the next bright idea
the next bright idea {getting off the grid}
the next bright idea [getting off the grid]
by
emily
dubin
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designer Emily Dubin copywriter Emily Dubin/inter net sources email emily@dubindesign.com Š May 2009 course Pr int 2 instructor Tom Sieu department chair Mar y Scott school Academy of Ar t University printer Epson Stylus 1400 bindery The Key Binding stock Neenah Classic Crest natural 90gsm fonts Futura Std, Bembo, Archer software Adobe CS3 Creative Suite
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12 Br ing to Light: an introduction to the ubiquity of ar tificial light in our daily lives, and the challenges we f ace in chang ing our dependence on this unsustainable energy source. 24 In the Beg inning: a shor t histor y and backg round on the developments and advances in ar tificial light, from the ancient Greeks to the innovations that influence the technology of today. 36 Flip the Switch: an explanation of the function and workings of var ious types of ar tificial lights, and a look at energy usage of these lights. 56 Off the Gr id: a look at possible solutions to our energy problems associated with lighting, including a new home solar solution.
Can you imagine what your life would be like
without lights?
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10%
15%
of an incandescant bulb’s energy is given off as light, while the rest is lost as heat.
of the energy needed to run a typical incandesant bulb can power an LED night light.
44%
¼
of an average U.S. home’s electricity bill comes just from energy used for home lighting.
of the total electricity use in office buildings is for lighting – more than office equipment, space heating, and space cooling combined.
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4.5x
the national average for monthly elecricity consumption, Washington DC has the highest of any state for commercial buildings; 28,900 kWh.
2007
saw the average monthly residential electricity consumption at 936 kilowatthours (kWh).
$100
5%
of a reduction in operating voltage of a light bulb will more than double its usable lifespan.
per year will be saved in energy costs by keeping a single 100 watt bulb from running constantly.
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| bring to light
Bring to Light Artificial lights are an intimate part of modern society. You find them virtually It has dawned on us that our habit of endless energy
everywhere, in essentially every home, business, car, plane and even the space
consumption cannot continue forever. Fossil fuels are
shuttle. Light bulbs are so ingrained into our day-to-day existance in the United
not regenerative. Now that we’ve seen the light we need bright ideas to solve the problem and create
States, that we may not even notice their influence and importance in our lives.
new sustainable products that can illuminate our lives.
Think about an average day. Your alarm goes off, the time illuminated by an
The lightbulb has been a symbol of ingenuity since
LED light. Then you flip the lightswitch and your room is illuminated by an
the time of Edison, but new light has been shed on
incandescant bulb. After showering and dressing by the artificial light in your
the inefficiency and wastefulness of this ubiquitous product. What can replace this outdated symbol for
bathroom and bedroom, you open the fridge to grab breakfast and another light
a bright idea? The original light perhaps? Solar light
turns on. You make coffee and the machine’s indicator light tells you when it’s
is the very key to life and harnassing it may be key to
ready. The lights in your apartment hallway lead you to the elevator where the
the solution to our energy problems. Researchers and innovators keep inventing additions to our grid-based energy system. They are replacing old light bulbs with
buttons and floors are illuminated. You unlock your car with a keyless entry button which lights up and then when you turn the ignition all kinds of lights come on.
new ones, but not necessarily questioning our entire
The streetlights have just gone off for the day but you might pass many stoplights,
energy system. This book aims to illuminate the facts,
neon signs, LED signs, lights turned on in every office, business, school, and
history, and issues behind artificial light and our human dependance on light.
household. And this is all in the first hour of your day. Thinking about the number of lights you turn on, or use, or see in the course of a day, or a year, or a lifetime; the number is mind-boggling. /// Now that the influence of lights on our daily lives has been established, the sheer number begs the question of energy use. In these times of sobering climate change and wide-spread recession, our overuse of energy seems bright and clear. While we can easily cut back on our use of lighting, even turning off a a single 100 watt bulb from running constantly will save over $100 a year in energy costs, there must be a more wide-reaching, system altering solution. Our energy and financial crises call for a greater change than simply slightly more energy efficient lightbulbs. I hope this will enlighten readers about artificial light.
bring to light |
Lucid, enlighten & illuminate all come from the same root word meaning light.
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[enlightening
fact]
Fluorescent lightbulbs contain mercury. The EPA classifies them as one of the 3 types of universal waste. They share the list with pesticides and batteries. Poison lights? Not such a bright idea.
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[day
lights] Lighting is the deliberate application of light to achieve some aesthetic or practical effect. Lighting includes use of both artificial light sources such as lamps and natural illumination of interiors from daylight. Lighting affects the way you feel, work, and interact with others. It helps you accomplish everyday tasks. How would you manage without the light you use to read your paper, the desk lamp your children use when doing their homework, or the lighting you use to prepare your favorite meals. Light gives us beauty as well as vision, and the quality is often far more important to us than the quantity. /// Efficient lighting is a science as well as an art. And yet, most of us still use the incandescent bulb, which is basically the same technology invented by Thomas Edison over 100 years ago. Since lighting represents as much as 25 percent of your home’s electrical use, increasing your lighting efficiency is one of the easiest and fastest ways to lower your energy bills. Artificial lighting represents a major component of energy consumption, accounting for a significant part of all energy consumed worldwide. /// Artificial lighting is most commonly provided today by electric lights, but gas lighting, candles, or oil lamps were used in the past, and still are used in certain situations. Proper lighting can enhance task performance or aesthetics, while there can be energy wastage and adverse health effects of lighting. Indoor lighting is a form of fixture or furnishing, and a key part of interior design. Lighting fixtures come in a wide variety of styles for various functions. The most important functions are as a holder for the light source, to provide directed light and to avoid visual glare. Some are very plain and functional, while some are pieces of art in themselves. Nearly any material can be used, so long as it can tolerate the excess heat.
15 Photo shows a discarded heap of fluorescent bulbs outside of Bangkok, Thailand. According to the EPA, disposal of these bulbs can be dangerous to humans and to our environment, as they contain mercur y. (www.epa.gov/mercur y/consumer.htm#flu) 16 San Francisco nightscape as seen through a yellow filter to illuminate the moder n problem of light pollution in major cities. 19 Ushuia Lighthouse in Beagle Channel, Tier ra del Fuego, Argentina.
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bring to light |
[enlightening
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fact]
In an average US home, lighting accounts for 22% of the total energy used. Only space and water heating use more power. HOW can we dim our energy use?
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In the Beginning The first lamp was invented around 70,000 BC. A hollow rock, shell or other In the beginning it was dark and cold. There was no
natural found object was filled with moss or a similar material that was soaked
sun, no light, no earth, no solar system. There was
with animal fat and ignited. Humans began imitating the natural shapes with
nothing, just the empty void of space. Then slowly,
manmade pottery, alabaster, and metal lamps. Wicks were later added to control
about 4.5 billion years ago, a swirling nebula, - a huge cloud of gas and dust was formed. Eventually this cloud contracted and grew into a central molten
the rate of burning. Around the 7th century BC, the Greeks began making terra cotta lamps to replace handheld torches. In the 18th century, the central
mass that became our sun. At first the sun was a
burner was invented, a major improvement in lamp design. The fuel source was
molten glow. As the core pressure increased, and the
now tightly enclosed in metal, and a adjustable metal tube was used to control
temperature rose to millions of degrees - a star was born. Through the process of thermonuclear hydrogen fusion, the sun began to shine.
the intensity of the fuel burning and intensity of the light. /// Around the same time, small glass chimneys were added to lamps to both protect the flame and control the flow of air to the flame. Ami Argand, a Swiss chemist is credited with first developing the principal of using an oil lamp with a hollow circular wick surrounded by a glass chimney in 1783. /// Early lighting fuels consisted of olive oil, beeswax, fish oil, whale oil, sesame oil, nut oil, and similar substances. In 1859, drilling for petroleum oil began and the kerosene (a petroleum derivative) lamp grew popular, first introduced in 1853 in Germany. Coal and natural gas lamps were also becoming wide-spread. Coal gas was first used as a lighting fuel as early as 1784. In 1792, the first commercial use of gas lighting began when William Murdoch used coal gas for lighting his house in Redruth, Cornwall. German inventor Freidrich Winzer was the first person to patent coal gas lighting in 1804 and a “thermolampe� using gas distilled from wood was patented in 1799. Some years later, David Melville received the first U.S. gas light patent in 1810. /// Early in the 19th century, most cities in the United States and Europe had streets that were gaslight. The electric lighting at the turn of the 19th century replaced gas lighting in homes and later in streetlights.
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the word lamp comes from the greek word lampas, meaning torch
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[electric
lights]
In addressing the question “Who invented the incandescent lamp?” historians Robert Friedel and Paul Israel list 22 inventors of incandescent lamps prior to Joseph Wilson Swan and Thomas Edison. They conclude that Edison’s version was able to outstrip the others because of a combination of three factors: an effective incandescent material, a higher vacuum than others were able to achieve and a high resistance lamp that made power distribution from a centralized source economically viable. /// Another historian, Thomas Hughes, has attributed Edison’s success to the fact that he invented an entire, integrated system of electric lighting. “The lamp was a small component in his system of electric lighting, and no more critical to its effective functioning than the Edison Jumbo generator, the Edison main and feeder, and the parallel-distribution system. Other inventors with generators and incandescent lamps, and with comparable ingenuity and excellence, have long been forgotten because their creators did not preside over their introduction in a system of lighting. /// In 1802, Humphry Davy had what was then the most powerful electrical battery in the world at the Royal Institution of Great Britain. In that year, he created the first incandescent light by passing the current through a thin strip of platinum, chosen because the metal had an extremely high melting point. It was not bright enough nor did it last long enough to be practical, but it was the precedent behind the efforts of scores of experimenters over the next 75 years until Thomas Edison’s creation of the first commercially practical incandescent lamp in 1879. In 1809, Davy also created the
26 Thomas Edison stands in front of his ModelT Ford in undated photo. His or ig inal patent (No. 223, 898 for the “electr ic lamp” from Januar y 1880, lists Thomas A. Edison as “inventor.” 27 Nick Holyak, inventor of the moder n LED says “I was always interested in-- Yes, more or less science. In f act one of the teachers then wanted me to go into chemistr y, and I thought, no, that’s too cookbookish. I liked electr ical things more. I was always interested in electr ical things.” 27 An early LED light in the for m of jewler y from a 1910 adver tisement. A diag ram of a contemporar y LED light bulb.
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70,000 BC
1915
1901
70,0 0 0 BC Manmade torches from found mater ials and ignited animal f at
1880 Thomas Edison received U.S.Patent 223,898 for his incandescent lamp
60 0 BC Greeks develop ter racotta lamps
1901 Amer ican, Peter Cooper Hewitt patented the mercur y vapor lamp, forerunner to fluorescents
1783 Ami Argand, a Swiss chemist is credited with first developing the pr incipal of using an oil lamp with a hollow circular wick sur rounded by a glass chimney.
1911 Georges Claude of France invented and patented the neon lamp
1810 David Melville received the first U.S. gas light patent, six years after its invention by a Ger man scientist
1915 Amer ican, Irving Langmuir invented an electr ic gas-filled tungsten lamp
1875 Henr y Woodward of Toronto, along with Matthew Evans patented a light bulb but could not raise the financing to commercialize their invention, and sold the r ights to Edison
1927 Fr iedr ich Meyer, Hans Spanner, and Edmund Ger mer patented a fluorescent lamp
1953 Gerald Pearson, Dar yl Chapin, and Calvin Fuller came up with the first solar cell capable of conver ting enough of the sun’s energy into power to r un ever yday electr ical equipment 1959 U.S. Patent 2,883,571 was g ranted to Elmer Fr idr ich and Emmett Wiley for a tungsten halogen lamp 1962 Nick Holonyak invented the first visible LED in 1962 while working at a General Electr ic Company laborator y in Syracuse, New York 1973 he moder n CFL was invented by Ed Hammer, an eng ineer with General Electr ic, in response to the oil cr isis.
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1911 1962
1953
1875
1973 1953 Gerald Pearson, Dar yl Chapin, and Calvin Fuller came up with the first solar cell capable of conver ting enough of the sun’s energy into power to r un ever yday electr ical equipment 1959 U.S. Patent 2,883,571 was g ranted to Elmer Fr idr ich and Emmett Wiley for a tungsten halogen lamp 1962 Nick Holonyak invented the first visible LED in 1962 while working at a General Electr ic Company laborator y in Syracuse, New York 1973 he moder n CFL was invented by Ed Hammer, an eng ineer with General Electr ic, in response to the oil cr isis.
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first arc lamp by making a small but blinding electrical connection between two carbon charcoal rods connected to a 2000-cell battery; it was demonstrated to the Royal Institution in 1810. Over the first three-quarters of the 19th century many experimenters worked with various combinations of platinum or iridium wires, carbon rods, and evacuated or semi-evacuated enclosures. Many of these devices were demonstrated and some were patented. /// Joseph Wilson Swan was an English physicist and chemist. He devised a method of treating cotton to produce ‘parchmentised thread’ and obtained British Patent 4933 in 1880. From this year
they sold their patent to thomas edison in 1879 he began installing light bulbs in homes and landmarks in England. His house was the first in the world to be lit by a lightbulb and so the first house in the world to be lit by Hydro Electric power. /// In North America, parallel developments were also taking place. On July 24, 1874 a Canadian patent was filed by a Toronto medical electrician named Henry Woodward and a colleague Mathew Evans. They built their lamps with different sizes and shapes of carbon rods held between electrodes in glass cylinders filled with nitrogen. Woodward and Evans attempted to commercialize their lamp, but were unsuccessful. They sold their patent (U.S. patent 0,181,613 ) to Thomas Edison in 1879. /// Thomas Edison began serious research into developing a practical incandescent lamp in 1878. Edison filed his first patent application for “Improvement In Electric Lights” on October 14, 1878
in the beginning |
(U.S. patent 0,214,636 ). After many experiments with platinum and other metal filaments, Edison returned to a carbon filament. Edison continued to improve this design and by Nov 4, 1879, filed for a U.S. patent (granted as U.S. patent 0,223,898 on Jan 27, 1880) for an electric lamp using “a carbon filament or strip coiled and connected ... to platina contact wires.” /// Hiram S. Maxim started a lightbulb company in 1878 to exploit his patents and those of William Sawyer. His United States Electric Lighting Company was the second company, after Edison, to sell practical incandescent electric lamps. They made their first commercial installation of incandescent lamps at the Mercantile Safe Deposit Company in New York City in the fall of 1880, about six months after the Edison incandescent lamps had been installed on the steamer Columbia. In 1881, the Savoy Theatre became the first public building in the world to be lit entirely by electric lights. /// American, Peter Cooper Hewitt patented the mercury vapor lamp in 1901. This was an arc lamp that used mercury vapor enclosed in glass bulb. Mercury vapor lamps were the forerunners to fluorescent lamps. Decades of invention and development had provided the key components of fluorescent lamps: economically manufactured glass tubing, inert gases for filling the tubes, electrical ballasts, long-lasting electrodes, mercury vapor as a source of luminescence, effective means of producing a reliable electrical discharge, and fluorescent coatings that could be energized by ultraviolet light. Friedrich Meyer, Hans Spanner, and Edmund Germer patented a fluorescent lamp in 1927. The technology that led to the development of the LED light, electroluminescence was discovered in 1907, by famous British experimenter H.J. Round, of Marconi Laboratory, but the first practical visible-spectrum (red) LED wasn’t developed until 1962 by Nick Holonyak Jr., while working at General Electric Company. Holonyak is seen as the “father of the light-emitting diode”.
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Flip the Switch As is clear from the history of the subject, artificial lights have taken innumerable Light is a form of energy that can be released by an atom. It is made up of many small particle-like packets that have energy and momentum but no mass. These
forms over the centuries. While all innovations were built on the concepts of their predecessors, there are a few forms that have lasted many decades and whose
particles, called light photons, are the most basic
function is worth highlighting. The incandescant bulb, the fluorescent bulb, and
units of light. Atoms release light photons when their
the LED light are the three main forms of artificial light used today. The first two
electrons become excited. Electrons of different energy
have remained relatively unchanged over the past hundred years. /// Light bulbs
levels occupy different orbitals. Generally speaking, electrons with greater energy move in orbitals farther
have a very simple structure. At the base, they have two metal contacts, which
away from the nucleus. When an atom gains or loses
connect to the ends of an electrical circuit. The metal contacts are attached to
energy, the change is expressed by the movement
two stiff wires, which are attached to a thin metal filament. The filament sits in
of electrons. When something passes energy on to
the middle of the bulb, held up by a glass mount. The wires and the filament are
an atom, an electron may be temporarily boosted to a higher orbital (farther away from the nucleus). The
housed in a glass bulb, which is filled with an inert gas, such as argon. When the
electron only holds this position for a tiny fraction of a
bulb is hooked up to a power supply, an electric current flows from one contact to
second; almost immediately, it is drawn back toward
the other, through the wires and the filament. Electric current in a solid conductor
the nucleus, to its original orbital. As it returns to its original orbital, the electron releases the extra energy in the form of a photon, in some cases a light photon.
is the mass movement of free electrons (electrons that are not tightly bound to an atom) from a negatively charged area to a positively charged area. As the electrons zip along through the filament, they are constantly bumping into the atoms that make up the filament. The energy of each impact vibrates an atom -- in other words, the current heats the atoms up. A thinner conductor heats up more easily than a thicker conductor because it is more resistant to the movement of electrons. /// Bound electrons in the vibrating atoms may be boosted temporarily to a higher energy level. When they fall back to their normal levels, the electrons release the extra energy in the form of photons. Metal atoms release mostly infrared light photons, which are invisible to the human eye. But if they are heated to a high enough level -- around 4,000 degrees Fahrenheit (2,200 degrees C) in the case of a light bulb -- they will emit a good deal of visible light.
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the average u.s. household has 45 lightbulbs installed
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[inside
the bulb] The filament in a light bulb is made of a long, incredibly thin length of tungsten metal. In a typical 60-watt bulb, the tungsten filament is about 6.5 feet (2 meters) long but only one-hundredth of an inch thick. The tungsten is arranged in a double coil in order to fit it all in a small space. That is, the filament is wound up to make one coil, and then this coil is wound to make a larger coil. In a 60-watt bulb, the coil is less than an inch long. Tungsten is used in nearly all incandescent light bulbs because it is an ideal filament material. Light bulbs are manufactured with tungsten filaments because tungsten has an abnormally high melting temperature. But tungsten will catch on fire at such high temperatures, if the conditions are right. /// Combustion is caused by a reaction between two chemicals, which is set off when one of the chemicals has reached its ignition temperature. On Earth, combustion is usually a reaction between oxygen in the atmosphere and some heated material, but other combinations of chemicals will combust as well. The filament in a light bulb is housed in a sealed, oxygen-free chamber to prevent combustion. In the first light bulbs, all the air was sucked out of the bulb to create a near vacuum -- an area with no matter in it. Since there wasn’t any gaseous matter present, the material could not combust. The problem with this approach was the evaporation of the tungsten atoms. At such extreme temperatures, the occasional tungsten atom vibrates enough to detach from the atoms around it and flies into the air. In a vacuum bulb, free tungsten atoms shoot out in a straight line and collect on the inside of the glass. As more and more atoms evaporate, the filament starts to disintegrate, and the glass starts to get darker. This reduces the life of the bulb considerably. Since inert gases normally don’t react with other elements, there is no chance of the elements combining in a combustion reaction.
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[enlightening
fact]
Regular lightbulbs are very inefficient. Only 10% of the energy given off by an incandescant bulb is light, while the other 90% is given off as heat. Did Edison really have such a bright idea?
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INCANDESCENT LIGHT BULB
low pressure iner t gas tungsten filament contact wire
glass mount stem
cap
electr ical contact
42 A collision with a moving particle excites the atom, this causes an electron to jump to a higher energy level. The electron then f alls back to its or ig inal energy level, releasin the extra energy in the for m of a light photon. (online: howstuffworks.com, 2007), section 1, p. 2. 43 Diag ram of an incandescant light bulb. The tungsten filament, glass stem, and contact wires are highlighted. The inside of the bulb is filled with an inert gas, required for the collision of par ticles to take place without causing an explosion.
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[post-incandescent] Cheap, effective and easy-to-use, the light bulb has proved a monstrous success. It is still the most popular method of bringing light indoors and extending the day after sundown. But by all indications, it will eventually give way to more advanced technologies, because it isn’t very efficient. Incandescent light bulbs give off most of their energy in the form of heat-carrying infrared light photons -- only about 10 percent of the light produced is in the visible spectrum. This wastes a lot of electricity. Cool light sources, such as fluorescent lamps and LEDs, don’t waste a lot of energy generating heat -- they give off almost entirely visible light. For this reason, they are slowly edging out the old reliable light bulb. /// The central element in a fluorescent lamp is a sealed glass tube. The tube contains a small bit of mercury and an inert gas, typically argon, kept under very low pressure. The tube also contains a phosphor powder, coated along the inside of the glass. The tube has two electrodes, one at each end, which are wired to an electrical circuit. The electrical circuit, which we’ll examine later, is hooked up to an alternating current (AC) supply. When you turn the lamp on, the current flows through the electrical circuit to the electrodes. The electrons will migrate through the gas from one end of the tube to the other. This energy changes some of the mercury in the tube from a liquid to a gas. As electrons and charged atoms move through the tube, some of them will collide with the gaseous mercury atoms. These collisions excite the atoms, bumping electrons up to higher energy levels. When the electrons return to their original energy level, they release light photons. The wavelength of a photon is determined by the particular electron arrangement in the atom. The electrons in mercury atoms are arranged in such a way that they mostly release light photons in the ultraviolet wavelength range. Our eyes don’t register ultraviolet photons, so this sort of light needs to be converted into visible light to illuminate the lamp. Phosphors are substances that give off light when they are exposed to light. When a photon hits a phosphor atom, one of the phosphor’s
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electrons jumps to a higher energy level and the atom heats up. When the electron falls back to its normal level, it releases energy in the form of another photon. This photon has less energy than the original photon, because some energy was lost as heat. In a fluorescent lamp, the emitted light is in the visible spectrum -- the phosphor gives off white light we can see. /// Conventional incandescent light bulbs also emit a good bit of ultraviolet light, but they do not convert any of it
fluorescent lamps and LEDs give off mostly visible light to visible light. Consequently, a lot of the energy used to power an incandescent lamp is wasted. A fluorescent lamp puts this invisible light to work, and so is more efficient. Overall, a typical fluorescent lamp is four to six times more efficient than an incandescent lamp. People generally use incandescent lights in the home, however, since they emit a “warmer” light -- a light with less blue. /// Today, the most popular fluorescent lamp design is the rapid start lamp. This design works on the same basic principle as the traditional starter lamp, but it doesn’t have a starter switch. Instead, the lamp’s ballast constantly channels current through both electrodes. This current flow is configured so that there is a charge difference between the two electrodes, establishing a voltage across the tube. /// When the fluorescent light is turned on, both electrode filaments heat up very quickly, boiling off electrons, which ionize the gas in the tube. Once the gas is ionized, the voltage difference between the electrodes establishes an electrical arc. The flowing charged particles excite the mercury atoms, triggering the illumination process.
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BULB EFFICEINCY 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 lumens per watt
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40 30 20 10 0 incandescent
white led
compact fluorescent
linear fluorescent
46 The char t shows energy efficiency in the four pr imar y types of light bulbs used today. This is measured in lumens per watt, or the amount of light produced in ter ms of wattage of electr icity used. (wikipedia: lighting efficiency, 2006). 48, 49 A broken CFL. Each bulb contains at least 5 millig rams of mercur y which can become airbor ne, or enter soil or water when broken. Fish are suseptable to mercur y contamination. According to the EPA, nearly all fish and shellfish contain traces of mercur y which can become dangerous to humans when consumed. (www.epa.gov/fishadvisor ies/advice/)
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[enlightening
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Though CFLs are much more energy efficient than incandescents, they contain mercury. Each bulb has 500x the maximum ingestion set by the EPA. where does that mercury go after you throw out a bulb?
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[smaller
and brighter]
A light-emitting diode (LED) is an electronic light source. All the early devices emitted low-intensity red light, but modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infra red wavelengths, with very high brightness. LEDs are based on the semiconductor diode. When the diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes and energy is released in the form of light. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. The LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm2) with integrated optical components to thus shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection. /// LEDs present many advantages over traditional light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size and faster switching. However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than traditional light sources. /// Applications of LEDs are diverse. They are used as low-energy indicators but also for replacements for traditional light sources in general lighting and automotive lighting. The small compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are useful in communications technology. /// Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped, or impregnated, with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers—electrons and holes—then flow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon, and the wavelength of the light emitted. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition which produces no optical emissions, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light.
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LED LIGHT
lens
whisker semiconductor anvil
high–impact plastic
positive (+) negative (-)
51 Diag ram of a light emitting diode, or LED light. This example shows a typical small bulb configuration with the semiconductor and whisker sitting atop the anvil car r ying the positive and the negative charges. The whole system is topped by a lens made of high-impact plastic and translucent to diffuse the light produced by the diode reaction.
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ENERGY USE PER CAPITA
20,000
wa t t s / c a p i t a
10,000
5,000
1,000
45 Energy use in watts per captia per countr y (2003). The figures range from 28000 watts to under 400, from Qatar to Bangladesh. Many Middle Easter n countr ies, Iceland, and the US and Canada had the highest numbers, while most of Central & South Amer ica, Asia, and Afr ica had ver y low watts per person in 2003.
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| off the grid
Off the Grid Solar energy is the radiant light and heat from the Sun that has been harnessed Clearly the way we illuminate our lives today creates numerous problems, both short and long term, and the effects are felt from the bottoms of our oceans to
by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar radiation along with secondary solar resources such as wind and wave power,
the outer reaches of the atmosphere. Thankfully, the
hydroelectricity and biomass account for most of the available renewable energy
possible solutions seem to be just as numerous. The
on Earth. Only a minuscule fraction of the available solar energy is used. /// Solar
obvious solution is to use our free, live-giving source
power technologies provide electrical generation by means of heat engines or
of light, the sun. The sun sends a tremendous amount of power to every square meter of the earth every day.
photovoltaics. Once converted its uses are only limited by human ingenuity. A
Though clouds and shade can reduce the incoming
partial list of solar applications includes space heating and cooling through solar
energy, and there is no incoming power at night, solar
architecture, potable water via distillation and disinfection, daylighting, hot water,
power is a great renewable energy resource. There are two types of solar energy systems: solar-thermal systems collect radiant energy to produce heat, and
thermal energy for cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes. /// Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar
appropriate to this discussion, photovoltaic-cell systems
or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight.
convert direct sunlight into a steam of electrons to
Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels, solar thermal
produce electricity.
collectors, with electrical or mechanical equipment, to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air. /// The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation at the upper atmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. /// The total solar energy absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth’s non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined.
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solar energy has been harnessed by humans since ancient times
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[beyond
the bulb]
The history of lighting is dominated by the use of natural light. The Romans recognized a right to light as early as the 6th century and later English law echoed these judgments with the Prescription Act of 1832. In the 20th century artificial lighting became the main source of interior illumination but restoring daylighting techniques and hybrid solar lighting solutions are ways to reduce
flexible thin-film solar panel systems are becoming cheaper our energy consumption. /// Daylighting systems collect and distribute sunlight to provide interior illumination. This passive technology directly offsets energy use by replacing artificial lighting, and indirectly offsets non-solar energy use by reducing the need for air-conditioning.. Although difficult to quantify, the use of natural lighting also offers physiological and psychological benefits compared to artificial lighting.. Daylighting design implies the careful selection of window types, sizes and orientation; exterior shading devices may be considered as well. Individual features may include sawtooth roofs, clerestory windows, light shelves, skylights and light tubes. They may be incorporated into existing structures, but are most effective when integrated into a solar design package that accounts for factors such as glare, heat flux and time-of-use. When daylighting features are properly implemented they can reduce lighting-related energy requirements by 25%. /// Photovoltaic systems have been around since the 1970s, but they are still mostly expensive, so they’re usually used in off grid applications. However, as new
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materials come on line over the next ten to twenty years, prices should drop and make PV systems competitive in grid-connected applications. Flexible thin-film and organic-plastic solar panels are extremely rugged and adaptable to an enorous variety of applications, from building materials and gadget-holding cases to energy-producing backpacks and laptop bags. /// Photovoltaic (PV) cells are made of special materials called semiconductors such as silicon, which is currently the most commonly used. Basically, when light strikes the cell, a certain portion of it is absorbed within the semiconductor material. This means that the energy of the absorbed light is transferred to the semiconductor. The energy knocks electrons loose, allowing them to flow freely. PV cells also all have one or more electric fields that act to force electrons freed by light absorption to flow in a certain direction. This flow of electrons is a current, and by placing metal contacts on the top and bottom of the PV cell, we can draw that current off to use externally. For example, the current can power a calculator. This current, together with the cell’s voltage (which is a result of its built-in electric field or fields), defines the power (or the wattage) that the solar cell can produce. /// A single solar cell produces a maximum of 0.45 volts and a varying amount of current depending on the size of the cell and the amount of light striking the surface. In a typical yard light, therefore, you need four cells wired in series. In a home light, an average of four cells will produce 1.8 volts and a maximum of about 100 milliamps when in full, bright sunlight. The solar cells are wired directly to the battery through a diode (which prevents the battery’s current from flowing back through the solar cell at night). The battery is a completely standard AA Nicad battery. A battery like this produces about 1.2 volts and can store a maximum of approximately 700 milliamp-hours. During the day, the battery charges, reaching maximum charge except on shorter winter days or when there is heavy overcast. At night, the photoresistor turns on the LED.
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[enlightening
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fact]
Every minute, the earth receives enough energy from the sun to meet the world’s power needs for an entire year. Utilizing free renewable energy is a brilliant idea, no?
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[bright
idea] It is illuminating to see how bulb-centric and grid-based our very global society has become. Clearly the way we light up our world is neither a very efficient nor sustainable system, which creates numerous problems, both short and long term, and the effects are felt from the bottoms of our oceans to the outer reaches of the atmosphere. /// Thankfully, the possible solutions seem to be equally as numerous. The obvious solution is to use our free, live-giving source of light, the sun. The sun sends a tremendous amount of power to each and every square meter of the earth every day. Though clouds and shade can reduce the incoming energy, and there is no incoming power at night, solar power is a great renewable energy resource. There are two types of solar energy systems: solar-thermal systems collect radiant energy to produce heat, and also appropriate to this discussion, photovoltaic-cell systems convert direct sunlight into a steam of electrons to produce electricity. /// Based on this need, Beam modular furniture was developed to provide both light and modern multi-function convenience. Beam is seating that serves a dual purpose as an interior artificial light. Made from a shell of electroluminescent film which projects and diffuses light, and filled with natural memory foam, the product is comfortable, utilitarian, and sustainable. The technology is simple solar power, which allows these lights to function independently of a power source and can be easily moved to a room that needs light. /// The removable solar button can be attached to a window during the day to recharge, and will power the beam modules by night. The solar button also employs the new biomimicry technology of carbon nanotubes, designed to mimic the grip without stickiness power of gecko feet. Microscopic carbon nanotubes that coat the outside of the solar button, grip any window surface without damage or being permanently stuck.
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the next bright idea
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
sunlight
glass cover
front contact
n-type semiconductor p-n junction p-type semiconductor back contact electr ic cur rent
63 The diag ram shows the workings of a typical solar powered photovoltaic cell system. (science.nasa. gov/headlines/y2002/solarcells.htm). 65 Birds-eye views of the beam modular light fur niture in the standard joined set up. They are shown to scale with a human silhouette. The callouts descr ibe the var ious mater ials, functions, and output of the fur niture system.
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SUSTAINABLE MATERIALS
Beam furniture is made from organic plastics, and filled with organic and biodegradable memory foam. It contains no dyes or glue, and is made in our carbon-neutral plant.
SUSTAINABLE SYSTEM
Beam furniture becomes illuminated based on a solar powered system comprised of a photovoltaic cell that powers a rechargable battery which lights up the elecroluminescent skin.
SUSTAINABLE LIFESTYLE
Beam furniture melds seamlessly into a green lifestyle and enables the owner to streamline their home lighting systems in favor of portable, off-the-grid lighting solutions.
SUSTAINABLE POWER
Beam furniture is powered by its patented solar button technology which converts light energy from the sun into electricity to power a rechargable organic plastic battery.
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ELECTROLUMINESCENT FLEXIBLE FILM ILLUMINATING AND RECHARGING TECHNOLOGY
clear conductive layer phosphor layer rear electrode
memor y foam filling
SOLAR BUTTON “sticky” carbon nanotube cover solar photovoltaic cells photoresistor
biodeg radable plastic cover
rechargable batter y controller board
cover fits into beam module
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RECHARGING SOLAR BUTTON
Remove from beam module and stick on inside of window to recharge. After a day, the button can power beam for 12 hours.
65 Birds-eye views of the beam modular light fur niture in the standard joined set up. The top shows all modules on at full br ightness, the second shows them slightly dimmed, and the third view is with the module lights off . 66 View of a cross-section of one module showing the components and function of the mater ial, as well as the break-down of the solar button. The outside layers are compr ised of organic-plastic electroluminescent film, while the inner filling is made from natural essencia memor y foam.
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For More Information BRIGHT IDEAS ONLINE
BRIGHT IDEAS IN PRINT
(1) History of Lighting and Lamps,
(6) Environmental Media Services,
(1) Wind and Solar Power Systems
http://inventors.about.com/od/
http://www.ems.org
by Mukund R. Patel
(7) United States Environmental
(2) WorldChanging: A User’s Guide
(2) How Stuff Works, ‘Are Fluorescent
Protection Agency,
for the 21st Century
Bulbs Really More Efficient Than
http://www.epa.gov/ mercury/
by Alex Steffen, Al Gore, and
lstartinventions/a/lighting.htm
Regular Light Bulbs?’ http://home. howstuffworks.com/question236.htm
Stephan Sagmeister (8) United States Environmental Protection Agency
(3) Photovoltaics: A Design and
(3) New Jersey Department of
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/haz-
Installation Manual
Environmental Protection, Division
waste/id/univwast/index.htm
by Solar Energy International
Environmental Assessment and Risk
(9) National Electrical Manufacturer’s
(4) Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the
Analysis Element, Research Project
Association, National Mercury-Lamp
Way We Make Things
Summary, Release of Mercury From
Recycling Rate,
by William McDonough and
Broken Fluorescent Bulbs, February
www.nema.org/ lamprecycle/
Michael Braungart
(10) Design for the Other 90%: Energy
(5) Electricity And The Light Bulb
http://other90.cooperhewitt.org/
by James Lincoln Collier
of Science Research and Technology,
2004, http://www.state.nj.us/dep/dsr/ research/ mercury-bulbs.pdf (4) Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)
design/?c=energy
Chapter 40 Part 261.24. http://www. gpoaccess.gov/cfr/ retrieve.html (5) United States Environmental Protection Agency, EPA’s Roadmap for Mercury’ July 2006,http://www.epa. gov/mercury/ pdfs/FINAL-MercuryRoadmap-6-29.pdf
(6) Introduction to Light Emitting (11) Worldchanging blog and site
Diode Technology and Applications
http://www.worldchanging.com/
by Gilbert Held
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BRIGHT IDEAS GLOSSARY alternative energy: energy derived
(kinetic energy). Energy has several
power grid: network of powerlines,
from nontraditional sources (e.g., com-
forms, some of which are easily con-
transformers, and associated equip-
pressed natural gas, solar, hydroelec-
vertible and can be changed to another
ment employed in distributing electric-
tric, and wind).
form useful for work. Most of the
ity over a geographical area.
world’s convertible energy comes from biomimicry: imitating designs found
fossil fuels that are burned to produce
renewable energy: energy obtained
in nature to improve efficiency
heat that is then used as a transfer
from sources that are essentially
medium to mechanical or other means
inexhaustible, unlike, for example, the
climate change: a change of climate
in order to accomplish tasks. In the
fossil fuels, of which there is a finite
which is attributed directly or indi-
United States, electrical energy is of-
supply. Renewable sources of energy
rectly to human activity that alters
ten measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh),
include wood, waste, geothermal, wind,
the composition of the atmosphere and
while heat energy is often measured in
photovoltaic, and solar thermal energy.
which is in addition to natural climate
British thermal units. solar energy: direct radiant energy
variability observed over comparable energy efficiency: the ratio of the
from the Sun. It also includes indirect
useful output of services from an
forms of energy such as wind, falling
cradle-to-cradle: reuse or recycling
article of industrial equipment to
or flowing water, ocean thermal gradi-
of everything used to make a product.
the energy use by such an article; for
ents, and biomass, which are produced
example, vehicle miles traveled per
when direct solar energy interact with
gallon of fuel (mpg).
the Earth.
enon in which a material emits light in
photovoltaic (pv): a system that
sustainability: any process or condi-
response to an electric current passed
converts sunlight directly into electric-
tion that can be maintained indefinite-
through it, or to a strong electric field.
ity using cells made of silicon or other
ly without interruption, weakening, or
conductive materials. When sunlight
loss of valued qualities. Sustainability
energy: the capacity for doing work
hits the cells, a chemical reaction oc-
is a necessary and sufficient condi-
as measured by the capability of
curs, resulting in release of electricity.
tion for a population to be at or below
time periods.
electroluminescence: an optical phenomenon and electrical phenom-
doing work (potential energy) or the
carrying capacity. Carrying capacity
conversion of this capability to motion
always embodies sustainability.
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the next bright idea {getting off the grid}