Evaluating the
ethics of
deceptive
food packaging techniques
through the analysis of
the
consumer reaction,
role of designer,
and the
role of marketer
by Emily Hoong
I would like to thank my parents for supporting me in every way possible, Jack Mattock for making me food and green tea during the entire process of research and writing my thesis (and two and half years before that), and my tutor JP Hartnett for the advice during this project.
Abstract
experiments, case studies, theories and primary data collected during an interview with a marketing professional.
This thesis intends to evaluate the ethics of deceptive food
The range of the research has informed the research project’s
packaging techniques. The goal is to show that the ethical
diversity of opinions.
viewpoint on deceptive food packaging techniques vary from person to person due to the different opinions of what consists as ethical. In addition, the thesis will look at three groups that are directly affected or involved in the issue of deceptive food packaging techniques: consumer, designer, and marketer. For and against arguments in each section will further show the varied opinion on whether deceptive food packaging techniques are ethical. This thesis will draw on scientific
Introduction
9
Roles
98
Ethics and Law
21
Role of Marketer
104
Deceptive Food Packaging Techniques
31
Conclusion 113
Greenwashing
38
Choice of Language
60
Bibliography 121
Consumer Reaction
81
Image List 143
Role of Designer
97
Effects of Deceptive Food Packaging Techniques Intention to Repurchase
82
Consumer Awareness
88
Reference List
147
Appendix 175
Introduction
9
Religion is a belief system that guides humans in a certain
consumerism is growing and is all around us (Kinser & Miller, 2012,
direction, “helping us decode the big, big questions of
pp.49-50; Etzioni, 2004, p.387),
life; ‘Who am I? Why am I here?’ and ‘Where am I going
worthwhile. The subject is broad, and there are many areas of
in life?’” (Kinser & Miller, 2012, pp.49-50). Similarly, consumerism
deceptive packaging to explore. However, this investigation
serves the same purpose (Kinser & Miller, 2012, p.50); people give
focuses on how designers and marketers take advantage of
themselves identities, value and purpose when purchasing
food, a primal need, to sell. This thesis attempts to evaluate
certain products (Kinser & Miller, 2012, pp.49-50). People’s desire
the ethics of deceptive food packaging through the analysis
to dress up in different identities has allowed marketers to
of consumer reaction, the role of designer, and the role of
employ methods to appeal to different consumers (Freedman &
marketer.
Jurafsky, 2011, p.46).
For example, more expensive crisps will use
complex language and longer words to appeal to a consumer
This thesis aims to identify the deceptive food packaging
of higher socioeconomic position, or one that desires to be
techniques employed by designers and marketers and argue
(Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.48).
that these techniques can be seen as unethical to some and
Some of the techniques marketers
engage in can be seen as deceptive (Brenkert, 2008, p.142) and as
10
the research on this subject matter is
not others. This is because people of different circumstances;
11
upbringing, culture and, experiences may have varying views
The first chapter borrows ideas from Bodo Schlegelmilch and
of what consists of ethical. This ethical issue will also be
George Brenkert’s books ‘Marketing Ethics: An International
explored from the point of view of designers and marketers,
Perspective’ (1998) and ‘Marketing Ethics’ (2008) respectively.
some of which agree with the practice and others not (Howard,
Their ideas create a foundation for the succeeding chapters.
1994; Garland, 1964; Papanek, 1970, p.234).
This chapter acknowledges that ethics and law are similar,
Research into ethics of
deceptive food packaging techniques will mainly be done
but discusses how they are not the same. It will also present
through secondary research utilising books, case studies,
examples of the basic ethical issues designers and marketers
articles, and journals. Primary research will also be conducted
need to consider during the process of a product’s design,
to evaluate the role of the marketer.
production, distribution, and marketing. This chapter will also argue that consumers share ethical responsibility too.
The thesis is separated into four chapters. Each chapter has a focus that contributes to the outlined hypothesis.
The second chapter will focus on two deceptive food packaging techniques designers and marketers employ: greenwashing (Kealey, 2014) and language (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011).
12
13
Anna Kealey, design writer at Eye Magazine, who argues that
language is a deceptive technique according to sociologist
there are different types of greenwashing, heavily influences
Jean Baudrillard’s and author Judith Williamson’s theories of
the research under the subchapter ‘Greenwashing’. The
sign and language.
subchapter is dedicated to examining the different types of
14
greenwashing at an extensive level through case studies. The
Chapter three examines consequences of deceptive food
second subchapter ‘Choice of Language’ studies Stanford
packaging techniques. This chapter will be divided into
university graduate, Joshua Freedman’s and professor
two sub-chapters. The first one will investigate a case study
of linguistics at Stanford University, Dan Jurafsky’s paper
conducted by researcher Bruce Lammers, who enquired
‘Authenticity in America: Class Distinctions in Potato Chips’
into how deceptive food packaging techniques affects
within Gastronomica, a journal of critical food studies.
intent to re-purchase. The second sub-chapter analyses
Freedman and Jurafsky argue that language is altered in
consumer awareness. Although there is no specific research
four different ways depending on the product’s target
on consumer awareness of deceptive food packaging, author
audience. The four areas are high-falutin, health, distinction
Margaretha Lawrywicz explores consumer awareness of
and, authenticity. This finding is used to argue that choice of
general deceptive packaging in thirteen EU countries, which
15
is still applicable to deceptive food packaging. The second
Brenkert gives insights to how several concepts have
sub-chapter also inspects the ambiguity in food packaging
been erected guiding marketers on how they should fulfil
laws that have allowed designers and marketers to continue
their professional duties. An interview with a marketing
deceptive food packaging practice. Consumer awareness of
professional Subject J, who wishes to remain unnamed, also
deceptive food packaging, the vagueness in food packaging
gives an honest account on his experiences. He has studied
laws as well as how legislations can be improved are gaps in
the subject at university and worked in the industry for
the literature.
several years. Subject J will be commenting on his view of the role of a marketer.
The last chapter, ‘Roles’ is also divided into sub-chapters. The first will debate the role of designer and the second, the
Finally, the conclusion will summarise the thesis by indicating
role of marketers. In the subchapter of ‘Role of Designer’,
main points and come to a verdict on whether deceptive food
the First Things First manifesto and Victor Papanek’s ideas
packaging techniques are an ethical technique.
will be discussed. Criticisms will also be outlined. Although the debate of the role of marketer is not widely published,
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17
18
The design of the thesis is an attempt to continue the ritual of
several pieces of research. The first is greenwashing. The
consuming. The action of opening the thesis in a burger box
colour, style, and typography of the burger box imitate Burger
is consistent with the act of opening a fast food meal. What
King and McDonald’s packaging, a case study in chapter two.
the reader ingests however is the knowledge of deceptive
The illustrations used are a citation of Judith Williamson’s
food packaging. The design attempts to appear as genuine
‘cooking’ theory, also explored in chapter two. Furthermore,
as possible. Therefore it includes elements that can be found
the design references language used in packaging intended
in real food packaging. Taking the nutrition, ingredients
for a particular audience. Freedman and Jurasky established
and notice labels at the back of packaging, the information
that colloquial language is used on crisp packaging targeted
is edited to communicate details of the thesis instead. The
towards the working class. As this thesis is an academic paper,
materials and processes used in the design are not one-offs.
it uses scholarly language. The essay contained in fast food
The cardstock used were made in bulk and the printing was
packaging, which is more associated with the working class as
done by a laser printer. The inexpensive and efficient materials
it is cheap and quick (Brewer, 2015), is a silent protest against the
and processes is a remark on the mass-produced food and
technique. Food is an essentiality for all mankind and should
packaging industry. The design is also a direct reference to
not be organised into socioeconomic classes.
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Ethics and Law
21
Ethics and law are similar, but they are not one. (Schlegelmilch,
will cut down toxic waste is far more ethical even if they both
1998, p.8).
meet minimum legal requirements (Schlegelmilch, 1998, p.8).
Ethics is a belief system directing on how one
should act (Schlegelmilch, 1998, p.7; Halbert & Ingulli, 2011, p.1). On the
What constitutes as ethical is subjective: “The concept of
other hand, law is a societal definition of right and wrong
what is right or wrong, may vary greatly from one person
(Schlegelmilch, 1998, p.8),
to the other” (Schlegelmilch, 1998, p.7). The difference in opinion
Ingulli, 2011, p.1),
a set of rules guiding behaviour (Halbert &
and “is something that we identify as bound
up with courts, legislatures, and the police” (Brenkert, 2008, p.7).
on ethics will naturally lead to the different opinions on the ethics of marketing.
Unlawful behaviour is subjected to punishment by authorities (Halbert & Ingulli, 2011, p.1).
Marketers are guilty of exploiting their financial power over small business partners (Brenkert, 2008, p.2). For example, Coca-
22
Ethical duty is beyond law (Laczniak, 2006; Schlegelmilch, 1998, p.8). For
Cola would insist small retailers not to stock its competitors’
example, one would argue that a company who is investing
products otherwise monetary agreements will be withdrawn
into a system that produces less pollutants compared to
(Brenkert, 2008, p.2).
another business who is unwilling to finance a process which
other cultures enquired by George Ritzer in his article
Another example is the McDonaldization of
23
“The McDonaldization of Society”. The term McDonaldization
developing countries (Brenkert, 2008, p.3). Marketers also provide
refers to “the efficiency, rationality, and uniformity brought by
assurance for quality and confidence in such a complicated
international marketers” (Brenkert, 2008, p.3; Ritzer, 1983). The spread
marketplace (Brenkert, 2008, p.3). Marketing has also helped
of powerful companies to other countries has been criticised
solve issues of leprosy in Sri Lanka through the adoption of
for enforcing their values upon weaker nations and putting
marketing techniques by social marketers in their campaigns
an end to local cultures (Fisher & Lovell, 2009), “skills needed to
(Brenkert, 2008, p.3).
perform a task were carefully delineated and broken down into a series of routine steps that could be taught to all
Designers and marketers are responsible for a number of
workers…rather than belonging to skilled craftspersons”
ethical issues from the start of a product’s life to the end;
(Ritzer, 1983).
design, production, distribution and marketing, that is not subsumed to law (Brenkert, 2008, pp.90-182). During the design
24
In opposition of the critiques of McDonaldization, this
of a product, designers and marketers should consider
process has been proven to positively influence ethical
value durability; “the likelihood that a product will continue
behaviour (Kavali et al., 2001, p.99) and improved the economy of
to maintain its value over time” (Brenkert, 2008, p.92). It will be
25
unrealistic to argue that a marketer’s ethical responsibility
promoting a product designers and marketers need to
is to produce goods that will sustain its worth over time as
consider offensiveness of the advertisement (Brenkert, 2008, p.149).
some items are designed to be in trend with current fashion,
For example, advertisements can be offensive when drawing
some are manufactured at a low cost so the object will break
attention to a women’s sexuality instead of her intelligence
down quicker compared to one of good quality, and some
(Brenkert, 2008, p.149).
goods are replaced by newly advanced technology (Brenkert,
of ethical issues designers and marketers need to consider.
2008, p.92).
The production and distribution of a product can
cause significant environmental impacts (Brenkert, 2008, pp.99-101).
Consumers are also responsible when purchasing a product
For example, the manufacturing of goods and services is
or service. Obvious responsibilities are paying bills for
the largest source of emissions (Brown, 2006) and greenhouse
a service promptly and using purchased products safely
gas emissions caused by importations of products to the
according to warnings on the packaging (Brenkert, 2008, p.176).
UK rose 41% between 1997 and 2007 (Department for Environment
In contrast, as not all unethical marketing techniques are
Food & Rural Affairs, 2016).
acknowledged by law but are subjected to ethics, the same
Marketer’s choice of goods to produce
can impact the environment (Brenkert, 2008). Finally, when
26
These examples are only a small percentage
goes with consumer responsibility (Brenkert, 2008, pp.175-82).
27
An example is ‘knowledge theft’; benefiting from
large-screen televisions after watching the games (Brenkert, 2008,
shopkeepers or sales associate’s knowledge to learn about a
p.180).
particular product but turning to a cheaper alternative such
therefore sanction such acts but policies were not put in place
as the internet or another shop for better value for money.
to lend items to consumers without charge (Brenkert, 2008, p.180),
This act does not break any laws but is morally debatable as
but rather to protect both parties (Business Companion, 2015).
It can be argued that companies set out these rules and
the customer has gained knowledge free of charge.(Brenkert, 2008, pp.179-80).
Another example of ethical issues consumers
are responsible for is to abide the return policy set out by a company (Brenkert, 2008, pp.180-81). An example of return fraud is when a customer returns an item to a company claiming faultiness when in fact the buyer broke it or when the customer buys and returns an item to the store after using for a weekend. This happens often after the Super Bowl; American football championship, when customers returns
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Deceptive Food Packaging Techniques
31
In order to investigate the ethics of deceptive or misleading
of a product different from the experience (Brenkert, 2008, p.142).
food packaging techniques, the definition must be
Deception is subject to the viewer; person-relative. Similar
examined. Although ‘misleading packaging’ does not exist in
to the different views on what is ethical; there is also range
legislations (Lawrynowicz, 2012), author Margaretha Lawrynowicz
of perspectives on deceptiveness, depending on “factual
has surveyed over ten consumer organisations their
understandings, appreciation of humour, or acceptance of
definition and combined the answers into one. Misleading
exaggeration” (Brenkert, 2008, pp.142-43).
packaging “deceives or is likely to deceive the average
32
customer in relation to the quantity, the quality or other main
An example of non-misleading or truthful packaging is the
characteristics of the product, and which causes or is likely to
wrapping in which cigarettes are sold. It carries pictorial
cause the average consumer to make a transactional decision
and editorial warnings of the dangers of smoking. However,
that he would not have taken otherwise” (Lawrynowicz, 2012, p.17).
it must be stated at this point the reason cigarettes are
In modern society, deception is seldom a formation of explicit
covered in such information is due to laws implemented by
lies, but rather incomplete information, ambiguous language,
the EU in 1971 (Howells et al., 2010, p.116). In 2014 it is recorded
and inaccurate affiliations, giving consumers an expectation
that 77 countries are required to print warnings on cigarette
33
packaging (Canadian Cancer Society, 2014, p.2). Some may argue this measure implemented on tobacco packaging is too extreme, as smoking has been proven to be beneficial to the human body. Nicotine demonstrates anti-oestrogen effects (Baron et al., 1990; Sprangler, 1999)
and therefore would be attenuated
to medical conditions related to the excess of oestrogen (Baron, 1996, p.59).
Other positive effects include improving
symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease (Jones et al., 1992) and mental enhancement of non-diseased humans such as memory (Heishman et al., 2010; ED, 1992). (BBC, 2013)
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Another example of honest packaging is Sainsburys basic
Now that examples of truthful food packaging have been
range. Its humble description “a saucy pot, still hits the spot�
identified, the opposite will be discussed under two
creates transparency between the company and the customer
deceptive food packaging techniques: greenwashing,
about what might be wrong about the product yet still
language and labelling.
encourages purchase. On the other hand, the orange colour of their brand colour and packaging can be seen as a form of deceptive packaging. According to colour theory, orange can convey healthiness (Bowkett & Baille, 2010, p.168; Ambrose & Harris, 2011, p.107; Garber et al., 2000, p.21; Kaszubowski, 2004, p.63), 1991),
36
affordability (Large,
and quick (Ambrose, 2011, p.74; Donato, 2014; Mars, 2004, p.266).
(Museum of Design in Plastics, 2007)
37
Greenwashing
Some argue that responses to colour and colour associations can change with what’s in trend, ranges across culture and
The use of colour can either be an advantageous or
age (Singh, 2006, p.786) and is learned through experiences, myths
destructive tool to a business as “people make up their
and language (Calkins, 1895; Dresslar, 1903; Harris, 1908).
minds within 90 seconds of their initial interactions with either people or products. About 62-90 per cent of the assessment is
In contrast, in ‘Cross-cultural Universals of Affective Meaning’,
based on colours alone” (Singh, 2006, p.783). Colour in packaging
Charles Egerton Osgood, William H. May, Murray S. Miron
can aid consumers in distinguishing a brand from another,
argue that colour associations are similar across cultures as
but it can also influence moods and therefore perceptions
“the meaning of colours is learned from universal features
of a brand, also known as colour psychology (Singh, 2006, p.783).
of the environment to which all human beings are exposed”
However there has been no scientific proof as to whether
(Osgood et al., 1975).
colour can influence one’s state of mind, there has only been
Doole’s study “Exploring the Relationships Between Colour
speculation (Singh, 2006, pp.783-84; Grimes & Doole, 1998, p.802).
and International Branding: A Cross Cultural Comparison
The findings in Anthony Grimes and Isabel
of the UK and Taiwan” give support to this argument.
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39
Citizens of UK and Taiwan have very different cultures and
colour green symbolises eco-friendliness (Sundar & Kellaris, 2016, p.2),
were therefore appointed the independent variable of
it is often used in packaging to convey this quality to consumers
the experiment. The “age, wealth, occupation, lifestyle,
(Giedt, 2012).
This marketing tool is known as greenwashing.
social class and level of education” (Grimes & Doole, 1998) was the controlled variable. This made a very fair experiment,
There are multiple definitions of greenwashing. Some focus
however its limitations are the small pool of countries
on the aesthetics of the technique: “Ranging from the use of
examined. Group discussions were held and researchers of
entirely untrue environmental claims to the mere deceptive
the experiment concluded that UK and Taiwan had similar
use of the colour green or the prefix ‘eco’” (Moriarty et al., 2015,
colour-theme associations; “personality of the colours,
p.109).
the emotions associated with them and the nature of the
misleading consumers regarding the environmental practices
products they were seen to represent” (Grimes & Doole, 1998).
of a company of the environmental benefits of a product of
Other definitions are more consumer centric: “the act of
service” (Terrachoice, 2013). While some others are concerned
40
The results of the study have given brands the confidence
with profit: “the practice of making unwarranted or overblown
to practice colour psychology in their brand identity. As the
claims of sustainability or environmental friendliness in an
41
attempt to gain market share” (Dahl, 2010). Although the term greenwashing does not carry a single meaning, most
(Landor, 2015)
definitions address the marketing technique as an unjustified
of the logo, BP attempts to alter the public’s perception,
use of environmental claims.
from the environmentally unfriendly, profit-focused business to showing interest in eco-friendliness (BP, 2000; Ison et al., 2002,
An example of greenwashing is British Petroleum (BP). The
p.8).
In addition to the alterations of the logo, their slogan can
business creates greenhouse gas emissions (Osborne, 2013) in
also be classified as greenwashing. In 2000, BP introduced
the process of producing oil, contributing to environmental
their new slogan ‘Beyond Petroleum’ during the rebrand
issues (Beder, 2002). This has led to negative publicity and in
showing a commitment to be more environmentally friendly
attempt to rectify the situation, BP introduced a new logo
in addition to providing oil (Langley, 2014, p.124).
in 2000, featuring “a stylized sunflower (which) symbolizes
42
the sun’s energy, while the colour green reflects the brand’s
As seen with BP’s case study, greenwashing is not subjected
environmental sensitivity” (Landor, 2015). Through the redesign
to one format. This idea is supported by Anna Kealey’s
43
‘Natural Fantasy’ published by Eye Magazine. The design
conveys sustainability (Kealey, 2014) as it suggests the omittance
writer and educator argues that greenwashing can be
of whitening chemicals (Nassauer, 2012). Although white tissue
classified in many categories: the appropriate use of colour,
paper can now be produced with 100% recycled material
illustration, and style and typography can all contribute to the
without the use of whitening chemicals, Dunkin’ donuts still
illusion of environmental friendliness.
opt for the brown tissue paper for how the colour made customers feel “like they were doing something good for
In spite of the mass use of the colour green to communicate
the environment” (Nassauer, 2012). The use of brown does not
eco-friendliness, there is also an increase in the use of
stop there. Crispin Porter + Bugusky, an advertising agency
“creams, browns, blues and other colours commonly found
redesigned Burger King’s packaging and adopted the use
in nature” (Kealey, 2014). An example of the growing use of
of brown paper bags (Kealey, 2014). Similarly, McDonalds is
other ‘natural colours’ is the conversion of white tissue
returning to brown paper bags after 13 years of using white
paper to brown tissue paper in fast-food chains such as
paper bags (Peterson, 2016).
Dunkin’ Donuts and Burger King (Kealey, 2014). As white can be perceived as “sterile unnaturalness”, the use of brown better
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Illustration also contributes to the marketing technique of greenwashing (Kealey, 2014). It can depict a landscape that is non-existent yet sells “a sense of place” (Kealey, 2014). An example of this is the Green Giant logo; “a fantasy figure who towers above the smooth fields and abstract bushes in a landscape devoid of signs of any agricultural activity” (Kealey, 2014). The Green Giant logo is a visual exhibit of Babra Bender’s hypothesis in “Landscape: Politics and Perspectives”. In her essay, Bender claims that Westerners (McDonald's, 2013)
see landscapes as views; “something seen, usually at a distance. Often beautiful, usually rural, or if not – then with a value judgement attached.” (Bender, 1993). Bender encourages Westerners to comprehend landscapes as something we are involved in; “the landscape is never inert; people engage
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with it, re-work it, appropriate it and contest it.� (Bender, 1993) On the other hand, the landscape in the logo merely serves aesthetics; it does not build a relationship between the location and the food product (Kealey, 2014). Another similar example is Bird’s eye abandonment of the bird silhouette logo, replacing it with an outline resembling an eye encasing a landscape of wheat field (Kealey, 2014). (Giant Green, 2009)
(JKR for Birds Eye, 2011)
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49
Illustration can also give emphasis to certain elements on
Another example is Heinz Tomato
the packaging, creating a biased perception (Kealey, 2014). In
Ketchup. Leading up to the redesign of the
addition to the use of brown paper bags in the re-brand
packaging, Heinz Ketchup was perceived
of Burger King, the burger illustration on it highlights the
as having high levels of sugar and salt, an
healthy components of the illustrated burger; tomatoes,
unhealthy option for children. To lower
lettuce and pickles using bright colours while selecting
negative media exposure, Heinz sought
camouflaging browns for the bun and meat to deflect
help from Vibrant, a branding agency. The
attention (Kealey, 2014).
new redesigned ketchup bottle carries an illustration of a tomato on a vine with the
(Crispin Porter + Bogusky for Burger King, 2010) (Vibrant for Heinz Ketchup, 2009)
slogan ‘grown not made’ wrapped around the bottom of the tomato (Kealey, 2014), insinuating that the ketchup came straight from grown tomatoes without mechanical and industrial involvement.
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Similarly, designers select a particular style and typeface that
Although a product may strive to be viewed as natural, it
evokes an ambience distant to machinery, aiming to seem
should not be confused with nature. Author Judith Williamson
more natural to consumers (Kealey, 2014). Style and typography
in her book ‘Decoding Advertising’ argues that ‘cooking’;
on packaging is a form of ‘appetite appeal’; “engagement
“eliding the natural” (Harvey, 2011) of nature and replacing it with
with the eye and all the senses” (Heller, 1999). Although a
the product is natural but not nature. The difference is “‘The
photographic image of a cheese pizza looks more delicious
natural’ is extracted from nature, and there is an invisible but
and tickles one’s taste buds compared to packaging covered
An example she gives is Birds Eye’s
in words (Heller, 2015), style and typography allows brands
Florida Orange Juice advertisement.
to engage in a more symbolic way (Heller, 2015). The friendly
Williamson explains that the orange
serifs; Archer and Sabon as well as script fonts; Burgues and
is being ‘cooked’; the orange juice
BistroScript create a sense of naturalness to consumers (Kealey,
Birds Eye produces is better than
2014).
orange juice found in nature as the
These hand-lettering typefaces have been selected “to
tone things back to the original handmade” (Grant, 2015).
(Williamson, 1978, p.105)
skin has been peeled and the orange has been juiced; it is readily available.
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impenetrable barrier between the two” (Williamson, 1978, p.122).
result of this study: ‘Six Sins of Greenwashing’. The research
“The advertisement highlights the difference between the
was carried out again in 2009 and the list was extended and
real natural thing and the product but in so doing presents
renamed to ‘Seven sins of greenwashing’. The seven sins of
the product as the real thing” (Harvey, 2011).
greenwashing are: the sin of the hidden trade off – proposing that a product is environmentally friendly based on one
54
Greenwashing also extends to other products. TerraChoice,
characteristic while ignoring others that contribute negatively
a company promoting sustainability based in Canada
to the environment; sin of no proof – claiming that a product
conducted a research in 2007 on 1018 household consumer
is sustainable without evidence; sin of vagueness – using
products that carry environmental claims. The claims were
obscure terms; sin of worshipping false labels – using words
tested against practices in environmental marketing such
or images to suggest certification; sin of irrelevance – making
as International Organisation for Standardisation and the
environmental claims that is unrelated to the product, sin
Canadian Consumer Affairs Branch. TerraChoice found that
of lesser of two evils – using environmental claims such as
all but one made deceptive environmental claims (Terrachoice,
‘green’ to distract the fact that a product usually known for
2007).
its negative impacts on the environment is sustainable; sin of
TerraChoice compiled a list of six misleading claims as a
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fibbing – claims that are untrue (Terrachoice, 2009).
consumers would believe that 100% of their nuts were from
Although the seven sins of greenwashing were created
there. When Ben and Jerry’s stopped using the nuts from the
based on findings on household consumer products, it can
cooperative but still label remained on the packaging, they
still be applied to food packaging. For example, ice-cream
committed the sin of fibbing.
brand Ben and Jerry’s is guilty of the sin of worshipping false labels. Their ice-cream flavour Rainforest Nut Crunch labeled
Ben and Jerry’s Rainforest Nut Crunch is also an example of
“Money from these nuts will help Brazilian forest peoples
cause-related marketing, which can be a seen as a branch of
start a nut-shelling cooperative” (Schwartz, 2003, p.11) on the
greenwashing (Langen et al., 2010). According to Judith Schwartz,
packaging. However, Ben and Jerry’s only used 5% of nuts
cause-related marketing is “a creative strategy that ties a
from the cooperative and eventually stopped using their nuts
company and its products to a social issue or cause with the
altogether and bought nuts from non-Indian Brazilians instead
goal of improving a weak public image and boosting sales,
but still had the claim printed on the packaging (Schwartz, 2003,
while providing benefits to a worthwhile charity” (Schwartz,
p.11).
2003, p.9).
They are also guilty of sin of vagueness as the company
did use nuts from the cooperative but stated it so that
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In a study conducted by research Roper Starch
Worldwide, a marketing consultancy firm, it was found that
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cause-related marketing is a powerful tool as it can affect consumers’ opinion of a brand and therefore purchasing intent (Roper Starch Worldwide, 1993). Companies are employing this creative strategy as it shows that they are socially responsible as well as allowing themselves to connect to a particular audience. For example, a company showing interest in breast cancer awareness will aid them in attracting more female consumers (Schwartz, 2003, p.17).
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Choice of Language
well as how much, for example “light” 30% less fat” (NHS, 2015). Under these laws, Brenkert’s example is not only deceptive
Deception in language comes in many forms including
but also law breaking.
manipulation of terms and units (Lawrynowicz, 2012), misleading health claims (Michail, 2015), and using language to appeal to a
Deception also happens when language is used in a strategic
certain socioeconomic class (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011). Brenkert
method to sell a feeling, an idea of who one might be if they
gives an example of a food product claiming to be ‘lite’ or
buy a certain product, or the illusion of a higher social status
‘light’ where consumers believe that the term refers to the
(Baudrillard, 1998, p.79; Williamson, 1978, p.36).
nutritional value such as being low fat. However, the term
Jean Baudrillard and Judith Williamson. However, as their
alludes to the colour or texture (Brenkert, 2008). Under UK law,
ideas can be complicated to understand, Joshua Freedman
‘light’ or ‘lite’ must only be used when the food product is “at
and Dan Jurafsky’s experiment is a perfect introduction to
least 30% lower in at least one typical value, such as calories
Baudrillard and Williamson’s theories.
This idea is discussed by
or fat, than standard products” (NHS, 2015). Additionally, the label must clearly identify the value that has been reduced as
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61
In their investigation “Authenticity in America: Class
Variations in price is a main factor in
Distinctions in Potato Chip Advertising”, researchers Joshua
this experiment due to the fact that
Freedman and Dan Jurafsky examines how language and
the lower class is generally more frugal
socio-economic class is related using twelve American potato
(Glanz et al., 1998, pp.1123-24),
chips’ packaging as the experiment sample. Potato chips
non-essentials such as snacks (Freedman &
were chosen as the subject of study as both the high class
Jurafsky, 2011, p.48; Wakefield & Inman, 2003, p.205).
and working class consume them, allowing the relationship between class distinctions and language to be easily studied (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.47).
The sample of twelve was easily
(Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011)
particularly for
Through this experiment, Freedman and Jurafasky hopes to find difference in language based on price of potato chips.
obtainable in nearby supermarkets, contained basic flavours,
Language is investigated in relation to
and is in standard sizes (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.48), which
four topics: high-falutin (pretentious),
composed the control of the experiment. In the sample of
health, distinction, and authenticity.
twelve, six were more expensive and six were more affordable, based on price per ounce (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.48).
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63
were not included in this experiment. (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.53).
High-falutin (Pretentious)
The numerical value of the Flesch-Kindcaid readability test is a Education is a factor determining one’s socioeconomic
result of the “weighted value of the length of each sentence in
class (Considine & Zappala, 2002, p.92; Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.92) low
the text (longer sentences tend to be more complex) and the
socioeconomic class uses less complex language and high
length of each word in the text in syllables (longer words tend
socioeconomic class uses more complex language (Huls & Mond,
to be harder to read)”. The lower the numerical value, the more
1992, p.111; Hughes & Tizard, 1984, p.114).
complex the language (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.48).
If marketers wanted to appeal
to a particular class, Freedman and Jurafsky predicted they
64
would do so by selecting the complexity of the language
Jurafsky and Freedman found that language on more expensive
(Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.48).
potato chips packaging is tenth to eleventh grade level while
To test this hypothesis, Freedman
and Jurafsky used the Flesch-Kindcaid readability test on the
the inexpensive chips are eighth grade level. In addition,
twelve samples. The Flesch-Kindcaid readability test measures
description on inexpensive potato chip packaging uses fewer,
the complexity of the text. Only sentences are applicable to
shorter, and more common words in comparison to description
this test, therefore headings and single words such as ‘calories’
on expensive potato chip packaging (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.48).
65
class consists of cigarettes and fast food (Brewer, 2015). However,
Health
it has been theorised that people of high socioeconomic class Another factor distinguishing the high socioeconomic class
enjoy life better and therefore are more health conscious in the
from the low socioeconomic class is health; “as one rises in the
hopes of elongating life as long as possible. On the other hand,
social hierarchy, the proportion spent on heavy, fatty, fattening
for the lower socioeconomic class, cigarettes and fast food are
foods which are also cheap…declines, whereas an increasing
commodities that make life more enjoyable (Brewer, 2015).
proportion is spent on leaner, lighter (more digestible), non-
66
fattening foods” (Bourdieu, 1979). It has also been found that people
Even though potato chips are not considered healthy, Freedman
in low socioeconomic class are subject to higher mortality rates
and Jurafsky found that expensive potato chips refer to health
(Berkman & Epstein, 2008; Mackenbach et al., 2008).
in the description six times more than inexpensive potato chips
It is often proposed that
low socioeconomic people are less healthy due to the financial
(Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.49).
inability to lead a healthy lifestyle (Brewer, 2015). In the past, only
actually comprised trans fat, but all of the expensive potato
None of the twelve potato chips
wealthy people had the financial means for healthy food such
chips draw attention to the fact while only two out of the six
as fruits (Bourdieu, 1979). In the modern day, diets of the working
inexpensive potato chips mention it (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.49).
67
Distinction
professor Guy Cook who states that organic food products often advertise what they are not, in attempt to criticise non-
Another method of differentiating higher socioeconomic
organic farming (Cook, 2007); negation is used to “emphasize
class from lower socioeconomic class in food packaging
bad qualities that a chip does not have, implicating that other
is through distinction. Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu in his
brands have this bad quality.” (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.49).
book ‘Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of
68
Taste” in 1979 documented taste in food, music, film, and
To test whether marketers use distinction to appeal to
art between the upper class and lower class (Bourdieu, 1979).
the upper class, Freedman and Jurafsky investigated
Bourdieu found while the lower class enjoyed “traditional
comparative vocabulary; the use of suffixes and superlative
hearty meals” (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.49), the higher class
words, mention of quality or ingredient in comparison to
preferred unusual, newly introduced flavours (Freedman & Jurafsky,
other brands as well as linguistic negation in the potato
2011, p.49).
chips descriptions (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.49), the use of ‘no’,
Additionally, Bourdieu suggests that the upper class
maintain their status by validating certain tastes and rejecting
‘never’, and ‘don’t’. Examples of negation used in potato
others (Bourdieu, 1979, p.56). Bourdieu’s theory is supported by
chips descriptions are “never fried” or “we don’t wash out
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the natural potato flavour” (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.50). The
Authenticity
results show that expensive potato chips employ distinction five times more than inexpensive chips. Furthermore,
Authenticity in relation to socioeconomic class has been
linguistic negation is used fourteen times more in expensive
largely debated. Author Michael Beverland examined twenty
potato chips description (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, pp.49-50). This is
luxury wineries and interviewed thirty wine consumers
perhaps the most surprising finding as linguistics professors
on ‘authenticity’. He found that “heritage and pedigree,
Christopher Potts and Michael Israel argue that the use
stylistic consistency, quality commitments, relationship to
of negation can provoke negative feelings (Potts, 2011; Israel,
place, method of production, and downplaying commercial
2004)
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and “is more likely to be used when the context being
motives” all attribute to ‘authenticity’ in upscale wine (Beverland,
discussed includes repudiation, rejection, deprivation, and
2006).
evil” (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.50). As brands usually attempt to
Trappist beers (Beverland et al., 2008). Furthermore, authors
Similar findings were documented when investigating
avoid negative feelings, the excessive use of negation in their
Josée Johnston and Shyon Baumann examined language in
descriptions exhibits strong desire to differentiate their brand
magazines that feature luxurious food and “these magazines
from competitors (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.50).
framed food as high status by emphasising authenticity.”
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(Johnston & Bauman, 2007).
high socioeconomic class; “when we take a closer look at
linking it to a place, simplicity; handmade rather than the
many supposedly ‘authentic’ activities, such as loft-living,
involvement of mechanics, history, natural ingredients, origins
ecotourism, or the slow-food movement, we find a disguised
of the ingredients and cooking processes (Johnston & Bauman,
form of status-seeking.” (Potter, 2010).
2007).
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Upscale food is ‘authentic’ when
For instance in 2006, supermarket chain Marks and
Spencer, known for its middle to upper class target audience
Although the work of Beverland, and Johnston and Baumann
marketed their Scottish Salmon by connecting it to a place
found that history and location of a product is a feature of
and naming it ‘Lockmuir Salmon’ (Kealey, 2014). ‘Lockmuir’ does
‘authenticity’ in upper class food, it could also be a feature of
not exist but was chosen as Marks and Spencer fish expert
the working class (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.51). Marjorie DeVault,
Andrew Mallinson claimed that ‘Lockmuir’ had the most
author of ‘Feeding the Family: The Social Organisation of
“Scottish resonance” (Kealey, 2014). Authenticity is also extended
Caring as Gendered Work’ and Bourdieu documented that
to upscale products (Gilmore & Pine, 2007) such as “denim or
the working class diet consisted of traditional food. This
Prouvé chairs” (Green, 2010). All of this supports author Andrew
proposes that the lower class identity “is more likely to be
Potter’s hypothesis that the authenticity is a feature of the
based around family and tradition” (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011,
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p.51).
The differences in findings suggest that ‘authenticity’
on the other hand was observed more on inexpensive
encompasses many meanings; the definition of ‘authenticity’
packaging. (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.52). The results prove the
to the upper class differs from the working class’ definition
hypothesis right; authenticity appears in both expensive and
(Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.51).
inexpensive potato chips packaging. However, the difference lies between the definitions of ‘authenticity’. The higher
To test this hypothesis, Freedman and Jurafsky tested the
socioeconomic class defines ‘authenticity’ as natural and
descriptions of the twelve samples against four classifications
avoiding preservatives (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.52). Although the
of authenticity: naturalness, ingredients and process,
inexpensive chips also lack preservatives, it is only mentioned
historicity, and locality (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.51).
on the expensive packaging, highlighting that naturalness is a consideration for the upper class (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.52).
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It was found that naturalness and ingredients was mentioned
On the other hand, the lower socioeconomic class defines
two and a half times more on expensive packaging, and
‘authenticity’ as having a history and has a connection to a
processes was mentioned three times more on expensive
location (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.52). This finding is in contrast
packaging (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.52). Historicity and locality
to Beverland’s, and Johnston and Baumann’s work, supports
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DeVault’s work, and Freedman and Jurafsky’s hypothesis that
of differentiated goods and signs/objects today constitute
historicity is associated with the working class’ identity and
our language, our code, the code by which the entire society
meaning of ‘authenticity’ (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.52). However,
communicate and converses” (Baudrillard, 1998, p.79). Baudlliard
unlike food and wine, potato chips are contemporary food with
argues that what we purchase is a piece of ‘language’,
little history attached to it. Therefore, history in food and wine
a reflection on one’s deepest desires (Todd, 2012). Judith
differs from history in potato chips (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.51).
Williamson also discusses this issue, arguing that products
History in potato chips instead is concerned with “empowered
can be generators of feelings; a product carries a referent
non-ethnic Americans running family businesses whom the
emotion in which consumers are able to feel themselves
consumer is intended to identify” (Freedman & Jurafsky, 2011, p.52).
when purchasing the item (Williamson, 1978, p.36). According to Baudrillard’s and Williamson’s theory, this means language on
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Although Freedman and Jurafsky’s experiment contained a
packaging can be deceitful as it makes people think they are
small sample size, it nonetheless shows that packaging does
buying their way into a socioeconomic class. In an interview
not simply contain a product (Heller, 2015). This idea is supported
with upscale supermarket Marks and Spencer shoppers, a
by Baudrillard: “The circulation, purchase, sale, appropriation
woman revealed, “this is a place for luxuries, not the staples.
77
But it makes you feel good to shop here. You feel richer than you probably are" (Jeffries, 2004). However, Williamson argues that “you do not simply buy the product in order to become a part of the group it represents; you must feel that you already, naturally belong to that group and therefore will buy it� (Williamson, 1978, p.47).
78
Consumer Reaction
81
Effects of Deceptive Food Packaging – Intention to Repurchase
information (Lammers, 2000). For example, consumers who are highly motivated contemplate on the central information of
The Elaboration Likelihood model is a theory developed by
a product questioning ‘how good is the quality of a product
professors Richard E Petty and John Cacioppo. The model
and how long will they last?’ in comparison to consumers
suggests that there are two methods of persuasion: central
who are less motivated; buying a product based on which
route and peripheral route (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986, p.191). Central
one looks appealing or which one a friend recommends. A
route is defined as “thoughtful (though sometimes biased)
person’s motivation is based on applicability to the individual
consideration of arguments central to the issue” (Petty &
(Petty et al., 1983).
Cacioppo, 1986, p.191)
and describes consumers who are “highly
motivated and...engage in elaborative processing of central
Researcher Bruce Lammer used the Elaboration Likelihood
information” (Lammers, 2000, p.456). On the other hand, peripheral
theory and Petty, Cacioppo and Schumann’s experiment
is “based on affective associations or simple inferences”
to suggest that highly involved consumers would be less
(Petty & Cacioppo, 1986, p.191),
affected to deceptive packaging than low involvement
relating to consumers who are less
motivated and interpret additional information to the central
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consumers (Lammers, 2000, p.547).
83
There are various definitions of ‘involvement’ (Petty et al., 1983,
personal relevance and consequences or elicit more personal
p.136).
connections than low involvement messages” (Petty et al., 1983, p.136).
Professors of psychology, Virginia Andreoli and Stephen
Worchel interpreted the term as how the medium can affect
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one’s involvement (Andreoli & Worchel, 1978, pp.59-70). Andreoli
To test Lammer’s hypothesis that highly involved consumers
and Worcehl found that the more ‘live’ the communication,
are more likely to discount deceptive packaging, he conducted
the more involved the subjects (Andreoli & Worchel, 1978, p.68).For
an experiment and divided his participants into two groups.
example, television is the most ‘live’ and therefore elicited
Each group were either shown a non-deceptive packaging or a
more involvement compared to written presentation (Andreoli
deceptive one that stated “NEW, LARGER PACK” and claimed
& Worchel, 1978).
to have more M&Ms when in fact it had fewer quantities. Once
On the other hand, marketing professor Lynne
Zaichkowsky invented a system; Personal Involvement
exposed to either one of the packaging, the subjects were
Inventory to allow consumers to categorise themselves as
required to fill out a Personal Involvement Inventory. Both
high or low involvement consumers. Although the meaning
groups were then shown the other packaging and were aware
of ‘involvement’ ranges, there is significant amount of
of the deceptive and the non-deceptive packaging. Lammer’s
agreement that “high involvement messages have greater
experiment concluded that deceptive packaging is unimportant
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to high involvement consumers as they are more concerned with “central inherent virtues e.g. taste of the product� (Lammers, 2000, p.547).
Results also show that low involvement
consumers are less likely to disregard the deception. As most purchases are made under low-involvement (Hawkins & J, 1992; Kassarjian, 1981),
companies using deceptive packaging
techniques may need to re-consider marketing methods (Lammers, 2000, p.550),
practices.
86
if consumers are made aware of these
Consumer Awareness
deceptive packaging techniques that relates to the quantity and quality of the product (Lawrynowicz, 2012, p.19).
There is a literature gap on consumer awareness on
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deceptive food packaging. However, Lawrynowicz conducted
To test the consumer awareness of the obvious deceptive
a study ‘Misleading Packaging Practices’ on general
packaging that exists, Lawrynowicz investigated the number
packaging in thirteen EU countries: Bulgaria; Cyprus; Czech
of complaints to authorities, analysed questionnaires, articles,
Republic; France; Germany; Greece; Hungary; Ireland; Italy;
newspapers, social media, and forums (Lawrynowicz, 2012). As
Lithuania; Poland; Portugal and the United Kingdom. All
none of the enquired countries organised surveys to address
countries commit specific misleading practices such as slack
consumer awareness to deceptive packaging, Lawrynowicz
fill in Ireland or depicting many products in a packaging
created her own methodology to gain empirical information.
but actually only containing one item in Greece, apart from
She designed a survey with the requirements of interviewing
France and the United Kingdom where there is little to
at least two consumer organisations in each country.
no analysis and press coverage of this issue respectively
However, as some organisations did not respond or only one
(Lawrynowicz, 2012, pp.91, 116).
representative in the country was available, the results of the
The thirteen countries mostly use
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90
questionnaire is based on eight out of the thirteen countries.
Poland, France and the United Kingdom are inconclusive. The
The survey directed consumer organisations to rate consumer
national reporter for Poland could not give a clear answer due
awareness towards deceptive packaging; 1 being unaware and
to poor consumer activity such as the low numbers of filed
4 being aware. Based only on the survey results, consumers
complaints (ARC Rynek i Opinia, 2009). Even though, there have been
are generally aware of the situation (Lawrynowicz, 2012, pp.21, 26).
campaigns addressing deceptive packaging (Pro-Test, 2010), there
Lawrynowicz also analysed national reports which consists
is little evidence of participation (Lawrynowicz, 2012, p.29). France and
of “analysis of press releases, internet websites, actions of
the United Kingdom could not come to a conclusion as there
consumer associations, consumer campaigns, political initiatives,
was confusion between whether consumers were unaware of
related surveys, case law and administrative decisions�
the action or deceptive packaging was not regarded as an issue
(Lawrynowicz, 2012, p.29).
(Lawrynowicz, 2012, p.29).
Five countries: Cyprus, Czech Republic,
As neither of the mentioned methodologies
Greece, Hungary and Italy concluded that consumers are aware
address all thirteen countries and level of awareness, methods
of deceptive packaging while another five countries: Bulgaria,
of gaining data on consumer awareness can be improved by
Germany, Ireland, Lithuania, Portugal deduced that consumers
countries designing surveys aimed at investigating consumer
are not aware of this issue. The remaining three countries:
awareness towards deceptive packaging (Lawrynowicz, 2012, p.25).
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Even though there is awareness of deceptive packaging,
being recognised as an issue (Lawrynowicz, 2012, p.37). As a result,
despite not knowing to what extent, all countries observed
consumers are forced to accept this practice, settle it with the
little to no complaints about deceptive packaging from
company privately or switch brands (Lawrynowicz, 2012, p.37). That
customers to consumer organisations or the authority
being said, it has been observed that consumers generally do
(Lawrynowicz, 2012, p.36).
not switch brands for the best deals (Lawrynowicz, 2012, p.40).
However, in three countries: Bulgaria,
Germany and the Czech Republic, consumers complain about deceptive packaging regularly and the number of
As Lawrynowicz has found, consumers would rather rely
complaints is growing each year (Lawrynowicz, 2012, p.36). The lack
on authorities to enforce deceptive food packaging laws
of complaints is due to “lack of awareness of their rights,
(Lawrynowicz, 2012, p.25).
fear of the sellers’ reaction and the relative benefit to gain
in food packaging laws must be addressed to refine food
from possibly costly and lengthy court proceedings�, and
packaging laws and make them more clear. This will allow
the expectation that public authorities will enforce the law
authorities to take legal action when necessary.
(Lawrynowicz, 2012, pp.25, 37).
In order to encourage this, ambiguity
It has also been mentioned that the
lack of complaints may be because deceptive packaging not
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93
In 2010, the Non-GMO Project, a non-profit organisation
(CHEM Trust, 2016).
In 2014, Food Packaging Forum published a
created the non-GMO label (Non-GMO Project, 2016). According to
study: “Food contact substances and chemicals of concern:
the EU law, food containing 0.9% or more genetically modified
A comparison of inventories” which discovered 175 high-risk
organisms (GMO) must be labelled (Gov.uk, 2016). However, the
chemicals can be found in food packaging materials (Geueke et
non-GMO label marks the product as comprising less than
al., 2014).
0.1% of GM (Michail, 2015). Managing director of the German
European Commission to implement tougher laws, however
Association of GM-free food, Alexander Hisstings explains
CHEM Trust’s requests have been ignored (Warhurst, 2016).
Since then, CHEM Trust has been battling against the
“the necessity comes from the loopholes in the current EU labelling regime for GM food and feed. Animal products like meat, milk and eggs do not have to be labelled as GM, even if the animals have been fed on a GM diet” (Michail, 2015). Another organisation committed to tightening food packaging laws in the EU is CHEM Trust, a registered charity aiming to prevent synthetic chemical contact with humans and animals
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Roles
97
Role of Designer:
examples of how designers can be more socially responsible, The most famous campaign questioning the role of a designer is perhaps Ken Garland’s ‘First Things First Manifesto’ in 1964 and later updated in 2000 by Adbusters, a non-profit magazine. The manifesto encourages designers to use their skills to progress society rather than marketing and branding products. Garland gives
98
(Adbusters, 1996)
such as designing “signs for street and buildings, books and periodicals, catalogues, instructional manuals” (Garland, 1964).
Adbusters was more hands-on with their beliefs by
subverting advertisements, also known as culture jamming; “an organized, social activist effort that aims to counter the bombardment of consumption-oriented messages in the mass media” (Handelman & Kozinets, 2007). The First Things First manifesto is aligned with Victor Papanek’s ideas. In his book ‘Design for the Real World’ in 1970, Papanek determined six design disciplines in need of precedence over design for consumerism. One of the six disciplines was ‘Design for the third world’. Papanek argued
99
that three billion people are in need of basic needs such as
1994; McCoy, 2003).
light and roads (Papanek, 1970, p.234). Although new technology,
that value-free designs do not exist “all design solutions carry
materials and processes have advanced since the invention
a bias, either explicit or implicit” (McCoy, 2003). Art director
of the electric light bulb by Thomas Edison, “there are
Veronique Vienne acknowledges that most graphic designers
more people without electric power today than the total
are oblivious to their clients’ intentions “designers usually lack
population of earth before electricity was generally used”
expertise to assess the ethical value of their clients’ integrity
(Papanek, 1970, p.234).
on faith” (Vienne, 1997). Although a graphic designer’s job is
Additionally, 84% of the world’s land is
Graphic designer Katherine McCoy argues
road-less. Regions without roads have difficulty seeking help
to create aesthetically pleasing deliverables, "sometimes
when “disasters, famines or water shortages” occur (Papanek,
we unwittingly put makeup over melanoma” (Vienne, 1997).
1970, p.235)
Therefore it is a designer’s responsibility to carefully weigh the consequences (Howard, 1994).
Opposing arguments to Garland and Papanek’s suggestions
100
are that designers are not politicians (Howard, 1994). Although
Another criticism Papanek has received is on his naivety
this may be the case, designs have social implications (Howard,
about design in the modern world (Whiteley, 1993, p.104). However,
101
he defends himself by stating that the six disciplines are
Thomas Watson Jr., second president of IBM once said,
simply suggestions for designers who want to contribute
“good design is good business” (Watson, 1973). It was
to society in the midst of the consumerism age. He also
believed that beautiful designs could help businesses
proposes that designers working in the consumerism
grow. The belief still stands strong forty years later. So
industry can donate one tenth of their salary or time to
strong that design decisions are now the marketing team’s
social design (Whiteley, 1993, p.104). Author Nancy Bernard also
responsibility (Glaser, 1997, p.253).
suggests how ethics can work alongside consumerism: “our responsibility is to make the communication 200% real” (Bernard, 2003, p.88).
She argues that designers and marketers
have no influence over consumers until they are interested in and actively buying a product, “the rest of the time they’re (designers and marketers) a kind of chattering background tappity-tap…” (Bernard, 2003, p.88).
102
103
Role of Marketer:
that research methods conducted by marketers such as focus groups, data collection and advertising itself was used
Now that the responsibility of design is the marketer’s
in other non-business ways (Brenkert, 2008, p.10). Professors of
(Glaser, 1997, p.254),
marketing Philip Kotler and Sidney Levy gave examples of
it is important to fully understand their
duties in order to examine the role of a marketer. However,
the police department, museums, public schools, nations and
their job descriptions are not clear-cut. Marketing, only
anti-cigarette companies who carry out business strategies
being recognised as a subject in the early twentieth century,
(Kotler & Levy, 1969).
should not surprise one that it carries multiple definitions
AMA released a new definition of marketing in 1985 that
(Brenkert, 2008, p.9).
concerned transactions not bound to goods and money:
In 1960, American Marketing Association
In response to the criticisms and justifications,
(AMA) attempted to define marketing: “the performance of
“the process of planning and executing the conception,
business activities that direct the flow of goods and services
pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods and
from producers to consumers” (American Marketing Association,
services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and
2008).
organizational objectives” (American Marketing Association, 2008).
‘Business’ in the definition was too specific and soon
received criticism from many marketers. It was pointed out
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105
Since then, the definition changed twice and the process of
“If consumers want cigarettes, alcohol, junk food and so
defining marketing will be ongoing (Brenkert, 2008, p.9).
on, this is their business. Marketing is a responsive tool, not an educational tool” (Kotler, 1987, pp.285-86). TMC received
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The many definitions of marketing can lead to confusion of
disapprovals from many. One of the criticisms was that the
the role of marketer. In response to this, guidelines were
concept is entirely focused on profitability and has no interest
created to help marketers understand how they can fulfil
in being ethically responsibly. Additionally, the concept
their professional duties. In 1950, American consultant Peter
does not provide consumers their needs, which is important
Drucker created The Marketing Concept (TMC). Drucker
because “the customer does not always know what is
argued that the only way to profitability is to be ‘customer
‘needed’” (Houston, 1986, p.86). For example, consumers may not
driven’; to satisfy customers. Many businesses have selected
be aware of full facts and their knowledge may be incomplete
this concept to be their business model. Burger King’s slogan
such as being unaware of what is technologically possible and
“have it your way” is one of many examples. TMC urges
how certain products may impact society or the environment.
marketers to satisfy wants of customers instead of needs.
Therefore companies should not simply accept “expressed
Kotler explains The Marketing Concept in a few words:
needs and wants of customers” (Houston, 1986, p.85).
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The Societal Marketing Concept (SMC) is a response to the
elected officials. However Brenkert argues that “marketers and
outlined criticisms. The main change is that the SMC added
business have significant input into what society does” and
“community (and customer) well-being, fairness, and lack of
therefore this argument is invalid (Brenkert, 2008, p.52).
harm” (Brenkert, 2008, p.51) to the usual profit-orientated concept.
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One of the issues of SMC is that it is still too much interested
The latest improvement of TMC and SMC is the Integrated
in profitability; it “at no stage denies that the basic goal
Marketing Concept (IMC). IMC encourages integration of
of a business enterprise is to ensure its long-term survival
“various aspects of marketing in a strategic manner that provides
and profitability” (Abratt & Sacks, 1989). This can cause difficulty
the greatest value to those they target while making allowance
of making ethical decisions (Brenkert, 2008, p.52), because what
for the background conditions within which they operate”
is ethical may limit profitability. Some are opposed to the
(Brenkert, 2008, p.53).
SMC as they believe that marketing firms making verdicts
to improvement. However, it is the most ethical approach to
on community and customer well-being can “usurp the
marketing so far as it is not singularly interested in financial
democratic process” (Brenkert, 2008, p.52). If society would like
gain, although profitability is one of the criteria of a business as
companies to be more ethical, they would do it through
companies cease to survive without it (Brenkert, 2008, p.57).
Like the other concepts, the IMC is subject
109
The argument that even ethical companies have profitability
a position to do so: “that’s something for the CEO to worry
in mind has been confirmed with an interview with a
about” (Subject J, 2017). This has led to the question of whether
marketing professional, Subject J who wishes to remain
money trumps ethics as Subject J could surely resign if his
unnamed (Appendix A). Subject J has studied Marketing at
ethical values were not aligned with the companies’ and
university and has multiple years of marketing experience
clients’. He replies, “unfortunately yes” (Subject J, 2017). Subject
in the fields of pharmaceuticals and baby products. He
J explains that he is not in the position to quit because there
argues that companies who are ethical do so “as a selling
is a big financial risk and furthermore one would most likely
point rather than having a belief that that’s the best way
only find out whom they would be working with after taking
to be a good human being” (Subject J, 2017). When asked
up a job. Finally, when asked what the role of the marketer is,
whether a marketing employee like himself has the capacity
Subject J gave a candid response: “the role of a marketer is
persuade his client’s to be more ethical by omitting deceptive
varied, but I think one of the most important things is to sell
techniques such as greenwashing, Subject J believes he has
things. It’s to make things look good and to make money out
no power as an individual. He argues that his colleagues and
of them” (Subject J, 2017).
clients have opinions on what is ethical too and he is not in
110
111
Conclusion
113
The study of this thesis ‘Evaluating the Ethics of Deceptive
shared with the consumer. However, what consists as ethical
Food Packaging Techniques Through the Analysis of
is subjective. The second chapter discussed the meaning
Consumer Reaction, the Role of Designer, and the Role of
of deceptive food packaging techniques. A dictionary
Marketer’ was thoroughly examined through five chapters.
definition does not exist but it generally constitutes the following: “deceives or is likely to deceive the average
In order to answer the research question, the meaning of
customer in relation to the quantity, the quality or other main
‘ethical’ and what constitutes as deceptive food packaging
characteristics of the product, and which causes or is likely to
techniques needed to be identified. The first two chapters
cause the average consumer to make a transactional decision
were committed to this task. The first chapter established the
that he would not have taken otherwise” (Lawrynowicz, 2012,
difference between ethics and law, and presented examples
p.17).
of where designers and marketers are ethically responsible
honest packaging have been included.
To make this definition a bit more clear, case studies of
for: design, production, distribution, and marketing
114
regardless of whether these situations are law breaking.
The third chapter discussed what consists of dishonest
It also acknowledges that the ethical responsibilities are
packaging by identifying two deceptive food packaging
115
techniques: greenwashing and language. Kealey argues that
adopt deceptive packaging techniques might need to review their
greenwashing takes many forms (Kealey, 2014) and this has been
unethical strategies (Lammers, 2000, p.550). Lawrynowicz’s investigation
proven through various case studies. It has also been proven that
into consumer awareness of deceptive packaging found that there
Language is deceptive, when it is used tactically to sell an idea
are very little complaints to authorities on deceptive packaging
of what one might become if they purchase the product using
although the numbers of complaints are growing in some
Freedman and Jurafsky’s experiment, Boudieu’s theories, and
countries (Lawrynowicz, 2012, p.36). Main reasons for lack of complaints
Williamson’s theories.
were: unawareness of rights, reaction of company, lengthy court procedures, and the expectations that authorities would
116
The fourth chapter investigated consumer reaction to deceptive
enforce laws (Lawrynowicz, 2012, pp.25, 36, 37). The loopholes of the law
food packaging. Lammers’ experiment’s results show that
were also briefly discussed in the fourth chapter. More literature
highly involved consumers disregard deceptive food packaging
documenting consumer awareness of deceptive food packaging
techniques more than lowly involved consumers (Lammers, 2000, p.547).
and knowledge of loopholes in the law could have validated
However, most transactions occur under low-involvement (Hawkins &
whether deceptive food packaging techniques is seen as ethical in
J, 1992; Kassarjian, 1981),
a consumer’s point of view.
suggesting that designers and marketers who
117
The fifth chapter outlined opposing arguments on the role of
Consumerism is evidently a big part of today’s society and
designer and marketer. The extensive research conducted in
is continuously growing. However, there is no doubt that
this chapter does not suggest a united decision of whether
there are not enough social design projects. Papanek’s
deceptive food packaging techniques are ethical. This is due
suggestions of donating a tiny percentage of one’s salary and
to the difference in opinion about what consists as ethical.
time to social design projects is one of the very few practical
Additionally, the rise of consumerism and money-hungry
methods of how designers and marketers can be more ethical
society adds complexity to the question. There are a lot of
in the ever-growing consumerist civilisation.
theories, such as the First Things First manifesto, Papanek’s suggestions, and the SMC encouraging ethically responsible design. However, the interview conducted with Subject J suggests that they are not practical. This is due to money being a significant factor that sways marketers, and presumably designers away from ethical duties such as honesty.
118
119
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Appendix
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Appendix A
entirely present the organisation in a completely truthful way. Unless you’re a marketer involved in the branding and the
Are you aware of greenwashing and what are your personal
developing the corporate identity, which some agencies will
and professional opinions on it?
be involved with, it’s not your place to comment and you simply have to create the advertising piece or communication
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Yes, I am aware of it. My personal opinion trying to separate
the way the client desires it. I think that marketers have a
myself entirely from my professional opinion is that it is
responsibility to present the company, their products and
unfortunate. I would rather companies were honest and
services in an honest and truthful way but you quickly realise
actually did care for the environment and create products
working in the industry that there is a lot of pressure to be
which are good for you and good for the people that made
focusing on bottom line (money). I think the best way to
them. Professionally, working at a marketing agency, it kind
combat that pressure is for consumers to vote with their
of comes as part of the job to some extent. There are times
money. When it starts affecting the bottom line, that’s when
when a client would include a certain bit of copy, information
everyone in the company will get involved. When the general
or an idea about how the design should look which doesn’t
public is demanding transparency and that companies are
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socially responsible, the majority of CSR (corporate social
That’s a good question. I am aware of how language is
responsibility) will happen as a result of the public opinion.
used in various aspects of marketing. Whenever I have
As a marketing professional, I wouldn’t want to be seen to
been involved in any sort of communication to a potential
be passing on the responsibility to the consumer but an
customer, every word is chosen carefully. Every word has to
individual, it’s not easy to influence wider marketing strategy
have meaning or at least have to portray some meaning,
in an organisation. Sometimes even if I was in a position
whether it actually has meaning or not.
to do that in my organisation, very often there are parent companies or other stakeholders who can influence things in
I think it’s my job to use different language based on the
a way that I cannot.
socioeconomic class of the customer. It’s one of the very first things that you do. Any language, imagery, or emotions that
178
Are you aware about language on packaging and how it
is used has to be with the target market in mind because if it
language is chosen based on their target market and if so,
isn’t then it won’t work. That’s the first thing I think about. I’m
how do you feel that as a marketer and how do you feel as a
not thinking about whether using language to target different
consumer about the situation?
socioeconomic class is ethically responsible. I have worked
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on brands that consider their target market to have low levels
how they are different to other people and I suppose that is
of education and have as a result, adjusted their methods
segmenting them in some way. It could be potentially divisive
of communication or language that they use to suit those
to split people up; to say you’re like this and you’re like that
persons. I don’t think that is unethical from a professional
and we’re going to talk to you like this and we’re going to
perspective. I think maybe I am too ingrained in marketing,
talk to you like that and try to influence people in different
having studied it and working in marketing for a few years
ways through the different use of our language. Maybe that
to separate myself as a consumer or from a personal
it isn’t the best way to go about things but it’s definitely the
perspective, it sort of just feels like an everyday thing to me.
way things are and will continue to be. Especially now the
It’s something that we do. Now that I’m thinking about it
way we can track people online, their behaviours and what
more, I’m really trying to forget my professional experience,
they’re clicking on, where they have been online. We can
it might not be the right thing to do actually to segment
micro-segment to the point where we know you’re looking at
people in that way but it’s what we do and in marketing it’s
shoes and you like this type of shoes so we can target adverts
becoming more and more that way. It’s so very important
at you specifically. We are trying to learn more and more
to sell to people by understanding them and understand
about that as marketers and segment people even further
181
and to try to understand everyone on a personal basis. So
someone who is not influenced by those things, whether or
maybe it isn’t particularly ethical but it is certainly happens
not that’s to do with my profession. On the other hand, when
and it happens a lot.
they use words like hand-cut on crisps packaging and talk about fancy ingredients like cider vinegars, I am happier to
As a marketer, do you thing you fall for the marketing
pay a higher amount for those than I would be for a packet
techniques, such as greenwashing, less when you buy
of crisps that doesn’t do that. That feels like quite a recent
something compared to people who are not in this field?
thing. Now even own brand Tesco has their own brand fancy crisps. Rather than cheese and onion, it’s mature cheddar and
I’d like to think so but I suspect I fall for it as much as anyone
caramelised red onion and that’s actually just the same thing
else does. I’d also like to think that a lot of people wouldn’t
and I’m not sure their process are any different but it sounds
be tricked by language. This may not be the case but I feel
better, it sounds nicer. If I fancied a higher quality crisps,
like everyone understands what’s been done here. I think
that’s probably the ones I would go for. So I suppose I am
people know that companies use words in different ways
influenced by those sort of things.
to talk about different products. I like to think of myself as
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As a marketer, do you think you have a responsibility to
to benefit my employee, myself, my reputation and the
confront your client when you notice something unethical?
reputation of the agency I work for as well as the client but I don’t think I have the responsibility to do that from an ethical
I don’t think there it is the responsibility for an agency
perspective.
employee to challenge a client about their ethical practices or their greenwashing. I think if for example, a client had briefed
So do you think your role as a marketer is to sell products
me on a campaign which was fabricating or exaggerating
regardless of whether it is unethical?
ethical social responsible claims, which is therefore
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greenwashing, I would flag that to them not because I feel
No, I don’t think that selling products is the most important
there is any responsibility for me to do that but because it
thing in the end. There are people who will think that but
wouldn’t go down well with the end user. People aren’t silly,
those people are very often the ones who are affected
they will know when someone is not telling the truth and they
financially by the performance of the organisation such as
know when it doesn’t look right if a company isn’t doing what
shareholders or if they own the organisation. The last question
they say their doing. I’d do that from a professional standpoint
was answered in perspective of an agency employee, I have
185
also worked in house marketing teams. I think the responsibility
When you are required to undertake unethical practices, how
is a little bit different there because they are the ones making
do you react to it?
decisions about how the product is going to presented within an agency rather than the process of presenting it.
I’m struggling to think of an example. I’ve worked in pharmaceuticals and a company that does baby food. Both
186
If I was employed by an organisation which was not strictly
of them are very regulated and very often considered to be
ethical, that wouldn’t necessarily affect my ability to the job, I
engaging in unethical practices. I generally tend to address
would sell the products. I would certainly not make a big deal
those situation in a very professional manner. So I believe
out of the fact that they are not necessarily ethical; if I was to
there has been times where I would briefly think, where I
put together an advertising piece, I wouldn’t flag it. Which
would possibly be taken aback by something that was being
is unethical in a sense because it’s not hiding it but it’s not
said and think ‘oh gosh, that’s not true’ or ‘should they
bringing it to anyone’s attention. As a marketing employee,
be really saying that’ or almost laughed at myself. I gain
that’s not really my place. That’s something for the CEO to
composure again and then continue in a professional manner.
worry about.
Most importantly, the information is presented in a way that
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is legal and in a way that is line with the legislation around
my role or leaving an organisation. I supposed it’s something
the subject so that the organisation will not go into disrepute.
I am kind of aware of in marketing – you do sell your soul a
That doesn’t necessarily mean there won’t be people who
little bit and you expect to do things or work on projects that
aren’t unhappy. In fact, I have been in a situation where I have
you aren’t necessarily ethically aligned with. But I suppose
had complaints from the people we have targeted with our
there’s an aspect of understanding your ethical viewpoints
communications. Again, you address it from a professional
aren’t entirely correct and just because you have opinion on it
manner. So you know you have taken all the necessary
doesn’t mean that’s the correct opinion. Believing that within
precautions and acted in a legal way. It doesn’t necessarily
yourself can help you to go by if you think ‘well, that’s just my
mean that you don’t have an internal battle. Sometimes
opinion’, and that there are times other people’s opinion as
you think we really shouldn’t be doing this. But you don’t
well. I just go along with the practice because it’s my job. The
think I shouldn’t really be doing this, you view it from a
ethical aspect of it is secondary to what you’re paid to do.
wider perspective, from a company perspective. I am not
188
in a position to influence the overall company strategy and
You said you have marketed baby food and hinted that
behaviour. It’s not something that has led me to reconsider
companies who sell them use greenwashing because they
189
work around the laws. Can you name them? How do you feel
each other. For example, ‘children under 3 will need 0.6 ml
when unethical practices are targeted towards venerable
of calcium a day and there’s 0.8 ml of calcium in a bottle in
consumers such as babies?
product this baby formula so if you have give your child this product, they will have all the calcium they need’. What is
190
Obviously I am not able to say who exactly. In general,
being said is true. However, what is also true and is not found
companies who sell baby food in the UK market make
on the packaging is that you get enough calcium through
claims about the product that a lot of consumers are very
breastfeeding. The same amount plus many other much more
openly unhappy with on Mumsnet or parenting communities
beneficial nutrients. Not only that, but a connection with
online. You won’t find it difficult to find people voicing
your child you can’t necessarily get with formula feeding.
their discontent with these companies. The companies very
I suppose to some extent that is greenwashing. It’s not
often will make claims about how or do help your baby with
quite lying; it’s just not presenting all the information but
regards to nourishments. They make claims about babies
presenting all the information necessary for the product.
or young children needing a certain amount of a certain
It’s important to know that some women cannot breastfeed
vitamin, mineral or nutriment. They will make a claim next to
and some children will not breastfeed so in these cases,
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formula milk is absolutely vital and as a result, that’s why it’s
Does this mean money is more important than your ethical
still out there. I’ve worked with companies who try to say
values? You could quit if you don’t agree with their practices.
that formula feed is better. They say it in certain ways and
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have vast legal teams to try to get around. But generally,
Unfortunately yes, money is the most important thing. I
breastfeeding is the best way to go even if companies will
need to pay rent and sometimes I would have done things
attempt to present otherwise through their communications.
that I consider immoral but I’m not a position to quit and
I have been involved in the distribution of communications
try and find a job that suits my viewpoints. It’s a big risk. If
including those messages. From a personal standpoint, I
I didn’t need to work and financially in a position to worry
have no negative feelings about it. I don’t stay up at night
about that sort of thing then I would work for Greenpeace or
worrying, I don’t think about it at all. If I was to think about it,
similar companies. I would love to do that but it’s not always
I don’t necessarily agree with what is being done. However,
easy. There are only a certain amounts of job going around
that’s what I am employed to do, it’s part of the job and it
at Greenpeace and I need to do a job so yes, money trump
feels acceptable to me as a result of that.
ethics.
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Also, It’s not always the case you know what product range
set up or re-branded as ethical entirely with making money
you’re going to be working on when you take a job so you
in mind so they do that as a selling point rather than having
find out whom you’re working with after you take a job.
a belief that that’s the best way to be a good human being. They just do it to make money. So generally the role of the
What do you think is the role of a marketer?
marketer…it all comes down to money in the end.
The role of a marketer is varied, but I think one of the most important things is to sell things. It’s to make things look good and to make money out of them. Generally, that’s the end goal, to make money. Even ethical companies and CSR is done with revenue and bottom line and profitability in mind. There are companies who will consider ethical behaviour very important, but generally due to the viewpoint of the founder or the organisation. Probably a lot of agencies have been
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Ingredients
JUDITH WILLIAMSON
STEVEN HELLER DAN JURAFSKY JOSHUA FREEDMAN GEORGE BRENKERT
ervin
g
(BOOKSHELF)
NUTRITION FACTS S
STORE IN A COOL AND DRY PLACE
195 pages
SI
ZE
CALORIES
10,000 WORDS
SUITABLE FOR
EVERYONE