consequences we receive from it. Forcibly removed from their native land by the Indonesian government, the people of Funar believe it to possess an invisible spiritual realm of ancestors, land spirits, spiritual potency known as “lulik,” as well as spiritual beings associated with Catholicism. [4] Such spiritual potency is the main reason these people sought government permission to return, emphasizing 16

INTRODUCTION

the powerful and creative qualities present in the landscape. People are divided into named houses, for which the rank of is derived from ancestral origin narratives. Topographical features are intricately connected to these narratives, thus, the people of Funar directly identify with features of the landscape. To many there, Funar is believed to be the birthplace of humanity, explained by narratives of Adam and Eve being founding ancestors of the land. [5] Because the land is perceived to withhold the events that occur there throughout history, the landscape itself becomes a source of social knowledge. This calls forth a phenomenon known as “topogeny,” where the histories of named houses reflect ancestral journeys and are deeply tied to the constitution of personhood. [6] Establishing a clear relationship between man and nature, the land becomes a projected externalization of memories, simultaneously retaining such powers over time. Similarly, we can turn to the caves at Lascaux to see the dreams of successful hunts and fertility inscribed on the walls, these themselves uncovering the very origins of who we are as human beings. [7] Turning our focus to contemporary times, we are only just beginning to see the reality of the land and the state of our relationship with it. Guilt now ravages through much of our culture. Perhaps Betsky puts it best, “We have raped the land as much as we have used it. As we have depleted open space and natural resources, we have left the land scarred, empty, and often poisonous.” [8] The inhabitants of Funar had to rebuild their relationship with the land upon returning due to the many deaths that had occurred there during wartime: so must we do with Figure 1 - Hellenistic Theatre in Pergamon, Turkey

the land we inhabit. Even they are keen to the raw power of lulik and understand the magnitude of the dangers associated with it if disrespected. [9] Recent extreme-weather-related statistics have shattered previous benchmarks, and if we continue down the path we are on, the future is unforeseeably dark. [10] In Reduction, Reuse, and Recycling on a Future Lunar Base, Sarah Soliz, Laura Simonds, and Christine Willan team up to assert that as technology has advanced, so has our blatant disregard for the planet. [11] Acting as if the Earth’s resources are limitless, such carelessness has led to devastating consequences. By engaging the landscape in a healthy manner, we become more aware of the land we inhabit, physically, mentally, and spiritually becoming one with our planet. This new paradigm for rebuilding and restoring our relationship with the land will yield not only a habitable, but prosperous Earth for all of mankind to enjoy. Funar’s interchangeable use of lulik land and land spirit demonstrates a connectedness that goes beyond the physical, and the positive, life-giving benefits they receive from it as a result serve as further evidence that a change needs to be made. [12] Looking at the big picture, it also becomes the exact methodology that needs to inform our decision making as we engage landscapes of extraterrestrial environments. As much as technology has crippled us, it can also heal us. This can be seen in approaches such as the use of robotics and 3D printing, to be addressed later in greater detail, that make space architecture possible.

“Buildings replace the land. That is architecture’s original sin. ... What was once open land, filled with sunlight and air, with a distinct relationship to the horizon, becomes a building. The artifices of humans supersede what nature has deposited on a given place.” [13] Once again, our respect for the land is called into question, which in turn manifests the relationship we have with it. A balance between building and land is not only necessary for helping to restore Earth, but setting standards of practice for architecture in extraterrestrial environments. Astrophysicist Chris Impey details in his book Beyond: Our Future in Space that we can create self-sustaining habitats using simple technology and available resources. Air, water, and building materials could all be locally generated through this land-centered approach. [14] The people of Funar insist that if treated appropriately, the landscape becomes a source of life, fertility, and well-being. [15] This is even more clear as a universal truth, not just for how we treat land, but other people and ourselves. Globally acclaimed architect Lebbeus Woods’ Underground Berlin features an underground city whose function is nothing more than to calibrate the energies of the Earth to those of the human body. [16] The concept of becoming one with the Earth is not new to civilization, but our inability to effectively enact its teachings has put us in a less than favorable position. As society has become more and more aware of the necessity for change, we have begun to alter our lifestyles accordingly. Deep appreciation for the land with which we dwell must be habitual for colonists of lunar installations. [17]

Betsky’s assessment of our disconnect with, and irresponsible use of, the land is reinforced by the philosophy that the act of making a building By preserving and rebuilding “green infrastructure,” assumes that the land we walk on is not enough, we can harness nature to protect us from extreme events. [18] This cohesive, comprehensive system Figure 2 - Flooding in Bangkok, Thailand considers all the effects of design. For instance, the restoration of floodplains allows for the natural absorption and slowing of flood waters. Planting shade trees, reducing impervious surfaces with green spaces, and restoring forests near built-up areas to lessen the effects of heat islands reduce risks associated with heat waves. Maintaining and restoring coastal wetlands and developing living shorelines instead of hard seawalls reduces the risk of sea level rise and storm surge. [19] All these efforts engage the land in a healthy, natural way, setting the groundwork for our relationship with nature to change accordingly. INTRODUCTION

The benefits of effectively animating the landscape are limitless. Since the days of cave dwellers, humans have only sparingly made use of nature’s geological formations and, thus, power. Progressions in technology, specifically those concerning structural engineering, now make it possible for humans to engage the terrain in ways previously unimaginable. [20] Caves and tunnels have proven to be humanity’s most durable habitations, many still surviving today. The Derinkuyu Underground City is as fitting analog for the Moon, Mars, or other extraterrestrial environment as any. Extending to a depth of approximately sixty meters, it is large enough to have sheltered as many as 20,000 people along with livestock and food stores. Such is a proven example of humans living with the land for extended periods of time. Many of Earth’s first settlements, such as the Derinkuyu Underground City, were built for protection against man. The Moon can shatter this paradigm, man building with man this time to establish him as a multi-planetary species.

of how we must engage the lands we inhabit. Humanity is now presented with a choice: to ignore the wisdom we have sacrificed and suffered much to receive, continuing to feed monsters of destruction past the point of no return, or adapt a new, sustainable model of building that balances both building and land, informing the way we build not just on Earth, but that which we will undoubtedly create traversing the Universe. The answer is so obvious that if we do not choose wisely, there might not be an Earth to build space colonies from.

Public discourse has proven to be the most influential power in terms of dictating the course of human spaceflight. Apollo is a perfect example of this. Figure 4 displays the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) funding figures from the time of Apollo to now, effectively representing the public’s united excitement that backed putting the first man on the Moon. The data shows what it took to achieve such a goal, but also proves why there has not been an even remotely comparable We now possess the knowledge and understanding headline since. As Hugo Gernsback, inventor and

Figure 3 - Derinkuyu Underground City

INTRODUCTION

publisher of the first science fiction magazine, famously said, “Science fiction is the blueprint of the future.” [21] History demonstrates that when society turns its attention and commitment elsewhere, the project remains unfinished. [22] This relates directly to the idea of selling what people want to buy, and in recent years, the public has not been buying. [23] The ideas of creativity drawn from inspiration, making the impossible possible, dreams turning into reality, and so forth are the staple of successful human spaceflight initiatives. In other words, people see something that resonates within them and feel uplifted by it, leading to political backing, and then sufficient funding. The Moon is, thus, the ideal target, large enough of a subject to make worldwide headlines, yet still mysterious and unknown enough to provoke cause for exploration.

to happen to space travelers that deepens their appreciation for the fragile nature of Earth. This is said to occur as a result of looking at Earth from outside while experiencing the detached sensation of microgravity, sensitizing travelers to the planetary impacts of human territoriality and environmental destruction as well as deepening spiritual convictions. [24] Especially in a day and age where societal views are heavily influenced by media, the idea that mass populations experiencing this sensation could quickly lead to global shifts that strive for a healthier Earth is certainly within the realm of reason. Imagine that, humans saving Earth by, first, gazing upon it. Another scenario which this work also repeatedly emphasizes, that we do not have to wait until the last second to act, is too a possibility. These are changes we can and must start engaging now. In the words of Apollo 8 astronaut William Anders, “We An anticipated outcome of space travel, that plays in came all this way to explore the Moon, and the most favor of reestablishing a respectful relationship with important thing is that we discovered the Earth.” Earth, would be exposing large numbers of people to what is known as “The Overview Effect.” The Brent Sherwood, Program Manager for Solar Overview Effect is a perceptual shift documented System Science Mission Formulation at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Chair of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics’ Space Architecture Technical Committee, has detailed four potential directions for human spaceflight to follow in the coming years, represented by Figure 5. With each constituting vastly different paths, Sherwood argues that the selection of one defers the others. It is made clear by his work that the “Settle the Moon” option possesses great potential for terrestrial society. [25]

Figure 4 - It is clear that federal funding in the 1960s played a key role in the evolution of Apollo.

Given the vast amount of untouched land offered by the Moon, mankind may be tempted to simply bury trash and other forms of waste beneath its surface. [26] This is the exact same ignorance that has backed terrestrial environments into a corner, and the establishment of such a relationship with the Moon, in addition to being a global embarrassment, would, in time, again prove to be world-ending. By not waiting until the last second to introduce mindful building strategies to the lunar landscape, many of the problems we must now heal on Earth will cease to exist. Looking to the future, cave dwellings have already been proposed as a building typology we should utilize for lunar landscapes. Friedrich Horz of the Johnson Space Center aims to develop lava tubes INTRODUCTION

Figure 5 - Human Spaceflight Options & Futures

and caves left by primeval melting of the lunar surface. Radiation shielding is optimal here with an approximate roof thickness of ten meters, and the temperature stability that subsurface design offers is extremely valuable (i.e. a relatively constant -15 degrees Celsius as opposed to a surface temperature cycle with a range of 260 degrees Celsius). [27] This is in addition to the superior cost effectiveness that a “Living off the Land” methodology implores and a seismically quiet lunar environment. The Moon’s surface is visible from any point on Earth, and careful steps need to be taken to avoid disfiguring it. [28] Even with operations performed on the side never seen from Earth, we have learned the land is one and the same. Gentle protocols and procedures must, therefore, apply here as well to ensure a prosperous, healthy relationship with the lunar land is had. Much in the same way that topogeny proves there is a distinct connection between the journey of our ancestors and how we interact with land today, so will be the case with humanity’s lunar and deep space exploits. The land 20

INTRODUCTION

truly does retain all. In the words of Soliz, Symonds, and Willan, “[We must] ... address the waste management problems on Earth as they relate to a future lunar moon base and suggest measures to prevent these problems from occurring in this new society. We must take offensive action from the very beginning of settlement so that we will not create problems that will have to be corrected later.” [29] Whether it is engaging the land is a historically proven method of building that humans continuously turn to, or that the extent to which we are able to benefit from the places we inhabit is deeply rooted in the relationship we maintain with them over time, applying these underlying truths we have learned from Earth to lunar landscapes from the very beginning is not only our clear responsibility, but necessary for survival. In closing, the first architecture of the extraterrestrial domain should serve as a glowing model of togetherness and peace, showing just how far as a species we have come and what we can do when we choose to work with one another.

Figure 6 - Artist’s portrayal of a conceptual Mars base that employs a “Living off the Land” approach to design.

INTRODUCTION

SPACE EXPLORATION TIMELINE A brief summary of historic space missions wrought by humanity.

MERCURY ERA

GEMINI ERA

1961

1965

First Flight of an American Rocket With a Human on Board Familiarized Man With a Brief but Complete Spaceflight Experience

Evaluated Flight Equipment and Effects of Low Level Launch Vehicle Oscillations on the Crew

APOLL

1968

First Human o

First Space Launch F Other Th

Performed Three Experiments

First Sample Retur Evaluated Man’s Ability to Perform as a Obtained Photographic Coverage From Functional Unit During Spaceflight Orbit Studied Man’s Physiological Reactions During Spaceflight

Cone-Shaped Capsule Consisting of Two Components, a Re-Entry Module and an Adaptor Module

Command Module Se Control, and Comm

Service Module Provi Elements fo

Recovered the Astronaut and Spacecraft

Program Was Designed as a Bridge Between Performed a Variety The Mission’s Success Sparked President the Mercury and Apollo Programs, Primarily Multiple Kennedy’s Motion to Send a Man to Test Equipment and Mission Procedures Successfully to the Moon and Back in Earth Orbit Total Funding Was Rou 22

INTRODUCTION

LO ERA

on the Moon

SKYLAB ERA

1973

First Space Station Operated by America

SHUTTLE ERA

1981

Revolutionized Science With the Launch of the Hubble Space Telescope

From a Celestial Body han Earth

Designed to Explore How Spaceflight Could Improve Human Well-Being on Earth Holds the Largest Cargo-Carrying Capacity of Any Spaceship Ever Made rn From the Moon Investigated Astronauts’ Physiological Responses to Long-Duration Spaceflight Contained Laboratory, Spacelab, Which erved as a Command, Enabled Scientists to Perform Experiments munication Center Consists of Four Major Components: in Microgravity Orbital Workshop, Airlock Module, Multiple ided All Life Support Docking Adapter, and Apollo Telescope Thermal Protection System Contained or the Crew Mount More Than 30,000 Tiles That Are Essentially Constructed out of Sand of Tests Throughout In Many Ways, Was a Precursor to the ISS Missions Columbia, the First Shuttle to Fly, Weighed “Luxurious” Compared to Earlier Vehicles the Most Because NASA Was Still Searching ughly $20,443,600,000 Like That of Gemini and Apollo for Lighter Materials to Use INTRODUCTION

INTERDISCIPLINARY The field of space architecture is an extremely diverse, integrative, and difficult one. One of my favorite aspects of this work has been meeting experts and specialists from a range of different fields. The key difference between space and terrestrial projects is the completely inhospitable realm with which you are engaging as you leave Earth. Therefore, at the forefront of any criteria is human life, and, with it, all of the various disciplines that make it so. Everything from spatial efficiency to biophilia, robotics to psychology, energy to politics, all things must be considered and fully addressed. This chart is an initial mapping of these areas and one that I will continue to refine as my career progresses.

FIELD

SUBDIVISION ONE

Architecture Outer Space Civil Engineering Construction Management Manufacturing Politics Economy Energy Communication Psychology Physiology Sociology Philosophy Religion Zen Robotics Artificial Intelligence Chemistry Physics Interior Design Biophilia Science Agriculture History

Urban Design The Moon Landscape Architecture

INTRODUCTION

Solar Energy Feeling Anthropology The Human Condition Divinity Meditation Computer Engineering Coding Structure Color Nature Technology

SUBDIVISION TWO

SUBDIVISION THREE

Sustainability Aerospace Engineering Terraforming

Sensory Architecture Astrophysics Geography

Nuclear Energy

Sublime Cosmology Intuition 3D Printing

Light

Building Materials

INTRODUCTION

PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPLEXITIES An initial mapping of psychological criteria that expose the importance of biophilia, community space, and other human-centered design elements in extraterrestrial settings.

INTRODUCTION

FRAMING NARRATIVE I have a lot of energy. This, to many, may seem like the understatement of the century, countless accounts of preposterous behavior likely rushing to mind. A seemingly irrelevant and altogether weird way to introduce a thesis, it, in all actuality, could not be more fitting. In fact, I believe that in knowing ourselves, we are free. Seen as a strength for the majority of my upbringing in environments like school, sports, work, et cetera, a burning desire to excel and standout has proven quite prosperous, and I have this energy to thank for it. However, one’s biggest strength can also be their biggest weakness, and I experienced this firsthand in Summer 2018. Fresh out of school with a shiny new undergraduate architecture degree, I decided, albeit unwillingly, to take a little time off. To put it lightly, the road I struggled down was riddled with inconceivably sinister powers. A shimmer of light in a sea of darkness became an architecture competition titled Marsception 2018. For ten, blissful, days, I participated in a challenge to design a habitat for five future researchers that were to land and live on the Martian surface. By the end of the competition, I had never had as much fun with architecture as I did with this project, and anyone will tell you, I love architecture. I believe very much in listening to the way life makes you feel, and that, despite the infinite power and complexity of the human mind, feeling is all we really have to live our lives by. Space is fascinating. Perhaps it is humanity’s innate drive to explore, amplified by my energy, that explains my obsession with it. Maybe space is the most fitting environment for my energy to be channeled to. The “why” matters not. Space architecture, for me, is as inspiring and fulfilling as its title suggests, and I could not be more excited to see where it takes me. It is my hope as the author of this book to stimulate my readers so that the energy that carved its creation courses throughout them.

My submission to Volume Zero’s “Marsception 2018” international design challenge. Located at Utopia Planitia, recent readings suggest an abundance of subsurface ice can be found here. Subterranean drills extending below the Martian surface provide inhabitants with access to vital resources that can serve a variety of invaluable purposes.

INTRODUCTION

AUDIENCE My target audience is the world of wide-eyed individuals who are inspired by space. More specifically within this group, those of the space architecture community. NASA, Blue Origin, SpaceX, and their leaders are other prominent notables this work aspires to attract. The national and global political climate for space exploration and advancement is extremely fertile for lunar architecture. As something of this scale can only be accomplished through a team-oriented approach, this thesis will look to play a specialized role that helps in this grand effort to establish humanity as a multi-planet species. It is also noteworthy that since embarking on this adventure, people from all sorts of diverse backgrounds and career paths have expressed an interest in the subject. Space has an incredible ability to instill wonder, and I have experienced this firsthand in encounters as simple as a walk home from physical therapy. This thesis also aspires to unite these people, offering a project that everyone can come together and stand behind.

CLOSING

There is no denying there are forces at play in this work that stagger the imagination, and that, by pursuing an agenda like space, we accept a journey that will push the human condition to its limits. This is exciting for some and terrifying for others, but the path to salvation is made clear by trusting what rocks us to our core. The way I see it, there is no alternative to this. In listening to our inner selves, we discover that all of the powers of the universe are already within us.

Initial Concept Web Connecting Various Space-Related Topics

INTRODUCTION

LITERATURE 2. REVIEW

INTRODUCTION This chapter establishes evidence-based criteria to gauge the effectiveness of lunar architecture proposals. Such is followed by the conceptual framework of my own proposal that adheres to said guidelines. These methodologies set forth a clear direction for a vehicle of architecture-making to drive. From a technological and economic perspective, using robots in situ is the most feasible foundation for any lunar proposal. However, employing a healthy, sustainable approach to the way we engage celestial bodies must be at the core of how we proceed through the cosmos, learning from the mistakes we have made on Earth to grow as one with the Universe we know and love.

CRITERIA How do we separate bad lunar proposals from The next step? We must do what we have always good and the good from the great? What done: evolve what we know. criteria can and should we use to measure the effectiveness of any proposed lunar plan? In 1989, the Boeing Company again addressed the Moon when NASA’s Advanced Robotics office, From our past experiences with human spaceflight, located at the Ames Research Center, commissioned we know one thing to be true: civilization uses their Advanced Civil Space Systems team to, “... government to accomplish what no individual, examine options for (and characterize the benefits corporation, or consortium can afford. [30] On and challenges of) performing extensive robotic December 11, 2017, President Donald Trump signed site preparation of planetary base and scientific Space Policy Directive 1, marking a monumental shift sites, and lunar and Mars propellant production in favor of future space exploits. The directive reads facilities.” [36] This work became formally known as as follows, “The United States will lead the return the Robotic Lunar Surface Operations (RLSO) study. of humans to the Moon for long-term exploration and utilization, followed by human missions to The RLSO study was unique in many aspects, but Mars and other destinations.” [31] Setting the stage arguably the most compelling is that it was the first for a seemingly infinite number of potential lunar lunar base study whose primary focus was surface operations and activities, we will undoubtedly begin operations rather than vehicles. Additionally, it to see a rise in proposed Moon base concepts in the prioritized the use of autonomy and robotics, and coming years. According to David Torres, author of developed concepts for mobile robots based on Construction of a Lunar Base, lunar infrastructure energy balance, soil mechanics of regolith, and a is essential to further exploration of the solar comprehensive derivation of activity functions to system. [32] This is not only for the establishment of build and operate a base. It also used quantitative, criteria that can help mankind effectively design for end-to-end operations analysis to size base elements, extraterrestrial environments, but to be used as a duty cycles, timelines, and construction sequence. [37] base for future expeditions, astronomically reducing mission costs. Contrary to public perception, the idea Seeking to determine the extent to which mobile of colonizing the Moon is not new to contemporary robots could streamline and make feasible lunar times. In fact, plans dating back to as early as 1963 operations, the rationale that frames this focus is as have been proposed for establishing a lunar base. [33] follows: The Boeing Company’s Aerospace Division devised the Lunar Exploration Systems program for Apollo. “Permanent human presence on the Moon is A 1968 study Moonlab conducted by the Stanford challenging to bootstrap. We need facilities University and Ames Research Center Faculty on the Moon to support the people, but we Workshop in Engineering Systems Design explored would seem to require people to construct a self-sustaining lunar research station capable the facilities. It is certainly possible to devise of housing twenty-four people. Impey predicts incremental operations scenarios to resolve that with the technology afforded to us today, this dilemma, but they require off-nominal space travel is very real and could possibly become circumstances. For example, expecting an routine. [34] The technology sector essentially initial crew to set up a permanent radiationdictates what is possible from what is not. This sheltered habitat on the lunar surface ... is where program commitments really start as it [doesn’t] avoid the need for large, strong consumes most of the financial resources, causes robots (whether “driven” or autonomous) to do the majority of schedule challenges, and, in the the construction, nor the cost in lunar surface end, dictates the program’s legacy. [35] In any case, crew time to perform and oversee the task.” [38] one thing appears certain: it is sooner than we think.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Thus, the study proved the most viable method for erecting lunar infrastructure is for assets to be robotically landed, assembled, and operated which, in turn, would produce return propellant for a crew still yet to leave Earth. [39] The base conceptâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s immediate program was that of industry, fueled by solar power and producing liquid oxygen for propellant that was to be extracted from native lunar regolith. With any lunar mining system, the primary goal will, in some way or another, reflect making extraterrestrial missions increasingly selfsufficient through the extraction and processing of local planetary resources. This includes, but is not limited to, said propellants (e.g. oxygen, hydrogen), metal products, ceramics, and shielding (e.g. human habitat). [40] The RLSO study proved that with just three vehicle types, all mobile operations can be performed. This drastically reduces mission costs especially when coupled with locally sourced return fuel, proving widely useful beyond the baseline sequence. These robots

are the light crew-adaptable rover, medium highreach truck, and large straddler mobile gantry. [41] Additionally, be it site excavation or resource mining, the material removal operations that are to commence are highly variable and unpredictable given the lunar environment. Therefore, an autonomous excavation and mining machine must use a system structure that can identify, plan, then sense and control real-time dynamic machine movements given these parameters. [42] Systems engineering experts Paul J.A. Lever, FeiYue Wang, and Deqian Chen propose a solution to this in their work Intelligent Excavator Control for a Lunar Mining System. Their answer is a visionbased hierarchical control structure that facilitates modular organization and efficient decomposition of tasks as presented. This is achieved using a fuzzy logic controller to interpret sensor-gathered force and torque data for functional smoothness. [43] Figure 7 - Rendering of the RLSO Study

LITERATURE REVIEW

Efforts toward a general-purpose Intelligent Robotic Vehicle System (IRVS) for Moon or Martian missions are also being undertaken at UA/NASA Space Engineering Research Center. The IRVS is based on the design of the Stewart Platform Independent Drive Environmental Robot developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology. Its goal is to streamline lunar operations by being able to facilitate the various tasks that space exploration calls for. IRVS development is currently in Phase 1, Site Surveying, Prospecting and Resource Assessment, with Phase 2, Mining and Beneficiation, and Phase 3, General Service to Several ISMU Plants, to follow. [44] The RLSO study serves as the founding evidence that turning a barren lunar site into a research and production facility, in just four short years, is quite feasible. Such is proven through the, “...methodical incorporation ... of realistic abilities and constraints, and rigorous quantitative consistency throughout the scenario.” [45] Thirty years later, when knowledge of the Moon (among other celestial bodies in our Universe) and technology has progressed leaps and bounds from where it was at the time of the RLSO study, many of the same findings still apply, making a lunar colony more feasible now than ever before. Sherwood details vital precepts in his work Principles for a Practical Moon Base that must inform the conceptualization and design of a lunar master plan. The first and most fundamental of these is that most lunar base operations, most of the time, must be robotic. Lunar missions require various, diverse operations that must be executed autonomously or through teleoperation. [46] An essential component but often overlooked in the design of many lunar

bases, this determination is fueled by scope, safety, and economics. [47] Scope includes the nearcontinuous need for action outside of a habitat, moving large volumes of lunar regolith, and tasks that exceed human capability (e.g. reach). [48] As heavy labor in extravehicular activity (EVA) suits is impractical from a safety standpoint, robots avoid or mitigate potential risks incurred by astronauts. [49] Safety is also considered by reducing risks of construction operations and radiation exposure in addition to minimizing unnecessary contact time with the Moon’s ever-present hazardous conditions. [50] Being the astronomical expense that it is, a Moon base that sits idle between crew visits is not an economically sound investment. [51] The cost of maintaining a human habitat over time presents another aspect of design to consider that strongly rules in favor of robotics. [52] Therefore, unmanned systems capable of carrying out construction operations and other useful tasks at all phases of a mission timeline add incredible value to the base as a whole. This includes operations such as basic science, site selection, transportation, mining, materials handling and processing, plant setup, production, and maintenance. [53] Such a paradigm would be remotely controlled or semi-autonomous, for which NASA’s Advanced Technology Advisory Committee has cited numerous applications. These include those previously mentioned like crew safety, cost effectiveness, and productivity, while also enhancing other essential aspects like mission versatility and capability. [54] The IRVS, mentioned previously, is working to advance extraterrestrial robotics with this agenda in mind, able to travel from site to site to deliver general-purpose services. Although not yet fully autonomous,

Figure 8 - Oversized particles and particle size variation can disrupt the flow of a lunar mining machine.

LITERATURE REVIEW

existing technology could be incorporated to allow Radiation poses arguably the biggest threat to a teleoperated IRVS to exhibit semi-autonomous extraterrestrial colonization. The Earth’s magnetic task execution and completion on a limited scale. [55] field works hard to shield us from harsh radiation from the sun’s rays, and the lack of such protection on Thus, it becomes the responsibility of the designer the Moon poses a serious threat. Regolith radiation to ensure all the available resources of a lunar site shielding was addressed in the RLSO study by means are maximized. Three of the most challenging issues of a modular, erectable, double-walled vault-shell of extraterrestrial design are addressed with this structure that minimized footprint, transported land-based approach: protection from radiation, volume, assembly complexity, and regolith handling. types of materials, and overall cost. [56] Neil Leach is [58] Additional proposals exist that work to use lunar a NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts Fellow that regolith as a natural resource for defensive purposes. is in the process of developing a robotic fabrication Peter Land, architect and designer at the Illinois technology capable of printing structures on the Institute of Technology College of Architecture, Moon and Mars. His assertion is that the future of Planning, and Design, presented a shelter design extraterrestrial construction rests on technologies under which a permanent base can be built. Land that utilize in-situ materials such as lunar dust. argues, “Shelter design should minimize exposure in [57] This further emphasis the necessity of ISRU. order to maximize the time a person can work outside Directly connected to the “Living off the Land” the shelter.” [59] Jan Kipliky and David Nixon of Future methodology previously detailed, such is both Systems Consultants proposed a base entirely a lesson learned from terrestrial architecture shielded by lunar regolith, and E. Nader Khalie of and building model for the Moon and beyond. the Southern California Institute of Architecture pushed forth the idea of using lunar regolith for an adobe structure cast in her paper Magma, Ceramic and Fused Adobe Structures Generated in Situ. [60] Figure 9 - Resource Utilization Activities for a MoonVillage By using readily available resources to engage the lunar surface and create habitable spaces via robots, we arrive at an extremely cost-effective, feasible, and effective lunar master plan by solving key issues relating to radiation and manufacturing. The following excerpt by Sherwood is cited to magnify the importance of a strategic construction methodology: “Habitat systems and other complex components should not be buried directly with regolith, as this would preclude or severely compromise any future maintenance activities. Passive line runs (e.g. fluid, vapor, power, grounding) and passive structure elements (e.g. footings) can be buried directly. Inspection, operation, or maintenance points like valves, connections, joints, and active components should be at least onehalf meter above the ground. Using regolith for radiation shielding means building and filling a superstructure, not simple burial.” [61]

LITERATURE REVIEW

Actual methods of material removal were also solved by the RLSO study, mobile-robot energetics favoring creeping speeds and shaving excavation that directly oppose traditional construction procedures here on Earth. [62] However, we must also consider the work of Lever, Wang, and Chen in any discourse of potential excavation or mining operations, which tells us that successful control requires sensor feedback from the excavation tool. A lack of interaction exists on the lunar landscape between an excavation tool and the material to be excavated. Whereas humans can guide the path of excavation using feel on Earth, this option is not afforded to us remotely or presently on the Moon. Visual information can provide a good entry point for the excavator, and the controller can be given an initial excavation path strategy based on site surface properties while still able to adopt alternative strategies based on force and torque feedback. [63] Lunar regolith below a twenty-centimeter depth is naturally highly compacted; thus, heavy work (e.g. grading, mining, habitat complex construction) should use creeping speeds (from thirty centimeters per second down to barely perceptible motion) in conjunction with shaving excavation where applicable. [64] The terrestrial earth-moving paradigm of, for example, diesel-powered, hydraulicsactuated front-end loaders, does not fit native or engineered lunar conditions. [65] In a separate study conducted by software specialist Sudheer M. Apte and structural sensing specialist Irving J. Oppenheim titled Planning Intricate Robot Motions to Remove Natural Materials, we find that with excavation and mining, whether for present terrestrial or future lunar application, the human operator is and will be required to execute intricate sequences of short machine motions to remove intended material. [66] The result is an undesirably high probability of error that Apte and Oppenheim resolve using a continuous miner. Equipment motions are often tightly constrained by workspace geometry that continuously changes shape as material is removed, as seen in Figure 10. Among other potential issues, this can lead to mining inefficiencies for which the invaluable resources of the lunar surface will not permit. Testing the continuous miner underground, study results show optimal efficiency when operating in discrete short steps, comparable to creeping speeds and shaving excavation. [67] 36

LITERATURE REVIEW

Furthermore, mining for exports provides a strong platform for a dialogue to develop between the Earth and Moon. The process of extracting products from the Moon would likely rely on life cycle industrial operations that would follow the general procession of mining, processing, manufacturing, construction, assembly, finishing, testing, certification, maintenance, disassembly, recycling, and disposal. Other than for propellant and ISRU aforementioned, five additional lunar exports exist that would interest lunar civil engineering: tourism, beamed power for Earth, materials for terrestrial fusion, platinum-group metals, and rareearth elements. These are five theoretically viable engines for growth of lunar settlement because they use the terrestrial economy to consume value produced by lunar work. [68] Laboratory development directed at extracting oxygen from regolith and rocks, before recent confirmation of ice deposits at the lunar poles, is underway. In addition, conceptual approaches to mining and first-order scenarios for large-scale implementation Figure 10 - Without a proper excavation system, tremendous inefficiencies will prevail during lunar mining operations.

of lunar surface-based power beaming have been published. The focus, however, for NASA investment in lunar ISRU has been self-use oxygen to lower the per-mission cost of lunar exploration. [69] Industrial-scale operations are a prerequisite for lunar urbanism. [70] Historically speaking, urbanism most profitably develops where there exists a positive dialogue between human density and operations efficiency. For a master plan of the Moon, this could mean locations favorable to crossroads of lunar and Earth goods and services. Thus, the use of lunar materials for industrial-scale implementation of space solar power for Earth is one of these potential crossover applications between in-space and for-Earth markets. [71] In addition to advancements in Congress, there is a plethora of reasons and motivators to pursue the lunar landscape that research has yielded since the time of the RLSO study. For instance, we are now aware of the Moonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s large stock of polar volatiles, existing in a variety of forms from crystalline water ice to surface frost in permanently shadowed regions. [72] This is immensely helpful criteria for determining desirable lunar locations to set foot. According to Impey, the best spots are high mountains on the rims of large craters near the poles. This is due to their proximity to abundant water ice and because such elevations are high enough to be peaks of persistent light, an invaluable power asset. [73] The Earth is the most poignant, beautiful view in our solar system, and one gets a sense of its sublime essence just by imagining they are on top of one of these mountains. [74]

Figure 11 - Key MoonVillage Parameters

LITERATURE REVIEW

METHODS The most intuitive Moon base concept is one that uses robotics to both engage the lunar surface and 3D print structures for astronauts to inhabit. The reignited data that the RLSO study sets forth is invaluable and must become the foundation for any serious lunar architecture proposal. A lunar master plan that is able to contribute value to the field and aspires to come to fruition can only do so via quantitative operations analysis, as detailed by Sherwood. [75]

“The minds and hands of the crew are thus complemented by the strength, reach, consistency, untiring operation, and relative immunity to the EVA environment of machines. With that combination, the base can run smoothly, produce efficiently, and expand quickly, while our human understanding grows and our foothold in space firms.” [81]

Furthermore, the International Space Station (ISS) Above all, human life is the most important factor set a new precedent of international collaboration confronting designers of a lunar habitat. With safety with five principle space agencies and crew members a paramount priority, two of the deadliest threats from eighteen countries to date building and we face on the Moon are radiation carried by cosmic operating ongoing, elaborate space infrastructure. rays and meteorite impact. [76] Furthermore, besides [82] We can now take this methodology, working challenges posed by the temperature and humidity with what we know works, and apply it to the conditions of the Moon, the length of a lunar day is Moon: multiple actors pursuing individual interests approximately fourteen times that of a day on Earth, via unique specialties by means of practical and resulting in significant periods without sunlight to fill shared architecture. In a similar way that Soliz, the energy needs of robots if they are to utilize solar Symonds, and Willan call for the participation of power. [77] This makes choice of site vitally important every community member for bases to be fully for the success of any future lunar endeavor. Proposal Hierarchy Other inhibitors include working in a vacuum, light intensity, uncertainty of water, and the need for both reliable robots and a robust maintenance system. [78] It is of paramount importance for proposals to establish and be mindful of the various obstacles that the Moon’s environment will set against it. On the other hand, advantages the Moon offers for building include its reduced gravity and lack of an atmosphere. This means buckling forces are much less and no wind or rain exists. No wind means no lateral forces to contend with, and no rain means no construction delays due to inclement weather. [79] One of the most convincing arguments for the use of robots is the results proving that advanced autonomy, labeled at the time of the RLSO study as “beyond the 1989 state of the art,” is not required even for a fully robotic base with multiple mobile machines performing complex simultaneous tasks. [80] This is a remarkable result, especially considering what “state of the art” means today in the field of robotics. The argument for a robotic lunar master plan is perhaps also best described by Sherwood:

LITERATURE REVIEW

self-sufficient, so much be our approach to the design of a lunar master plan. [83] The peaceful, hightechnology, international interdependence that the ISS initiated is vital for any future exploits of mankind.

Figure 12 - Urban Development Activities for a MoonVillage

This leads us to adapt a “Mixed-Use Business Park” model, as proposed in literature of the 1990s, for the program of what a lunar master plan must encompass. [84] As no single enterprise can bear the full burden of driving all facility requirements, no single use type dominates the architecture, making such a model extremely flexible, versatile, and adaptable to user needs. Tenant diversity provides a robust business base for the master plan, extracting well-understood terrestrial real estate practices and driving economically viable establishment and growth of spacefaring agencies. [85] It is also able to incorporate the diversity of interests and specialties that arise with multiple actors. Thus, an international, multi-cultural master plan that can accommodate all of these needs and utilizes the respective strengths of each group is the exact symbiosis the architecture must reflect for optimal effectiveness. To further inform lunar design, there are additional specific, governing constraints that need to be acknowledged. Any type of lunar architecture can only take shape within the physical and operating environment that the lunar surface provides. [86] Essential and specific parameters for a “MoonVillage” are summarized below: “A first-generation lunar outpost is a major space project likely to require sponsorship by one or more governments. Such an outpost differs in two basic ways from large terrestrial construction endeavors. First, there is no large, preexisting experience base of directly relevant, successful design solutions. Second, despite that lack of knowledge an early base can only embody a few approaches. ... The uncertainties, programmatic risks, and visibility are unprecedented in terrestrial civil engineering and constitute a highly selective filter for candidate approaches to lunar base structures.” [87]

LITERATURE REVIEW

How a lunar master plan may run is a strong function of its location, scale of operation, size and type of population, and technology basis. [88] It is also important to connect the idea of a MoonVillage to government and the array of large-scale necessities and specialties that come with it that can only be support by an alliance of various nations. This would advance the precedent set forth by the ISS in the form of a globally united lunar base, a luminous symbol of peace and prosperity cast upon the nighttime sky for all to, literally and figuratively, look up to. Again, we can see how it may be that we must leave Earth to save it, igniting world peace through architecture. Figure 12 outlines an array of potential program that suggest pragmatic uses of space for a lunar master plan. Reliable and scalable operations are a precondition for a lunar master plan that is more sophisticated than just a local aggregation of landers. [89]

3D-printed habitat for deep space exploration. With over a 3,000,000-dollar purse, the multi-phase contest is designed to advance the construction technology needed to create sustainable housing solutions for Earth and beyond. Phase 1 of the competition ran through September 27, 2015, calling on participants to develop state-of-theart architectural concepts that fully enact all the various advantages that 3D printing offers. Phase 2 is now open, and poses the challenge of creating a recycling system that can produce structural components using terrestrial and space-based materials. Phase 3, currently under development, will focus on the fabrication of complete habitats following the completion of Phase 2. [95] In addition to its widespread availability, the finegrade composition of lunar regolith makes it the construction material of choice for tunneling and building operations of the Moon. It is also a fitting candidate for 3D-print synthesis because it allows machines to, again, build with what is already there. [96] Such specialty work could be conducted using binders, an additive that the American Ceramic Society (ACS) claims will be used regularly in space due to their proven performance in low gravity and low atmosphere manufacturing environments. [97] Using adhesive materials is nothing new for astronauts either as they are already routinely handled in daily space practices. [98] Taking full advantage of the lunar regolith will exponentially reduce base building costs, and such magnifies when coupled with 3D printing and known 3D-print methods. [99]

Already revolutionizing aspects of design on Earth, 3D printing has received widespread public attention and is viewed by many as the most effective approach to building on the Moon, Mars, and beyond. [90] The construction of lunar habitat radiation shields and roadbeds would be exponentially streamlined with its use and was not available at the time of the RLSO study. [91] To paint a picture of the necessity of such technology from an economic standpoint, the cost of shipping a single brick to the Moon is roughly 2,000,000 dollars. [92] This would also limit on-site inventory, making additive manufacturing with local soils the preferred option for structure and custom-part building. [93] Virtually eliminating transportation costs, 3D printing, thus, is not only an The applications of 3D printing do not cease at just essential tool for effective Moon-based design, but habitats, a variety of additional uses can and should reiterates the importance of â&#x20AC;&#x153;Living off the Land.â&#x20AC;? also be exploited. For example, exploratory bases will require small, functional ceramic components Safety has been repeatedly mentioned as an integral such as radiation detectors, humidity sensors, and focus for extraterrestrial design. In addition to robots chemical sniffers. [100] 3D printing solves one of the mitigating risk, the use of 3D-printed structures would greatest challenges posed by space architecture in allow habitats to be constructed before humans manufacturing by extending the industrial arm of even left Earth, effectively eliminating construction humanity to extraterrestrial environments. Spares dangers and severely reducing radiation exposure. [94] and damaged space parts can be readily printed on command. Prepackaged food would be made Proceeding with the idea of shipping machines not more appealing in terms of variety, flavor, form, and soils, NASA has engaged a public eager to explore texture, resolving a key concern of space missions 3D printing through their Centennial Challenges by ensuring astronauts are able to have healthy program with their 3D-Printed Habitat Challenge, diets that meet their nutritional needs. [101] The a competition inviting participants to build a possibilities of 3D printing are, quite literally, endless. 40

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â&#x20AC;&#x153;Two batches of printing materials with different porosity distributions and glass phases in grain boundaries were prepared: Batch A has a uniform porosity distribution, while Batch B has denser sample surfaces than interiors. In terms of glass phases between alumina grain boundaries, Batch A has relatively uniform distributions throughout, while Batch B has more surface distributions than interior distributions. These differences may prove useful for radiation damage testing. First, glass bubbles created by radiation on the surfaces of samples will be more apparent for samples from Batch B than Batch A. Second, reductions in resistivity caused by radiation will be more apparent for Batch A than Batch B.â&#x20AC;? Figure 13 - Microscopic Examination of Batch A

Figure 14 - Microscopic Examination of Batch B

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Two rival consortia exist that have been sponsored to conduct research that will facilitate 3D-printed structures on the Moon and Mars, one by the European Space Agency (ESA), and the other by NASA. What is unique about this development is that each is advancing a different method of 3D printing. The ESA is exploring the potential of “D-Shape” to print structures on the Moon, and NASA is investigating the process of “Contour Crafting.” [102] D-Shape is a large-scale 3D printer that uses stereolithography, a layer-by-layer printing process, to bind sand with an inorganic binder to create stone-line objects. Contour Crafting is another layer printing technology that extrudes concrete through a computer-controlled nozzle. A key difference between the ESA and NASA is that the ESA aims to create pressurized habitats for human occupation, where NASA is solely focused on infrastructural elements such as landing pads, roads, unpressurized shelters, and blast walls. This directly coincides with NASA’s current policy of sending ready-made habitats into space, reserving ISRU activities for infrastructure components. [103] When considering the logistics of 3D printing in space, smaller printers will be favored because of their substantially lower shipping costs when compared to larger printers. [104] The ACS is currently testing the performance of two ExOne binder jetting machines, “Innovent” and “M-Flex.” With each printer, they developed a batch of solvent-based binder. The Innovent is smaller and prints low quantities of small samples where the M-Flex prints high quantities of large samples. Their goal is to achieve appropriate surface or bulk porosity that allows for later testing in outer space and guarantees sample integrity Figure 15 - D-Shape

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during liftoff. The processes employed for both batches is relatively cheaper and easier than other methods such as hot isostatic pressing or melt infiltration. [105] The 3D-printed samples will be exposed to outer space environments for six months aboard the Japanese Experiment Module which is set to launch in late 2018 or early 2019. After, they will be reexamined with a scanning electron microscope to analyze radiation exposure levels. [106] Additionally, lunar paving will undoubtedly need to be a priority. The United States’ space program possesses the capabilities to build a lunar base but must first build an infrastructure that enables the easy transportation of materials needed to construct it. [107] As previously detailed, robotics allow for the base, including site preparation, to be constructed and carried out before astronauts even leave Earth. A coherent connectedness between structures of a site, much like the use of robots, is often overlooked in proposals but essential nonetheless. Sherwood makes it clear that paving routine traffic routes is the driving requirement for construction timelines, and roadbeds are a realistic solution for minimizing the probability of driving or handling mishaps. Thus, grading is essential for predictable, operable environments. [108] This also relates to robotics, as crew driving (e.g. small rovers) is likely to be a persistent and troubling source of dust deposition unless paving tactics are set in place. To get an idea of what the Moon’s surface is like, half of it is as fine as cake flour. Such dust is a well-recognized challenge for its pervasive and electrostatically “sticky” properties. [109] The shaving excavation technique, as previously outlined for larger-scale construction, is a potential solution to this problem. Figure 16 - Contour Crafting

Given like advancements with our understanding of Mars, its theoretical colonization also boasts many benefits. Although the timeline for such an undertaking dwarfs that of lunar exploits, Mars possesses an atmosphere, can sustain organic compounds, and is hypothesized to have water virtually everywhere beneath its surface. Water ice was also recently discovered at Mars’ north polar ice cap. The case for Mars is compelling, and these brief highlights only detail a few of the many potential advantages of Martian exploration. However, through discussions with Sherwood, I realized the severe unlikelihood that serious exploits to Mars will commence even in the first half of this century. Never doubting the human spirit’s infinite potential, there is a shared perception between industry experts nonetheless that such ambitions are more science fiction than reality at the moment. Albeit, such aspirations do create a number of additional opportunities for the Moon. Humans, to date, have never built on extraterrestrial terrain. There is no proven architecture that best engages this discourse yet. But, in taking relevant data points and analysis that we do know to propose the most cohesive, comprehensive approach, we give ourselves the opportunity to learn. The Moon, a short three-day travel, is the perfect ground to test, research, and evolve our knowledge of this brand-new domain named space architecture.

a feasible, accessible system for a market with unimaginable wealth is established. Additionally, our experience interacting with the Moon’s surface could enlighten us to supplementary extraterrestrial construction tactics. Through consistent testing and work within this environment, these processes would, in time, become second nature to us.

Asteroid mining has also emerged as a focus for many business tycoons and magnates of industry eager to export mass sums of platinum for unprecedented profit. A lunar base could become a pivotal connection point for asteroid resources as a storage center for later export to Earth. Instantly,

We now know where to go on the Moon and what resources to tap, possess better technologies for flight and land infrastructure, and are encouraged by a strong international policy climate reinforced by a plethora of interested actors. [112] The fruit of extraterrestrial exploration has never been riper, and the motive for plucking is both to save Earth and extend humanity’s reach across the cosmos. The time is now for the first marks of space architecture to be made on the Moon.

Figure 17 - “Mars Ice House” by Space Exploration Architecture

Motivation for a lunar master plan is also strengthened by the following: proximity, feasibility, routine operations, and economic potential. Out of this work arises the opportunity to establish multiple interplanetary businesses, thereby founding an entirely new economic domain. [110] Spacefaring agencies have explicitly embraced the Moon as their next step. The multi-faceted rationale for this is as follows: a stretch within reach; a peaceful, high-tech-economic engine; a marker of stature both internally and within the community of nations; and hegemony in the “high ground” of high orbit. [111] A successful lunar master plan will synthesize both the unbound potential that system capabilities offer (i.e. robots) and the partnership of a variety of actors with dynamic interests and specialties looking to play a role in its development. Thus, the stage is set for an interweaving of strengths and weaknesses between nations, each one complementing one another to achieve shared and distinct goals.

LITERATURE REVIEW

3. ANALOGS

INTRODUCTION This chapter investigates humanityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s epochal space endeavors and other relative works to examine known success and failure. A realm with which we are severely inexperienced and that requires astronomical investment, making full use of what we know is pivotal. By determining architectural elements that work and do not work, we can cross-reference similarities between projects and integrate successes with greater confidence. With many analogs being state of the art for their own respective time periods, it became clear that design can emerge a direct function of technology and culture.

CRITICAL WORKS Various works were analyzed to organize past efforts of design in extraterrestrial and environments. These are the most recent and relevant examples known to date. Background information, context, and other pertinent studies are included for five of the projects listed below as part of this initial research.

NAME Biosphere 2 Haughton Mars Project International Space Station McMurdo Station Turbine Hall Mars Desert Research Station Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station Derinkuyu Underground City Pergamon Coober Pedy Underground City Mars Ice House MARSHA Lunar Habitation 3D Printed Mars Habitation Mars Science City Von Braunâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Rotating Space Station Roden Crater Irish Sky Garden Ullens Center for Contemporary Art Dune Art Museum Quba Classroom Joe and Rika Mansueto Library Frei Ottoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Soap Bubble Experiment MoonVillage 46

ANALOGS

LOCATION

TYPE

Oracle, AZ Devon Island, Canada Low Earth Orbit Ross Island, Antarctica London, England Hanksville, UT Devon Island, Canada Derinkuyu, Turkey Bergama, Turkey Coober Pedy, Australia Mars Mars The Moon Mars Dubai, United Arab Emirates

Building Mission Space Station Master Plan Exhibition Space Building Building Historical Landmark Ancient City Town Martian Planetary Habitat Martian Planetary Habitat Lunar Planetary Habitat Martian Planetary Habitat Building Lunar Space Station Volcanic Crater Earth and Stone Crater Building Building Building Experiment Lunar Planetary Habitat

Arizona Skibbereen, Ireland Qinhuangdao, China Jordan Chicago, IL The Moon

ANALOGS |

ANALOGS

ANALOGS |

BIOSPHERE 2

Food | Prototype Greenhouse Design for a Lunar Space Station

Energy | Photovoltaic Panels provide Solar Power

ANALOGS

Temperature | Large Air Conditioners

Radiation | White Reflective Surfaces

Modularity

ANALOGS |

ANALOGS

ANALOGS |

HAUGHTON MARS PROJECT

Paving | Streamline Operations Efficiency 24

ANALOGS

Food | Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse Accessibility | Facilities in Close Proximity to One Another Radiation | White Reflective Surfaces

Mining | Facilities for Research and Cultivating Resources ANALOGS |

ANALOGS

ANALOGS |

INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION

Energy | Photovoltaic Panels provide Solar Power

Radiation | White Reflective Surfaces

ANALOGS

Psychology | Views of Earth

Gravity | Latches for Astronauts

ANALOGS |

ANALOGS

ANALOGS |

MCMURDO STATION

Resources - e.g. Polar Volatiles

Communication | Clear Color Schemes

Modularity

Topography | Engineering with the Land

ANALOGS

ANALOGS |

ANALOGS

ANALOGS |

TURBINE HALL Sublime | Mixture of Excitement and Terror from the Magnitude of the Stage

Light | An Experience like no other Illuminated by the Cosmos Fear | Alien-Like Legs

Psychology | Processing the Impossible can be Scary, Exhilarating, or Both

ANALOGS

4. ATLAS

INTRODUCTION ISRU is the most effective approach to creating extraterrestrial architecture due to its feasibility and positive, life-giving benefits. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Living off the Landâ&#x20AC;? becomes especially important when selecting a site, as space exploration hinges on correct environmental assessment. This atlas analyzes various criteria using a geographic information system (GIS) to determine the best location for lunar architecture to unfold. It concludes that the Moonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s poles are optimal with superior lighting conditions and an abundance of valuable minerals. Not only providing a low energy power solution, light is an essential element for any sustained human presence as exploration sheds figurative light on the Moon, Earth, and Universe as a whole.

HILLSHADE A hillshade is a grayscale 3D representation of a surface. The sunâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s relative position is used to shade the image via its altitude and azimuth.

ATLAS

Source Note: United States Geological Survey ATLAS

CONTOUR LINES The general slope of the lunar land. Flat terrain is ideal for landing sites.

ATLAS

Source Note: United States Geological Survey ATLAS

CONTOUR LINES (HIGH-RESOLUTION) Contour lines spaced at one-kilometer intervals.

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Source Note: United States Geological Survey ATLAS

TOPOGRAPHY NASAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), which launched June 18, 2009, is leading the way back to the Moon. Equipped with a robust instrument suite to gather as much information as possible, LRO has released data to the public every three months since March 15, 2010. Topography is handled by the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) to identify safe landing sites.

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Source Note: United States Geological Survey ATLAS

CRATERS, MARIA & SWIRLS The Moonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface has many craters, almost all of which were formed by impact. Such are an everpresent reminder that, without an atmosphere to shield itself, asteroids, meteorites, and other space debris are a severe threat to any lunar architecture. Lunar maria are large, dark, basaltic plains on the Moon formed by ancient volcanic eruptions, while lunar swirls are enigmatic features superposed on top of craters and ejecta deposits but impart no observable topography. Maria and swirls present a variety of considerations for lunar engagement, most notably communication.

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Source Note: planetary.brown.edu | Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera ATLAS

ELEVATION A colorized shaded-relief digital elevation model produced by LOLA. LOLA uses short pulses from a single laser through a diffractive optical element to produce a five-beam pattern that illuminates the lunar surface. The geodetic framework presented by this map will help inform future exploratory activities of the Moon, including targeting, landing, and mobilizing.

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Source Note: United States Geological Survey ATLAS

GEOLOGY There is much to learn about the Moonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s physical structure and substance. Certain locations are rich in minerals that have practical uses ranging from rocket propellant to breathable oxygen. Possessing a comprehensive sense of the lunar landscape is vital not only from a resource perspective, but for site operations like construction and research that are to commence.

Refer to United States Geological Survey and International Mineralogical Association for Color and Abbreviation Explanations * 82

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Source Note: United States Geological Survey ATLAS

CONSTELLATION PROGRAM TARGET SITES The Constellation Program was a manned spaceflight program administered by NASA from 2005 to 2009. The major goals set forth by this initiative were completion of the ISS, a return to the Moon no later than 2020, and a crewed flight to Mars. Their technological aims included the regaining of significant astronaut experience beyond low Earth orbit and development of technologies necessary to enable sustained human presence on other planetary bodies. Examining the lunar locations they believed were most attractive is of value to any habitat proposal.

Refer to United States Geological Survey and International Mineralogical Association for Color and Abbreviation Explanations * 84

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Source Note: Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera ATLAS

TECTONICS The Moon is generally thought to have a seismically quiet environment. This detail, albeit small, can heavily influence essential design decisions like site selection. This map portrays prominent plates of the lunar crust.

ATLAS

Source Note: United States Geological Survey ATLAS

GRAVITY TheGravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) was the first extraplanetary mission dedicated to gravity. The goal of GRAIL was to obtain a map of the lunar gravity field with a resolution of thirty kilometers.The latest model, GRGM1200A, provides detailed analyses of various gravitational aspects of the Moon as shown below.

GRAVITY DISTURBANCE

Difference between the Measured Gravity at a Point and the Normal Gravity at that same Point

BOUGUER GRAVITY DISTURBANCE

Gravity Anomaly corrected for the Height at which it is Measured and the Attraction of Terrain 88

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ANOMALY ERROR

Difference between the Observed Gravity at a Point and the Normal Gravity on the Geoid

DEGREE STRENGTH

Force experienced by a Body kept at that Point Source Note: Planetary Geology, Geophysics, and Geochemistry Laboratory ATLAS

NORTH POLE ILLUMINATION The near thirty-day lunar light cycle presents challenges for both man and technology. This not only concerns the power needed to keep a base operational, but essential biological functions as well like circadian rhythms. Especially for a proposal building in situ, it is clear making full use of the sun is paramount. Rims of large craters near the Moonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s poles are high enough to be peaks of persistent light and hold an abundance of valuable resources such as water ice. Such are valuable enough to make these regions the favorable sites for mankindâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s first architecture beyond Earth.

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SOUTH POLE ILLUMINATION

Source Note: Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera ATLAS

DESIGN 5. RESEARCH 1

INTRODUCTION My initial investigations tested construction methodologies for creating extraterrestrial habitats. As previously asserted, tellurian methods of building would prove severely ineffective on other planets. Therefore, to design on different celestial bodies, different approaches to design are required. Reimagining the way we build, this chapter experiments with using solely lunar regolith and a 3D-printing binder to erect lunar structures. Using what is available significantly decreases mission costs, especially when paired with technologies we already have. To accomplish this, methods for testing needed to fully reflect construction proposals. First, using the subtractive nature of a computer numerical control (CNC) machine, I sculpted topographic models of the Moonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s landscape. To simulate cutting and filling, post-process foam shavings were scavenged, ensuring that no material would be wasted. A concoction of foam shavings and glue was then conjured to mirror a lunar regolith and 3D-printing binder mix. Following the same layerby-layer process that extraterrestrial robots would need to, the mixture was extruded on various forms and scaffolding structures. Tests concluded with the exploration of self-assembling scaffolding created from simple geometries. The idea was to create structures that could support material layering and be efficiently transported. Discoveries included reinforcement of the importance of adequate site selection and rethinking 3D printing as a construction methodology altogether. Ethical questions were also provoked, including if we should be bringing terrestrial materials of any kind to the Moon. The value of employing methods that exactly replicate the proposalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s construction intents was made clear, allowing deeper discoveries in greater quantity to be had given the comprehensive focus such an approach affords.

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CRITERIA The Prime Directive - Friends don’t let friends destroy celestial bodies.

mixed with glue, could serve as the fill material for aboveground architectures. Excavation sites could then provide additional underground spaces for In alignment with a harmoniously balanced cut and occupants to live. Essentially, subtractive methods fill method of engaging the lunar landscape where of CNC milling were balanced with additive methods we are only taking what we need, my initial design of 3D printing to best exemplify the proposal. research trials worked to discover an approach that allows the Moon to inform the way we build. I carefully extruded my mixture in the same It has been established that polar crater ridges, layer-by-layer manner that my robot would due to the light they receive, possess the greatest need to for successful exterior construction. potential for our first lunar habitats. However, due The initial test forms, inspired by the inflatable to steep crater slopes, surrounding flat slopes are membrane of Foster + Partners’ Lunar Habitation, essential for robots to safely maneuver. To maximize illuminated the importance of engineered technological and economic investment, lunar slopes, not only for robot mobility, but needing regolith paired with a binding agent severely reduces to account for lunar regolith’s angle of repose. mission costs and makes full use of what is readily available. The ability for a mixture of foam shavings A series of forms were then devised to test slope (i.e. lunar regolith) and glue (i.e. binding agent) to specifics. Their design not only provided a structure perform a layer-by-layer construction methodology on which extruded material could build, but an with various forms and surfaces was the main area of additional interior shell separating potentially focus. Analyzing slope steepness and lunar regolith’s toxic extraterrestrial substances from the crew. angle of repose were also key criteria for these trials. Incremental testing of slope steepness also allowed for baseline metrics to be established, enabling success and failure to be effectively gauged.

METHODS

A clear cut and fill test vehicle was essential for establishing methods representative of the proposal. The subtractive process of CNC machining most closely aligns with the processes of cutting. The site and topographic model featured is Shackleton Crater, its ridges receiving more sunlight than anywhere else on the lunar surface. Harvesting the shavings from its creation, a foam-glue shaving concoction was created to reflect an extraterrestrial mix of lunar regolith and a 3D-printing binder as a building material. The idea supporting this was foam shavings, representing cut material, when 94

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I extended this study by devising a way that a scaffold membrane could self-assemble. Using simple geometries and calculated folds, it proved possible for the pyramidal structure to neatly close into a rectangular volume, ideal for storage efficiency when transporting. Hypothetically, the structure would be able to emerge from its stored state once landing and connect into its final form via strategically positioned hinges.

Topographic model of Shackleton Crater ridges known for their abundance of light. Flags mark cut locations for material stockpile and fill destinations where such becomes architecture. Flat terrain is most favorable for robotic construction.

Harvested Lunar Regolith

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Foam shavings were harvested from the CNC machine and used for models, making full use of all aspects of a closedloop building methodology. Mixed with glue, the resulting compound was extruded layer-by-layer to cover scaffolds. Without this exterior, occupants would be left unprotected from micrometeorites and the Moonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lethal levels of solar radiation.

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A variety of slopes were tested to gauge the relative ease or difficulty with which a robot could build.

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Using squares, rectangles, and triangles measured proportionally with one another, a self-assembling scaffold was realized. Carefully planned hinges enable the structure to assume a volume either ideal for transit or ready for extraplanetary deployment.

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ANALYTIQUE The topographic site model of Shackleton Crater most clearly illustrates the cut and fill construction methodology from which this project stems, fully embodying ISRU. By using this model in the same way my proposal intends to engage the Moon, I was able to identify moments of truth within the methodology in an extremely intricate manner. Suitable sites were established, scale envisioned, even quantifiable metrics for how much cut material would be needed to equate fill operations were made clear. By going through the process of sculpting the lunar land and using what might otherwise be considered waste material for architecture, a deeper understanding of the project was able to be had.

To paint a clear picture of exactly how much lunar regolith we are extracting and is needed for extruding, cut sites were marked in black and correspond with fill counterparts nearby.

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FAILURES An array of failures yielded key insight for future investigations. First, getting the desired proportion of foam shavings and glue for extruding proved difficult. It became an extensive process of trial and error to produce a blend that both extruded smoothly and held soundly. It also raised doubt about using a 3D-printing binder at all. Not only would it taint the lunar terrain with a terrestrial substance, directly violating The Prime Directive, but the rapidly fluctuating temperatures of the Moon puts any liquid at serious risk of solidifying or evaporating. Given the immense cost of any space mission, this is not a risk I am willing to take. Steep slopes with no support foundation also prevented the material from holding its shape. This means projecting planes, like cantilevers, could not be fully sealed. The layer-by-layer approach used with support scaffolding required vast amounts of material to complete. This led to concerns about the possibility for a harmoniously balanced cut and fill construction methodology to unfold. In addition,

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ascending to higher levels proved extremely difficult, if not impossible, in most cases. Corners revealed a comparable degree of difficulty to reach as well, too tight for the extruding instrument to fit. The self-assembling scaffolding proved the biggest failure of all. Not only does it defy the directive with terrestrial building materials, but its form created numerous instances of unusable space in an environment where every square meter counts.

A dripping exterior envelope emerged a blatant indication of failure during these trials. While an interesting architectural concept for terrestrial settings, such would prove fatal to a crew on the Moon.

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DESIGN OUTCOMES Driving a test vehicle that reflects the methodology I am proposing is imperative. Forms that support robotic construction and lunar regolithâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s angle of repose require further investigation. Any proposed form will need to maximize usable space for its occupants to ensure we only use what we need. Application of a 3D-printing binder is no longer accepted. This holds true for any terrestrial structure or material.

CRITERIA With the Moonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rapidly fluctuating temperatures, using a liquid to build is extremely risky. Bringing scaffolding, or any support substance from Earth for that matter, breaks The Prime Directive. Therefore, exclusively using lunar building materials is paramount. To fully engage a mutually beneficial relationship with the Moon, making the most of the spaces we create is essential. Such must not only be at the core of this project, but all that is wrought by humanity.

METHODS As a result of its ability to demonstrate the proposed construction methodology, the use of actual manufacturing methods via the CNC machine proved extremely revealing. The layer-bylayer approach can only work if it is supported at the base and proceeds from the bottom up. Test methods will need to be adjusted to further develop a construction methodology than can successfully sustain itself solely with robots and native resources.

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DESIGN 6. RESEARCH 2

INTRODUCTION From ethical, technological, and economic perspectives, the need for a construction methodology that can build strictly in situ became glaringly apparent. Thus, the next step needed to prove that this was possible. Not only would new insight to extraterrestrial building be had, but more rigorous form investigations could unfold as well. Sintering is the process of heating a granular substance above its melting point so that its particles coalesce into one another. In time, heated regions of a sintered substance cool and harden. The Moon gives us two ingredients that can be used to build, lunar regolith and solar energy. In alignment with the directive of only using what is available to us, lunar regolith could be robotically sintered using energy from the sun at the selected site of Shackleton Crater. This chapter works to gain an initial understanding of sintering and tests its ability to create structurally stable lunar architecture. As previously detailed, robot constructors need to proceed layering material in a bottom to top fashion where the architecture itself becomes the support on which they climb. Proceeding with lessons learned from previous trials, I used kinetic sand to identify spatial anomalies, designing the experiment to purposely fail in certain areas to learn the methodologyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s extents. As testing continued, experimenting evolved to be more sculptural in nature, exploring form varieties to pinpoint specific instances of success and failure. Given the need for the lunar regolith to hold its own shape, outcomes included the realization that both the construction methodology and form need to work in compression, lunar regolith having very little tensile strength. The methodology also needs to enable the system to hold itself without any terrestrial structure or material. Therefore, lunar regolith must exclusively be used to both build the habitat and serve as its permanent structure. These findings culminate in a more comprehensive understanding of how extraterrestrial construction could unfold.

FRAMING

CRITERIA

METHODS

Determining the most efficient means of using lunar regolith is not only essential for mission feasibility, but remaining in complete alignment with The Prime Directive by only taking what we need. By simulating how an extraterrestrial robot would need to act, we can begin to get an idea of what is possible with a sintering-based method of construction done entirely in situ. Measures of success were determined by the ease with which a robot would be able to build in different scenarios and the ability of resulting forms to hold their shape.

Maintaining proposal-mirroring methods proved successful last chapter. Building on this, I worked solely with kinetic sand which represented lunar regolith. Kinetic sand is a granular material that retains its shape when sculpted, similar to clay or wet sand. Emulating the believed movements of the robots with my hands gained the required level of continuity between test and proposal. Capturing the process on video proved invaluable as an immediate feedback loop.

Figure 36 - Sintering Process

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Figure 37 - RegoLight was a program funded by the European Union that explored the constructability of lunar regolith using the sun as an infinite energy source.

Experimental Setup

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Hands mimicking the bottom up, layer-by-layer, construction process a robot would need to execute on the Moon. Exterior walls need to be two to three meters thick in order to protect astronauts from micrometeorites and solar radiation.

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Abstract forms and planes were tested to deliberately spur success and failure. It is of the utmost importance to understand the limits of your methodology and material when creating.

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As proven by previous trials, modeling required building from the ground level up. Using unconventional and abstract shapes to intentionally spur failure allowed the performance extents of the robots and lunar regolith to be revealed. After, the focus shifted to understanding the properties of kinetic sand on a more intricate level by playing with the variety of forms it can make. Designed to be as close to extraterrestrial sintering as possible, the ability for forms to be built and shaped was a key area of focus throughout these tests.

Digital tools can be helpful when used responsibly. Modeling the material parametrically helped visualize habitat surface patterns, coinciding with initial form investigations.

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Quick sketch illustrating how we are to make full use of all that we have.

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Various Ways of Sculpting Kinetic Sand

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I explored two robotic sintering processes with the kinetic sand. The first, having been previously depicted, was a layer-by-layer approach where cut material would be repeatedly deposited and sintered until the desired form was realized. The second was a void and layer approach where the material required to comprise the structure would be positioned as one operation and then followed by a sintering of the top layer only. Although less stable with much of the material not sintered, far less energy and time is required. These efforts helped achieve a more holistic perspective of a feasible, extraterrestrial construction methodology while identifying areas for it to grow.

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“Oh, I get by with a little help from my friends...”

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ANALYTIQUE It might not seem like a lot, but this model is the first form able to hold itself in compression via a construction methodology that solely uses native materials. Embodying the subtractive operations of excavation previously demonstrated, cut material serving as falsework was removed once the structure could support itself. The idea of using lunar regolith not only as a building material but as scaffolding set the foundation for the most compelling discoveries of this work to be had.

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FAILURES Initial failures concerned the methodologyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to build in different areas and the extents of lunar regolithâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s structural integrity. Evidence of failure came predominantly in the form of fractured kinetic sand. These areas included fragile, delicate elements such as slim ridges and slanted planes. Virtually any surface without strong support either failed or required an extremely light touch for the kinetic sand to hold together. Sharp edges consistently cracked even after having been compacted. Planes perpendicular to the ground level could not be completed as hypothesized, robots needing to build ramps to reach higher floors. This is not to say support structures could not be excavated after construction was complete, but this revelation had yet to be made.

on it. Thus, a feeble to absent framework meant more lunar regolith was required to build. This led to new insight regarding scale and necessary material quantities. Again, The Prime Directive stands to only use what we need, both cut sites and fill material becoming architecture. Higher regions where kinetic sand had been stacked also proved to repeatedly crumble in cases of weaker foundations.

The more free-flowing and sculptural method of working with the kinetic sand further solidified that any cantilever or baseless plane will surely collapse. Robotically sintered forms without any support structure underneath continuously failed. Even molding separate arcs together in compression proved fruitless without a sound foundation to build Filling deep voids or areas with no prior fill also proved on. It was discovered that in order to prevent forms difficult to work with and extremely inefficient from caving in on themselves, cut material would need in terms of material usage. This is a result of the to serve as initial falsework to then be later excavated form needing to support itself from the bottom up, as seen in this chapterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s analytique. Prefabricated even with one-sixth of the gravity of Earth acting components forged to the form proved weak as well.

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The architecture must be one with its construction if it is to be successfully realized, similar to tying your shoe!

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Capturing the fluid movement of a material as it is molded from one shape to another is fascinating...

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Any unsupported architecture will fail.

Even with lunar regolithâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s compressive strength, methodical measures must be taken if the system is to work.

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DESIGN OUTCOMES Forms need to hold in compression with a construction methodology that allows for an initial support structure to exist underneath. This would allow for extraterrestrial habitats to be built from the ground up. Once the form is realized, excess material that previously allowed for both the system to hold and robots to build could then be excavated.

CRITERIA Proceeding with the clear intention to only use lunar regolith in the most efficient way possible, allowing the Moon to inform the way we build remains pivotal. To do this, the work has shown the need for forms to be created in compression given lunar regolithâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s poor tensile strength. This will help maximize the functionality of what we do build and ensure no material is wasted in the process, making full use of the resources afforded to us. The design intent remains that cut zones become spaces for architectural integration while aboveground forms, made of the excavated material, come to fruition via a construction methodology that can structurally support itself. This helps illustrate one of the most unique aspects of this project in that the construction methodology needs to become the architecture for all criteria to be met.

METHODS Continuing to use methods that reflect what is being proposed is imperative for uncovering moments of truth. The construction methodology of building forms in compression with support falsework, fully activating both cut and fill, has proven the most effective approach from ethical, technological, and economic standpoints. This is achieved only using what the Moon allows us to have, lunar regolith 126

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and solar energy, and with robots to maximize mission feasibility and effectiveness, ensure astronaut safety, and impact the lunar landscape as little as possible. Therefore, a proposal that uses robotic sintering to create lunar architecture is most aligned with The Prime Directive.

DESIGN 7. RESEARCH 3

INTRODUCTION This chapter progressed previous form discoveries built in compression with a supporting construction methodology. The need for imitative methods that serve as immediate feedback loops remained central to test vehicle approaches. Thus, possibilities of how lunar architectures could be created via robotic sintering were explored using a blowtorch. If successful, the goal of establishing a construction methodology able to build any form without terrestrial reinforcement would be met. These investigations were fundamentally supported by catenary lines, integral within the world of physics and compressive architecture. The idea was to design cut craters whose slopes would become the catenary. After sintering its interior, the resulting layer would then be flipped 180 degrees over its x-axis, holding itself in compression. This would not only create aboveground habitats, but allow for the excavated cavity itself to become architecture. To test this, I simulated the process of cutting the site, extracting fill material, sintering the basin, and flipping the resulting catenary. The process of sintering lunar regolith was reflected by layering sugar on the kinetic sand and applying heat with a blowtorch which represented solar energy. Granular particles coalesced and, in time, hardened into a solid. Unsatisfied with initial trial results, the focused shifted to exploring the catenaryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s aboveground building capabilities. Similar to the void and layer idea tested in the previous chapter, cut lunar regolith was compacted to produce a base form with only its outermost layer sintered. This idea encapsulated previous lessons learned where fill material would initially act as support falsework, allowing the habitat to hold its shape. Once sintered, an excavation process of extracting loose lunar regolith underneath the catenary would commence, creating interior spaces for occupants to live. The fill material previously used as falsework would then be used again as fill material to create the habitatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s exterior, effectively balancing all cut and fill operations. While insightful, the tests revealed numerous methodical challenges and difficulties while offering little potential for form flexibility. However, with the support of my intuitive peers, a construction methodology emerged from these tests that will help pave the way to the extraterrestrial architectures of tomorrow.

FRAMING

CRITERIA Key points of focus were form performance and the properties of lunar regolith. The construction methodology was central to evaluating these areas. With form generation contingent on the process by which it is built, the two worked as one to help inform each other of where improvement was needed. This also included previously established criteria such as the formâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to hold its shape, spatial efficiency,

Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, France

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and The Prime Directive. The intent was that by continuing to uncover significant moments of truth, such as compressive building, both the criteria by which the project is judged and our approach to engaging these marks would be strengthened. Design versatility, or the ability to create more than just low-lying domes, also emerged as an important grading point for the construction methodology.

METHODS Continuing with methods that simulate extraterrestrial building, I redirected the approach of previous trials that experimented with kinetic sand by introducing sugar and a blowtorch. As sugar has a lower melting point than kinetic sand, using it to simulate the process of coalescing granular particles into a solid fit the needs of the work exceptionally well. Thoroughly documenting

these trials to maintain an iterative feedback loop, blowtorch heating limitations and time constraints were acknowledged prior to experimentation to limit inaccuracy and preserve the projectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s integrity. These are examples of necessary compromises needed for discovery, like using kinetic sand instead of actual lunar regolith, and reiterates the importance of adopting methods that parallel the proposal.

Experimental Setup

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Moving forward with the idea of cut and fill, initial trials filled excavated sites with sugar to establish a layer of lunar regolith that could be sintered. After heating the sugar, causing it to coalesce and then cool into a solid, the resulting catenary was flipped, holding securely in compression and able to serve as formwork. As these results proved unconvincing, the method shifted to applying the same technique to aboveground sites, starting here instead of an excavated basin. After sculpting a mound to cast the catenary, sugar was spread to cover its surface and lit with a blowtorch. The resulting formwork, able to support itself in compression, only then required its former falsework to be removed from underneath it, no additional catenary flipping necessary. For further clarity, the construction methodology sequence is outlined below.

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1. Cut Lunar Regolith 2. Deposit Lunar Regolith 3. Compact Lunar Regolith into Compressive Form 4. Sinter the top layer of Lunar Regolith establishing Compressive Formwork 5. Remove loose Lunar Regolith Falsework from underneath Compressive Formwork 6. Use loose Lunar Regolith Falsework as Fill Material for the Habitatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Exterior

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Using the Sun as a limitless energy source should be fundamental not only on the Moon, but Earth as well.

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ANALYTIQUE This model encapsulates all of the various successes and failures of previous trials to prove that solely using native resources to create architecture in situ is possible. Addressing an array of key criteria, compressive forces are shown supporting the necessary thickness of lunar regolith for complete crew protection. Among other severe dangers, the need for such a bulky exterior is chiefly due to the Moonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lethal levels of solar radiation and streaking micrometeorites. This is an incredible feat as it remains in direct alignment with The Prime Directive, truly building with the Moon. This idea of allowing the celestial bodies we inhabit to inform the way we build is essential to the survival and expansion of our species. The motivation to do so should be purely ethical, the unfolding technological and economic gain being a supplemental reward for our intentions.

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FAILURES Given the delicate balance between energy expended from the blowtorch and sugar’s melting point, one of two failures inherent to the experiment’s design occurred. Either too much heat was concentrated in a specific area, resulting in a bubbling and immediate liquification of the sugar, or not enough energy was exerted, resulting in tiny surface bubbles. Such was the case with all initial cut catenary trials, the fruit of which became extremely low-lying domes with negligible curvatures. An additional cause of such failure was the blowtorch’s inability to heat the sugar particles as desired beyond the surface coat, resulting in flat discs. This meant that, regardless of if the particles instantly liquefied or bubbled, definition-deprived curves were inevitable. Even if one were to have spent days patiently glazing the sugar formwork, as if making crème brûlée, the results would be identical. Say the tests did yield beautifully delineated catenary curves, the question of how a robot would then excavate and flip it onto the lunar surface raised additional doubt.

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Flat disks more reminiscent of an alien spaceship than a planetary habitat...back to the drawing board!

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Similar failures occurred with the aboveground void and layer approach. With the sugar rapidly liquefying, its application and reapplication was consistently needed. This clouded the relationship between proposed construction methodology and test vehicle as only surface lunar regolith would be sintered without the need for additional patching. Throughout the test, liquid sugar constantly flowed downward as heat from the blowtorch was applied. The model’s summit, desperately needing its keystone equivalent, proved the most difficult portion to sinter. This was due to the rapid state changes and, as a result, was not able to be fully sealed. Unlike the previous trials’ catenaries that needed to be flipped from underground to aboveground, this method’s resulting formwork was created entirely aboveground and retained its shape in compression. Excavation processes to remove loose falsework from underneath its sealed interior may require complex systems of underground tunnels and ramps. However, being virtually free from time constraints with solarpowered robots able to work around the clock, such is not completely outside the realm of practicality.

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Get your tongue out of your nose, Tim...

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Tasty treat or horrific failure...

...horrific failure.

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DESIGN OUTCOMES METHODS One of the biggest issues with the current construction methodology is its design versatility, retaining an inability to produce more than just low-lying domes. Despite various tweaks, the process is still extremely limited in terms of the habitats it can create.

The informative feedback loop of driving test vehicles that embody the same principles of the proposed construction methodology has proven incredibly insightful. This can be seen in the manufacturing methods of CNC milling and 3D printing, kinetic sand sculpting, and blowtorch sintering. With With the help of my peers, a new approach emerged shifting criteria needs to emerge shifting methods. after the presentation of these investigations. The Given the need to address pertinent formidea, albeit similar to the most recent methodology, determining factors such as site forces and humanapplies the same mechanics of lunar regolith centered design, methods will need to continue falsework to hold sintered material in place except to be transparent to elicit further discovery. on a layer-by-layer basis. This way, once the form had hardened and was able to support itself in compression, all of the remaining falsework that enabled it to do so could be excavated. This not only maximizes the full use of the land we engage as previously tried, but allows for any number of different architectures to be built via an improved support sequence. There is also no need for complex networks of tunnels and ramps either, robots able to freely work one layer at a time.

CRITERIA With flexible design opportunities offered by an improved construction methodology, the focus will now need to consider what effective extraterrestrial form looks like on a more detailed scale. The most influential criteria are the forces acting on and within the habitat that, if not carefully designed for, will surely cause the system to fail. Additional form-generating criteria will involve the evaluation of lunar regolith at the atomic level. By examining its ingredients and establishing possible building materials in conjunction with a versatile method of construction, the power to generate and evaluate compelling lunar architecture is had. 146

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New and Improved Construction Methodology Comic Strip

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INTRODUCTION This chapter evaluated the vast breadth and depth of criteria needed to create any effective extraterrestrial form. As opposed to previous chapters that largely focused on establishing a practical construction methodology, the fundamentals of which possessing universal building applicability, the attention shifted to specific forces impacting design. An appropriate question when framing a step of this magnitude would be, “Where do I begin?” Creating holistic form is something architects have been trying to successfully do on Earth since the dawn of man, never mind in the entirely inhospitable conditions of outer space. As a result, space architecture is an incredibly complex field where every variable is linked, tested under the most rigorous and intense conditions possible, and requires extreme technological and economic backing. I began by, first, taking a deep breath. Then, I proceeded to reason under the premise that by engaging criteria of greater influence, less apposite criteria would be largely, if not fully, encompassed. This pointed directly to the interior and exterior forces acting on the habitat that, if not properly addressed, would surely cause any system to fail. With the lack of an atmosphere, the Moon exposes one to lethal levels of solar radiation, temperatures that fluctuate between -300 degrees Celsius and 300 degrees Celsius, and micrometeorites traveling up to 100,000 kilometers per hour. For this reason, curves became the primary design feature, as any corners would be points of structural weakness due to their inherent stress concentrations.Single-radius curves were also prohibited as they are disorienting for humans and violate the principles of human-centered design. As this idea of using curves to guide the development of lunar form addresses issues posed by extreme pressure differentials, such is also well-aligned with The Prime Directive by building with the land. Our satellite’s iconic surface is stamped with craters that are a direct result of its lacking atmosphere. Asteroids, meteorites, and other space objects that our Earth protects us from with its atmosphere strike the Moon at incredible speeds. As a result, allowing form to sweep along the lunar terrain not only demonstrates an appreciation for its unprecedented landscape, but solves the most strenuous of challenges: helping to establish a positive, healthy relationship with the world as is at the project’s core. It was also important to intensely examine how site forces of light and land from a large-scale perspective should play a role in sculpting the form. To reiterate, the project is located at the ridges of Shackleton Crater due to superior levels of light exposure. This is not only significant as a low energy power solution, but the peaks themselves grant additional advantages, such as improved communication and psychological stimulation. Given the opportunities afforded by the light at Shackleton Crater, such a site also inherently becomes the most fertile ground for architecture to grow. Thus, this chapter also takes initial strides toward designing how such expansion could unfold over time given an increasing extraterrestrial population. This was investigated through the connection of various light concentrations via tunnels and continued curve explorations in both plan and section. Outcomes of these tests included the revelation that this vision is one that can only come to fruition when humans are ready to go to the Moon. Just because we can, does not mean we should. While there are arguably limitless lessons of immense wealth for humanity to uncover by exploring the Moon, we will not pillage and exploit its resources the way we have on Earth. Established criteria proved effective measures of form success and failure, but future tests will need to be further refined by site forces. Taking a deeper look at what we have to work with, I examined the elemental composition of lunar regolith to see if useful compounds could be made to increase building material optionality. The Moon, like our beautiful blue planet, is special, and needs to be appreciated and treated as such. By proving we fully understand this underlying principle, humans will avoid spreading self-destructive habits to another celestial body.

FRAMING

CRITERIA The extreme, fluctuating temperatures of the Moon will place severe levels of stress on any habitat. If not properly handled, said forces will cause the system to fail. Therefore, architecture solely utilizing curves is critical, enabling the form to naturally expand and contract as needed. With a pressurized space having to hold an Earth-like atmosphere, thermal swings will increase interior

Map Connecting Various Criteria Sets

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loads of tension and shear. Corners, as is where these forces will disperse, are most susceptible and vulnerable to these extremities and, therefore, undesirable in lunar contexts. Micrometeorites also must be considered through this lens as well. If one were to strike a corner, the chance of it holding are not nearly as high as with a curve where forces would be evenly dispersed upon impact.

The balanced cut and fill construction methodology where architecture emerges both underground and aboveground is increasingly important when addressing solar radiation. Astronauts, in addition to a protective exterior, will need their sleeping quarters situated underground, having to spend roughly a third of their time there. With respect to human-centered design, circles are known to

disorient humans. Idealistic lunar form should appreciate the Moonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s unique topographical curves, demonstrating a clear intention to build harmoniously with our celestial neighbor.

When iterating, it is important to maintain a balance between creative opportunity and rigid constraints.

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Light is essential for survival and the success of any human spaceflight initiative. The driving force behind our selected site of Shackleton Crater, the form needed to reflect this understanding. Not only does solar power from the sun provide low energy solutions for robots and base operations, but it allows for food to grow so that astronauts can sustain themselves remotely. With their higher elevations, the peaks of these ridges that receive the most sunlight are also optimal for communication outposts. Such heights also play a role psychologically, as an established low point and high point enables a hierarchy of space to be had as well as healthier circulation habits. Additionally, enabling astronauts to maintain a regular diurnal cycle of light and darkness is an invaluable asset considering the four-week cycle had nearly everywhere else.

A constant movement between form and construction methodology where one helps the other is critical to the success of any architecture, be it terrestrial or extraterrestrial.

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Moving between different mediums is good too...

This synthesis of land and light is extremely important where the form must both cradle the site to which it calls home and allow for light to fully support its functions. The premise of going where the light is also strengthens the habitatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s potential to grow, able to accommodate increasing extraterrestrial populations be they sent from Earth or already living on the Moon. The criteria set forth for these developments continues to hinge on allowing the light to carve the forms we create while tenaciously designing everything for the human. As time goes on, the habitat will need to progress in size while maintain its human-centered origins. To do so, one approach would be to tunnel to areas of high light concentrations using robots. With terrestrial building methods having little to no space applicability a recurring motif, expensive and dangerous EVA time required by astronauts would be eliminated. Just as the initial base would be built before astronauts left Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s atmosphere, construction would proceed seamlessly without occupants ever needing to intervene. The idea that as the habitat and population grew, program spaces would also evolve to better suit occupant needs, a disruptive design concept. For instance, what was once a ritual space for a crew of five might become an exhibition area as the habitat expanded outward. With the benefit of having virtually around the clock robot constructors given the siteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s favorable light conditions, a preliminary timetable for the rate at which the habitat could expand was proposed. 154

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...ask yourself, “What does the work need?” Then, most importantly, listen.

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Phase - Range of People - Time 1. Crew Scale - 1-5 People - 1 Year 2. Neighborhood Scale - 5-25 People - 5 Years 3. Urban Scale - 25-50 People - 10 Years 4. To Infinity and Beyond! - 100+ People - 20 Years To sculpt form with the light and land, an effective feedback loop was required. I underlaid a light map of a ridge at Shackleton Crater that was particularly interesting to me and began sketching. Failures were marked in red and successes in green so that each layer of trace built on the last.

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METHODS Given the vast array of criteria that needed to be addressed, a wide range of methods spanning from the digital realm, to hand sketching, to model making was required. I began by organizing program to more fully understand spatial needs. Criteria proceeded to be judged on the basis that everything stems from within, and that this approach most effectively grounds human-centered design. Equipped with a suitable construction methodology, soft modeling animation techniques were used to visualize the proposed process. This not only served as an effective demonstration tool, but helped cultivate a greater understanding of how the approach would perform. Mixed-media work also proved pivotal. Forms modeled parametrically were overlaid with trace to explore success and failure. Investigations began in areas with high light concentrations, seeking a clear synthesis with

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existing land contours and slopes. Embodying the project’s primary focus of building with the Moon and allowing it to inform the way we build, trace paper also enabled critical design decisions to be made efficiently. Multiple layers of iteration were stacked one on top of another with each building off the last. Trace became particularly useful when it came to sculpting multi-radius curves that followed the land and light. Deemed “grunt curves” for the immense energy yet delicate touch required to create a worthy arc, they became the first clear example of a test that manifested a balance of engineered calculations and emotional contentedness. While not all layers of these iterations are shown, one can quickly imagine the immediate results this feedback loop affords, strengthening an understanding of what works and what does not work with every line.

Crew Scale Grunt Curves

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Neighborhood Scale Grunt Curves

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Urban Scale Grunt Curves

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To Infinity and Beyond!

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To ensure we can get a single habitat right before trying an entire city, my exclusive focus became the crew scale. The form was originally molded by hand using a light map of the targeted ridge and site model made from kinetic sand. While sculpting, I drew inspiration from beautifully carved geographic marvels “Roden Crater” and “Irish Sky Garden” by James Turrell to forge a harmonious balance between light and land.

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Form showing its intention to build with the light.

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Land Synthesis Diagram

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As the form became clearer, new and exciting criteria emerged along with it. The same way Earth and the Moon are invariably connected, so is each and every detail of an architecture project. Note the orthogonal underground, originally deemed exempt from multi-radius curves due to the surface protection above.

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Wall Section Details

The double-shell structure offers an interesting interstitial space.

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Exploded Axonometric

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ANALYTIQUE Inspired by land and light, this collage is a product of key criteria points converging to produce a form with multi-radius curvatures. Working at multiple scales, the drawing orients its viewer at the ridges of Shackleton Crater and clearly displays an intent to cradle the Moonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s landscape. While the form itself is ambiguous and two-dimensional, this practice of activating lunar contours set the foundation for remarkable discoveries to unfold.

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Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s not just a blob!

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FAILURES An inability to effectively critique spatial quality proved limiting. Thus, solely building off AI SpaceFactory’s Martian planetary habitat MARSHA to create cylindrical forms was not a compelling enough approach. Initial form tests also severely lacked rigor, namely of size and scale. It was unclear exactly for who and how many the habitat was being designed for. Setting a programmatic narrative prior to form investigations would have grounded these metrics earlier on and was desperately needed as a result. This would have also helped with the project’s intent to build from within, helping to engage the crew scale and human-centered design principles from the start.

have been redirected with an earlier realization of this single premise: we cannot know if we can even get a neighborhood right until we get a habitat right first. We must learn how to crawl before we learn how to walk, and to walk before we run, and to run before we sprint. Extraterrestrial building needs to stem from the smallest detail outward, driven by the big picture vision. The dream of humans living offworld can only come to fruition by considering both small and large-scale forces. A first for mankind, and much like terrestrial building, predominant large-scale criteria most significantly influencing the habitat involve site selection, growth ability and research opportunities for instance. Beyond this, the focus needs to be almost exclusively Debatably the biggest failure proved to be the leaps human-centered, designing for a single, crew scale in scale from crew, to neighborhood, to urban, to habitat. This question of scale, again, reiterates infinity. All of the work that was pushed towards the importance of establishing an extremely progressing the habitat’s expansion stages could specific and calculated narrative for who it is you

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are designing for and why. Just to design one fiveperson habitat in space poses more challenges and complexities than any project ever attempted, never mind devising an entire master plan under the same conditions with the same amount of knowledge. Let us take our time, learn, and get it right with our closest celestial neighbor at the smallest and most detailed level so that our decision making as we pioneer new frontiers in space can be as comprehensive, holistic, and complete as possible.

the mind only had through its magical connectivity with the hand. This is how many of the architects we read about today studied precedents of their time in history class, and now their work is projected in lecture halls. Therefore, the implied permanence of single, thick, and overbearing pen lines is also a key failure here, assuming that there could not possibly be anything more to find or better lines to be drawn through this method of discovery. This speaks to an invaluable lesson I learned at architecture school, that the work is never truly finished. This Despite the new direction, all of the time spent lesson is not one of enslavement, but of freedom iterating lunar curvatures was not wasted. There was and hope. It is such a blessing to do what you love, a deeper appreciation and understanding for the knowing perfection is unattainable yet striving to Moonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s landscape uncovered through this careful achieve it nonetheless. More detailed perspective process of tracing its contours. The repeated drawing drawings of later iterations would have also brought of like lines over and over again until reaching that greater spatial understandings and experiences â&#x20AC;&#x153;AHA!â&#x20AC;? moment is a manifestation of passion. The of the form that otherwise went unexplored. act of tracing drawings ignites an understanding in

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These expansion stage sketches are a good example of why it is important not to get ahead of yourself and to take things...

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...one. step. at. a. time.

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Failed Neighborhood Scale Grunt Curves

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Failed Urban Scale Grunt Curves

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To Studio and Back Again!

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In most cases, it is essential to understand a project using analog tools before proceeding to the digital realm. This form has come a long way, but has an even longer way to go. Again, listen to what the work is telling you it needs instead of imposing your favorite building information modeling software upon it.

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DESIGN OUTCOMES Using curves that both align with The Prime Directive and handle the extreme conditions of the Moon proved pivotal. Such not only harnesses the power of light and land, but cultivates a healthier, more profound relationship with the world we are building in.

be available to occupants, further enriching the experience of traveling to another world. This transparency provoked the idea of designing an observatory at the uppermost level, framing the Earth, stars, and cosmos beyond in a way unlike ever before. The dual-layered system would As testing became entirely focused on a single also provide additional protection from solar habitat, the need for a double-shell structure radiation, a truly multi-faceted design element. became glaringly apparent. Inspired by Space Exploration Architectureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Martian planetary habitat Mars Ice House, a double-shell formation established a necessary interstitial space that provides an array of insightful advantages. First, astronauts would be able to safely experience the sublime setting of extraterrestrial territory without a spacesuit. Similar to a yard, the space both introduces occupants to the habitat and acts as a buffer zone to prevent toxic and potentially lifethreatening contaminants from entering inside. A material analysis revealed that lunar regolith is predominantly made of silica sand with traces of metal oxides. Silica sand is used to make glass and so, due to the lack of sound research that pertains to this specific interest, it was deemed acceptable by my peers that as long as the ingredients to make glass were present, such could be robotically extracted from the lunar regolith and used as a building material. Fusing the capabilities of glass with a doubleshell structure, thus, opened the door to new design opportunities. With light central to this work, a material that not only supports occupant circadian rhythms but allows light to pass through to crops offers significant design opportunity at all scales. Additionally, with the ability to adjust the exteriorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s opacity, views at various levels would 184

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LUNAR REGOLITH COMPOSITION Chemical composition of lunar soil shown in abundance of oxides as lithology signature.

ELEMENT Oxygen Silicon Iron Calcium Aluminum Magnesium Other Elements

CONCENTRATION 43% 21% 13% 8% 6% 5% 4%

COMPOUND SiO2 TiO2 Al2O2 FeO MgO CaO Na2O K2O MnO Cr2O3

CONCENTRATION 42 - 48% 1 - 7% 12 - 27% 4 - 18% 4 - 11% 10 - 17% 0.4 - 0.7% 0.1 - 0.6% 0.1 - 0.2% 0.2 - 0.4%

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CRITERIA The criteria, albeit extensive, is required to be addressed in its entirety for any successful habitat to take shape. I am now appreciating more fully what I was told in the beginning, that the breadth and depth of challenges inherent to any space project without compare. This is a testament to the complexity of the field of space architecture as a whole, and such, although unclear at times, elicits tremendous growth and exciting opportunities to innovate. The architect must be able to adapt to what the work demands for great discovers to be made. The parts of the project in need of the most work include, first and foremost, a clear narrative that explains its size and scale. The best approach to this is to determine the number of occupants, their needs (e.g. food, water, oxygen), and then turn those needs into quantifiable metrics. This will be the foundation on which program square meters are determined. For instance, by calculating daily food needs for a crew of five, the quantity and arrangement of crops can be realized, leading to responsible greenhouse design. Building from the smallest detail outward not only helps create human-centered spaces, but it establishes a strong basis for design with engineered roots. Strategically determined quantities are also the proof that justifies the amount of lunar regolith needed to build the habitat, maintaining direct alignment with The Prime Directive by, truly, only using what we need.

METHODS Paradoxically, the biggest failure with tracing grunt curves also made it one of the workâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s greatest successes in that there is no real way of gauging if you got it exactly right. The method became something you felt, and I realized this passion and that which led me to this thesis are one and the same. Underlining the sheer necessity to follow your heart and do what you love, this premise of balancing fervent emotion within engineered parameters is not only applicable to complexities in space, but challenges of the terrestrial nature as well.

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9. OUTCOMES

INTRODUCTION This chapter synthesizes all previous discoveries and culminates in the form of this work’s most recent iterations. As previously emphasized, the field of space architecture is incredibly vast. Effectively engaging an unprecedent criteria set to produce not only mankind’s first extraterrestrial form, but a construction methodology to support it is no small feat. Therefore, acting as both an end and a beginning, this chapter is the apex of my design tests and adventure’s first step as I turn my thesis into a career.

Due to time constraints, the previous chapterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s form was animated to portray the intended construction methodology. This chapter sculpts a new form via methods that balance the heart and mind.

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FIVE RESEARCHERS QUESTIONS * How much water is needed daily? How much food is needed daily? How much air is needed daily?

1 ASTRONAUT 11 Liters 0.71 Kilograms 550 Liters of Pure Oxygen

PROGRAM

SQUARE FEET

Sleeping (5) Circulation Observatory Ritual Yoga Meditation Prayer Gym Greenhouse Research SS Living Cooking Interaction Bath SS Audio / Visual Exhibition Storage Medical Control Robot Maintenance Airlock

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Total

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500 400 200 100 50 500 750 400 150

250 250 400 200 100 400

* Based on International Space Station Data 5 ASTRONAUTS 55 Liters 3.55 Kilograms 2750 Liters of Pure Oxygen

KEY SS - Site Specific Flexible Critical

SQUARE METERS

CREW SCALE

46.45 46.45 37.16 18.58 9.29 4.65 46.45 69.68 37.16 13.94

23.23 23.23 37.16 18.58 9.29 37.16

478.45

1800 - 3350 f2

167.23 - 311.23 m2 OUTCOMES

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With a field as new as space architecture, it is necessary to reiterate that while this work addresses many important topics, many more remain. My approach built off of lessons learned from the previous chapter to establish the habitatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s exact function. It being absolutely essential to start small, the narrative is based on five researchers becoming the first humans to live in an extraterrestrial structure. Program spaces and sizes were determined based on occupant needs. This not only helped clarify previously unsupported rationales as to why spaces (and therefore forms) looked the way they did, but bolstered the humanscale experience by answering needs with numbers.

Line by line, the form slowly evolves, carved into existence with bleeding passion...

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Sketches of Level -1

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These spaces were then grouped by programmatic relationships (e.g. greenhouse and cooking area on the ground level) to maximize both spatial function and experience. Placing further emphasis on criteria involving human-centered design, this included aforementioned program pieces like underground sleeping areas for additional protection against solar radiation and a top-level observatory. Transitioning from a quantifiable basis to iterative design first required data sets of how much food, water, and oxygen is required for a team of five researchers. Generating minimum requirements for each program piece based on these needs, I then used their organization by level to create rectilinear floor plates. My method became layering trace over a one-centimeter by one-centimeter grid. Conditioning the design to stem from straight lines helped solve issues of scale and optimized spatial efficiency, no wasted space allowed as per the directive of only using what we need.

Sketches of Level 0

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Grid Underlay

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Sketches of Level 1

Sketches of Level 2

Once the size, floor, and position of each program piece was laid out, producing each floor plate, the same iterative process of tracing curves and discovering moments of truth unfolded. Exclusively using multi-radius curves an established criterion, molding the habitat from a scientifically supported base layer dramatically improved my ability to find ideal curvatures. Once the form started taking shape, I introduced site forces to ensure a cohesive bond between the site and habitat was forged. This connection, or assimilation rather, with key focal points such as light and land was strengthened by the habitatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s entirely in situ formation, a masterpiece made purely of lunar regolith. OUTCOMES

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With light and topography invariably connected, a light map was used to carve out potential sites. The premise of accentuating the Moonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s unique landscape to build harmoniously with our neighbor allows us to celebrate an epochal design feat.

Building Section Sketches

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As previously detailed, the formâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s curves were not only influenced by its internal program, but exterior site forces as well. Helping to bridge the domains of rational and subjective thinking, such a direction allowed extreme pressure forces to be alleviated and for a clear unison with light and land to unfold. With site selection also guided by these forces, a consistent approach was maintained throughout the project, helping to preserve its core ethical integrity. OUTCOMES

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The ideal site emerged to be one that offered a balance of steep and gradual slopes to fully accommodate the needs of a cut and fill construction methodology. First, areas with steeper slopes were targeted for all of the advantages that having both a high point and low point offers, many having been discussed already (e.g. illumination, communication, psychology). Using a GIS and data from NASA to generate topographic maps, steep slopes characterized by close contours became the primary focus. After this analysis, flat spans of land were targeted, most desirably near points of interests documented in the previous step. Going hand in hand with a cut and fill construction methodology, the needs of the robot builders informed these investigations. As gradual slopes are easier to traverse than steeper ones, they are lower-risk areas for material extraction. Imagine mission control as one of these machines, an unfathomably expensive investment and engineering wonder of the world, teeters atop Shackleton Crater attempting to excavate lunar regolith. I can already hear teeth chattering... In addition, the construction methodology creates space where both the cut (i.e. underground) and fill (i.e. aboveground) become architecture, thereby decreasing material needs and operations.

Iterative Site Maps with Contours Spaced One Meter Apart

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Site Section

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Now, site shortlist in hand, a third and final criterion made it clear where our first extraterrestrial settlement will unfold. With the required balance of steep and gradual slopes, careful thought must also be given to how a robot will navigate the site. In other words, a circulatory highway is essential for machines trying to move cut material to fill locations. Aforementioned, speeding down the sides of steep crater slopes is not an option. Thus, strategic egress lines that allow for robots to easily move about the site became a necessity. It is also important to note that, in alignment with altering the lunar landscape as little as possible, cutting into crater ridges themselves is out of the question. This not only stems from ethical obligation, but risk mitigation as well. For instance, starting lunar avalanches because we programmed our robots to excavate from crater bases, like picking the bottom apple at the grocery store, is unacceptable. By employing simple site selection criteria, choosing to follow the light, and harmonizing form and land, a more holistic perspective of our universe is had. The work culminates in a bunker-beacon form built in complete harmony with the land to which it is home. Such not only offers protection from dangers like micrometeorites and solar radiation, but enables occupants to maintain healthy circadian rhythms. Superior lighting at Shackleton Crater offers sustainable power while sleeping quarters are tucked underground. Where the form reaches up to the light, breathtaking extraterrestrial views of the Moon and cosmos beyond grant users both a sublime experience and psychological benefits. Added insulation provided by crater ridges and underground cover offer stability amid extreme temperature swings and harmful ultraviolet rays. OUTCOMES

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Floor Plan of Level -1

Floor Plan of Level 1

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Floor Plan of Level 0

Floor Plan of Level 2

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North Building Section

East Building Section

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Exploded Axonometric

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This projectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s peace is only had once rigid, mathematical computation is balanced with uplifting, passionate emotion. In other words, nothing left undone. Reflecting on one of the main themes of this work that goodness is found with both, such is allegorical to the very fields of architecture and engineering themselves: seemingly opposites in many regards, yet still part of the same larger whole. I do not believe it to be a coincidence that projects which fully unite architecture and engineering are the most compelling. By only using what is available to us and no more than we need, a harmonious relationship is manifested, truly allowing where we are to inform the way we build. It is this approach I urge humanity to use on Earth, the Moon, and any celestial body we may find traversing the cosmos.

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CRITICAL 10. REFLECTION

Before beginning, it is important to acknowledge the incredible institution that is Wentworth Institute of Technology and to thank them for allowing me to do a thesis that researches the field of space architecture. Similar to how humans possess an innate desire to explore, we also instinctively fear what we do not know. Thus, despite seemingly unconquerable odds, Wentworth still believed in me to turn this thesis into a reality. Such requires a leap of faith and I could not be more thankful for their support. I received a degree for doing something I love, the fruit of which has helped jumpstart my career. What more could I ask for? Next, we need to discuss just that, doing what you love. It became glaringly apparent, both by mentorship and personal observation, that the field of space architecture does not yet exist. Getting in on the ground floor, I think it is also important to note how my perspective shifted as the work progressed. As space architecture certainly pioneers new frontiers, the idea of having to pioneer my own career with no prescribed path haunted me at first. The fear of not knowing if what I was choosing to do was “right” or “best” was terrifying. But, truly, to achieve your innermost wishes, developing a sense of ease and calm amid uncertainty is essential. Falling under a larger thematical umbrella of change, this shift in perspective freed me, allowing a more fulfilling and inspiring view to come into focus. Ironically, the same space I feared so greatly became the liberation I was praying for. Having to bushwhack my own career path elicits such freedom and does not inevitably end in failure as debilitating fear would have it. Citizens of the United States of America are blessed with this invaluable gift: to pursue their passions and that which we love freely. Make no mistake, it is there, but it is up to us to take it. Let your passion be the burning fuel that drives and launches you forward. Be honest with yourself about how you feel. A career built on doing things motivated by external factors rather than those that stem from within will either be short-lived or grossly unsatisfying. Know you cannot fail because you have already succeeded by doing what you love. Live in the light of this journey, fully present with each precious moment. You will discover that wonderful goodness flows through such purpose. Not only does savoring 214

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each second fill you in unimaginable ways, but the quality of your work improves as a result, eliciting additional gifts for you to enjoy. One can clearly imagine how the best of all worlds can be had with an approach that appreciates each and every step of the journey, but such only stems from a passionate core. Allow your focus and energy to change the world. It will if you let it. Note the relaxed focus and gentle strength with which one proceeds doing work that is central to them. When grounded in what is meaningful to you, you become incredibly difficult to knock off your foundation. The space realm is an incredibly general one, which makes the potential of my training that much more exciting. However, it is my love of this work that will light the way to brighter tomorrows. My parents gave me one of the best pieces of advice when I was younger, that if you love what you do, you will never work a day in your life. In many ways, my life is centered around this very premise. Let us talk about Tom Brady for a moment. I do not think that the greatest football player of all-time has reached the level of success he has with a destination-oriented approach. In other words, he does not play football for the recognition, awards, or even the championships. Yes, I am sure those things are nice when they come, but it is not the whole picture or even a fraction of what is most important. Brady has already won when he steps out onto the field because he is doing what he loves and loves everything about it. From hard, rigorous training at the crack of dawn, to studying film, to practicing with his teammates, all of it combines to make gameday an experience like no other.

Vegetation Exploration Sketches

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In doing that which you care so much for, it can be scary to put pen to paper. The fear of it not turning out as good as you imagine it in your head can be crippling. However, the only thing scarier is not doing anything at all. Doing anything is better than doing nothing. The age-old adage “Never let the fear of striking out keep you from playing the game,” certainly comes to mind. Perhaps a more applicable version to architecture students is “Never let debilitating fear keep you from doing what you love.” As with anything worth doing, the work was a roller coaster of ups and downs, made whole by perpetual pushback from classmates, professors, even family and failure. But, by staying true to myself, my education, research, and practice became one in the same, changing the previously unfavorable perception held by many regarding space architecture. As far as next steps go, what I initially viewed as an insurmountable climb is, actually, a lifetime of opportunity, and there are few things more inspiring than that. So, no matter what your passion is, do it. Let this thesis first be a testament that you can do anything you set your mind to. It is not always about having a goal, rather trusting in that which you believe in and hold dearest. Messages like “Just Do It” work at a subconscious level, deeply resonating within us (my hypothesis as to why Nike is the success that it is). Getting overwhelmed about Step 21 not only defeats the purpose of preparation, but prevents you from ever getting there, never mind enjoying each step along the way. Much better it is to take a deep breath, appreciate this moment now, and ask yourself, “What is my next step?” Take it one. step. at. a. time. I encourage all students who wish to pursue a space architecture thesis to do so, and to use this work to build a strong foundation to stand on. Really, it does not matter what your thesis topic is. If you have the passion, you can do it, and that is arguably the most powerful lesson this work has to offer. Now, as for the work itself, I must reiterate that the field of space architecture is quite complex. Its essence is both architecture and aerospace engineering rolled into one and situated in an entirely inhospitable realm with which we have minimal experience. Mindful of this, there exists an incredibly diverse list of factors too large in number for any one person or project to fully realize 216

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in a year. The work was praised for the quantity of criteria it considers, and, more specifically, the challenges it explores. Such was accomplished through its approach, that, by designing for larger, more impactful criteria (e.g. stress concentrations, micrometeorites), smaller, more specific criteria fall into place. However, many factors remain that need work, were not addressed, or were made known after the iterating period that this book captures. The work was reviewed by a panel of space architects, specialists, and enthusiasts who provided invaluable insight. Material questions were immediately posed. This project does a strong job of proving the viability of creating extraterrestrial architecture solely in situ, that, with a little hard work and creativity, the unimaginable can come to light. Exemplified in earlier chapters, the field of space architecture has been bit by the 3D-printing bug. However, the fact remains that we do not yet have all the facts when it comes to additive manufacturing methods. The need for such methodologies is clear given ethical, technological, and economic criteria, but what that first sintered layer of lunar regolith will be like is completely unknown. Pyrex was suggested as another possible building material. This spurred questions of why use glass at all? With robots, graphene could be made, providing additional design flexibility with the choice of both opaque and transparent outputs. Staying current on material trends is a must. Aerogel, if also permitted by the ingredients of lunar regolith, could insulate the structure. The habitat’s double shell establishes an insulative barrier, but the true degree of its effectiveness requires additional investigation. This illustrates the endless possibilities of what space architecture can be, even with the tiniest of details.

Astronaut tinkering with a robot amid the interstitial space.

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Examining the material constraints of lunar regolith and the extents of its performance prompted theoretical questions as well, some directly challenging the ethical obligations of The Prime Directive. For instance, if profitable, would I be willing to break The Prime Directive for something like a material modification with better performing properties? This conversation has surfaced time and time again throughout the course of this work and will continue to moving forward. What is the price of your morality? How convenient does something need to be before you give in to it? Staring this passing pleasure straight in the eyes, I firmly declared that such a change is out of the question. The fate of humanity aside, much of the fun and growth to be had as an architect is born from constraints. It is the process of developing creative, outside-the-box solutions that makes this work as fulfilling as it is. Truly, it is about the journey, not the destination. Beyond love and passion for what you do, you will find that situations arise that ask you to sacrifice what you believe in for what appears easier and more profitable. The keyword here is “appears,” and one has already lost if they part with what is true to them, no matter what the outcome is.

does not mean it does not have the same pressurecontaining problem that the rest of the structure has. Thickening the floor plate is one potential solution, but, even then, it would need to be incredibly large. The ground line plays an important role here as well. The section showed a straight surface running continuously from outside the habitat through its interior which is not likely feasible given pressure demands. Another idea for adding structural rigidity was to let beams and support spans carry building loads, allowing floor plates to develop therein. While important to keep the construction methodology as simple as possible, a terrestrial-building approach such as this would be quite complex to realize amid the lunar environment. Additionally, sharp streaks that grip the form’s exterior raised questions about the project’s construction methodology altogether, and whether or not it would be able to accommodate such intense creases. Thresholds that connect occupants from EVA to inside the habitat were designed as airlocks for safety and hazardous material containment. However, specifics supporting how these “doors” would function were unclear and lacked rigor, entry and exit development needed accordingly. Questions regarding windows as another type of aperture were The concept of having a structure that completely answered with the entire double-shell glass structure merges into its environment was well-received. serving this role, offering transcendent views of an The spatial variety offered by the form was also entirely different world. In general, the details of applauded. The panel agreed single-radius curves openings, namely doors and windows, remain an are bad for humans due to their disorienting nature. ongoing investigation that require further iteration. However, the sphere is good for pressure. Such questions bring the social and technical aspects Aforementioned, potential pressure failure of this work face to face. A possible approach is to from thermal stress and meteorite strike were take a sphere and morph its shape in a way that addressed with curves, enabling the habitat to is beneficial to occupants. To test this, various withstand weaker point pressures. It was also cross-sections of each form would need to be briefly debated if the habitat’s approach should be taken. The methods selected for this project were one of deflection or absorption when designing for clear in their intent to be as representative of forces of such great magnitude. But, to account the proposal as possible. This not only brought for all possible scenarios, absorption from any forth exciting discoveries, but warranted an direction proved the only conceivable solution. immediate feedback loop. Such must continue Breaking the symmetry of the project was a major to allow moments of truth to surface, balancing point of emphasis. Allowing the Moon to inform both engineered rigidity and passionate design. the way we build means any symmetries of the form need further molding by site forces. While As for the form, the floor needs improvement. With the habitat does an excellent job of catering to the enclosure needing to maintain a fifty-pound- its unprecedented landscape, the introduction of force-per-square-inch atmosphere, flat floor slabs supplementary criteria to break its symmetrical are almost entirely out of the question. The reason composition would elicit a more compelling form. being is that just because a floor is on the ground 218

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The form telling us that we need to do more work as indicated by the sharp streak running along its exterior.

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Panelists longed for a final rendering of what the architecture would be in Year 3000. However, as a lesson learned from prior trials, the nature of this work is anything but “final,” permanence a fertile breeding ground for failure, and in order to get the architecture of an off-world civilization right, getting its first habitat right must come first. There was additional emphasis on creating community spaces for occupants to avoid any sense of solitary confinement. This is a social discourse that highlights the importance of the habitat’s ritual and interaction spaces. Technical questions included atmosphere transitions from one space to the next. For instance, how does the architecture allow this to happen seamlessly? What are the details that make it so? Also, what is the certainty of material processing, and how does the methodology guarantee successful implementation of structural deviations, such as doors and windows? These questions underline the fundamental role engineering plays in the field of space architecture, and are those I look to better answer as my career progresses both academically and professionally. Synthetic biology has interesting potential as material reinforcement via locally grown plants. Utilizing mycorrhizal networks, or similarly growing plant life, also emerged an interesting concept. The types of vegetation available for extraterrestrial application (e.g. food, flowers, vines) is a thesis project itself. Although public data proved invaluable, site analysis would have really benefited from access to smaller-scale GIS data. The lack of available site information specific to Shackleton Crater hindered the iterative process at times and made it difficult to develop certain aspects of the work. I understand the Moon is not Earth, however, Shackleton Crater is a popular enough attraction that its public data should be more accessible. In addition, I found few data sets that could be represented stereographically which would have proven incredibly useful given the project’s polar location. The detail scale of this work is also fertile ground for further exploration. Everything from door heights, to stairs, to wall thicknesses require attention. Wall section details examining the composition of sintered lunar regolith and extracted silica open entirely new realms of aerospace. As the double shell is itself an insulative barrier, could its walls operate similarly, acting as double-pane windows? Such is 220

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merely a taste of the specificity this work entails. Form is undeniably powerful. This project sparked an extremely important question: what do we want representing our species as our first extraterrestrial habitat? Entering a new era of exploration, the iconography of shelters is an increasing area of focus. Traversing history from man’s first caves to One World Trade Center, the question of form, as old as architecture itself, seeks to uncover why we build the way we do. Dwellings carry meaning, and how we are associated with an epochal dwelling matters. The most recent iterations of this work, for better or worse, produced a blob. This is not meant to, in any way, take away from the blood, sweat, and tears that went into its creation. However, determining the extraterrestrial form that humanity will forever identify with needs to be a discussion left open to all. This work concerns a domain that is even more powerful and valuable than we as a species can comprehend. It has been acknowledged that the unfolding industries and markets of space exploration are virtually limitless. These economies, together with priceless opportunities like those offered from The Overview Effect and planetary research, support the argument for abundance, not scarcity. In other words, nature gives from a place of abundance; therefore, the experiential qualities of the architecture should reflect this in the best way possible. It was then countered that the unique spatial qualities offered by the curves create the desired uplifting, sublime experience that is paramount for a project of this sort to possess. As is the case with many architectural investigations, the key is finding a balance between both form and function that best serves its intended purpose. Instead of defaulting to a fixed, one-or-the-other mindset, the design must be allowed to become what it needs to be.

Astronaut harvesting crops while another looks to enter.

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The extensive, rigorous set of design constraints presented by space exploration can help Earth in extraordinary ways. Therefore, outer space expansion and terrestrial healing should not be seen as a dichotomy, but most effectively achieved in parallel with each other. Although, in theory, it stands to reason that the less focus and energy you put into something (Earth for example), the longer it will take to achieve a desired result. However, there is also something to be said about letting go of split energy and finding that which you are looking for where you have not already looked. The creative, outside-thebox, and interdisciplinary thinking you are forced to cultivate as a space architect is the beating heart of problem solving, able to fluidly connect things from over there to things over here. Growing in areas we are new to brings boundless wisdom. Outer space is this fertile learning ground, and by proceeding with the directive to allow the Moon (and all the worlds we inhabit) to inform the way we build, we let go, allowing now to unfold. Just as architecture and engineering can seem like two completely different worlds themselves, they are neither separate nor mutually exclusive, but made whole by each other. Let us call to mind a few ways space advancement can positively impact our beautiful blue planet. The Overview Effect, frequently cited throughout this work, is a cognitive shift that astronauts report deepens the appreciation one has for Earth. This discovery of our own planet is arguably more valuable than all the discoveries to be had with our Moon, solar system, and universe combined. Given the enormous technological and economic investment any space project demands, peace between nations is a must. While some countries do possess the ability to achieve extraterrestrial feats on their own, they are nothing compared to what can be accomplished together. United teams of diverse people will learn twice as much in half the time, and prove, as did the ISS, that we are better as one than we are apart. Thus, lunar architecture would shine as a symbol of hope for Earth. An international, interdisciplinary effort, combined with The Prime Directive, can help shed new light on how we as humans can live life to the fullest and share in such fulfillment together. As it turns out, a balanced extraterrestrial practice of cut and fill creation can lead to quite a few discoveries. I am excited for the terrestrial potential of such a methodology and 222

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invite all to draw inspiration from its teachings. One thing is clearer now than ever before, that we, as a species, must think creatively and responsibly about how we engage the land we dwell in. It has been said that science fiction is the blueprint of the future. I would like to append this with an alltime favorite quote of mine from Spider-Man, “With great power comes great responsibility.” Truly, we possess an innate desire to explore. Technological advances and exploration are functions of each other, and mankind’s strides, while undoubtedly powerful, require proportionately responsible use if we are to live. The safety and expansion of our race can only be achieved by remaining true to what we feel is right in our hearts. These are our prime directives. Unlike robot constructors that are programmed, we as humans choose. What a divine gift. Architects are specifically entrusted with this power, who, as master storytellers, create the narratives that their audiences experience. It will be interesting to see what we as a people choose to do moving forward, no better time than now to be optimistic. Personally, I dream of the day I can work with holograms as Tony Stark, or should I say Iron Man, does. I am not sure what the criteria is for determining when mankind is “ready” to explore other celestial bodies. I think that, as is often in life, the opportunity will present itself naturally once a greater appreciation is realized for what we already have. Again, it is neither linear where things will occur in a consecutive, perfectly planned order, nor is it a dichotomy where space exploration is separate from terrestrial growth. While important to plan, life is full of twists and turns (even curves). When the time is right, we will know, but it is important to note that this understanding will not come from a computer screen, but our own intuition. Be honest about the way you feel. It is this very essence that is at the core of what makes us human.

Finally, it is extremely important to recognize that this thesis was never motivated by fear. The work is not suggesting that humans have ruined Earth past the point of no return or that we must look elsewhere to live if we are to survive as a species. While such is understandable, decisions rooted in fear often lead to ruin. There is no place like Earth. If I had it my way, this research base would only be temporary. We would go, learn as much as we can, and come back. We would then allow the architecture to return peacefully to where it came, like a wave to the ocean, and apply the same approach to making and discovery elsewhere on the Moon if need be. This thesis is rooted in emotion and the sensations of passion, fun, and appreciation with the belief that there is plenty of space for everyone. By creating the space within yourself to be at ease with the everchanging nature of life, not only will you retain your sense of childlike wonder, but you will allow yourself to be the water you are and flow, moment to moment.

What will you create?

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VEXILLOLOGY Vexillology is the study of flags. In many ways, flags are able to unite us through a shared identity. The International Flag of Planet Earth is a graduation project at Beckmans College of Design in Stockholm, Sweden by Oskar Pernefeldt. Its purpose is two-fold: to represent planet Earth, and to remind people of Earth that we share this planet regardless of national boundaries. It is a call to action that reminds us to take care of one another and the planet we live on. Such is emblematic of the true essence of this thesis. Even at the birth of space exploration, we bear witness to our burning desire to live as one people. It is a lesser known fact that, two months prior to his assassination, President John Kennedy delivered a speech extending an arm to the Soviet Union to go to space together, “Why, therefore, should man’s first flight to the Moon be a matter of national competition?” Kennedy, nearly sixty years ago, saw what this work is now begging the world to see, “The Soviet Union and the United States, together with their allies, can achieve further agreements - agreements which spring from our mutual interest in avoiding mutual destruction.” The ISS was a great first step, but it is time to do better. Listening is one of the most sincere forms of humility. To work together, we need to listen to each other. The world, America especially, is in dire need of humility. Let us release our ego with the understanding that happiness is not finite. It is all for me, and it is all for you. Embracing this unity, we can help one another soar to unimaginable heights in a fraction of the time spent trying to do it alone. Not only will we rejoice once reaching the destinations we dream, but we will enjoy the journey there. Truly, happiness is best when shared.

Figure 38 - A miraculous moment...what if the next time...we leaped together?

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Figure 39 - The International Flag of Planet Earth “Centered in the flag, seven rings form a flower, a symbol of the life on Earth. The rings are linked to one another, which represents how everything on our planet, directly or indirectly, is linked. The blue field represents water, essential for life, and the oceans that cover most of our planet’s surface. The flower’s outer rings form a circle which can be seen as a symbol of Earth as a planet with the blue representing the Universe.”

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THESIS EVOLUTION A thesis is a long journey, and one that should not be ending with a degree, but just beginning. As an iterative exercise, I kept a log of my thesis as it evolved, culminating with that which is defined in the very beginning. Below is said log, recorded chronologically from old to new. What is the most effective master plan for a city on Mars?

Lunar Vision: The First Architecture Beyond Earth - A balanced, automated approach to creating extraterrestrial habitats.

What is the design of a utopia on Mars? Lunar Vision: The First Architecture Beyond Earth - A A Martian Utopia: An Architectural Research Project balanced, automated approach to build with celestial into the Colonization of Mars at the North Polar Ice bodies. Cap Lunar Vision: The First Architecture Beyond Earth - A A Master Plan for Mars | Phase 1 - Psychology: balanced approach to building with celestial bodies. Designing for the Psychological Impacts of Living in Extreme and Extraterrestrial Environments The Master Plan for Marsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; North Polar Ice Cap | Phase 1 - Psychology: Designing for the Psychological Impacts of Living in Extreme and Extraterrestrial Environments Lunar Master Plan | Phase 1 - Psychology: Designing for the Psychological Impacts of Living in Extreme and Extraterrestrial Environments Lunar Master Plan - The First Architecture Beyond Earth: Using Robots to Design with the Moonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Landscape for a Lasting Presence of Human Life Lunar Master Plan - The First Architecture Beyond Earth: Using In Situ Resource Utilization and Robots to Sinter with the Moon and Sun for a Lasting Human Presence Lunar Master Plan: The First Architecture Beyond Earth - Using In Situ Resource Utilization and Robots to Sinter with the Moon and Sun for a Lasting Human Presence Lunar Master Plan: The First Architecture Beyond Earth - Using In Situ Resource Utilization and Robots to Create Feasible Extraterrestrial Habits Lunar Vision: The First Architecture Beyond Earth - A balanced, automated approach to creating habitats when humans are ready for extraterrestrial exploration.

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ACRONYMS ACS - American Ceramic Society CNC - Computer Numerical Control CSA - Canadian Space Agency ESA - European Space Agency EVA - Extravehicular Activity GIS - Geographic Information System GRAIL - Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory IRVS - Intelligent Robotic Vehicle System ISRU - In Situ Resource Utilization ISS - International Space Station JAXA - Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency LOLA - Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter LRO - Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Administration RLSO - Robotic Lunar Surface Operations UA - University of Arizona

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GLOSSARY Oxford English Dictionary * Wikipedia ** Personal ^ additive manufacturing - construction method that adds to a given volume. ^ aerogel - solid material of extremely low density, produced by removing the liquid component from a conventional gel. * airlock - compartment with controlled pressure and parallel sets of doors, to permit movement between areas at different pressures. * analytique - work that immediately transports the audience to its most current, evocative design discoveries; eye of the storm. ^ angle of repose - steepest angle at which a sloping surface formed of a particular loose material is stable. * Anthropocene Era - proposed geological epoch dating from the commencement of significant human impact on Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s geology and ecosystems, including, but not limited to, anthropogenic climate change. ** aperture - opening, hole, or gap. * atmosphere - air in any particular place. * autonomous robot - robot able to perform tasks without external influence. ** biophilia - design that incorporates nature and other forms of life to satisfy the innate human urge to affiliate with the living. ^ bunker-beacon form - habitat that is both defensive and offensive. ^ catenary - curve that an idealized hanging chain or cable assumes under its own weight when supported only at its ends. ** celestial body - single, tightly bound, contiguous entity. ** circadian rhythm - natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours. ** circulation - movement. ^ closed-loop - methodology that fully utilizes all aspects of its process and arrives at its beginning once complete; circular design. ^ CNC milling - machining process that uses computerized controls and rotating multi-axis cutting tools to remove material from a workpiece. ^ compression - application of balanced inward (pushing) forces. ** 228

construction methodology - system of methods used to build. ^ continuous miner - machine that cuts and loads material in one continuous operation. ^ criteria - principles or standards by which something may be judged or decided. * cut and fill - balanced construction methodology that excavates material in one place and deposits it in another. ^ debilitating fear - force, only as powerful as you allow it to be, that keeps your pen from touching paper. ^ diffractive optical element - optical components capable of manipulating an incident lightâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s phase and amplitude to create an output pattern with a specific functionality. ^ digital elevation model - 3D computer-generated representation of a terrainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface created from elevation data. ** discursive image - first feelings of a work splattered upon the blank canvas. ^ diurnal - daily. * extravehicular activity - activity done by an astronaut or cosmonaut outside a spacecraft beyond the Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s appreciable atmosphere. ** failure - moments of truth that are not to be continued. ^ falsework - temporary interior framework structures used to support a building during its construction. ^ feedback loop - capturing of information elicited by a method. ^ formwork - temporarily exterior framework structures used to support a robotic builder during construction. ^ fuzzy logic controller - method that utilizes information not precisely defined but is dependent on its context. ^ geographic information system - system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present spatial or geographic data. ** graphene - fullerene consisting of bonded carbon atoms in sheet form one atom thick. * green infrastructure - floodplains, wetlands, forests, and other components that work together to provide ecosystem services such as flood control and water filtration. ^ greenhouse - glass building in which plants are grown that need protection from harmful weather. * human-centered design - approach to design focused on elevating the human experience. ^ human spaceflight - space travel with a crew that can be operated directly by the crew, remotely from ground stations on Earth, or autonomously. ** 229

in situ resource utilization - practice of collection, processing, storing, and use of materials found or manufactured on other astronomical objects that replace materials that would otherwise be brought from Earth; Living off the Land. ** kinetic sand - toy that looks like regular sand and mimics the physical properties of wet sand, able to be molded into different shapes. ** lulik - spiritual cosmos that contain the Divine Creator, spirits of ancestors, and spiritual root of life including sacred rules that dictate relationships between people and nature. ^ lunar regolith - layer of loose material that covers the Moon. ^ methods - forms of procedure for accomplishing or approaching something, especially a systematic or established one. * modularity - ability for a unit to construct a more complex structure. ^ multi-radius curves - round lines unequally distant from a fixed point. ^ mycorrhizal networks - natureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s World Wide Web. ^ point pressures - pressures of weaker magnitude than stress concentrations. ^ polar volatile - substance easily evaporated at normal temperatures found at a planetâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s pole. * Pyrex - hard heat-resistant type of glass. * scanning electron microscope - type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning the surface with a focused beam of electrons that interact with atoms in the sample, producing various signals containing information about the surface topography and composition of the sample. ** Shackleton Crater - impact crater that lies at the Moonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s south pole with peaks along its rim exposed to nearcontinuous sunlight and an interior that is perpetually shadowed. ** shear - application of opposite, parallel forces. ** silica - hard, unreactive, colorless compound which occurs as the mineral quartz and as a principal constituent of sandstone and other rocks. * single-radius curves - round lines equidistant from a fixed point. ^ sintering - coalescing granular materials by heating without liquefaction. ^ site forces - criteria naturally present to an architectural work. ^ space architecture - theory and practice of designing and building inhabited environments in outer space. ** stress concentrations - pressures of the greatest magnitude caused by thermal stress or meteorite strike. ^ sublime - of such excellence, grandeur, or beauty as to inspire great admiration or awe. * 230

subtractive manufacturing - construction method that subtracts from a given volume. ^ success - moments of truth that are to be continued. ^ synthetic biology - creation of new biological systems via the synthesis or assembly of artificial or natural components. ** tension - application of balanced outward (pulling) forces. ** test vehicle - method that drives investigative flow. ^ The Overview Effect - cognitive shift in awareness reported by some astronauts during spaceflight, often while viewing the Earth from outer space; result of Earth-gazing. ** The Prime Directive - that which you are commanded to do. ^ thermal stress - stress created by any change in temperature to a material. ** threshold - point of entry or beginning. * topogeny - projected externalization of memories that can be lived in. ^ 3D printing - action or process of making a physical object from a three-dimensional digital model, typically by laying down many thin layers of a material in succession. *

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NOTES 1. Aimee Delach, “Harnessing Nature: The Ecosystem Approach to Climate-Change Preparedness,” Defenders of Wildlife, 2012. 2. Aaron Betsky, Landscrapers: Building with the Land (New York, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2006). 3. Betsky, Landscrapers. 4. Judith Bovensiepen, “Spiritual Landscapes of Life and Death in the Central Highlands of EastTimor,” Anthropological Forum 19, no. 3 (2009): 323-338, https://doi.org/10.1080/00664670903278437. 5. Bovensiepen, “East Timor.” 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid. 8. Aaron Betsky, Landscrapers: Building with the Land (New York, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2006). 9. Judith Bovensiepen, “Spiritual Landscapes of Life and Death in the Central Highlands of EastTimor,” Anthropological Forum 19, no. 3 (2009): 323-338, https://doi.org/10.1080/00664670903278437. 10. Aimee Delach, “Harnessing Nature: The Ecosystem Approach to Climate-Change Preparedness,” Defenders of Wildlife, 2012. 11. Sarah Soliz, Laura Symonds, and Christine Willan, “Reduction, Reuse, and Recycling on a Future Lunar Base,” in Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space IV, ed. Rodney G. Galloway and Stanley Lokai (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 12. Judith Bovensiepen, “Spiritual Landscapes of Life and Death in the Central Highlands of EastTimor,” Anthropological Forum 19, no. 3 (2009): 323-338, https://doi.org/10.1080/00664670903278437. 13. Aaron Betsky, Landscrapers: Building with the Land (New York, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2006). 14. Chris Impey, Beyond: Our Future in Space (New York, NY: Norton, 2015). 15. Judith Bovensiepen, “Spiritual Landscapes of Life and Death in the Central Highlands of EastTimor,” Anthropological Forum 19, no. 3 (2009): 323-338, https://doi.org/10.1080/00664670903278437. 16. Aaron Betsky, Landscrapers: Building with the Land (New York, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2006). 17. Sarah Soliz, Laura Symonds, and Christine Willan, “Reduction, Reuse, and Recycling on a Future Lunar Base,” in Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space IV, ed. Rodney G. Galloway and Stanley Lokai (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 232

18. Aimee Delach, “Harnessing Nature: The Ecosystem Approach to Climate-Change Preparedness,” Defenders of Wildlife, 2012. 19. Delach, “Harnessing Nature.” 20. Aaron Betsky, Landscrapers: Building with the Land (New York, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2006). 21. William K. Hartmann, “Toward the Moon, Asteroids, and Mars,” in Blueprint for Space: Science Fiction to Science Fact, ed. Frederick I. Ordway III (London, England: Smithsonian Institution, 1992). 22. Brent Sherwood, “Comparing Future Options for Human Space Flight,” Acta Astronautica 69 (2011): 346-353, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. actaastro.2011.04.006. 23. Brent Sherwood, “What’s the Big Idea? Seeking to Top Apollo.” 24. Brent Sherwood, “Comparing Future Options for Human Space Flight,” Acta Astronautica 69 (2011): 346-353, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. actaastro.2011.04.006. 25. Brent Sherwood, “Technology Investment Agendas to Expand Human Space Futures,” (Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2012). 26. Sarah Soliz, Laura Symonds, and Christine Willan, “Reduction, Reuse, and Recycling on a Future Lunar Base,” in Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space IV, ed. Rodney G. Galloway and Stanley Lokai (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 27. David Torres, “Construction of a Lunar Base,” in Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space IV, ed. Rodney G. Galloway and Stanley Lokai (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 28. Neil Leach, “3D Printing in Space,” Architectural Design 84, no. 6 (2014). 29. Sarah Soliz, Laura Symonds, and Christine Willan, “Reduction, Reuse, and Recycling on a Future Lunar Base,” in Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space IV, ed. Rodney G. Galloway and Stanley Lokai (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 30. Brent Sherwood, “Comparing Future Options for Human Space Flight,” Acta Astronautica 69 (2011): 346-353, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. actaastro.2011.04.006.

31. Brent Sherwood, “Principles for a Practical Moon Base,” (Paris, France: International Astronautical Federation, 2018). 32. David Torres, “Construction of a Lunar Base,” in Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space IV, ed. Rodney G. Galloway and Stanley Lokai (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 33. Torres, “Construction.” 34. Chris Impey, Beyond: Our Future in Space (New York, NY: Norton, 2015). 35. Brent Sherwood, “Technology Investment Agendas to Expand Human Space Futures,” (Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2012). 36. Brent Sherwood, “Principles for a Practical Moon Base,” (Paris, France: International Astronautical Federation, 2018). 37. Sherwood, “Moon Base.” 38. Ibid. 39. Ibid. 40. Paul J.A. Lever, Fei-Yue Wang, and Deqian Chen, “Intelligent Excavator Control for a Lunar Mining System,” in Robotics for Challenging Environments, ed. Laura A. Demsetz and Paul R. Klarer (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 41. Brent Sherwood, “Principles for a Practical Moon Base,” (Paris, France: International Astronautical Federation, 2018). 42. Paul J.A. Lever, Fei-Yue Wang, and Deqian Chen, “Intelligent Excavator Control for a Lunar Mining System,” in Robotics for Challenging Environments, ed. Laura A. Demsetz and Paul R. Klarer (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 43. Lever, “Lunar Mining System.” 44. Fei-Yue Wang, Michael Marefat, Paul J.A. Lever, and Larry Schooley, “An Intelligent Robotic Vehicle for Lunar/Martian Applications,” in Robotics for Challenging Environments, ed. Laura A. Demsetz and Paul R. Klarer (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 45. Brent Sherwood, “Principles for a Practical Moon Base,” (Paris, France: International Astronautical Federation, 2018).

46. Fei-Yue Wang, Michael Marefat, Paul J.A. Lever, and Larry Schooley, “An Intelligent Robotic Vehicle for Lunar/Martian Applications,” in Robotics for Challenging Environments, ed. Laura A. Demsetz and Paul R. Klarer (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 47. Brent Sherwood, “Principles for a Practical Moon Base,” (Paris, France: International Astronautical Federation, 2018). 48. Sherwood, “Moon Base.” 49. Ibid. 50. Paul J.A. Lever, Fei-Yue Wang, and Deqian Chen, “Intelligent Excavator Control for a Lunar Mining System,” in Robotics for Challenging Environments, ed. Laura A. Demsetz and Paul R. Klarer (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 51. Brent Sherwood, “Principles for a Practical Moon Base,” (Paris, France: International Astronautical Federation, 2018). 52. Paul J.A. Lever, Fei-Yue Wang, and Deqian Chen, “Intelligent Excavator Control for a Lunar Mining System,” in Robotics for Challenging Environments, ed. Laura A. Demsetz and Paul R. Klarer (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 53. Fei-Yue Wang, Michael Marefat, Paul J.A. Lever, and Larry Schooley, “An Intelligent Robotic Vehicle for Lunar/Martian Applications,” in Robotics for Challenging Environments, ed. Laura A. Demsetz and Paul R. Klarer (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 54. Oscar Firschein, Artificial Intelligence for Space Station Automation: Crew Safety, Productivity, Autonomy, Augmented Capability (Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Publications, 1986). 55. Fei-Yue Wang, Michael Marefat, Paul J.A. Lever, and Larry Schooley, “An Intelligent Robotic Vehicle for Lunar/Martian Applications,” in Robotics for Challenging Environments, ed. Laura A. Demsetz and Paul R. Klarer (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 56. David Torres, “Construction of a Lunar Base,” in Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space IV, ed. Rodney G. Galloway and Stanley Lokai (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 233

57. Neil Leach, “3D Printing in Space,” Architectural Design 84, no. 6 (2014). 58. Brent Sherwood, “Principles for a Practical Moon Base,” (Paris, France: International Astronautical Federation, 2018). 59. David Torres, “Construction of a Lunar Base,” in Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space IV, ed. Rodney G. Galloway and Stanley Lokai (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 60. Torres, “Construction.” 61. Brent Sherwood, “Principles for a Practical Moon Base,” (Paris, France: International Astronautical Federation, 2018). 62. Sherwood, “Moon Base.” 63. Paul J.A. Lever, Fei-Yue Wang, and Deqian Chen, “Intelligent Excavator Control for a Lunar Mining System,” in Robotics for Challenging Environments, ed. Laura A. Demsetz and Paul R. Klarer (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 64. Brent Sherwood, “Principles for a Practical Moon Base,” (Paris, France: International Astronautical Federation, 2018). 65. Sherwood, “Moon Base.” 66. Sudheer M. Apte, Irving J. Oppenheim, “Planning Intricate Robot Motions to Remove Natural Materials,” in Robotics for Challenging Environments, edited by Laura A. Demsetz and Paul R. Klarer (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 67. Apte, “Motions.” 68. Brent Sherwood, “Technology Investment Agendas to Expand Human Space Futures,” (Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2012). 69. Sherwood, “Technology.” 70. Brent Sherwood, “Space Architecture for MoonVillage,” Acta Astronautica 139 (2017): 396-406, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. actaastro.2017.07.019. 71. Sherwood, “MoonVillage.” 72. Brent Sherwood, “Principles for a Practical Moon Base,” (Paris, France: International Astronautical Federation, 2018). 73. Chris Impey, Beyond: Our Future in Space (New York, NY: Norton, 2015).

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94. Neil Leach, “3D Printing in Space,” Architectural 110. Brent Sherwood, “Space Architecture Design 84, no. 6 (2014). for MoonVillage,” Acta Astronautica 139 95. “NASA’s Centennial Challenges: 3D-Printed (2017): 396-406, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Habitat Challenge,” About the Challenge, actaastro.2017.07.019. Jennifer Harbaugh, last modified August 30, 111. Brent Sherwood, “Principles for a Practical 2018, https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/ Moon Base,” (Paris, France: International spacetech/centennial_challenges/3DPHab/ Astronautical Federation, 2018). about.html. 112. Sherwood, “Moon Base.” 96. Neil Leach, “3D Printing in Space,” Architectural Design 84, no. 6 (2014). 97. David Crenshaw, Patrick Cigno, Phillip Kurtis, Gerry Wynick, Wang Xingwu, Ryan Jeffrey, Carol Craig, Sam Deriso, and Jim Royston, “To Infinity and Beyond: Outer Space Applications of 3D Ceramics Printed via Inkjet Methods,” American Ceramic Society Bulletin 97, no. 6 (2018). 98. Crenshaw, “Ceramics.” 99. David Torres, “Construction of a Lunar Base,” in Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space IV, ed. Rodney G. Galloway and Stanley Lokai (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 100. David Crenshaw, Patrick Cigno, Phillip Kurtis, Gerry Wynick, Wang Xingwu, Ryan Jeffrey, Carol Craig, Sam Deriso, and Jim Royston, “To Infinity and Beyond: Outer Space Applications of 3D Ceramics Printed via Inkjet Methods,” American Ceramic Society Bulletin 97, no. 6 (2018). 101. Neil Leach, “3D Printing in Space,” Architectural Design 84, no. 6 (2014). 102. Leach, “3D Printing.” 103. Ibid. 104. David Crenshaw, Patrick Cigno, Phillip Kurtis, Gerry Wynick, Wang Xingwu, Ryan Jeffrey, Carol Craig, Sam Deriso, and Jim Royston, “To Infinity and Beyond: Outer Space Applications of 3D Ceramics Printed via Inkjet Methods,” American Ceramic Society Bulletin 97, no. 6 (2018). 105. Crenshaw, “Ceramics.” 106. Ibid. 107. David Torres, “Construction of a Lunar Base,” in Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space IV, ed. Rodney G. Galloway and Stanley Lokai (New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1994). 108. Brent Sherwood, “Principles for a Practical Moon Base,” (Paris, France: International Astronautical Federation, 2018). 109. Sherwood, “Moon Base.” 235

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 - Pergamon Acropolis (©David John). “Pergamon Gallery, Bergama, Turkey, 2004,” My Favourite Planet, accessed 2 December 2018, http://www. my-favourite-planet.de/images/middle-east/turkey/ pergamon/pergamon_dj-14042004-0276_acropolis-hellenistic-theatre.jpg.

Figure 9 - MoonVillage Resource Utilization Activities (©Brent Sherwood). “Space Architecture for MoonVillage, 2017,” Acta Astronautica, accessed 2 December 2018.

Figure 10 - Sample Motions of Autonomous Excavator (©Sudheer M. Apte / Irving J. Oppenheim). “Planning Figure 2 - Bangkok Inundated (©Shani Wallis). “Bang- Intricate Robot Motions to Remove Natural Materials, kok Examines Flood Prevention Plans, Bangkok, Thai- 1994,” American Society of Civil Engineers, accessed 2 land, 2011,” TunnelTalk, accessed 2 December 2018, December 2018. http://www.my-favourite-planet.de/images/middle-east/turkey/pergamon/pergamon_dj-14042004- Figure 11 - Key MoonVillage Parameters (©Brent 0276_acropolis-hellenistic-theatre.jpg. Sherwood). “Space Architecture for MoonVillage, 2017,” Acta Astronautica, accessed 2 December 2018. Figure 3 - Derinkuyu (©Robert M. Schoch). “The Ancient Subterranean Shelters of Cappadocia, Derinkuyu, Figure 12 - Urban Development Activities for a MoonTurkey, 2012,” Atlantis Rising Magazine, accessed 28 Village (©Brent Sherwood). “Space Architecture for April 2020, https://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/ima- MoonVillage, 2017,” Acta Astronautica, accessed 17 genes_sociopol3/underground50_01_small.jpg. November 2018. Figure 4 - NASA Budget as a Percentage of Federal Budget (©Wikimedia Commons). “NASA Federal Budget, 2014,” NASA, accessed 2 December 2018, https:// upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/NASA-Budget-Federal.svg.

Figure 13 - Batch Comparison (©David Crenshaw / Patrick Cigno / Phillip Kurtis / Gerry Wynick / Wang Xingwu / Ryan Jeffrey / Carol Craig / Sam Deriso / Jim Royston). “To Infinity and Beyond: Outer Space Applications of 3D Ceramics Printed via Inkjet Methods, 2018,” American Ceramic Society, accessed 2 DecemFigure 5 - Options for the Future of Human Space ber 2018. Flight (©Brent Sherwood). “Comparing Future Options for Human Space Flight, 2011,” Acta Astronau- Figure 14 - Batch Comparison (©David Crenshaw tica, accessed 2 December 2018. / Patrick Cigno / Phillip Kurtis / Gerry Wynick / Wang Xingwu / Ryan Jeffrey / Carol Craig / Sam Deriso / Jim Figure 6 - “Living off the Land” (©NASA Ames Re- Royston). “To Infinity and Beyond: Outer Space Apsearch Center). “How Bad Is the Radiation on Mars?, plications of 3D Ceramics Printed via Inkjet Methods, Mars, 2016,” Phys.org, accessed 2 December 2018, 2018,” American Ceramic Society, accessed 2 Decemhttps://scx1.b-cdn.net/csz/news/800/2016/1-howba- ber 2018. disther.jpg. Figure 15 - D-Shape (©Neil Leach). “3D Printing in Figure 7 - Overview of the RLSO Lunar Base Concept Space, 2014,” Architectural Design, accessed 2 De(©Brent Sherwood). “Principles for a Practical Moon cember 2018. Base, The Moon, 2018,” International Astronautical Federation, accessed 17 November 2018. Figure 16 - Contour Crafting (©Neil Leach). “3D Printing in Space, 2014,” Architectural Design, accessed 2 Figure 8 - Features of Force While Excavating in Fine December 2018. Sand and Coarse Sand with Large Particles (©Paul J.A. Lever / Fei-Yue Wang / Deqian Chen). “Intelligent Excavator Control for a Lunar Mining System, 1994,” American Society of Civil Engineers, accessed 2 December 2018. 236

Figure 17 - Mars Ice House (©SEArch+). “Mars Ice House, Mars, 2015,” SEArch+, accessed 25 April 2020, https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/56a6579ab204d52e0646b187/1485309073567-M7H4 Q S U 3 K U 0 G O N 5 J A 2 G 8 / ke17ZwdGBToddI8pDm48kHoRoxJd5qdeRfspDdIzW95Zw-zPPgdn4jUwVcJE1ZvWQUxwkmyExglNqGp0IvTJZamWLI2zvYWH8K3-s_4yszcp2ryTI0HqTOaaUohrI8PItjtI86-XkpNUDQepWCiF-wLN0q8W77RWEOMQSmtJKhg/ Mars+Ice+House+Banner+Image.png?format=1500w.

Figure 23 - Video Screenshot (©FYBR). “Mars on Earth: FYBR & NASA Haughton-Mars Project, Devon Island, Canada, 2017,” YouTube, accessed 29 April 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wcstcW0ZBeY. Figure 24 - The Haughton-Mars Project Research Station (©NASA). “Devon Island: The Last Stop Before Mars, Devon Island, Canada, 2016,” Discover, accessed 29 April 2020, https://images.ctfassets.net/ cnu0m8re1exe/6IUTX84YsnfVRNLbY8SvR3/5a6e1c6cd92e836cf596ef601d845653/devon-island-102.jpg?w=650&h=433&fit=fill.

Figure 18 - Detail Map (©NASA). “McMurdo Dry Valleys, 2002,” The Earth Observatory, accessed 29 April 2020, https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/img/detailMap.jpg.

Figure 25 - Overview of Geocentric Orbits (©NASA). “Vulnerable Frontier: Militarized Competition in Outer Space, 2015,” ETH Zurich, accessed 29 April 2020, https://ethz.ch/content/eth_cache/ isn_data/article/1/8/9/5/189524/details/_jcr_conFigure 19 - Biosphere 2 (©Tanque Verde Ranch). tent/par/fullwidthimage/image.imageformat.full“Biosphere 2 - Where Science Lives, Oracle, AZ, width.1668669448.png. 2014,” Tanque Verde Ranch, accessed 29 April 2020, https://www.tanqueverderanch.com/wp-content/up- Figure 26 - ISS Environmental Control and Life Suploads/2014/06/bioshpere2.jpg. port System (©NASA). “International Space Station, 2008,” Wikipedia, accessed 29 April 2020, https://upFigure 20 - Aerial View of Biosphere 2 (©Visit Tucson). load.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/ “See (and Stay!) Where Science Lives, Oracle, AZ,” SpaceStationCycle.svg/1024px-SpaceStationCycle. Visit Tucson, accessed 29 April 2020, https://www. svg.png. visittucson.org/sites/default/files/styles/hero/public/ biosphere2-aerial.jpg?itok=P6P-3Lhh. Figure 27 - ISS Configuration (©NASA). “International Space Station, 2019,” Wikipedia, accessed 29 Figure 21 - Aerial Shot of Biosphere 2 (©Joaquin April 2020, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ Ruiz). “Guest Column: Biosphere 2 Celebrates its 10th commons/thumb/5/55/ISS_configuration_2019-08. Year With UA, Oracle, AZ, 2017,” University of Arizo- png/1024px-ISS_configuration_2019-08.png. na, accessed 29 April 2020, https://uaatwork.arizona. edu/sites/default/files/styles/story-image-header-w- Figure 28 - International Space Station (©NASA). 666px/public/images/aerial_shot_biosphere2_univer- “Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria Discovered on Intersity_arizona.jpg?itok=riq63bgJ. national Space Station Toilet, 2018,” Mental Floss, accessed 29 April 2020, https://images2.minutemeFigure 22 - Prototype Greenhouse (©CNHI). “Bio- diacdn.com/image/upload/c_crop,h_1867,w_3319,x sphere 2 still serves as earth science laboratory, Ora- _0,y_58/f_auto,q_auto,w_1100/v1554736604/shape/ cle, AZ, 2018,” Register Herald, accessed 29 April 2020, mentalfloss/565801-nasa2.jpg. https://bloximages.chicago2.vip.townnews.com/register-herald.com/content/tncms/assets/v3/editorial/1/ ea/1eab5575-4431-5fc7-a0e4-249866570b28/5a7fed83d2efe.image.jpg.

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Figure 29 - Inside a Space Craft With a View of Earth (©Axiom Space). “You can now book a 10-day trip to the International Space Station, 2018,” Matador Network, accessed 29 April 2020, https://d36tnp772eyphs. cloudfront.net/blogs/1/2018/11/Inside-a-space-craftwith-a-view-of-Earth.jpg. Figure 30 - McMurdo Station Research Base (©David Goerlitz). “Looking for life on Mars? Start with microbes in Antarctica, Ross Island, Antarctica, 2017,” WIRED, accessed 29 April 2020, https://wi-images.condecdn. net/image/8bPglvgvJ1W/crop/1020/f/10-17-STextremophile_02.jpg. Figure 31 - McMurdo Station in 2013 (©Reinhart Piuk). “Overhaul in the works for aging U.S. Antarctic Station, Ross Island, 2015,” Science, accessed 29 April 2020, https://www.sciencemag.org/sites/default/ files/styles/article_main_large/public/images/McMurdoStation.jpg?itok=AnKi3xhP. Figure 32 - Turbine Hall Museum Architecture (©Ellie Walker-Arnott). “101 things to do in London, London, England, 2019,” Time Out, accessed 29 April 2020, https://i.pinimg.com/236x/ec/d0/7d/ecd07dd788835f32417b56c2e75c0e1e--turbine-hall-museum-architecture.jpg. Figure 33 - The Weather Project at Tate Modern (©Michael Reeve). “Olafur Eliasson, London, England, 2003,” Wikipedia, accessed 29 April 2020, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Tate. modern.weather.project.jpg. Figure 34 - Maman (©ARTBURO). “Spider woman Louise Bourgeois to star in new Tate Modern gallery, London, England, 2016,” ARTBURO, accessed 29 April 2020. Figure 35 - Maman (©BBC). “In pictures: Ten years of Turbine Hall, London, England, 2010,” BBC, accessed 29 April 2020.

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Figure 36 - Sintering Process (©Arda Aytimur / Serhat Kocyigit / Ibrahim Uslu). “Calcia Stabilized Ceria Doped Zirconia Nanocrystalline Ceramic, 2014,” Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials, accessed 27 April 2020, https://www.researchgate. net/profile/Ibrahim_Uslu3/publication/271658710/figure/fig4/AS:630208025612290@1527264710786/Amodel-explaining-the-sintering-process.png. Figure 37 - RegoLight (©German Aerospace Center / Space Applications Services / Liquifer Systems Group / COMEX / Bollinger + Grohmann Ingenieure). “RegoLight, 2017,” RegoLight, accessed 27 April 2020, https:// regolight.eu/. Figure 38 - Apollo 11 Moon Landing (©Getty Images / Science Source). “10 Reasons Why the Apollo 11 Moon Landing Was Awesome, The Moon, 2012,” WIRED, accessed 27 April 2020, https://media.wired.com/photos/5a5cc04e29ef7d33cfbdc716/master/pass/Apollo11HP-128539876.jpg. Figure 39 - The International Flag of Planet Earth (©Oskar Pernefeldt). “The International Flag of Planet Earth,” The International Flag of Planet Earth, accessed 27 April 2020, http://www.flagofplanetearth. com/.

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