Almere in Water Integration of spatial planning and water management for climate adaptive urban development
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Acknowledgement: There are many people I’d like to thank at this moment of finishing the master thesis. My gratitude goes to my first mentor Lei Qu. Without your help I would not be able to achieve this moment. I’m grateful to my second mentor Paola Viganò. I was enlightened with your criticism every time. I also want to thank Sybrand Tjalingii. Thank you for introducing me to the field I’m working on and making it very interesting to carry on; your comments and encouragement are very important for this thesis. I would also like to thank associate professor Zhengnan Zhou, from whom I got the chance to work on this research topic for my thesis. My deep appreciation goes to everyone who had helped me in this thesis: Yu Ye, Marjolein van Esch, Hein de Haan, Shimeng Hao, Birgit Hausleitner, Alexander Wandl, and everyone I met and talked to in Almere. I want to thank all my colleagues in TU Delft, IUAV, and the workshops. I have learned a lot from you during the last two years. I also want to express my gratitude to all professors who have guided me in the two years study. Thank you for teaching me about urbanism and making the two years study so meaningful.
EMU Thesis Mengdi Guo Spring Semester 2013 Mentors: Lei Qu Paola Viganò
Last but not least, my gratitude goes to my family and my friend Lin Zhou. Thank you for supporting me all the time and helping me through the difficult moments crossing 8000 kms and 7 hours.
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Content •
Research Topic & Objective
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Thesis Structure & Methodology
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Problem Field & Introduction - Climate Change - The development and Transition of Water Management - Water Environment - Almere Urban Development - Case Study: Green City Freiburg
8-9 10 - 11 12 - 19 20 - 29 30 - 49 50 - 51
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Research Question
52 - 53
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Almere in Layers - the Dutch Layers Approach - Artificial City - Two More Layers - Five Layers - Space for Water - Integral Management of Spatial Planning and Water Management
54 - 55 56 - 61 62 - 63 64 - 69 70 - 71 72 - 76 77 - 81
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Restructure Almere - Design Hypothesis - Design with Water Principles - Vision - Strategy - Sample Design SD1: Business Park SD2: District Centre SD3: Large District Parks SD4: Urban Green Area - Phases - Design Toolbox
82 - 83 84 85 - 87 88 - 89 90 - 109 110 - 115 116 - 135 136 - 141 142 - 145 146 - 149 150 - 151 152 - 153
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Discussion, Conclusion & Reflection
154 - 155
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Bibliography
156 - 159
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Appendix
160 - 162
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Research Topic & Objectives
The topic of this master thesis comes from the joint scientific thematic research programme (JSTP) integrated water resource management and strategic urban development in embanked coastal areas: a comparative study of ecologically friendly residential development in Tianjin (China) and Almere (the Netherlands). The product of this thesis work is expected to contribute to one chapter of the joint research programme by researching the integration of water management and spatial planning concerning climate adaptive urban development on the case of Almere. With the context of Almere, it is expected that this thesis could help improve the understanding of : (1) the impacts from climate change on urban development, (2) the interaction between water system and urban environment, (3) the role of water in urban development, (4) the trend of transition for climate adaptive water and urban system, (5) the requirement from water management and spatial development to each other for adapt to climate threatens, (6) the cooperation and conflicts between interest groups, and help developing (1) water principles for planning and design, (2) the way to combine water principles with strategy making and urban design for shaping resilient urban structure and prosperous development of the city, (3) the methods for working with dynamic and complex systems (people and nature). I hope this master thesis could provide an exemplar for the research on Tianjin case with its research methodology and design proposals. I’m also expecting the final product of the joint research programme.
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Thesis Structure & Methodology
Research Topic Integration of water management and spatial planning for climate adaptive urban development.
Problem Field
Spatial Planning Water Management Climate Change
Explore Problem Field urban environment climate change water system governance
Collect Information & Preliminary Analyses Literature Research Mapping Photography Fieldwork Interview Lectures Case Study
In-depth Analyses
Design Proposals
the Stratified model
Vision Strategy Sample Design Phases of Proposal Design Toolbox
sustainable urban water system water flows and dynamics profits of stakeholders
Conclusion & Discussion
Decompose - Processing - Synthesis
Understanding
Design
working process 2
3
method
issue
Thesis Structure & Methodology Preliminary Researches Different methods are used to explore the context of each topic and their interrelationships in governance and spatial performance.
Methods from Understanding to Design Understanding
Design
Problem Fields
Proposals
Understand Problems
Evaluations
understanding phase evaluation
This thesis follows a structure of (1) ‘understanding’: define the problem field and understand the problems, and (2) ‘design’: design proposals and evaluate them. It’s not a liner process from understanding to design in the process of working. Ideas for design are outcomes of understood the problem; design solutions in return contribute to better understanding of the research topic. (Figure 1)
sequence of working
Figure 1 relationship between understanding and design
Processing
climate change spatial planning water management governance mechanism of spatial planning and water management & their cooperation and conflicts for adapt to climate change
D D D
U
D
Understanding
Design Concepts U
D
Synthesis for Design
understanding phase U understanding
Synthesis
U U U
D design
Figure 2 ‘decompose -processing – syntheses’ process for working on the complex multi-disciplinary research topic.
Subjects
National & Regional
Spatial Planning
metropolitan urban network
Almere urban environment
lagoons in IJsselmeer area
Almere urban water system
Water Management
Local
Climate Change
water problems & risks
Governance
responsibilities of stakeholders
Table 1 Explore the problem field and decompose the subjects into elements for further study
The research on this complex multidisciplinary topic can be concluded with the following process: ‘decompose -processing – syntheses’ (Figure 2). This idea of working on complex issues is borrowed from the research methods of landscape architecture, where a method of decomposing exist nature and society, sorting out elements1 and grammars2, and making fruitful re-composition of them has been introduced in landscape architectonic design (Steenbergen, Reh, 2003). Adapting the method to thesis work, the ‘elements’ are the three key subjects: spatial planning, water management and climate change; and the ‘grammars’ are their interactions for urban development (Table 1). The ‘elements’ and ‘grammars’ together are contributing to the understanding of the research topic.
Since the challenges from climate change on the condition of the Netherlands are mainly related to water, the water system has become more and more important for urban development. Thereupon water management is studied together with spatial planning. To gain a general understanding of the urban environment and water system in Almere, a wide range of methods are applied such as literature research, fieldwork and photography, interview with residents, attending lectures of experts, and mapping. Besides working on spatial aspects, governance aspects are also investigated with literature research. Analyses with these methods help to grasp a basic impression of the urban and water environment and the driving forces from national,regional to local levels.
Design solutions tackling different problems are collected and concluded while studying the subjects and their interactions separately. This step of collecting design solutions is contributing to better understanding of the problems. The solution itself is evaluated by reflected back on the field of problems and discussed with other problems and solutions; on the other hand, this process is providing materials for the second phase of proposing combined solutions. The understandings, together with the initial design solutions, are leading to proposing design concepts. The concepts will later be tested by strategies and designed applied on Almere.
Concluded from collected information and preliminary analyses on both fields for sustainable urban development, the focus of next step has been concentrated on the water issue - urban water system. A stratified model is introduced to assist in-depth comprehension of the water system, concluding principles and visions, and accordingly generating design proposals.
Acknowledging the complexity of this multidisciplinary research topic, various methods have been introduced for processing the research and design.
design phase
Decompose
Decompose - Processing - Synthesis
Adapting urban development to the trend of climate change is one important issue that has to be considered for sustainability. With a goal of developing into a ‘green city’, there are various strategies and plans3 for sustainable development. Case study and fieldwork are applied to gain better knowledge of the relationship between climate change, sustainable urban development and ‘the green city’. The experience of the ‘green city’ Freiburg, Germany helps to investigate the Almere case; and research on how the ‘green city’ could help Almere to adapt to climate challenges and achieve sustainable development.
[3] Examples of sustainable strategies and plans: a. The Almere principles for sustainable development :Cherish diversity; Connect place and context; Combine city and nature; Anticipate changes; Keep innovating; Design healthy systems; People make the city (Feddes, Gemeente Almere, 2008). b. Slogan of Floriade 2022 in Almere: ‘Growing Green City’ Source: http://www.floriade.nl/
[1] Elements such as villa, pavilion, tree, water…They are picked out from the nature as useful elements for design.
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[2] The grammars of European gardens, geometry, spatial form, metaphoric structure and programme, reflect four basic layers of landscape architectonic design: basic form and topology, spatial effect of three dimensional space, social and cultural aspects, and function.
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Thesis Structure & Methodology The Stratified Model
The layers approach is not a fixed format for design and planning task. It provides an original idea of a stratified model and the basic principles of interaction, but cannot be adapted into a specific context. There are several variations of the original model, differentiated in the specific rules for classifying layers, the content of the layers, the number of the layers and the way of interaction between layers. The layers themselves can also be further studied with other methods (Figure 3).
In this phase research carries on for a deeper comprehension on urban environment, water system and responsibility of stakeholders by applying a new working model: the Stratified Model. This model is adapted from ‘the Dutch Layers Approach’ on the urban context of Almere.
The Dutch Layers Approach The layers model was introduced to spatial planning in national level in the Netherlands in 1998 and was later developed into the Dutch layers approach for spatial planning and design in various scales (Schaick, J., Klaasen I., 2011). A model regarding climate change, water management, and economic development was constructed by De Hoog, Sijmons and Verschuuren between 1996 and 1998 called the layers model (De Hoog, Sijmons & Verschuuren 1998a; 1998b). The model on a regional level takes into consideration the different spatial dynamics in planning tasks, which specify the spatial organisation into three layers: the substratum layer, the network layer, and the occupation layer. Besides the context of layers themselves, interaction of different dynamics and process of transformation also plays an important role in the layers model. Table 2 explains the general content of the layers and their interaction. Regulations and rules were set by the lower layer to the designing tasks on the upper layer in the light of the upper layer transform faster than the lower one (Schaick, J., Klaasen I., 2011).
Figure 1 (a)
Figure 1 (b)
Figure 1 (c)
Figure 3 (a), (b) and (c) Peter Dauvellier in cooperation with H2Ruimte visualizes the layers approach for the urban region Haaglanden as part of a step-by-step cyclical planning process. (a, left)Shown is one of 4 quadrants of the cycle: Verkennen (Exploring). (b, middle) illustrates how to deal with relations between the layers; (c, right) illustrates that each layer can be elaborated into detail. Source: Stadsgewest Haaglanden (2003)
Five Layers for Analyses and Design
s ctivitie e & A upation l p o e P c al Oc Physic
pation
Occu
re
tructu
Infras
Besides the rising concerns on water challenges brought by climate change in the Netherlands, the increasing importance of the need of people is also influencing the making of urban strategies and plans. For example, in Almere Poort, an area is planned for self-built houses; the land use plan is also respecting the water flowing from clean to dirty. In response to the rising importance of people and water, two layers (people and nature water flows) are stratified from the original ‘occupation’ layer and ‘substratum’ layer in the Dutch Layers Approach (Figure 4). As the stratified model is analysing the spatial impact on urban environment based on the dynamics of different layers. This model is also linking the different types of elements with their spatial performance in the urban environment of Almere. Besides the interaction between different layers, that of different elements on the same layer is also able to be compared and analysed. In this way, water system and urban environment, the cooperation and conflicts of driving forces and stakeholders, and the trend of their future development are scrutinized with the five layers.
ratum
ound s ial Gr Artific Water Flow e Natur
Subst
e Peopl
ion cupat al Oc ic s y h P re tructu Infras ound ial Gr Artific ws er Flo e Wat r u t a N Figure 4 Five layers adapted from the three layers of the Dutch Layers Approach
Design and Planning tasks
The analyses with the layers also bring the research to an ulterior conclusion followed up with hypotheses for design. Developed from the original idea that the stratified model is a tool for apprehending the urban structure and water structure, it also helps to allocate the guiding models tackling specific subjects on different layers. The interaction of subjects also performs as the connection of the guiding models, contributes to integrating different various spatial interventions. For instance, water retention and recycle model is based on the layer of artificial ground, trying to balance nature water flows. The change of surface water system also influences infrastructure, spatial environment. In that way other models (e.g. the two network strategy) are integrated with the retention model. Subsequently, the integrated interventions are tested with pilot projects on chosen sites. In turn the pilot projects together are supporting the first phase of restructure Almere with sustainable water system for climate adaptive urban development.
Approaches
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Substratum - Dealing with the physical effects of climate change - Modernising the water management system
- Nature engineering - Civil engineering
2
Networks
- Complexes approach (developing nodes for exchange of information and knowledge) - Corridor approach (developing main ports and hinterland connections)
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Occupation - Accommodating spatial claims and shrinkage in relation to values and attractiveness.
- ‘Ecology’-approach (An ecology defined as a locally characteristic ‘life-style-environment’) - Mold-Contramold approach (city vs. landscape)
Coherence
-Conditioning spatial planning -Facilitating spatial planning
- Strengthening the position of the Netherlands in international networks - Control and steer the growth of mobility
-Creating synergy between interventions
Table 2 Design tasks and related approaches as they appeared in the analysis of almost 50 Dutch spatial plans for the Netherlands. The analysis organised the plans using the layers model. Source: De Hoog, Sijmons, Verschuuren (1998b)
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Introduction & Problem Field Climate Change Water Environment Urban Development
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Adapt to Climate Change for Sustainable Urban Development Climate change is accompanied with substantial risks for society and nature. Generally, the two major responses to reducing the risks of climate change are: mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation means limiting global climate changes by reducing the anthropogenic effects, such as greenhouse gases emissions. Adaptation works on the vulnerable system in response to existing and expected climate stimuli, aiming at moderating harms and exploring opportunities (Füssel, 2007; McCarthy et al. 2001). In general, mitigation and adaptation are complementary to each other; though, traditionally mitigation has received more attention than adaptation for the reason that it is able to cover all climate-sensitive systems, while adaptation works only on part of them. Also the benefits of mitigation are certain and the effects are predictable, which is easier to be accepted (Füssel, 2007). However, climate change is not completely anthropogenic; and uncertainty is part of it characters. The environment will continue to change towards an unpredictable future considering the time-lag effect of the anthropogenic damages (Meehl and Stocker, 2007). In that sense adaptation is necessary for sustain the challenges and changes. Adaptation measures take shorter period to take effect than mitigations. It might take decades to see the efforts of reducing greenhouse emissions; while pump back groundwater (for balancing water level) takes much less period. Its efforts on local scale have ancillary benefits which can be exploited for prosperous urban development. Surface water reservoir could be developed for recreational functions and provide economical and social profits (Füssel, 2007; Woltjer, Al 2007). In the Dutch context, the main problems and risks from climate change are those related to water: sea level rise, rising annual precipitation, longer and stronger dry periods and wet periods, heavier river discharges, rising average temperatures, and higher possibilities of extreme weather (Figure 5) (KNMI, 2006). Adapting to climate change suggests that planning and water management measures could be integrated for transiting the existing urban structure to a more resilient one that can accommodate the dynamic water flows, build a friendly relationship between urban environment and nature water system, and take advantage of the water challenges and dynamics to assist urban design. In that sense, adapting to climate change could be regarded as one approach heading for sustainability by balancing ‘people’, ‘planet’, and ‘profit’ (or ‘prosperity’)4. It requires support from political, economic, social, technical systems as well as international cooperation and administrative foresight. This is also emphasized in EU strategies the integration of environmental protection, social cohesion, economic prosperity, and international responsibility, which provide guidelines for Dutch policy making, indicating the importance of participation of different courses in the process of decision making (Goedman, Houtsma, Zonneveld, VROM, 2008).
[4] “In the broadest sense the objective of sustainable development is ‘to promote harmony between people themselves and between men and nature (1987: 65)’. This requires – so it states – a political system that allows an effective participation of the citizen in decision-making, as well as an economic system that generates a surplus and technical knowledge on a sustainable base, a social system that provides for solutions for unharmonious developments, a production system that respects the ecological base, a technical system that continuously looks for new solutions, an international system that stimulates sustainable trade and financial patterns, and finally en flexible administrative system with the ability to correct itself continuously.” Figure 5: For the Netherlands, the main influences from climate change are problems related to water: sea level rise, rising annual precipitation, longer and intenser dry periods and wet periods, heavier river discharges, rising average temperatures, and higher possibilities of extreme weather. Source: KNMI (2006 scenarios) www. pbl.nl
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As a long-term goal of urban development, sustainability indicates a harmonious relationship between men and nature, also among people themselves. In the Dutch context, it is generally accepted that balancing ‘people’, ‘planet’, and ‘profit’ (or ‘prosperity’) is one approach heading for sustainability (Goedman, Houtsma, Zonneveld, VROM, 2008).
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Development and Transition of Dutch Water Management Development of Water Management in the Netherlands The Netherlands is renowned for its tradition of water management and strong technologies dealing with water. The densely populated and highly developed western part of the Netherlands is on the delta of Rhine and Meuse Rivers (Figure 6), where people have to deal with combined impacts from the sea, the river, and the rain. Safety and living quality in such area is largely related to water and the way people deal with it. An independent water management system covering different sectors from national level to local level has been developed through the long history working with water. Traditionally the Dutch urban water system can be regarded as a large technical system (LTS) where much of the water system is canalized; and areas are protected by dams and dikes (Kotz and Hiessl, 2005; Hegger et al., 2006). These water technologies support spatial development by protecting the land against water, guaranteeing safety, and maintaining reliable water functions for agriculture, shipping and industries. And the technocratic-scientific regime has been dominant in the twentieth century (van der Brugge, Rotmans,Loorbach, 2005). Water management is also a critical part of the governmental function (Woltjer, Al, 2007). It is closely related to urban development down through the ages in the Netherlands, as it plays a crucial role in building site preparation (source of power, soil mechanics, and hydraulics) (Hooimeijer, 2008). The consequence of this system is a highly sophisticated and widely branched, but relatively closed water defence system, which is not sufficiently prepared to meet the challenges of climate change effects (CW21 2000). While protecting the land, the technical water system is also creating new problems to the existing urban and rural environment. For example, one of the side effects of reclamation is subsidence. It is not just happening inside the drainage basin, but is also influencing the height of dikes, and reducing its ability to protect the polders. Beside the existing water problems and emerging ones (from fighting against water), claims of urban functions (e.g. housing, infrastructures and industries) are also adding pressure to the existing water system (van der Brugge, Rotmans,Loorbach, 2005). Together with the high costs of maintenance in the context crisis and new water challenges from climate change (Figure 1), the ability of the existing water system to support safe and prosperous urban development is being challenged (Rijksoverheid, 2009, Van de Ven, 2011).
Figure 6 Main Rivers in the Netherlands
In the past three decades, the water management regime has changed its technocratic-scientific style towards a more participatory and integral attitude, which concerns not just the functioning of water system as a physical network, but also including other components such as immaterial artefacts, guiding principles for designers and the profits of stakeholders. Research by Brugge, Rotmans, and Loorbach (2005) characterized the development of Dutch water management as a process of transition (Figure 7). It is now in the take-off stage, approaching the acceleration stage, meaning that the state of the system has began to shift, but changes are not yet visible. The coordination from the making of strategies and plans are crucial for the transition in water management (Hughes, 1987; van der Brugge, Rotmans,Loorbach, 2005). The emergence of EU water policies, especially European Water Framework Directive (WFD) has influenced the Dutch attitude, which is inclining to accommodating water on land than blocking them out. And the integration between spatial planning and water management has been emphasized in response to supporting sustainable development from the aspect of adapting to climate change. It has not yet reached the coherence between macro-level visions and micro-level implementations. Agreement of integration has been achieved at national level with new water policies, water plans and spatial regulations providing
Figure 7 Four phases duing a transition of a technical system Source: Rotmans et.al, 2001
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space for water. However implementation of the policies at local level is far from easy (Wolsink, 2006, Woltjer, Al, 2007). The transition, though processing, is still problematic. Therefore so far the optimized innovations for sustainable urban water system could only be applied in small scale projects, and are still not strong enough to become mainstreams (Van de Ven, 2011). More innovations and operations are required for reaching the next stage (Brugge, Rotmans,Loorbach, 2005). It indicates the trend of implementing optimized water innovations for sustainable water system in urban environment. Hence, studying the relationship between water innovations and spatial strategy and design is important for the implementations. Looking at the history of how water management was developed together with urban development helps to build up an image and to take a position in the discussion for future. According to Hooimeijer (2008), there are six phases that are used to describe the different state of civil engineer and the relationship between design and technologies: (1) acceptation (until 1000), (2) defensive (1000-1500), (3) offensive (1500-1800), (4) early manipulative (1800-1890), (5) manipulative (1890-1990), and (6) adaptive manipulative (1990-today) (Hooimeijer, 2008). (1) Acceptation (until 1000): In this phase, people accepted the nature situation, and adapted their habitations to live with it. There were small initiatives in digging ditches and draining the field for agriculture use. Sluices introduced by Romans were also commonly used. (2) Defensive (1000-1500): People started to control water by digging discharge canals, constructing dikes, dams and sluices for protecting their habitations. With the invention of water mill, agriculture grounds were reclaimed with standard measures in this time called ‘great reclamation’. Water boards as organizations came into being as guilds. (3) Offensive (1500-1800) New technologies in hydraulic instruments changed the approach towards water from defensive to offensive. Windmill became pumping forces that allow people to drain large polders and also lakes for expansion of settlements. Technical interventions were introduced to solve problems from drainage. For example, step drainage with three or four windmills was invented to drain water to higher level, which helps to deal with subsidence. Erection of the ‘Republic of seven United Netherlands’ and economic growth was back up of polder expansions and urban practices. Military works stimulated the development of technology with intensive practices, accompanying with the enlargement of knowledge base. At that time, management of water and construction of city were not separated. The ‘ideal city’ model (Figure 8) proposed by military engineer Simon Stevin (1548-1620) presented an exemplar of applying water management perspectives to the design of urban structure. In projects such as grachtengordel (ring of canals) for Amsterdam around 1620, the cooperation between different fields in the process of working was described as ‘gesamtkunstwerk, with shared knowledge and without professional boundaries’. It also presented the integration of different fields, and negotiation in the design process respecting the profits of users (representatives of merchants), the opinion of city carpenter (Hendrik Jackobzn. Staets), and the requests of surveyor (Lucas Jansz. Sinck).
Figure 8 Ideal City Model proposed by Simon Stevin ‘In the centre of the grid there is a square around which the public buildings are situated and there are canals with houses alongside them for well-off citizens’ Source: Hooimeijer, 2008
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(4) Early Manipulative (1800-1890) Machine powers replaced hands after industrialisation, leading the attitudes of controlling water changing towards manipulation. Drainage with steam engines started the era of manipulation. Knowledge base for building site preparation has developed into subjects. Water management also became a topic of national concern. ‘The spatial organisation of the cities in the 19th century characterises itself by the separation of conflicting functions and the bundling of functions which belong together (Van der Woud 1987).’ Responsibility of city architects at that time covered several fields: architect, technician and government manager. Thus it’s not difficult for water management and urban design to be considered together for an urban project. ‘The Water Project’ of Rotterdam (Figure 9) expansion is an example. The designer of the project W.N. Rose (1801-1877) was the city architect of Rotterdam; he was also a military engineer. In his design, hydraulic knowledge was well combined with the design of city. Water structures were the main structure for expansion. This logic is still visible today and is of hydraulic value.
Figure 9 Water Project Rotterdam 1854 ‘The plan served four objectives: the flushing of the city centre water to improve the water quality, lowering of the ground water level for the necessary urban expansion, the creation of a pleasant living environment for the well-off citizens and a walk in landscape style for the poorer inner city dwellers’ Source: Hooimeijer, 2008
(5) Manipulative (1890-1990) Using steam engine to lower ground water table for building site preparation marks the threshold of manipulation phase. Shifting of power from stream to petrol products enlarged the responsibility of water management and made it possible to construct larger area and drain land out of water. The Zuiderzee works, with closing the former Zuiderzee and constructing dikes is one example for this. Development of many knowledge fields made it easier to control water and manipulate it. As a result, responsibilities of civil engineers and urban designer were divided. Water system designed by engineers stayed in outskirts. Area prepared for designers was detached from its water context. Surface water was replaced by underground pipes. There were up to 15% of urban area occupied by surface water before the Second World War; while in post war cities, the number was reduced to 5%. Water became a waste product detached from public space, and people’s daily life. Land became more vulnerable as more efforts were done to fight against and manipulate water. (6) Adaptive Manipulative (1990-today) Emerging problems from climate change, rising awareness on the vulnerability of land, and increasing attention on environment and ecology marked a shift of attitude towards water and the regime of civil engineering since the end of seventies. As a result, integral water management was brought up, assuming that surface water and ground water should be managed incoherence with physical, chemical and biological systems. It is also at the end of seventies, when the context of urbanism was reintroduced, the ecology of water was brought back to the attention of designers (comparing with the technical approach in the phase of manipulation). In the nineties the idea came out that water management should be considered also spatially not just technically as a machine. Water was considered again as an element of urban development, accompanying with the transition of responsibilities of engineers, planners and designers. The relation between water system and public space was re-discovered. Integral approach for dealing with water has rising its importance from national level to local level. The law prescribed that new development should comply with hydraulic conditions. This was interpreted into actions in regional scale like water plans, guidelines, and mapping existing hydraulic conditions. The role of surface water was rediscovered.
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The Dutch tradition of water management exposed a relation between water technology and the planning of the polder cities. The six phases reveals how the self-evident relationship between water management and urban design is shaped through time. Until 1500, there was still coherence between anthropogenic actions and nature water flows, due to the flexible attitude both mentally and physically. As technological knowledge on water issues is being developed and enriched, the design of cities are considered together with the water technologies. In the nineteenth century, there existed ‘the water project’ where different urban projects were integrated in one plan. With good design and maintenance, water is also one element appreciated in the living environment. However, since the phase of manipulation, when engineering solutions are strong enough to deal with all the technical aspects of urban designs and building tasks, water management started to become a large technical system and be separated from spatial tasks. This technical attitude has lead to the current situation of polder cities. Cities are based on hydraulic constructions; and water management restricts the spatial layout (Hooimeijer, 2008). Facing more extreme storms and rising sea level, more floods, existing water technologies are not flexible to deal with these challenges from climate change, neither able to solve the problems alone. As Hooimeijer (2008) said ‘the days of the use of pipes and pumps (the work of the civil engineers) are over’, transition of water management started in 1970s(adaptable manipulative phase) (Brugge, Rotmans,Loorbach, 2005, Hooimeijer, 2008). There is a need to introduce water management back to urban planning and design processes. And that requires not just a transition in water management, but also the integration with planning and design, the actors involved, the decision making process and the responsibilities of stakeholders. Referencing to the past when technologies had not been so strong, and urban design and civil engineering were integrated in processing projects, their attitudes towards urban development: to adapt more to the wet surroundings, and accept more water as neighbourhoods could be applied for making strategies and designs for living with water (Hooimeijer, 2008).
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Water Environment: IJsselmeer Area - Almere The Zuiderzee Projects One initial condition for the establishment of Almere is the Zuiderzee Projects (Dutch: Zuiderzeewerken). The Zuidlijk Flevoland polder where Almere is located is in the IJsselmeer area, which was part of the Zuiderzee a century ago. The ideas of constructing dams, draining water and reclaiming land came from the seventeenth century; however it was not until the flood 1916 that brought the ideas into action. By separating Zuiderzee from North Sea, the projects are aiming to protect land from the effect of North Sea, to improve water management, and to get more agriculture land for food supply. The projects had their effect on an amount of 1,000,000,500 km2 of previous uncontrolled water body, turning it into the artificial landscape composed by polders and lagoons.
The accomplishment of enclosure dam (Afsluitdijk) in 1932 Zuiderzee turned the former Zuiderzee into a lagoon renamed as IJsselmeer. Followed by many projects until 1975 the accomplishment of the Houtribdijk, the series of works in the area has brought drastic changes. One of the largest changes is that after a century, water in IJsselmeer has completely been transformed from salty to sweet, empower IJsselmeer with the strategic function of to support freshwater supply. Meanwhile, the former ecosystem has been complete changed. A new eco-balance was obtained during the century. The Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation has almost designated the entire IJsselmeer area as Natura 2000 areas. Stable water level in the lagoon provides a condition for various projects to take place.
North Sea
Coast Northen Netherlands and the Wadden Sea
Zuiderzee projects (Zuiderzeewerken) Zuiderzee Reclaimed land
Higher Parts of the Netherlands
Abolished Plan Old Town
IJsselmeer Area
New Town River Almere
Coast
Higher Parts of the Netherlands
Zuiderzee Projects
The Randstad
Projects Connect Wieringen Island to Continental Holland Southwest Delta
Higher Parts of the Netherlands
Closure of Zuiderzee
Length
Amsteldiepdijk Afsluitdijk
Closure
2.5 km
06/29/1920
07/31/1924
Size
Drained -
-
32km
1927
05/23/1932
-
-
1.9km
1926
Early 1927
40 ha
08/27/1927
Wieringermeer Polder
18km
1927
07/27/1929
20,000 ha
08/31/1930
Noordoostpolder
55km
1936
12/13/1940
48,000 ha
09/09/1942
Oost-Flevoland Polder
90km
Early 1950
09/13/1956
54,000 ha
06/29/1957
Zuid-Flevoland Polder
70km
Early 1959
10/25/1967
43,000 ha
05/29/1968
28km
1963
09/04/1975
41,000 ha
Never Done
Houtribdijk
Zuiderzee projects (Zuiderzeewerken) 20
Start
Pilot Polder Andijk
Markerwaard Polder Division of Water Areas Source: National Water Plan 2009-2015
Dyke
Information resource: http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuiderzeewerken
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IJsselmeer Area Water Environment In 1975, the basic structure of the water landscape in IJsselmeer – Markermeer-IJmeer – (Veluwe)Randmeren area was settled with the completion of the Houtribdijk. The lagoons cover around 2000 km2 of water surface, in which, IJsselmeer takes approx. 1200 km2, Markermeer-IJmeer covers approx. 750 km2, and 75 km2 in (Veluwe)randmeren. Protection from dykes and dams ensures a comparatively stable water environment. According to the national water plan, however, this area still face challenges concerning safety, freshwater supply, ecology, and spatial planning from climate change and dynamic economical and social conditions (Rijksoverheid, 2009). Water tasks related to these challenges are mainly focusing on the IJsselmeer lagoon. Increasing demand for freshwater enhance the position of IJsselmeer for freshwater supply of the Netherlands. This leads to a possible rising in water buffer and seasonal water level. However, together with the rising sea level, higher water level of the lagoons is adding pressure to dams and dykes. Also, it might bring negative effects on ecological value, which is one of the key values of the area. IJsselmeer holds the transition area of freshwater and salt water, guaranteeing the water quality and eco-balance of the entire IJsselmeer area, and the stability of Markermeer-IJmeer - (Veluwe)randmeren and the polders (Rijksoverheid, 2009). As discussed in Delta Programme 2013’, a comparatively stable water level in Markermeer-IJmeer could be ensured by pumps and dams, which guarantee a safe & stable local water environment surrounding Almere, which also provide conditions for construction out of dike visions (Rijkswaterstaat, 2011). But pumping water to IJsselmeer lagoon and enhancing dikes are not solutions for good. Sustainable water management and spatial development should be considered for supporting long-term vision.
Possible Strategy on Managing Water Level of Lagoons in IJsselmeer Region Wadden Sea 2050: +10cm 2100: + 60cm sea level raise
IJsselmeer
increase freshwater buffer
winter & spring level raise
summer level drop
Markermeer & (Veluwe)randmeren increase freshwater buffer Lagoons and Water Infrastructures in IJsselmeer Area Wadden Sea North Sea IJsselmeer Markermeer - IJmeer - (Veluwe)randmeren
Canal
IBA 2004
Pumping Station
IBA 2005
Lock
Swimming Water
Wadden Sea
IJsselmeer
22
spring level raise
summer level drop
IBA 2006
Waste Water Treatment Plant River
maintain winter level
IBA 2007 IBA- personal wastewater management system.
Markermeer
Flevoland Polder
23
(Veluwe)randmeren
Legend: Metres Above Sealevel 0.0
-1.7
-3.3 -5.0
Almere
Main Canals in Noordoost Polder and Flevoland Polder
-A
Water Plain and Elevation (NAP standard) Water Flow Direction
Almere Water System and Challenges Created by constructing dams and draining water out, new polders in IJsselmeer have comparatively low land levels with high level of subsidence and high risks of flooding. The water level in the lagoons (Markermeer, IJmeer, and Gooimeer) surrounding Zuidlijk-Flevoland polder is expected to maintain a stable level (probably with a controllable rise) for the following century (Rijksoverheid, 2009, Rijkswaterstaat, 2011). For Almere, as the surrounding environment is protected by the IJsselmeer lagoon, it is not facing direct threatens from the sea. The traditional water technologies (e.g. dikes and pumps) are not facing crucial challenges in their roles of maintaining and draining the Flevoland polder (van der Brugge, Rotmans, Loorbach, 2005). Adding up the lack of significant economical and social benefits, there lacks driving forces for the city of Almere to promote the transition of the existing water man-
agement system. However, it is not unimportant to think over the relationship between water system and spatial development in Almere, as problems in the area mainly come from the urban development against local water dynamics and nature properties; and if not well treated they might interfere future urban development. Subsidence, one of the most serious problems in Almere, is the time-lag effect of land reclamation, drainage and urban settlements (Rijksoverheid, 2009). Currently the average of the ground level is five metres below sea level (NAP standard), and is still subsiding. Seepage in areas with higher groundwater table and flooding along canals and in urban areas are interfering the regular performance of urban functions. Draining clean groundwater out in wet periods, and pump 24
Hence, even though Almere doesn’t have serious water problems compare to city like Dordrecht, it is still necessary to face the problems and risks from climate change and the requirement from the nature of its surrounding environment while considering the vision for future. This indicates the necessity to evaluate the existing water system and reconsider it’s position while making strategies and plans especially under the condition that Almere has an aim to grow into a green city. It requires optimized water innovations, and spatial strategies and plans to facilitate them; it also indicates more negotiation and cooperation between stakeholders from national level to local level, from governmental sectors, to developers and residents (Van de Ven, 2011).
back water with lower quality in dry periods are wasting the nature resource, at the same time adding pressure to the water system of surrounding lagoons (Zuiderzeeland Waterschap, 2006, Rijkswaterstaat, 2011). Climate change is deteriorating these existing problems and (as catalyst) to bring about new ones. For example, the drop of fresh groundwater pressure in the future might bring the brackish and salinated ground water up, contaminate the fresh groundwater and affect public health. At the same time, Almere is surrounded by areas designated in EHS and Natura 2000, and have a complex function of water in different areas. This situation specifies the importance of nature on the character of Almere. Requirements from the value of nature, water landscape, and ecology as core qualities of the area are increasing the difficulty of spatial planning. 25
Water Problems and Risks in Almere
SEEPAGE
SUBSIDENCE
high groundwater table drainage
Almere Below Sea Level
extreme weather
WATER QUALTIY
FLOODING pluvial fluvial surface water runoff
Almere Without Dikes Source: http://6under60.usc.edu/almere/
IMBALANCED WATER QUANTITY surplus and inadequate water quantity in different seasons
ALMERE
Almere Without Dikes Source: http://6under60.usc.edu/almere/
26
27
Land-Water Relationship in the Process of Almere Urban Development ‘Pompen of Verzuipen’ (Pump or Drown)
The functioning of Almere is highly relying on the traditional water technologies and water systems.
- old Dutch proverb
Previous lagoon after the construction of closure dike (afsluitdijk) and before the starting of drainage
Construct dikes surrounding the drainage basin
Drain water out and prepare land for coming urban constructions
Urban settlements: the constructioin of infrastructure and urban area
Urban expansion and land subsidence due to increasing settlements and drainage
subsidence
Lake area with rich groundwater mitigate subsidence continuing subsidence in drainage basin mitigate subsidence
subsidence
28
29
Urban Development Almere - The Fastest Growing City in the Netherlands Plan of Initial Urban Development After World War Two, the rapid growing population in Amsterdam area has brought the shortage of housing on board. The establishment of Almere was designated by the national government as a solution to this problem. The first plan was designed for hosting 250,000 inhabitants. With almost 200,000 residents now since its first house finished in 1976, Almere has become the fastest growing city In the Netherlands. Now it is developing towards a double scale of the current city due to the target designated by the central government. It is also heading towards a more independent green city according to the strategic vision: Almere 2.0 (Gemeente Almere, 2009). The artificial efforts on the making of urban environment and the changing of original landscape are clearly visible (Newman 2010). Despite the significant change in urban environment, the functioning of urban water system has not changed a lot. There is also little concern on the local nature properties and also challenges from climate change, from the first plan to provide houses for Amsterdam metropolitan area to the recent scale-up vision (Gemeente Almere, 2009). Influenced by the trend of building British new towns, and also the national focus on new towns in the Netherlands, the planning of Almere was following the major concept of new town production–Ebenezer Howards’ ‘Garden City’ concept. The basic idea of Almere was to have a poly-nuclear – multicore structure. Learning from the lessons of other new towns, there was a difference in the planning practice of Almere. Apart from urban housing, industrial development, agriculture, forests and recreation were also included in the plan of Almere (Van der Waal, 1997). The ‘leisure local’ concept, which proposed one place for hosting diverse leisure activities at the same time, also had influence on the making of land use plan of Almere (Wezenaar, 1999). The planning process was also different. For other new towns in IJsselmeer polders, it was the Zuiderzee Project Department (ZPD) that made the plan. In the case of Almere, IJsselmeerpolders Development Authority or IJDA (Rijksdients voor de IJsselmeerpolders, RIJP) took over the right to make the plans. Young people and multi-disciplinary groups were involved for providing new insights for the plan. And the planners also considered the emerging public interest in safety, environment and public health (Thorgeirsdottir, 2010). According to the structure plan in 1978, the city is composed by urban clusters (home, work, leisure, traffic) with landscape buffers defining them. New real estate developments were about to provide a suburban quality with close relationship with nature, convenient connection to big cities, and affordable houses with more space, which represent the desirable quality of life for the general public at that time. Connected to the metropolitan urban network Almere was also expected to support the competitiveness of the Randstad and Amsterdam Metropolitan Area(Thorgeirsdottir, 2010).
Almere Structure Plan 1977, Source: Green City Almere
Garden City Concept, Source: wikipedia
Governmental Spatial Plan 1966, Source: Martijn Oxener 30
31
1960
Process of Urban Expansion in Almere Expansion of Urban Area by Timeline
1976
2012
1976
2013
2012
Highway Main Axis Sub Axes
32
Axes of urban development is structured by infrastructure 33
In less than half a century, the area has experienced rapid transition from water to the current urban districts. Almere was the site for architecture and urban experiments since its establishment. Architectural and urban typologies of different time can be found in various neighbourhoods of Almere.
Urban Structure - The Districts of Almere
Almere Haven
Construction started in 1974, Almere Haven is the first district built in Almere. Structure of Almere Haven clearly illustrates the idea of urban planning at that time. Cauliflower structure are shaped by road system and water system. Culs-de-sac streets are designed to encourage social communication. New development such as Overgooi and Develden followed other urban structure.
Almere Buiten Almere Noorderplassen
Almere Pampus
Centre of Almere Haven is located at the harbour area. Shops are located surrounding the market square with a liner structure linking the square with the harbour. There are also many activities related to art and creative work in the district.
Almere Stad
Almere Poort Almere Haven
Population (2010)
22,266
Population (2013)
ca.25,000
Household Number (2010)
Almere Hout
Business Park Space Office Space
9,863 262.6 ha 56,890 m²
Information Resource: www.alnere.nl
Centre Industry Residential
Urban Structure Almere is planned and developed as a city composed by several semi-nucleus. Each semi-nuclei has its own centre and is connected to the city centre of Almere by infrastructure. Now, there are five districts already developed: Almere Haven, Almere Stad, Almere Buiten, Almere Poort, and Almere Noorderplassen. These districts are divided and defined by the green areas in between. Three main districts are Almere Haven, Almere Stad, Almere Buiten, where most people live. Almere Poort is in development. In ‘Almere 2.0’, the strategic vision for 2030, there will be new districts developed. According to the urban designer working in Almere, Almere Pampus is already in plan, and will be developed into another district; while Almere Oosterwold it is still in the stage of conceptual planning (conceptual plan made by MVRDV). 34
35
Harbour of Almere Haven
Almere Stad Construction started in 1979, Almere Stad is the largest residential area. Urban structure of north and west part have a clear grid pattern spread along the main structure with some 45 degree section in the major grids. In the east part urban structure becomes regular. There are some practice of self-built activities in Almere Stad. Also possibility are designed for having a relation with water. Office areas locate at the border of the districts with convenient transport connections. Large green areas between different residential parts provide popular place for recreation and leisure life. City centre designed by OMA has become a very attractive place for people to go, especially young people. It has also become the label of Almere.
Population (2010)
103,823
Population (2013)
ca.110,000
Household Number (2010)
39,517
Business Park Space (2013)
390.3ha
Office Space (2013)
City Centre
564,464 m² Information Resource: www.alnere.nl
Neighbourhood
36
City Centre
37
Almere Buiten
Almere Poort Almere Poort is the newest district of Almere, and is still under construction. It first house is finished in 2008. It is a district testing contemporary urban concepts. For example, demand-based planning method has gain its support from residents. Besides real estate development, it is possible for people to buy their own land and build their own house with a comparatively affordable price.
First house of Almere Buiten is finished in 1980. North part of Buiten is office/industrial/green house area; south part is residential area. Rail line go through the centre of the residential area; rail stations are where retails and facilities concentrate. There is no significant centre and large facilities also rely on those in the centre of Almere Stad.
As planned, development will extend to coastal areas up on the dune with different types of urban space and functions in different ‘quarters’.
Compare to Stad, Buiten is a place outside the city. This make it possible to have more diverse architecture practice. Colorful themes such as ‘Rainbow Quarter’ and ‘Season Area’ are applied for generating diversity in residential area. At the same time, a certain amount of houses next to water are built.
Population (2010)
54,899
Population (2010)
ca.60,000
Household Number (2010) Business Park Space (2013) Office Space (2013)
Future development on dune Future residential area Future industrial/office area
20,806
38
>2000
Population (in plan)
30,000
Household Number (2010)
678.9 ha
Business Park Space (2013)
29,146 m²
Office Space (2013)
Information Resource: www.alnere.nl
Neighbourhood
Population (2010)
1,116 41.3 ha 3,734 m²
Information Resource: www.alnere.nl
Neighbourhood
39
Almere Hout & Noorderplassen
Almere Hout - Neighbourhood
Noorderplassen
Hout Both districts are rural neighbourhoods embedded in the surrounding landscape. In Almere Noorderplassen, amphibious housing is one typical typology for living with nature. While in Almere Hout it is more like a rural village.
Almere Noorderplassen
40
Almere Hout - De Groene Kathedraal 41
Source: http://urbanphoenix-mila.blogspot.nl
Urban Typology Together with the changing of design target, urban typology and density, the relation between built up environment and nature is also changing. Water is involved in neighbourhood design, becoming one popular element to live and play with.
Almere Haven
Average neighbourhood scale 150m*150m.
Almere Poort
Noordmark, Almere Haven, 1970s
1km
Blue-Green-Neighbourhood-Street Relation
Source: Martijn Oxener
Almere Stad
Muziekwijk, Almere Stad, 1980s
Average neighbourhood scale 200m*200m
50m*100m
Almere Hout
150m*250m
1km
Blue-Green-Neighbourhood-Street Relation
Source: Martijn Oxener
Almere Buiten
Eilandenbuurt, Almere Buiten, 2000
Average neighbourhood scale 350m*500m
250m*250m
Almere Noorderplassen
150m*250m
1km
Blue-Green-Neighbourhood-Street Relation
42
Source: Martijn Oxener
43
Growing Society
Population Almere has become the fastest growing city in the Netherlands. Population has reached 193,000 in 2012 since finishing the first house in 1976. Residents of Almere come from 134 nationalities, in which around 60% of the population are Dutch people. There are 164 ethnic groups. Compare to other cities in the Netherlands, Almere has more young people (1/3 of total population) and less aged people(9% 65 years or older). There are approximately 7800 households now. 1/3 of total households are families with children. In the next decade, single person households is expected to grow; families with children living in is expected to decrease; the number of students will also grow.
Age classification 2011, Source: wikipedia
According to scale-up proposals, Almere would double its population in 2030, heading towards the 4th largest city in the Netherlands with 400,000 population.
Culture Statistics about social groups indicates that as a young city, the culture of Almere is marked by contemporary modern society, which will play a role in shaping the identity of the city. City centre designed by OMA, the quiet residential quality, and the green landscape have already become the image of the city (Zhou, Commandeur, 2009). There is no doubt that Floriade will also help shaping the living culture and urban identity. As a new town, there are still a lot to develop for shaping its urban character.
2011
Number
Percentage
Dutch
118,902
62.3%
Surinam
21,183
11.1%
Moroccan
6,900
3.6%
Antilleans
4,750
2.5%
Turkish
3,262
1.7%
European
18,617
9.8
Others
17,041
8.9
Population 2011, Source: wikipedia
Economy Employees and companies are growing together with the growing population. There is an average yearly growth of 5000 jobs between 2001 and 2010. 57% of the jobs are held by local residents and 28% by commuters; other employed citizens work in Amsterdam and Utrecht region. It is a city with versatile economic structure, mainly related to business services, trading, healthcare and industry. With its convenient connection with Schiphol airport, Almere has hosted many foreign companies.
Household Type
Absolute Number
Percentage
family with children
26742
34%
one-parent family
9029
12%
family without children 18078
23%
single household
23858
31%
other
501
1%
78208
100%
Total
Household 2012, Source: www.almere.nl
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45
The Growing and Transforming Metropolitan Suburb
Vision for Future
The strategy for developing Almere had been successful in certain aspects. The quality of nature, the well-facilitated infrastructure, and affordable houses were and are still privileges for attracting certain group of people to settle down in Almere. These privileges also respond to one of the key qualities of the IJsselmeer area: the quality of nature. The value of nature and suburban residential environment provide a perfect accomplishment to urban life in Amsterdam and Utrecht, which made Almere well qualified as a residential component of Dutch metropolitan area.
According to Hans ten Velden, Project Director Almere for Municipal Projects of VROM, Almere is in its adolescent stage, still depending on higher authorities to solve discourses. A wide range of authorities including 3 water boards, 14 municipalities, 2 provinces and 5 ministries are involved in the urban expansion plan of Almere (Frieling, 2008). For the development all levels of authorities are involved by producing policies, visions, guiding principles, and plans. More stakeholders are participating in the developing process. The tasks designated by central government for Almere is a growth of 100,000 new jobs, 60,000 new houses and a double amount of residents by 2030. Taken growth as a key word, issues such as climate change, vulnerability of urban environment, the transition of urban identity, competitiveness as an independent city and a hub of the metropolitan urban network, the need of people, and ecological and social coherence have to be considered while discussing the future development of the city. Polities and visions such as ‘The Almere Principles’, ‘The Randstad Urgent Program’, ‘ Schaalsprong Almere 2030’(scale-up Almere), ‘Almere 2.0’, ‘Randstad 2040’ are guiding local policy and plans for implementation. (Thorgeirsdottir, 2010).
Accepting that Almere is undergoing an urban transition, design for future has to be very careful concerning not just growth, but also local nature properties, and the demand of local residents and the coming ones.
With growing population and expanding urban area, the urban environment of Almere is not able to maintain the same quiet quality as before. National, regional and local visions for development have shift from a residential new town to a competitive new city that would contribute to increasing urban competitiveness of the city region in the Netherlands. It is the entrance of the Randstad from North, as a component of North Wing of the Randstad; it performs as the backyard garden of Amsterdam Metropolitan Area with a strategic location in the regional infrastructure network. Develop Almere into a city is not a recent idea. In 1994, four architecture offices were invited by the municipality to join the competition for the new city centre, which could be considered as a threshold of urban transition in Almere. Although condition in the major Almere urban area is not enough to support the being of a distinguished urban hub in the regional metropolitan network, with the construction of the new city centre, raising urban identity is clearly visible in the new centre of Almere.
Almere Poort- Site for Self-built Houses
Source: Martijn Oxener
Connect city and nature
Connect place and context
Improve connection to Amsterdam
Cherish diversity in green area, urban area and decision making process (self-built architecture, self-organized new and renewed neighbourhoods) Double size in population, jobs, and urban area. Increase capacity of current infrastructure.
In strategic vision proposed by the municipality for 2030, there are various measures interpreted into short and medium term visions, strategies and plans for sustainable development.
Increase energy production from renewable resource.
Private Initiatives for self-organizational neighbourhoods Source: Martijn Oxener
The proposal of OMA was chosen and was completed in 2007. Design of urban space and architectures in the city centre provided strong new urban identities to the neighbourhood, which was totally different from the previous mediocre character of the city. Almost all new buildings were designed by renowned architecture offices, which made the new centre itself an open modern architecture gallery. Since then, the identification of Almere started to transform from suburb of metropolitan area to an independent city.
As Almere is gradually detached from its suburban identity, the value of nature then has a different meaning to the city. Nature is for sure a resource for the city. As urban expansion is interfering the nature properties, the surrounding nature in turn also sets strict limit to urban development. The limits are not just regulations from policies, the water problems discussed before are also nature limits.
Living Next to Nature as Representative Quality of Almere
Almere City Centre- Urban Designed by OMA 46
Almere 2.0, Strategic Vision for 2030 (2009)
47
Policies and Regulations For Future Development
Green City Concept & Sustainable Principles Floriade, the World Horticulture Exposition, will take place in Almere in 2022. As an international event, the Floriade is not just a catalyst for further urban expansion, which will stimulate economical and social growth. It’s also discussing the sustainable ways to realize future expansion with its theme ‘Growing Green City’. With the concept to build an exemplary green city, the Floriade has its impact on strategic visions to stimulate development towards ecologically green from literally green. The idea of ‘organic urbanization’ for Almere Oosterwold, designed by the same company as the Floriade proposal, is one of the proposals for expansion with a ecological friendly relationship with local environment.
McDonough, referencing to his concept ‘ Cradle to Cradle’, and proposing seven principles for the urban context of Almere
The three basic rules of Cradle to Cradle principle: 1) Waste = food 2) Sun is the source of energy 3) Respect for Diversity The Almere Principles: 1) Cherish diversity 2) Connect place and context 3) Combine city and nature 4) Anticipate changes 5) Keep innovating 6) Design healthy systems 7) People make the city
For achieving economical, ecological and social sustainability, the municipality of Almere cooperated with William Randstad 2040 - Metropolitan Wings (2008)
The Almere Principles (2008)
Growing Green City - Floriade Almere 2022 Source: http://www.floriade.nl/ Ecological Sustainability: Keep Good Relations with Surrounding LandSource: Almere 2.0 scape
Amsterdam Metropolitan Area Almere 2.0- the Expansion Axis (2009) Floriade Proposal by MVRDV
Source: http://www.floriade.nl/ Economical Sustainability: Strengthend by Metropolitan Urban Network, Cooperation with Amsterdam and Utrecht Source: Almere 2.0
Randstad Urgent, 33 Key Projects (2006)
Noordvleugel Utrecht 2015-2030 (2009) 48
Organic Urbanization in Almere Oosterwold by MVRDV Source: Green City Almere
49
Social Sustainability: from Family City to Diverse Society Source: Almere 2.0
Case Study Green City Freiburg Freiburg Green City Freiburg is a huge testing ground for sustainable experiments. Practices in this city are making the most of the renewable nature resource (sun) in a environmental-friendly way. Accumulation of these experiments makes the city a ‘green city’ as it is now. The ‘green city’ represents a collection of many ideas in an interrelated network, where science and technology, municipal policy and responsible citizenship, culture and climate, landscape and lifestyle are all marked with the label ‘green city’. Deeply influenced by the political party ‘Die Grünen’, there is a wide support sustainable development and green movement from its residents to investors and government. The main trend of economic development is highly influenced by the green concept. There is a comparatively sophisticated chain of economical practices in all aspects to support the improvement of profit and limit negative effects on environment. For example, solar panel is widely applied throughout the city for providing heat and electricity. The energy produced by solar panels is connected to the urban power network. Researches on environment and technology are highly evaluated. Research products are widely applied in practice. Materials and waste are recycled with certain treatment measures. Eco-tourism has also been developed to enhance the green character of the city. Public transport, low emission vehicles, and green parking are highly encouraged. Nature areas such as the forest is providing local residents recreational life but also protected with sustainable woodland management. Nature flows highly influenced urban (and architecture) design. Ecological awareness is also visible in spatial strategies, urban planning and designs (Breyer et al (eds.), 2011).
Heliotrop, self-built green architecture
Solar energy tram station: Freiburger Verkehrs AG
Courtyard of solar info centre
‘Solar’ is a mentality
Water collection in neighbourhood
Recycling
Bruchure of Freiburg Green City
As mentioned before, Almere is growing with a ‘green city’ vision. It is a key issue to transform Almere from ‘Garden City’ to ‘Green City’ according to the strategic vision Almere 2.0. It is also the core concept of Almere for hosting the 7th Floriade in 2022. When thinking about the ‘green city’ future of Almere compared with the Freiburg case, it has to be accepted that what spatial planning alone can contribute to the making of green city is very limited. The context of ‘green city’ is more complex than what it literally talks about. Urban development has to cooperate with other subjects and sectors achieving the goal. As a threat from climate change, water is also a resource for Almere. Exploiting the potential of water could help explore spatial measures for developing the ‘green city’ Almere.
Map of Hotspots in Freiburg
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51
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
In which way are spatial planning and water management cooperating with or conflicting to each other concerning climate adaptive urban development? How can spatial planning contribute to it? In which aspects is the integration of urban proposals with water solutions helping spatial development to better adapt to the nature prosperities of the area and the dynamics of local water system? What are the requirements for planning and design from water management perspective? How to integrate them into planning process for providing and guiding the making of strategy and design proposals that contributes to dealing with the water problems (climate change) and promoting prosperous urban development?
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53
e Peopl ion cupat c O l ca Physi e ructur t s a r f In d Groun l a i c i f ws Arti er Flo t a W e Natur
Almere in Layers
Analyses with the Stratified Model
54
55
The Dutch Layers Approach - Understanding Almere Urban Structure in Layers The way of constructing a city in the polder like Almere is 1) first to prepare the land for constructional activities; 2) then infrastructure systems is connected on the prepared land, 3) and finally buildings are constructed on urban blocks restricted by the infrastructure systems. This process of constructing new areas is in a way linked with the way the Dutch Layers Approach perceives urban structure. The Dutch Layers Approach is applied for understanding the artificial structure of Almere by specifying urban structure related to each layer, and the interactions between the layers. Elements of each layer is not rigidly separated. Water system is part of the drainage system for keeping land dry. It also carries various types of flows as infrastructure. As a popular element for urban design, water helps to create pleasant urban space when it is ‘accessible, touchable and splashable’ (Whyte, 1980).
Occupation
(statement about the Dutch Layers Approach is in pp 6 - 7.)
Infrastructure
Almere Poort 2005
ion
pat
u Occ
ture
ruc ast
Infr
Su
m
atu
r bst
Almere Poort 2008
The Three Layers: Occupation, Infrastructure and Substratum
Substratum
Almere Poort 2009
Process of Constructing New Development Areas Elements of Urban Environment Related to Each Layer 56
57
Substratum Layer
Land Type
ditches
pation
Bus Lane
Highway
Bicycle Path
Main Road
Main Water Course
Secondary Road
Canals
Local Road
Ditches
Infrastructure Layer pation
Occu
Occu
re
tructu
Infras
canals
Railway
re
tructu
Infras
ratum
ratum
Subst
Subst
Elements concerned in the infrastructure layer are mainly road system water system. Almere is connected to the urban region by highways, main roads and rail line. For local transport between urban districts, bus and bicycles are alternative options to private cars. Water system also carries small traffic flows inside and between districts. Urban growth is mainly guided by regional infrastructures (highway, railway, and main road), which are also fast connections.
The ground is prepared by civil engineering measures, and is then covered by various types of vegetation, different pavements and water. 58
59
Crossing of Fast and Slow Connections
Bus Connection (slow connection) Almere has traffic-free lanes for buses, ensuring the efficient connection between spots in urban districts. There are also regional buses going to Amsterdam.
Railway & Highway (fast connection) Almere is connected to the other parts of the Netherlands mainly by rail and highway (A1 to Amsterdam, A6 to Lelystad, A13 to Utrecht).
Building
Main Road System (fast connection)
Bicycle Lane (slow connection) The network of bicycle lane is also a popular option for moving in and between districts, while the system of fast cycle lane is more often regarded as recreational facility.
Main roads in Almere are along the border of areas for connecting the neighbourhoods to highway. It is also often used for travelling between local districts.
Centre Industry Residential
Occupation Layer pation
Occu
re
tructu
Infras
ratum
Subst
Roads between Local Districts (slow connection) Local road system going through the centres of neighbourhoods are better choices for travelling between local districts and neighbourhoods, making a good complement to the main road system.
Water System (slow connection) Ditches and canals helps to shape the urban structure besides keeping the land dry. Part of the canals are used by private boats for travelling in the city and to outskirts. 60
Urban areas are divided by green buffers and the fast infrastructure connections. Different types of land uses are also separated from each other. Average building density (1545 houses/ha) of residential area remains low. Low density and diversity of the major areas are main reasons for people to perceive Almere as suburban agglomerations.
The canal divides residential area and business park. Both areas are of low architecture density.
61
Artificial city – growing urban structure from simple to complex
Planning for complexity – involving local dynamics
The making of the initial structural plan of Almere was deeply influenced by the trend of new town production and Howards’ ‘Garden City’ concept as illustrated in previous chapter. Similar to the garden cities, the original structure of Almere is a tree structure according to the definition of Christopher Alexander (1965). It is composed with several districts, which are separated by green buffers with no overlapping unit. Each district can be regarded as a large village with its own centrality, public services, business parks and residential neighbourhoods.
For Almere, the dynamic system affecting the urban systems is not just local residents and their activities. The nature properties and dynamics of local water system are also key factors acting on urban structure and urban development, especially when considering the challenges from climate change. These dynamic systems (people and water) have to be carefully involved in the making of spatial strategies and plans so that the effects of implementations won’t end up with chaos. In response to this local context of Almere, I’m adapting the original three layers from the Dutch Layers Approach to five layers including the need of people and the dynamics of local water system.
The difference between artificial and natural structure comes from the difference in composing a large complex system. The artificial structure is missing essential ingredients when comparing with the semi-lattice structure of natural city. Taking the city as a receptacle for life, complexity of the planned urban structure coming out of scratch is not compatible with that of the living system as user of the city. The tree structure follows a clear hierarchy, in response to the way top-down planning methods work. The idea of how people imagine urban system works influences how it is planned ranging from a city to a neighbourhood like the way Almere was planned. However, the real living system, which is about how people expect urban system to work, is more complex than the hierarchical system due to the complexity of social realities. The natural structure has more relations between its elements than tree structure. Through the planning process, certain relations are emphasized while others are left behind. It is those additional relations in natural structure that is contributing to the subtle and complex situation of real urban life. In comparison, artificial structure is not able to conclude all tendencies of development and be prepared for all needs inside the city, due to the limit of what people can think about in a short time compare to the long process of forming a complex natural system (Alexander, 1965). ‘…It is this lack of structural complexity, characteristic of trees, which is crippling our conceptions of the city…’ (Alexander, 1965) ‘…Because the mind’s first function is to reduce the ambiguity and overlap in a confusing situation and because, to this end, it is endowed with a basic intolerance for ambiguity- that structures like the city, which do require overlapping sets within them, are nevertheless persistently conceived as trees…’ (Alexander, 1965) Whether the city is a tree structure or is it semi-lattice structured depends on from which perspective a city is viewed. Designers chose tree structure to understand a city, and then end up in design the city with tree structure (Alexander, 1965). Since the first settlement, involved people and living system is stimulating the growth of urban structure to become more complex and is developing towards a natural structure. For example the new city centre as a collection of services for the districts is processing the overlapping of different cores and enhancing the connections between separate units. Encouraging self-built activities, private initiatives and involving new types of stakeholders in the process of decision-making goes one step further than constructing the new city centre. It conquers the instinct of people to perceive things in a simple way. By involving the complexity of living system and express it with planning and design, these new planning approaches is making a difference in the planning process, trying to avoid the urban structure detached from its living system.
s ctivitie e & A l p o n e io P cupat al Oc ic s y Ph
pation
Occu
re
tructu
Infras
ratum
ound ial Gr s Artific Flow Water e r u t Na
Subst
e Peopl
pation
Occu
al Physic
re
tructu
Infras Adapt the three layers from the Dutch to five layers in response to the local context of Almere.
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63
ound ial Gr Artific ws er Flo e Wat r u t a N
Two More Layers - People and Their Activities Same place with different people and activities creates totally different ambiances.
The Need of People
As illustrated before, those who are using the place and the way they are using the place are playing a critical role in the design and evaluation of urban environment. Most people move to Almere for the spacious housing with cheaper price than that of Amsterdam, especially for single-family housing. According to interviewees, most area of Almere is losing its quite living quality, especially in Almere Stad. Most people accept that Almere is beautiful for the large green area it has; it is the same group of people who think Almere is not a place to have urban life. An old lady who has moved to Amsterdam shared her opinions: ‘the city centre is for young people. It has many amusements, but not enough services.’ Then she explained that by services she meant those in residential areas providing possibility for people to meet each other. People enjoy the big parks in the city, but not as much as their own neighbourhoods. Though Almere claims itself to be a town with high safety level, local residents do have different opinions. Due to rising unemployment and crisis, there are more burglars in the city than before. As many small police offices are shut down, the ability to deal with crimes has also decreased. Interviewees hardly mentioned water system. When asked, they said that the water systems are not different from other cities; also they have strong belief in the civil engineering technologies. Considering spatial quality, water is always discussed with green.
Square with Nobody
Adding up with the conclusions Zhou J. and Commandeur S.E. (2009) made from their interviews, Almere is generally regarded as one town, where most people enjoy the suburban lifestyle, while higher urban quality is also desired in certain areas. The new city centre is representative for the urban life of Almere and is especially popular with young people. But many residents still prefer the cosy traditional centres. Separate lanes reduce traffic problems in the city, but still there are traffic jams in highway connecting Almere and the ‘main land’, on main roads, and in the centre. Bicycle is a popular means of local connection, but somehow not easy to keep the right direction when travelling for a long distance (Zhou J. and Commandeur S.E., 2009). According to the same research and my interviewees, when discussing the desired city (Appendix 1), people are satisfied with the existing combination of suburban environment and urban components. Some desire for more urban lives, some are longing for the old, quiet neighbourhoods. The same is that they want better quality for public space. Jobs and highly educated people are wanted. Instead of further expansion, more local focuses are on the maintaining and uplifting of existing urban environment. People would also like to see less formal activities and more self-organized ones. On the one hand, local residents can quickly adapt to the provided urban space; and on the other hand there is a great interest in taking the initiatives of local development (Zhou J. and Commandeur S.E., 2009). With more concerns on the demand of user groups, the bottom-up way of making city is becoming popular for residents, while top-down is still domain. Self-built activities with certain urban regulations is one example illustrating the growing attention on local residents. And in Top-down planning approaches, pay more attention to the need of people and balance it with other profits is one way to adapt plans and designs for the need of people. 64
Square with People Taking Rest
Square With Open Market Self-built houses in Almere Poort
65
How do people make use of urban space?
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67
Two More Layers - Nature Properties and Local Water Dynamics As illustrated in last chapter, the existing civil engineering technologies for preparing building sites are increasing the vulnerability of places in the game between land and water. They are neither resilient enough to adapt the living environment to climate change (Hooimeijer, 2008). Coming along with the transition of water management are the requirements for cooperation in spatial planning and design, especially when concerning the need for space. Including the dynamics of local water systems and concerning about nature properties of soil and water while analysing urban structures would help to explore the possibilities of transition from existing urban structure for adapting to emerging challenges from nature environment. Protected area designated by EHS and Natura 2000.
25-30 cm
Loam
30-35 cm
Homogeneous Light Clay
35-40 cm
Water Heavy Clay between Surfaces
Subsidence
Soil
Area threatened by flooding
mm/d
Water for nature forest
When drainage of polder is finished, the landscape of ‘Noorderplassen’ is the same as other areas: land waiting for further development or cultivation, with ditches for drainage.
To be Special Water Quality Special Water Quality Vulnerable Shallow Ground Water
Almere
Agriculture Water Urban Water
Water Function Infiltration
Soil Constitution Plowed Layer
ripened clay
Due to the nature condition of porous soil and high pressure from water in Markermeer, the place is not able to keep dry with normal water technologies. Thus landscape of the place became the lakes and wetlands as what it looks like now. 68
Minimum Reclamation Flexible Level
Maximum Reclamation
Unripened Clay Minimum Reclamation Depth with Flexible Water Levels, (Brauw, 2009)
69
Seepage
Five Layers for Analyses
e Peopl
People demand of stakeholders and their influence on the trend of urban development.
Concluding the five layers adapted from the Dutch Layers, the layers people and nature are not solid layers with direct spatial expressions. The way they shape the living environment is mainly by guiding implementations on the three layers in between. Adopting with the needs of people and the flows of water in analysing trends of spatial development is conductive to design for coherence between spatial, social, economical, and ecological development. Starting from the layers in the middle, the next step is to link the anthropogenic occupations with the potentials of the place and the society by analysing space for water and integral management systems.
ion
cupat
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Physic
Physical Occupation
cture
tru Infras
functional areas, buildings and squares
ound ial Gr
Artific
Infrastructure Facilities to carry urban flows
ws
er Flo
e Wat Natur
Artificial Ground Underlying surface, and artificial ground prepared by civil engineering technologies.
Nature (Water Flows)
Atmosphere
Evaporation
Precipitation
Surface Water
Salinated Groundwater
Brackish Groundwater Fresh Groundwater
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71
In this thesis, the nature dynamics of water is the main factor considered in the nature layer, incl. soil constitutions & water cycles. water cycle in the air water cycle in urban system water cycle underground drinking water pipe waste water pipe sand clay
Space for Water Functions of Water in Urban Water System
precipitation 100%
‘Fighting continuously against the water – common in lowlands – takes lots of energy. This could be minimized by adapting more to the natural water processes. This adaptation however requires spacze, a resource that is only sparsely available in a densely populated lowland like the Netherlands.’ Van de Ven, 2011
Water in urban system is concluded into five types according to civil engineer definitions: precipitation (external water), surface water, groundwater, drinking water and waste water(Appendix 2). And each type of water has its functions and correspondingly spatial requests (van de Ven, 2011). Following analyses are allocating the water functions into the layers, and investigating the space for water in urban systems.
Surface Water
-recreation -culture -residents
e Peopl
n
patio Occu
cal
Physi
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tructu
Infras
Groundwater
ound ial Gr
Artific
lows
er F e Wat r u t a N
drinking water 54%
sewage system 23%
infiltration 40%
evaporation 37%
drinking water surface water
groundwater waste water
Urban Water Systems (information from van de Ven, 2011)
Hydrological Balance in Urban Systems (information from van de Ven, 2011)
Rain Water
-toilet flush -cloth washing -gardening
-landscape -residents
related to surface water functions by recharging surface water
-separation -carrying structure
related to surface water functions by recharging surface water
-discharge -storage -water supply during dry period -degradation of pollutants -transport pollutants -retain pollutants
-discharge -storage -water supply -degradation of pollutants -transport pollutants -retain pollutants -prevention of oxidation -reduction of subsidence -reduction of weight
related to surface water and groundwater functions by recharging surface and groundwater
-ecology
-support ecosystem
-surface water recharge -groundwater recharge
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precipitation
Waste Water
Drinking Water -bath and shower -wash basin -toilet flush -food preparation -dish washing -cloth washing -drinking -cleaning
-gardening -cleaning -cooling -heating -production -firefighting -irrigating -horticulture
related to the discharge function of surface water and ground water
73
Information from (van de Ven, 2011) and (Graaf, 2005)
Space for Water
Space for Water
Physical Occupation Infrastructure
Artificial Ground Nature Water Flows
Water system as infrastructure & Water as a type of landuse Water as rural landscape Water System for Drainage precipitation
drinking water surface water
groundwater waste water
Space for facilities of traditional water technologies: canals and pumping stations
Amphibious houses: live on water
Water as urban landscape
Retention Pond, Source: http://www.flbg.org/
Water roof, source: http://www.ddluxuryrealestate.com
Water for local transport
Kromslootpark- Nature Reserved Area
Water garden
Water as border of neighbourhoods
Pumping Station Almere
Atmosphere Evaporation
Precipitation
Surface Water Salinated Groundwater
Brackish Groundwater Fresh Groundwater
Extra space for retain water, balance nature water cycles and water pressures.
Space for biodiversity and ecological balance
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75
Space for Water
Integral Management of Spatial Planning and Water Management
People
‘One of the best things about water is to look and feel of it’ Whyte, 1980 Pleasant Water Environment
Inconvenient Water Environment
Traditionally Disconnected Systems in Policy Making
Water as living resource, (Brauw, 2009)
Water for look at and stay with
Water sports
Triathlon 2012 water - culture, source: www.nufoto.nl
Spatial Planning Responsibilities in spatial planning are distinctly illustrated in a top-down decision making system. Governmental sectors in national level sets the broad strategies, which are translated into regional plans by provinces and land use plans by municipalities. It is in the regional level that various policy fields (residential, commercial, infrastructure, water, recreational, agriculture, green, etc.) are supposed to be integrated on a plan where locations are defined for each of them. Spatial planning have to deal with multiple functions in the same location as each of these policy fields are requiring more space that exceeds the capacity if existing land (Appendix 3) (Woltjer Al, 2007).
Water could provide pleasant living environment; it can also make troubles. Gift or trouble depends on our attitude to it. As explained in previous chapters, the attitude towards the environment and water system is changing. The transition is not going to be achieved with merely the shifting of attitudes and responsibilities in water management; it asks for joint efforts from all related sectors. Concerning climate adaptive urban development, the integral management in making spatial and water policies is crucial for possible implementations.
Water Management Responsibilities are clearly stated and fragmented in Dutch water management system. Yet the flow of water connects different types of water tasks, which indicate the request for cooperation between different governmental entities. Concerning the control of water quality, water board is monitoring the quality of industrial and urban wastewater, and is responsible for guaranteeing the quality of canal and ditches. Provinces are responsible for groundwater, while municipalities work on sanitary sewage and storm water facilities (Woltjer Al, 2007). Pollution and changes in each sector have direct or indirect influence on other parts.
Water management and spatial planning are inherently connected, yet the management systems are separated in Dutch tradition (Appendix 4) (Woltjer Al, 2007). Water management is usually the job of engineers; while planners and designers work on spatial planning (Wolsink, 2006). There is weak connection in policy-making concerning the two aspects, as a result, there were seldom conflicts between the two fields. Accommodating the traditional systems of water management and spatial planning into the layers, it is visible that water management is mainly working on the layer of ‘artificial ground’ and a part of the infrastructure system; while the focus of spatial planning is occupation and infrastructure. As water is technically controllable thanks to industrial revolution, built environment could take place anywhere without considering the effect on water system, let alone the environment (Ham, 1999, Woltjer Al, 2007). Decisions such as water level norms, dike maintenance and water quality norms are not referring to urban condition and plans (Woltjer Al, 2007). Though organized in different governmental domains, they are interrelated in the stage of implementation. The making of urban plans are always restricted by water system (Woltjer Al, 2007).
Spatial Planning
e Peopl ion cupat al Oc Physic re tructu Infras ound ial Gr Artific ws er Flo e Wat Natur
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e Peopl ion cupat al Oc Physic re tructu Infras ound ial Gr Artific ws er Flo e Wat Natur
Responsibilities of Spatial Planning and Water Management in Layers
Play with water - Victoria Park, source: www.hassellstudio.com
Accessible & touchable water
Water Management
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Spatial Planning
The Threshold of Integral Management
Water Management European Union
-Enforcement of European legislation in urban water management such as the European Water Framework Directive
-Broad strategic lines of spatial policy -Key national planning decisions
National Ministry of infrastructure and environment
- Flood protection and water management of main river system - Supervision on implementation of European Water Framework Directive (EWFD) - Developing national water policy and legislation
-Regional plan -Main aspects of future spatial development for the province -Framework for approval of municipal landuse plans
Provincial Level Provinces(12)
- Regulation of groundwater extractions - Supervision on waterboards - Drawing up regional water plans
-Local landuse plan -Allocating and regulating local usage of land -Optional: a municipal structural plan
Local Level Municipalities(about 450)
- Sewer system installation, operation and maintenance - Stormwater management in public space - Groundwater management in public space
-Self-organization and construction of neighbourhoods
Neighbourhood Level Residents
- Collection of stormwater on private property - Groundwater management on private property
Drinking Water Company
- Production and distribution of drinking water - Operation and maintenance of the drinking water supply infrastructure
Responsibilities of Stakeholders in Spatial Planning and Water Management (Compared to the table of Appendix 4, there are cooperation between stakeholders from both fields in this frame )
Waterboards(27) -Management of regional water system(water level), draining of polders and main canals -Flood control -Treatment of urban wastewater and management of water quality -Assist urban design in neighbourhood scale
Information from Woltjer Al, 2007; van de Ven, 2011
In local level, spatial decisions and water principles are not coherently integrated
‘No Building in Flood-Prone Area’ CWM21C 2000 VS
‘Urban settlements is the main reasons for subsidence in Flevoland polder.’ National Water Plan 2009-2015
Urban Expansion plan in flood-prone areas
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In recent years, Dutch policy is moving away from conventional approach under which water management is independently relying on technical experts to create the ‘standard’ environment. Intention for integration is taking place in both water management and spatial planning system with testing implementations. This idea emerged from the rising concerns of environment and stimulated by the transition of water management system.
evident influence on spatial planning. One of the examples is that some part of agriculture use are converted to ‘water’ for accommodating more water along the Rhine river basin. Temporary water storage is implemented for coping with intense precipitation and pluvial flooding (Woltjer Al, 2007). Current tendency of the transformation is that water could perform as a strategic instrument, guiding planners to find innovative solutions to the problems and for improving quality of life (Al, 2004). Increasing water management problems and awareness of the risks are pushing regional and local planners to find space for water retention. Accumulating needs for integration will bring a fundamental change to planners’ attitudes on water issue, emphasizing water concerns in regional and land use plans. In this process, spatial planning can build a bridge for integrating water management with economical, environmental, ecological, social, and culture concerns, and mediating conflicts between different interest groups for ‘structured coherence’ (Harvey, 1989, Woltjer Al, 2007). Concerning these aspects, it is important that collaboration starts in the phase of strategy making, which will ensure the implementation of plans (Schwartz, 2004).
Implicit concerns about environment were indicated since 1960s with the strategy ‘Concentrated Decentralization’, which could be regarded as the starting of considering sustainable development of urban agglomerations. In 1987, the explicit discussion about sustainability took place mainly focusing on environmental issues. As the problem of sustainability has gone from implicit towards explicit, more attention on environmental issues such as groundwater and soil has been paid from the perspective of spatial planning. This is not just supported by policy documents, but also by the transformation in the governmental structure for policy making. In 1971, the ministry of Human Health and Environmental Hygiene (VoMil) was established; at that time the National Spatial Planning Agency (RPD) was part of the Ministry of Housing. As sustainable development has become a successful concept, governmental structure has also made adaptation to it. In the 1980s, the ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment (VROM) was established (Goedman, Houtsma, Zonneveld, VROM, 2008). Now it is the Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment (established in 2010) that is responsible for improving the quality of life, infrastructure and mobility in safe, clean and sustainable environment. This leads the expansion of responsibilities together with increasing need for negotiation for stakeholders in both fields. Civil engineers have to think about spatial strategies; while urban planners need to concern more the mechanism of water systems.
Even though in national level, it is generally accepted that spatial strategies and water strategies are integrated. But for regional and local level of decision-making in Almere, they are not coherently integrated. Almere is constructed with land prepared by municipalities and water system regulated by water boards without detailed communication with each other (Woltjer Al, 2005, 2007). Now water management and urban planning are still following the traditional non-integrated pattern. In the flood-prone area Almere Oosterwold, regardless of heavy subsidence and high potentials of seepage, large areas of expansion are still proposed in the strategic vision. Coming to local scale urban design, water as land use is not preferable by designers and developers. Water disciplines and regulations are challenged by profits of other stakeholders, and have low impact on making urban development adapting to local water dynamics. Discussing the strategy making and urban design following water principles while generating economical, social and ecological profits would help to stimulate ‘climate adaptive’ implementations. The accumulation of such implementations is important for the transition of optimised innovations to become sustainable mainstreams.
There are two major inducements for the transformation of water management towards a broader strategic role. One, which is comparatively implicit, comes from EU policy, in which the influence of water on other fields (agriculture, economy) has highlighted the importance of integration in managing various disciplines. The other is climate change and a series of combined effects such as increasing sea level, intensified rain, and major flooding. Problems are challenging the capability of conventional water management and accelerate the process of seeking more sustainable solutions such as accommodating water in urban areas. Both national policy ‘room for river’ and regional and local policies emphasizing ‘water retention’ will make 79
As expressed by the table below, Woltjer and Al’s research on approaches towards integration have not just show possible approaches but also drawn a vision of how integration of water management and spatial planning may contribute to sustainable urban development. Regulatory
Functional Regions
Social Cultural Regions
1.Conventional Key objectives: -public management of water quantity and quality Key instruments: -technical expertise -functional separation of water from other policy subjects -reliance on draining water away and blocking water out -reliance on norms and standards
2.Spatial Planning Key objectives: -water integrated into broader policy making Key instruments: -comprehensive approach, water as a broader issue -stronger references to water in the practice of spatial planning -water as a resource of aesthetic quality in planning
4.New Water Culture 3.Water Planning Key objectives: Key objectives: -making water management more important -water as a source of social coherence and particpolitically and socially ipation-a new water culture Key instruments: Key instruments: -separate water management regions and agen-using water strategically to create new capacicies ties, new identities -processes for creating political and public -new coordinating institutions support -water as part of attractive living and working -a role for water management demands in landcondition use decisions -ensuring sufficient space for water Four approaches to integrating water management and spatial planning (Woltjer Al, 2007)
Integral management and proposals Integration of spatial planning and water management include the : - new actors and new responsibilities of actors - cooperation and negotiation of stakeholders - adopting with requirements from the other field while making landuse and water plans - synthesize landuse and water plans according to local context, make one implementing plan, and provide guiding rules for urban design
new role of actors
Urban Strategy Landuse Plan
Water Strategy Water Plan negotiation
Spatial Planning
Water Management
Strategic
Before integral decision making, both fields are taking wider context into consideration. It results in an overlap of responsibilities.
People Physical Occupation Infrastructure Artificial Ground Nature Water Flows
When stakeholders from both fields have the right to make strategies and plans, various plans are produced representing different profits. And when water plan meets urban plan, stakeholders have to negotiate and cooperate with each other for producing one final plan for implementation.
People
Increasing tendency for Integral management in Almere
Physical Occupation Water Management
Intensity Water Management
Urban Development Integration
Infrastructure Artificial Ground Nature Water Flows
Time log
Integration in urban planning and design means optimized water innovations are well facilitated with strategies and designs. Spatial innovations are supposed to respect the needs of people and water principles by operating on the built up environment: artificial ground, infrastructure, and physical occupations.
People
Physical Occupation Intensity Urban Development
start to construct zuidflevoland polder Close Zuiderzee
Start of Urbanization
Present
Integration of working fields for the case of Almere (e.g. strategy & plan making) 80
Infrastructure Artificial Ground
Future Nature Water Flows
81
Restructure Almere Design with water principles
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DESIGN HYPOTHESIS
Design with Water Principles ‘...profits and requirements of various stakeholders are challenging the possibility of making spatial planning of an area match with the forces of water in the drainage basin...’ Van de Ven 2011
Almere is not the pioneer for water management transition, and water risks are not the focus of spatial development in national, regional and local level. In Almere, water principles are likely to compromise to requirements of other profits with higher economical and social benefits. Acknowledging the importance of adopting water principles with spatial strategies and designs for adapting urban systems to climate change, water strategy and designs are proposed based on the hypothesis:
‘The governmental CWM21C (2000) introduced spatial planning as a tool for solving water management problems and the local provincial and national government agreed with this new approach. (Ministry of Transport Public Works and Water Management 2000).’ Van de Ven 2011 The Almere Principles for sustainability:
Respecting water requirements in spatial planning indicates that strategies , plans and designs should adapt to the nature properties of water flows. Illustrating that:
What if:
Water principles become the main principles for making urban strategies and designs?
Cherish diversity Connect place and context Combine city and nature Anticipate changes Keep innovating Design healthy systems People make the city
- Water management should provide technical supports and play a strategic role in assisting polity and strategy making. - The preconditions of the ground (soil and water) should be considered when proposing interventions and selecting proper areas for implementing urban interventions. - When it comes to conflicts, the requirements from water aspects have a priority. - Involve the concerns of nature properties and local water dynamic in addition to the existing strategies and principles for sustainability. - Evaluate existing strategies and projects with water principles for new proposals.
ecological sustainability
Discuss how design with water principles could: - restructure Almere into resilient urban structure for capricious climate? - assist the urban transition of Almere to the ‘independent’ urban hub of metropolitan area? - contribute to economical, ecological and social coherence for sustainability?
e Peopl n upatio l Occ a ic s Phy re tructu Infras ound ial Gr Artific
economical sustainability local water dynamic nature water flows Involve the concerns of nature properties and local water dynamic in addition to the existing strategies and principles for sustainability, which mainly cares about content of the other four layers.
social sustainability 84
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Almere 2.0 2009-2030
Axis of Almere scale-up
flood-prone area
flood-prone area
Water principles: ‘One could use them, but is not obliged to. But taking them into account makes the spatial design more sustainable and more resilient.’ Safety No building in flood-prone areas Space for dikes and facilities Retaining water – buffering water – draining water Retention areas and emergency flooding areas Retaining water in the ground Multiple land use Space for groundwater quality
Densification instead of expansion Deconcentrated close water cycles space for surface water
Alternative Future with Water Principles
urban functions on water (e.g. residential, recreational) purification & infiltration zone
Never shift problems Never shift problems to neighbours/downstream and future generations
A different images for future evolves while evaluating the existing plan for expansion, projects and proposals with water principles,
Land use from clean to more dirty Two networks
Involve water dynamics in the design of public space
Some of the areas for urban expansion in Almere 2.0 are mostly not suitable for large scale urban constructions. Construction in Markermeer might interfere the ecological balance in the area; the soil and water condition in Almere Oosterwold is not suitable for locating heavy settlements. And coastal areas in Almere Pampus have high risks of seepage. It’s easier for these areas to accommodate water than buildings.
hzh pavement and ground
Instead of preparing rural areas with extra energy for new urban settlements, possibilities for densification could be
Allocate urban functions and water innovation according to the quality and flows of local water system
Keep clean water clean Alternate clean and pollution loaded streams Make water fun Keep water visible Build water positive Prevent sealing surfaces
found inside the existing urban border to accommodate new houses, jobs and residents. Combine densification with on-going urban renovations could stimulate the emerging of sub-centralities. Together with the existing urban centralities, the facilities could construct a denser and diverse service network, which supports the transition to urban identity and improve the competitiveness of Almere. More space for water will change the existing green-blue structure, \influence other carrying structures of urban systems, and stimulate urban renovations with densification. Involving dynamics of water flows into the design of public space for retain more water are able to increase the diversity of urban landscapes, as well as the fun of living with the dynamics.
CWM21C, 2000; Van de Ven, 2011 86
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VISION Design the nature dynamics into urban landscape
With the integration of optimized technical/engineer solutions from the field of water management into the strategy making, planning and design process, proposals for spatial development in Almere could manage to deal with the risks and problems related to water issue, meanwhile perusing social/economical/cultural prosperity with better spatial quality, contributing to the transition of Almere from metropolitan suburb to an independent green city. For long-term development, with the integration, spatial development could adapt to the nature properties, local water flows, and the environmental changes that comes together with climate change.
landscape with normal water level
landscape with high water level 88
89
STRATEGY - Defining different qualities along slow (quiet) and fast (efficiency) traffics. Restructure urban functions and the carrying structures with new green-blue structure. - Enhance connections between local districts with slow connections and public transport (bus/ bicycle/ boat/ pedestrian).
...high river floods and ponding of polders are occurring more and more frequently. This has led to the conclusion that a new approach to the water management is necessary. More space for water is the key factor in this approach. Van de Ven 2011
- Find space to facilitate sustainable water systems. - Retain and recycle water within the polder; and try to reduce water pressure and negative effects on regional water systems.
possible sites to retain water
With the new carrying structure: - Facilitate emerging sub-centralities - Densify existing built-up areas with urban renovation. - Connect facilities and services to shape urban service network - Break the gaps between districts with better local connections and urban interventions.
- Restructure the green-blue structure with the new water surfaces. - Connect the ecosystem of surrounding lagoons with rural area inside the dike and into the urban area with new green-blue structure. - Diminish the role of dike as border of land and water, as well as ecosystems.
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STRATEGY Define and Link Innovations
W
D
sustainable water system e Peopl ion cupat al Oc ic s y h P re tructu Infras ound ial Gr Artific ws er Flo e Wat Natur
Adapt urban systems to nature water flows by facilitating water innovations, which mainly work on the layer of artificial ground by changing the way of managing water.
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carrying structure
urban occupation e Peopl ion cupat al Oc ic s y h P re tructu Infras ound ial Gr Artific ws er Flo e Wat Natur
e Peopl ion cupat al Oc ic s y Ph re tructu Infras ound ial Gr Artific ws er Flo e Wat Natur
Transform carrying structure with new water system
Locate potential spots for urban densificatoin with density calculations of architecture, function, and infrastructure.
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Facilitate Sustainable Water System Study and combine water innovations and models tackling different problems on household, neighbourhood and district level into one system; and apply this system to the context of Almere.
e Peopl ion cupat al Oc Physic re tructu Infras ound ial Gr Artific s Flow Water e r u t Na
Households
Neighbourhoods
District
Collect, infiltrate, store and use rain water within one or several buildings combined with separate water pipes for the collected water and recycle d water. Collected water can also be charged to canals.
Water can be circulated, infiltrated while flowing. Water is also a medium to carry and store energy. With heat pump surface water and ground water can be involved for the recycling of heat and cold.
‘Closed City Concept’ Water can be collected, infiltrated, stored, used, circulated, and recycled within a district: ‘ the close city district’ Ring
Circulation
W
D
Carry & Exchange Energy
Infiltration & Purification
Wadi System
Pump
Close City Districts with Close Water Cycle The model to apply for Almere combines water innovations of all scales.
Local Districts
W
Pump
Pump
Wadi System
Lake
W
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D
D
Pump
95
Existing Water System
-A
Canals
Water Plain and Elevation (NAP standard)
Ditches Direction of Water Flow
Apply Water Models Retention Model
Closed City District
Seasonal Reservoir Peak Retention W
D
circulate Pump
D Pump
Land has various elevations in the drainage basin. The average level is five metres below sea level. 96
97
W purify
Apply Retention Model Variation of Retention Model from Neighbourhood level to District Level Neibourhood level retention cycle (inside water plain)
In each water plain, there could be one or more retention cycles.
Local retention cycles then compose regional retention structure. Then for larger scale, regional retention cycle performs as single retention unit as local cycle for regional cycle.
Retention/Reservoir Site & Main Water Course
Main Water Course Seasonal Reservoir Peak Retention
District level retention cycle (cross border of water plains)
Existing Water surface Proposed Seasonal Reservoir Proposed Peak Retention
Small area of surface water for temporary retention and seasonal reservoir. (inside water plains or cross border with slight difference in water level)
Seasonal Reservoir Area Peak Retention Area Canals Carry Major Flows between Retention and Reservoir
Regional Reservoir Regional Peak Retention Site
Area for contain large scale surface water (cross water plains). It may influence the landuse plan
98
99
Resilient Water System for Capricious Water Environment
The existing urban water system is not resilient enough for heavy precipitation. It is neither flexible enough to balance the differentiation of water quantity between wet season and dry season.
Proposed condition with more areas for retain water. In these areas with possibilities to have surface covered by water, infrastructure systems and buildings, could prepare for situating in water. The urban water system have higher resilience to balance water quantity and quality in changing weather and climate.
Normal Condition
Normal condition & Dry seasons: water recharged from local reservoir (high water quality)
For heavy precipitation
normal building without flood protection measures
flood-proof building
In dry season, there is a lack of water resulting in low surface water level. In such condition, water(with low quality from lagoon) will be pumped into the polder. Pump water up to higher seasonal reservoir before heavy rainfall and lower down surface water level in peak retention area.
With heavy precipitation, lower part of the city might suffer from flooding. 100
During heavy rainfall water flows to lower area and is caught by peak retentions area 101
Restructure Carrying Structure e Peopl ion cupat al Oc Physic re tructu Infras ound ial Gr Artific s Flow Water e r u t Na
Transform green-blue structure by involving the proposed surfaces for water and main water courses.
Slow connections: Secondary roads, Bicycle paths, Canals. These connections are covering both urban are rural areas. They link people with nature and represent comparatively quite quality alongside.
102
103
Fast connections:
Define Problematic Sites
Highway, Railway, Main Roads, and Bus lanes These connections are concentrated mainly in and on the border of built up areas. They represent efficiency, but they also bring problems like noises to surrounding areas. They are also buffering places on different sides of these lanes.
According to the ‘two network strategy’, the green-blue network represents quite spatial quality. Noise from traffic and the lanes themselves as buffers are problems to where the fast connections overlap with quite areas. Green spots show where fast connection is interfering spatial quality. There design is needed for proposing solutions.
104
Two Network Strategy - The model for define problems
105
Space Syntax
Space syntax is helping to analyse spatial configurations by working on the infrastructure network. In the case of Almere, space syntax is used for calculating the density of using road system. The result shows that most densely used streets are main roads inside urban areas.
Space Matrix
Spaces matrix calculates architectural density and typology. Generally in most areas of Almere, the density is low. It is higher in the ‘centre’ of districts and the city centre.
Intensity of Urbanization
Mix Use Types (MXI)
e Peopl ion cupat al Oc Physic re tructu Infras ound ial Gr Artific s Flow Water e r u t Na
‘Density of Urbanization’ is a result of combining the calculation of ‘MXI’, ‘Space Syntax’, and ‘Space Matrix’. The combined analyse helps to get a grip on the general urbanizing condition. It also helps to expose potential sites to be further urbanized with minimum effort on certain aspect. Result of calculation shows Almere has a large potential to have emerging centralities.
MXI evaluates the density of functions. Urban functions are concluded into three categories: housing, working and amenity.
GIS data from Ye Y. (2012)
106
107
Define Problem and Potential Sites
Potential sites for improving urban density and urbanized intensity
Overlap of concluded problem and potential sites
Overlapping problem and potential locations from previous analyses helps to define intervention sites to carry on with sample designs. Conclusions from previous study can be concluded as tackling on issues regarding problems on water management and water flows, infrastructure systems and physical occupations. The need of people and interactions of stakeholders will be discussed in sample design proposals.
e Peopl ion cupat al Oc ic s y h P re tructu Infras ound ial Gr Artific s Flow Water e r u t Na
Potential areas to retain water and Problematic sites when fast traffic pass through quiet areas. 108
109
Sample Design
Intervention sites & Types
Nine sites representing four types of areas representing different local conditions are selected according to the map concluding potentials and problems in previous page. Business Parks: Areas at the age of the city with business blocks and residential neighbourhoods. District Centre: These are existing sub-centres with potentials to expand the amount and type of services and facilities. Green: -Large park with ‘wild’ or rural buffering districts. They are good options for recreational activities. -Big urban green areas between neighbourhoods Usually with fast road going through these areas. Sample designs are made for each type, with one detailed design on the site of Muziekwijk (Business Parks).
Business Park Large District Parks
Urban Green Area
District Centre
110
111
Business Park
District Centre
2
2
2 2 1 3
1
1
3
112
1
113
Large District Parks
Urban Green Area
2
4
4 2 3 1
1
114
3
115
0
Sample Design - Business Park Site: Muziekwijk Almere Stad
- residential area constructed in 1990s (renovation is in plan for this area according to the municipality) - next to concentrated business park: Hollandsekant - well bus, train, car connection - fast bicycle lane connection - office buildings along railway - potential to have emerging sub-centrality - green strip & canal connection - community park for temporally peak retention.
0.2
Bus Stop Rail Station Cycle Route Fast Road Bus Lane Railway Canal Green Business Park
116
117
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0 (km)
Site Photos
Site Photos
118
119
Site Photos
Site Photos
120
121
School
Residential Commercial
Municipality
School
- Companies (offices) - Public Sector (offices) - Public Services (e.g. school)
Business Park: - Companies (offices) - Industries - Commercial (wholesale markets; restaurants & bars)
0
100
200
300
400
500 (m)
Non-residential Functions
0
100
200
300
400
500 (m)
Bus Stop Rail Station
There is a diversity of user group including people living there, working there, and coming for business or for shopping (wholesale market). Thus the area could host a variety of services from regional level to neighbourhood level, giving the potential to be developed into a local centre.
Cycle Route Fast Road Bus Lane
User groups: - Households (residents and shopkeepers) - Private Companies (offices) - Public Sector (offices) - Public Services (e.g. municipality) - Commercial (e.g. supermarket)
Railway Canal Green Working & Amenities Business Park 122
123
Axes of Development Axes of facilities and services
Local Services
There is a potential to renovate the neighbourhood by linking regional and local services. Then houses open to streets could be occupied by non-residential functions: shops, bars, offices and so on. Streets can be designed in to the network of neighbourhood public space for hosting more activities, communications between people, improving the vitality of the neighbourhood. It can also contribute to improving the safety of the place by having more people visible in public space for longer period of a day.
Local Services
Proposed public space with new facilities and services
Actors involved: Developers Municipalities Households (Residents & Shopkeepers)
Regional Services
Water System A closed water system is introduced for the neighbourhood to share water pressure in urban water system. The ideas of ‘collect- infiltrate- circulate and recycle’ works from building level to neighbourhood level. Besides, water is also carrying heat and cold for energy exchange in the neighbourhood. Water in neighbourhood can be charged to the urban water system when capacity is exceeded.
The proposed blue structure links water collection, circulation and recycling from buildings to canals.
Besides increasing the surface of water, extra space for extreme precipitation is designed with public space.
Actors involved: Waterboard Municipalities Households (Residents & Shopkeepers) Drinking Water Company Energy Company Axes of Green and Local Connection Connec The fast road passing by is downgraded for improving connection of services. Slow connection for bicycles/ pedestrian are combined with the design of public space and water axes. Vegetation is a key element for urban design due to its ability to infiltrate water, adjust micro climate and provide shading and views for local residents.
Potential area to be covered by vegetation. Renovate paths for local connectivities with slow means of transport
Actors involved: Municipalities Households (Residents & Shopkeepers) Developers 124
125
Section 1 Renovate Residential Block Stakeholders involved: Households Municipality Waterboards (Drinking Water Company & Energy Company)
Section 2 Downgrade Fast Infrastructure Stakeholders involved: Municipality Waterboards
Section Design Section 3 Transform Parking Square Stakeholders involved: Developers Municipality Waterboards Individuals (e.g. local residents, artists)
126
127
Section 1 - Renovate Residential Block Implement facilities for collect rain water- purify - circulate & recycle in one housing unit or among several units and combine them with public space.
42m
Existing Section
Proposed Section Water/Green Roof
Collect - Purify - Use with single family
Collect - Circulate - Recycle within neighbourhood
Wadi System Private Water Stroage Tank
Collective Underground Storage
8m
7m
128
5m
Collective Underground Storage
1m
Private Water Stroage Tank
9m
Collective Underground Storage
8m
9m
129
Section 2 - Downgrade Fast Infrastructure Proposed Section 1 The basic idea is to combine the separated traffic lanes, and leave space on both sides for designing public space. Water collection and increasing surface water area could be combined with the design of public space.
Wadi - Infiltration
Wadi Water Storage
Water Storage
Existing Section Proposed Section 2
Permeable Square
local canal
Water Storage
Proposed Section 3
35m Retention Surface
local canal
Water Storage 14m
130
4m
1m
131
6m
1m 2m
7m
Section 3 - Trasform Parking Square Concentrate parking function in parking buildings so the current square occupied could be transformed for public use. Design may also be combine with the design for street.
95m
Existing Section
Proposed Section
(street design from section 2 included) Rain Roof
Water Storage
28m
7m
132
Water Storage
36.5m
17.5m
133
6m
Spatial Simulation
Mixture of working and living, water retention area combined with the design of public space and green axes
Existing condition
134
135
Site Photos
Sample Design - District Centre Site: Almere Haven
- The first areas developed in Almere, centre of Almere Haven, ‘cosy centre’ according to local people. It has a potential to expand as a bigger centre - Well connected by bus, car, and bicycle on land, boat from the lagoon, canals in urban area are not for transport - Mixed functions and user groups in the area - Large green area covered by limited types of plans(mainly deciduous trees and grass)
136
137
Site Condition
Axes of Development
Existing services are concentrated along the street connecting the marketplatz and waterfront of the harbour (where people stay and rest). Idea for densifying the centre is to make use of the courtyards behind the streets. Transform them from current parking lots to various types of squares. Then the side of buildings facing the courtyard are able to be used for commercial activities.
Bus Stop Cycle Route Fast Road Bus Lane Canal Green Residential Gooimeer Lagoon
Renovate Courtyards
Renovate buildings, design courtyards and their connections together with implementing of water collection and recycling.
Service Axes 138
139
Green for assist urban design
Proposed ‘Expansion’
Spatial Simulation
Existing Condition - Courtyard as Parking Lot
Existing Condition - Courtyard as Community Garden 140
141
Site Photos
Sample Design - Urban Green Area Site: Filmwijk Almere Stad
142
143
Axes of Development As urban green area surrounded by residential neighbourhoods, this green area is rather an undeveloped block than a urban park. This area is possible to have new urban constructions to build mixed used neighbourhoods ‘in the park’. Densify and Diversify buildings and functions in this part is able to help release pressure from expansion to rural areas. The development can be implemented by normal developers. It can also be done by private initiatives with collective design.
‘Islands’ for new constructions. It’s prepared for mixed used neighbourhoods.
Existing Urban Occupation Heat & Cold Exchange Circulation & Infiltration
Ponds to Store & Infiltrate Water (Seasonal Storage)
Proposed Structure for Densification
Bus Stop Path Fast Road Bus Lane Canal Green Residential Existing Green-Blue Area
Ponds Business Park Sports & Culture Facilities
Extra Capacity for Heavy Precipitation 144
145
Site Photos
Sample Design - Large District Park Site: Het Beginbos
146
147
Axes of Development It is a large green area between Almere Stad and Almere Haven with few buildings inside. It’s accessible mainly by bicycle and by car, boat is also possible along main canals. There is no public transport connection for this area. It’s a hot spot for recreational activities though not often used by people. Low density and low impact urbanization combined with seasonal water storage is a way to make use of this landscape. It would also enhance connectivity between the areas buffered by this large green area. For living in the landscape, the knowledge base of low-impact behaviours are crucial for being friendly to the ecosystem besides normal regulations.
Blocks for Low Density & Low Impact Development Existing Urban Occupation
Heat & Cold Exchange Circulation & Infiltration
Proposed structure for expansion into the green area
Bus Stop
Ponds to Store Water as Seasonal Reservoirs
Path Fast Road Bus Lane Canal Green Residential Existing Green-Blue Area
Business Park
High Capacity to Store Water for Extreme Weather 148
149
Phases of Development The sample projects are the initial actions to restructure Almere with water principles. By discovering potentials of the place and facing the challenges with pilot innovations. They proved the possibility of urban transition with water principles and provide the potentials for carry on with further urban transitions for more resilience to climate change together with densified and diversified urbanization.
Lake & Pond new ponds & temporary water retention areas Existing centrality & centrality in existing plan proposed centrality enhanced connection with green-blue structure enhanced urban connections
Existing condition
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
Existing centralities and large surface water
Emerging new development and renovations with diverse scale, services and facilities, density. Innovations are connected by enhanced green-blue network, and are transformed for facilitate water management innovations for better self-sustained urban water systems.
Interaction generate between different centralities and linking each part of urban services to work together as one service network for urban area. It also stimulate more connections between different districts, consolidating Almere as one city.
This process may continue to strengthen the resilience to capricious water environment and climate. Diverse services are widely distributed with interconnections to each other, in a way enhance the competitiveness of the city
150
151
Toolbox Building
District
Cooperation of Stakeholders
Closed Water Cycle
Rain Water Collection Infiltration with Plants & Underground Storage
Recycle Water Separate Clean and Gray Water
Retention - Infiltration - Circulation
Store & Recycle Energy
Permeable Surface & Underground Storage
Green (Rain ) Roof Green (Rain ) Garden Recycle Water
Store and circulate water in closed water cycle
They are interconnected to balance water quantity.
Increase Space for Surface Water Recharge Groundwater Amphibious Building
Underground Water Storage Connect Underground Storage Tank with Canal for Discharge
Water to carry/exchange energy and for cooling in summer.
Floating Building 152
Closed water cycle is connected to urban water systems with locks and pumps
Water Course for Connecting Places 153
Discussion, Conclusion and Reflection Design about restructure Almere based on water principles is not aiming at providing solutions. It is trying to answer the questions from previous research and enhance the comprehension of the research topic. Together with the knowledge gained from investigating the problem, they represent an attitude towards the process of working: research by design and design for research. Strategy and tests with sample design prove that integrate water innovations with urban design is able to combine improving the resilience of built up environment with trend of urban development. Water is a favored element to use by designers for public space and buildings, and beloved by people. It’s not difficult for urban designers to design the requests for space from water innovations. Moreover, if well cooperated, we can also imagine that civil engineers might be inspired by the cooperation as well. Besides conflicts between stakeholders, the traditional/existing trajectory of development in people’s mind is also a critical impediment for implementing transition. This calls for integration in decision-making process, and in turn proves that integration in both fields of management is supporting the resilience of environment and society.
As local context is specific from one to each other, the guiding disciplines and models are not supposed to be adaptable for all situations and have same spatial outcomes. Besides, testing the disciplines is also a process of enriching the understanding of certain topics, which is supporting the accumulation of transitions. And the approaches of working might provide references for other cases. For the Tianjin case of the comparative study, the local context is totally different from that of Almere. There is a lack of water and heavy salinized soil. Thus the design solutions could be totally different from those proposed for Almere. But nevertheless the understandings towards the topic and the approaches are referential. Ideas such as design for people and for adapting to local nature properties is adaptable. Then the key issues need to be defined according to local urban context. And the interrelationships between the elements would be different. In this situation, the layers might still be useful for understanding the problems; but in that case there will be a different adaption of the original model.
From define the problems and analyze the problems, to propose solutions, the process of working represent a process of balancing diverse profits. What’s important about the design part is that it provides a platform to discuss the factor that is not influential enough in real discussion. It is of strategic nature that in decision-making process, some values are emphasized while others not. However, what is not crucial in the negotiation between different profits could be critical for reality. The requirement concerning water management is in this situation. Design proposals based on these requirements could provide complementary options for discussing with other stakeholders. Besides, discuss profits of other fields such as economical prosperity and social coherence based on water principles is also providing a different perspective to the water principles. A plan (such as the water plan) could be brought on the table for discussion, and then there might be totally new conditions for the next phase of working. It’s a process of continuously evaluating, modifying and discussing. And in this process, design not just a way to conclude research and provide guidelines for implementation, it is also important as a way of research for enhancing the understanding of problems and supporting the next step of research and design. Though transitions with remarkable differences are proposed as long-term goal. The projects are not expected to bring significant differences to the existing urban system. Transitions have to be approached little by little based on the existing condition and trajectory of development. The accumulation of implementations and discussions are important for supporting the transition. Pilot projects like ‘room for river’ are of course important. But pilot projects alone are not going to transform innovations into mainstreams. Their conclusions need to further tested and evaluated. Investigation on other areas is also critical for evaluating the outcomes and for generalizing optimized innovations. With the accumulation of implementing new projects, the spatial transition become explicit and people are conscious of the emerging new water & urban structure, the approaches and attitudes to water could be involved for shaping the growing urban culture.
154
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Appendix 1
Appendix 2 b) hydrological network of urban water system
atmosphere
drinking water
evapotranspiration
a) Preferred outdoor activities in Almere and its surroundings, (Zhou Commandeur,2009)
evaporation
irrigation
precipitation household industry
interception
groundwater in unsaturated zone
b) Suggestions for improving urban vitality of Almere, (Zhou Commandeur,2009)
Appendix 2
upward seepage or groundwater drainage to surrounding areas.
Water Chain
a) Responsibilities of actors in urban water management system
Drinking Water Treatment Plant
Households Sewer System
Business
Paved Area
Urban Water
Atmosphere
Unsaturated Zone
Unpaved Area
Private
Rural Surface water
subsurface drainage
storage basin
surface water urban area
surface water rural area
Rural Groundwater
Saturated Zone
Urban Surface Water
Actors
Wastewater Treatment Plant
groundwater in saturated zone
infiltration percolation facility
Municipality
Waterboard
Drinking Water Company
Data Resource: van de Ven, 2011
160
161
waste water
paved surface
unpaved surface
waste storm water water sewerage system
wastewater treatment plant
Appendix 3 Land use type
hectares of land 1996
percentage in 1996
predicted hectares of land 2030
percentage in 2030
Residential
224,231
5%
286,231
7%
Commercial
95,862
2%
138,862
3%
Infrastructure
134,048
3%
181,548
4%
Agriculture
2,350,807
57%
2,028,307
49%
Green Areas
461,177
11%
791,177
19%
Recreational
82,705
2%
226,705
6%
Water
765,269
19%
1,225,269
31%
Total
4,114,099
100%
4,908,099
119%
Area by land use in the Netherlands in 1996 and prediction for 2030 (Woltjer J. Al N. M., 2007) Source: Adapted from Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment (2001)
Appendix 4 National Level Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment -broad strategic lines of spatial policy -key national planning decisions
National Level Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management -management of main water stream -development of national water policy and legislation
Provincial Level Provinces(12) -regional plan -main aspects of future spatial development for the province -framework for approval of municipal landuse plans
Provincial Level Provinces(12) -development of provincial groundwater plans, and regulations Regional/Local/ Neigh-supervision of water boards bourhood Level
Local Level Municipalities(about 450) -local landuse plan -allocating and regulating local usage of land -optional: a municipal structural plan
Local Level Municipalities(about 450) -sewage system -urban water policy
Water boards(27) -management of regional water system(water level) -treatment of urban wastewater and management of water quality
Neighbourhood Level Local residents -construction of neighbourhoods Responsibilities of stakeholders according to Woltjer and Al (2007) 162
163
EMU Thesis Mengdi Guo Spring Semester 2013
164