Read to Write (second Edition) by englishbooks.jp

Read to Write Second Edition Douglas Moore & David Barker

Read to Write 2nd Edition By Douglas Moore & David Barker ÂŠ BTB Press, 2014 First printing, March 2014 Published by BTB Press (www.btbpress.com) Japanese editing by Tomoyo Horiguchi & Mutsumi Kawasaki Design and layout by Paul Lewis Cover design by Conrad Bucsis and Paul Lewis This book may not be copied or reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher. Enquiries regarding reproduction should be directed to <info@btbpress.com>. ISBN 978-4-905088-47-9 Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank all of the students who allowed us to use their writing to make the model paragraphs in this book. We would also like to thank the following people for their support and feedback during the piloting phase of the original book. Robert Croker Harumi Kimura Sharif Mebed Cameron Smith Vick Ssali Suma Suzuki Tamami Wada

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To the Teacher “We Japanese are not good at speaking English, but we are good at reading and writing it” is a claim with which most teachers will be familiar. As those who have taught Japanese students for any length of time will know, however, it is simply not true. First-year Japanese university students generally have no idea of what an English paragraph is supposed to look like, and the writing they produce consists mainly of direct translations of Japanese sentences. Read to Write addresses both of these problems. The English Writing Manual introduces students to basic English writing conventions, and the model paragraphs provide them with input of the language they need for the topics we generally ask them to write about. Students who complete this book will have been exposed to more than 8000 words of comprehensible input of language that they can realistically expect to use. This will inevitably have a major impact on the way they write English. The key aim of this book is to train learners to identify patterns in the sentences they read. For example, if students can draw from the sentence I was born in Nagoya in Aichi the pattern <person> <past tense of “be”> born in <name of city> in <name of prefecture>, they will then be able to generate accurate, natural sentences about themselves. The process for identifying patterns is explained in English on p. 34, and in Japanese on p. 36. Practice exercises are provided, and an example of how a student should analyze a model paragraph is provided on p. 37. The basic idea of this course is that students spend the first week or two studying the English Writing Manual. An effective way of approaching this is to assign one point to each pair or group and ask them to explain it to their classmates. This new edition of the book contains practice exercises so that students (and you) can check their understanding of each point. An answer key for the exercises, along with a teacher’s guide for the book, is available from <www.btbpress.com>. After they have covered all of the points in the writing manual, students read the model paragraphs. After they read each model, they use the language they have learned from it to create their own sentences. At the end of each unit, they combine these sentences with their own ideas to produce an original paragraph. First drafts are submitted on loose-leaf paper for checking, and then written on the “My Paragraph” page at the end of each unit once they have been corrected. We recommend that you use the checklist on p. 32 (or p. 131 in Japanese) to give the students a framework for peerediting and checking. We also recommend that you refer them to relevant points in the manual by writing numbers or letters on their papers as you check them. For example, if a student is making mistakes with layout, write “L”; if he or she is making mistakes with capital letters, write “1,” and so on. A simple and effective way of testing students at the end of the semester is to ask them to produce one or two of the paragraphs for the final test. This will require every student to memorize more than 1000 words of correct, natural English on a variety of useful topics. Read to Write is based on a very simple idea that has been around for years, but we think you will be pleasantly surprised when you see the results it can produce with Japanese learners. Douglas Moore & David Barker, March 2014 To the Teacher 3

Writing Manual Contents English Writing Manual L Layout 6 1 Capital Letters 10 2 What Is a Sentence? 12 3 Simple Sentences 14 4 And, But, & Or in Simple Sentences 16 5a Compound Sentences (1) 18 5b Compound Sentences (2) 20 6 Because and So 22 7 Complex Sentences 24 8 Subject-Verb Agreement 26 9 Tense Agreement 28 10 Singular and Plural Nouns 30 C Checklist 32 英語ライティングマニュアル

L 1 2 3 4 5a 5b 6 7 8 9 10 C

4 Contents

レイアウト大文字の使い方センテンスとは？単文単文と接続詞重文と接続詞（1）重文と接続詞（2） becauseとsoの使い方複文主語と動詞の一致時制の一致名詞の使い方チェックリスト

118 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131

Model Paragraphs Topic 1

Self-Introductions 38-45

Topic 2

Family 46-53

Topic 3

Hometowns 54-61

Topic 4

School Life 62-69

Topic 5

Friends 70-77

Topic 6

Part-Time Jobs 78-85

Topic 7

Free Time 86-93

Topic 8

Childhood Memories 94-101

Topic 9

Trips & Travel 102-109

Topic 10

Dreams & Plans 110-117

Contentsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;5

English Writing Manual

Layout

When you write an English composition, you must make sure that the layout is correct. (Layout means how the writing looks on the paper.) Look at the example below, and read the key points on the next page.

1 3

4 5

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2) The title of your composition should be in the center of the page. The first letter of each word in the title should be capitalized. Small words like a, the, and as are not capitalized unless they are the first word, but pronouns are capitalized.

A Perfect Day Choosing a Present My Journey to School Describing My Room 3) Skip one line under the title before you start writing.

English Writing Manual

1) Write your name in Roman letters in the top right-hand corner of your paper. Write your student number below your name.

4) The first line of a new paragraph should be indented about one centimeter. 5) Write so that the bottoms of your letters touch the lines of the paper. Do not let your writing float above or sink below the lines. 6) Your writing should be double-spaced. Skip one line after each line you write. 7) Do not start a new line after a period. Keep writing until you reach the end of the line, and then continue on the next line. 8) Leave a margin of about two centimeters at the left of the page. Use your eyes to judge this. Do not draw a line down the page. The model compositions in this book are written without margins to leave enough space for you to write notes, but your own writing on loose-leaf paper should have margins. 9) The margin on the right of the page should be about the same as the margin on the left, but it is okay for the end of each line to be in a slightly different position. 10) Write the number of words in your composition at the bottom of the page.

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English Writing Manual

Practice

Look at the composition below. The English is correct, but there are a number of problems with the layout. Check the rules explained on the previous page, and rewrite the composition with correct layout on the opposite page.

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English Writing Manual

Writing Manualâ&#x20AC;&#x192;9

English Writing Manual

Capital Letters

The use of capital letters is very important in English. It is difficult to learn all the rules because there are so many of them, but here are some key points that you need to remember. 1) The first letter of a new sentence must always be capitalized. 2) The names of people and places are always capitalized. ( John Smith, Professor Davies, Tokyo Station) 3) The names of days, months, and public holidays are capitalized. ( Monday, March, Christmas, Halloween, Labor Day) 4) The names of the seasons are not capitalized. ( summer, winter) 5) The names of countries, nationalities, and languages are always capitalized. ( Japan, Chinese, French) 6) The names of subjects in school or university are not capitalized unless they are also the names of languages. ( mathematics, social studies, English, physical education [but see 11 below])

7) I is always capitalized, but you, his, her, our, and theirs are not capitalized unless they are the first word in a sentence. 8) For names of singers and bands, only the first letter of each word should be capitalized.

✘ DREAMS COME TRUE ✔ Dreams Come True 9) The names of rivers are written like this: the Shinano River, the river Shinano. 10) Directions such as north and south are not capitalized unless they are part of a place name. ( the north of Japan, South Dakota) 11) Acronyms are capitalized. ( the USA, the UK, USJ, PE [ physical education ])

10 Writing Manual

Practice

These sentences have been written without any capital letters. Rewrite each one on the line below, and use capital letters where appropriate. Example: my mother and i went shopping at the mall yesterday.

My mother and I went shopping at the mall yesterday.

1) my name is taro, and my brother's name is jiro. 2) my house is close to osaka station. 3) next monday is valentineâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s day.

English Writing Manual

Missing capitals

4) my friend is from korea, but she can speak japanese. 5) my father and i like southern all stars. Correct the mistakes These sentences contain mistakes. Rewrite each sentence correctly on the line below. Example: I live in tokyo.

I live in Tokyo.

6) My favorite group is EXILE. 7) I like Math and English the best. 8) Keiko often goes to karaoke with Her sister. 9) It is very cold in Hokkaido in the Winter. 10) Takayama is in the North of Gifu Prefecture. Writing Manualâ&#x20AC;&#x192;11

English Writing Manual

What Is a Sentence?

English sentences begin with a capital letter and end with a period ( . ), a question mark ( ? ), or an exclamation point ( ! ). An English sentence must have a subject and a verb, and it must express a complete thought. (Commands like Stop and Donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t worry are special cases. They are sentences even though the subject you is not written.) If what you write does not satisfy all of these points, it will not be a sentence. A group of words that has a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought is called a clause (if you go, when they return, etc.). Learners of English often write incomplete sentences. A common mistake is the use of for example. We visited many cities. For example, Paris and Rome. The part that begins with For example is not a sentence because it does not have a subject or a verb. To make this a sentence, you would have to repeat the subject and verb from the previous sentence. For example, we went to Paris and Rome. English sentences must also express a complete thought. Look at the example below. I decided to go home. Because I was tired. The part that starts with because is not a sentence because it has no meaning by itself. In order to give it meaning, it should be joined to the previous sentence. I decided to go home because I was tired. You can read more about how to use because on p. 26.

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Practice

Mark numbers that are sentences with ✔ and those that are not with ✘. If you put ✘, write “No subject,” “No verb,” or “Not a complete thought” on the line below. Example: When I am happy. (

✘

)

Not a complete thought.

1) It hurts! (

)

2) Because the weather was nice, we went swimming. (

)

3) My new classmate from Mie. (

)

English Writing Manual

Is it a sentence?

4) Is very handsome? (

)

5) Because they are friends. (

)

Correct the mistakes Numbers 6 to 10 below all contain mistakes. Identify the mistakes and correct them. Example: We visited many European countries. For example, Spain and France.

We visited many European countries. For example, we visited Spain and France.

6) I like animals. For example, dogs and cats. 7) I stayed home. Because I was tired. 8) it was sunny yesterday. 9) What do you want to do in the future. 10) My father very busy because of his job. Writing Manual 13

English Writing Manual

Simple Sentences

A simple sentence is a sentence that has only one subject-verb (SV) group. The most basic simple sentence is one that has only one subject and one verb. I know. They left. It rained. However, simple sentences can have more than one subject, more than one verb, or more than one subject and more than one verb. Even if a sentence has two subjects, it is still a simple sentence if the subjects share a verb. In a similar way, even if a subject has two verbs, it is still a simple sentence if those verbs share a subject. My mother and father play tennis. (two subjects, one verb SSV) My brother likes baseball and plays for a local team. (one subject, two verbs SVV) My mother and my sister like Korean TV dramas and watch them every night. (two subjects, two verbs SSVV) All of the examples above are simple sentences because it is not possible to separate any of them into two sentences. If you try to make two sentences, one side will be missing either a verb or a subject. My brother likes baseball. And plays for a local team. ( no subject in the second part) Simple sentences can be changed into compound sentences by adding another subject or verb. My brother likes baseball and plays for a local team. ( SVV) My brother likes baseball, and he plays for a local team. ( SV, and SV) You can learn more about compound sentences on pp. 22-25.

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Practice English Writing Manual

Find the patterns Underline and label the subjects and verbs in the sentences below. Example: My mother and I like dogs. S S V 1) My brother and I play tennis every afternoon. 2) Miho goes to the library and studies every day. 3) Taro wants a new bicycle. 4) Ken likes dancing but hates singing. 5) My mother and father love natto and eat it every day.

Making sentences Write your own sentences to match each of the sentence patterns below. Example: SV

I am Japanese.

6) SV 7) SVV 8) SSV 9) SSVV 10) SSVV

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English Writing Manual

And, But, & Or in Simple Sentences

And, but, and or can be used to join parts of simple sentences. And is used in affirmative sentences to join affirmative elements. I like pizza and hamburgers. ( like + like) I play tennis and golf. ( play + play) If you join only two items (as in the examples above), you do not need a comma. If you join three or more items, you should write a comma after every item but the last. Only use and before the last item in the list.

✘ I like playing baseball, and watching TV, and listening to music. (A, and B, and C)

✔ I like playing baseball, watching TV, and listening to music. (A, B, and C)

But is used to contrast elements of a sentence. I like popular music but not classical music. ( like + don’t like) I can play the piano but not the guitar. ( can + can’t) Or is used in negative sentences to join negative elements. I do not like pizza or hamburgers. ( don’t like + don’t like) I do not have any brothers or sisters. ( don’t have + don’t have) Or is also used to talk about alternatives. I want to be a teacher or a computer programmer in the future.

16 Writing Manual

Practice

Write sentences that match the emoji using “like” or “do not like.”

) English ()

Example: math (

I like math and English.

1) watching TV (

) studying ()

) tests ()

2) homework (

3) chocolate (

) candy ()

4) sports (

English Writing Manual

Like or do not like?

) music () art ()

) snakes () lizards ()

5) spiders (

Correct the mistakes These sentences contain mistakes. Rewrite them correctly on the lines below. Example: I do not like dogs and cats.

I do not like dogs or cats.

6) We had breakfast and not lunch. 7) I do not have any homework and tests this week. 8) My sister likes dogs and cats and rabbits. 9) Manami has never been to USJ and Disneyland. 10) We went to London, Paris, Rome. Writing Manual 17

English Writing Manual

Compound Sentences (1)

Compound sentences are made by using the conjunctions and, but, or, or so to join two or more simple sentences. When these words are used in this way, a comma is required before the conjunction. John is married. ( simple sentence) + He has two children. ( simple sentence) = John is married, and he has two children. ( compound sentence) And, but, or, and so are conjunctions. Their job is to join sentences together. Do not use these words at the beginning of a sentence.

✔ John lives in Tokyo. Jim lives in Osaka. ( period with no conjunction)

✔ John lives in Tokyo, and Jim lives in Osaka.

( comma followed by a conjunction)

✘ John lives in Tokyo. And Jim lives in Osaka.

( period followed by a conjunction)

If you want to express the meaning of but at the beginning of a sentence, use however instead. Put a comma after however.

✘ I like to watch soccer on TV. But I do not like to play it. ✔ I like to watch soccer on TV. However, I do not like to play it. When you use conjunctions to make compound sentences, follow these rules: 1) Do not use more than two conjunctions in the same sentence.

✘ My mother likes cats, and I like dogs, but my father does not like animals, so we do not have

any pets. ( too many conjunctions) ✔ My mother likes cats, and I like dogs. However, my father does not like animals, so we do not have any pets. ( make two sentences)

2) Do not use the same conjunction twice in one sentence.

✘ My mother likes cats, and I like dogs, and my sister likes rabbits. ( and used twice) ✔ My mother likes cats, I like dogs, and my sister likes rabbits. ( remove one and)

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Practice

Read the sentences below and decide if they are simple ( S ) or compound ( C ). Example: I play tennis and soccer but not baseball. ( S ) 1) I can speak Korean but not Chinese. (

)

2) My sister can play the clarinet, but she cannot play the saxophone. (

)

3) My friends and I like shopping, going to karaoke, and playing games. ( 4) He is only 13, but he is 180 cm tall. (

)

5) Mr. Tanaka is our English teacher, and he is also our homeroom teacher. (

)

English Writing Manual

Simple or compound?

Correct the mistakes These sentences contain mistakes. Rewrite them correctly on the lines below. All of the answers must be compound sentences. Example: Sarah is American. And she lives in New York.

Sarah is American, and she lives in New York.

6) I like natto and I eat it every day. 7) I like Exile, I do not like Arashi. 8) It was raining. So I took an umbrella. 9) John is from New York, and Simon is from San Francisco, but they love Japan, so they are living in Tokyo now. 10) This weekend, I may watch TV, or I may study, or I may go shopping. Writing Manualâ&#x20AC;&#x192;19

English Writing Manual

Compound Sentences (2)

Here are some good examples of compound sentences. My mother likes swimming and tennis, and my father plays baseball, but I do not like sports. ( SV, and SV, but SV) I live a long way from school, so I have a two-hour train ride every day, but I enjoy the journey. ( SV, so SV, but SV) And is used to join two affirmative sentences or two negative sentences. I play the guitar, and my brother plays the piano. I do not drink, and I do not smoke. (If you write this as a simple sentence, use or—I do not drink or smoke.) But is used to join an affirmative sentence and a negative sentence.

I like pizza, but I do not like hamburgers. I do not sing, but I play the guitar. In some sentences, you can use either and or but to express slightly different meanings. My father likes tennis, and my mother likes golf. ( = They both like sports.) My father likes tennis, but my mother likes golf. ( = They like different sports.) Or is used to talk about alternatives. I might study tomorrow, or I might go shopping. So is used to connect reasons and results. I was tired, so I went to bed early. For an explanation of how to use so in compound sentences, see p. 26. Note that it is not possible to join two subject-verb groups using only a comma. If you write a new subject and verb after a comma, make sure that you also use a conjunction.

✘ I have a driver’s license, I do not have a car. ✔ I have a driver’s license, but I do not have a car.

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Practice English Writing Manual

Choose the correct word Complete the sentences with and, but, or, or so. Example: Last year, we went to Akita, ( and ) we went to Aomori, too. 1) My friend is good at math, (

) he does not like English.

2) I want to be a teacher in the future, ( 3) I have a test tomorrow, ( 4) Our dog is cute, (

) I want to be a nurse.

) I am going to study hard tonight. ) his name is Taro.

5) We did not eat breakfast, (

) we did not eat lunch.

Correct the mistakes The English in the composition below is all correct, but it sounds unnatural because only simple sentences are used. Use conjunctions to join some of the sentences and make the composition sound more natural. (There are many possible correct answers.)

My name is Ryo. I come from Japan. I am 14 years old. I am a junior high school student. I live in Hyogo. My father is a policeman. My mother is a nurse. I have two brothers. I do not have any sisters. I have a dog. His name is Shiro. He is five years old. I am in the tennis club. I play tennis every day. I like computers. I want to be a computer programmer in the future.

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English Writing Manual

Because and So

Because and so are used to connect reasons and results. They are used to say why somebody did something, why something happened, or why something is the way it is. In English, the reason and the result connected by because or so must be in the same sentence. Do not separate them with a period.

✘ I put on a jacket. Because I was cold. ✔ I put on a jacket because I was cold. ✘ I was cold. So I put on a jacket. ✔ I was cold, so I put on a jacket. When you use so, the reason must come before the result. If you change the order of the parts of the sentence, the meaning will change.

✘ I put on a jacket, so I was cold. ✔ I was cold, so I put on a jacket.

When you use because, either the reason or the result can come first. When the result comes first, there is no comma before because. If the reason comes first, put a comma after the because clause. I put on a jacket because I was cold. Because I was cold, I put on a jacket. A comma is sometimes used before because if it is necessary to make the meaning clear. For example, look at the sentence below. I think John left early, because I could not find him. The comma in this sentence shows that the because clause explains why the speaker thinks this, not the reason why John left early. You can learn more about the use of commas in complex sentences on p. 28.

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Practice English Writing Manual

Making sentences Complete the sentences with because or so. Example: I do not like chocolate ( because ) it is too sweet. 1) It was very hot, ( 2) (

) everyone was sweating.

) it was raining, the game was canceled.

3) We did not eat breakfast, ( 4) I am 13 now, (

) we are hungry now.

) I will be 14 on my next birthday.

5) Everybody likes Takuya (

) he is very funny.

Write it another way Rewrite the sentences below. If the sentence uses because, rewrite it using so; if it uses so, rewrite it using because. Think carefully about whether you need a comma. Example: I was absent from school because I was sick.

I was sick, so I was absent from school.

6) We turned on the heater because it was cold. 7) I did not study hard enough, so I failed the test. 8) Because I was tired, I went to bed early. 9) I did not know the answer, so I asked the teacher. 10) Taro is funny, so he is very popular.

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English Writing Manual

Complex Sentences

Like compound sentences, complex sentences have more than one subject-verb group. Unlike compound sentences, however, complex sentences contain one clause that does not express a complete thought. Look at the example below. I am going to stay home tomorrow if the weather is bad. I am going to stay home tomorrow has a subject and a verb, and it also expresses a complete thought. There would be no problem if you said only this part of the sentence. If the weather is bad also has a subject and a verb, but it has no meaning without the first part of the sentence. If you said only this part to somebody, they would be waiting for you to finish. In a complex sentence, the part that expresses a complete thought is called the independent clause. The other part is called the dependent clause because it depends on the independent clause to give it meaning. When the independent clause comes first in a sentence, the dependent clause normally follows it with no comma.

I will call you when we arrive at the airport. I am not going to her party even if she invites me. I decided to study in Australia because it was the cheapest place. However, a comma is used before relative clauses that simply add extra information to the sentence. These are often clauses that begin with which or who. We stayed in Atlanta, which is the state capital of Georgia. I spoke to John, who had just come back from the US. If the dependent clause comes first, a comma is required before the independent clause. When we arrive at the airport, I will call you. Even if she invites me, I am not going to her party. Because it was the cheapest place, I decided to study in Australia.

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Practice

In the sentences below, underline the independent clause with a straight line and the dependent clause with a wavy line. Example: I will go to the beach tomorrow if it is sunny. 1) Because my dog was hungry, I gave him some food. 2) Makoto is taller than his father even though he is only 13. 3) I will call you when I get home. 4) We will be happy even if we do not win the game. 5) I live in an apartment that does not allow pets. Change the sentences Rewrite the sentences below by changing the order of the clauses. Think carefully about whether you need a comma. Example: Even though I did not study, I passed the test.

I passed the test even though I did not study.

6) Because he studied in America, he can speak English. 7) I feel happy when I see the cherry blossoms. 8) Please ask the teacher if you need any help. 9) Even if my parents do not agree, I am going to be a model. 10) We always make up quickly even though we fight a lot.

Writing Manualâ&#x20AC;&#x192;25

English Writing Manual

Identify the clauses

English Writing Manual

Subject-Verb Agreement

In English, the form of the verb has to match its subject. For example, if the subject of the verb work is I, then the present simple tense should be I work. If the subject changes to he, however, work must change to works. This is called subject-verb agreement, and many learners make mistakes with it in English writing. When you write the name of a person, place, or thing as the subject, think about which pronoun you would use to replace it. This can help you to decide which form of the verb you need to use. my brother = he my sisterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dog = it my brother and my sister = they Remember that if two verbs share a subject, both of the verbs must agree with that subject. My brother likes skiing and goes to Hokkaido every year.

Everyone and everybody have a plural meaning, but for the purposes of subject-verb agreement, they are like he and she even though the pronoun would be they. Everyone likes him. (They like him.) No one and nobody are treated in the same way. No one wants to work on Saturday. Some subjects can be treated as either singular or plural. For example, in British English, you can say My family like... or My family likes..., but in American English, only My family likes... is used.

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Practice

Replace the underlined nouns with the appropriate pronouns. Example: Mr. Takahashi lives near here.

He lives near here.

1) My father and mother say that my sister and I are very noisy. 2) Takeshi said that Kento and Shuichi will be absent today. 3) Shota takes his dog for a walk every day.

English Writing Manual

Changing nouns to pronouns

4) My brotherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s girlfriend is a very good singer. 5) Haruka, Tomomi, Kyoko, and I are going to Disneyland next week.

Correct the mistakes These sentences contain mistakes. Rewrite them correctly on the lines below. Example: My brother live in Tokyo.

My brother lives in Tokyo.

6) Everybody in our class like our teacher. 7) Our dog, Ponta, do not like going for a walk. 8) My father lives in Tokyo but work in Yokohama. 9) My brother and his friend is going to play baseball this weekend. 10) Nobody in my family speak English. Writing Manualâ&#x20AC;&#x192;27

English Writing Manual

Tense Agreement

When you write in English, you must be careful that the verbs you use are in the correct tense. If you are writing about something that happened in the past, most of your verbs should be in past tenses. The man stood up and looked around. He was very tired. In stories about the past, all the verbs are usually put into past tenses even for facts that are still true now. Look at the example below. We went to Hawaii, and we stayed in a beautiful hotel. The hotel was called “Paradise Gardens.” If this is a recent story, then the hotel probably still has the same name. Nevertheless, in English, we still say was called because the rest of the story is in the past tense. One exception to this rule is sentences where using the past tense would cause a misunderstanding. I went to my grandfather’s house last week. My grandfather’s name is Ichiro.

If you wrote My grandfather’s name was Ichiro, people might think that your grandfather is dead, so you should use the present tense in this sentence. There are other situations where you can use the present tense in stories about the past, but generally, verbs are all put in past tenses unless there is a danger that the reader will misunderstand an important fact. Remember also that if you use the present simple tense of a verb in English (I go, they live, etc.), it means that you are talking about a fact or a state that is always true, or about an action that someone does regularly. Only use the present tense if this is what you want to say.

28 Writing Manual

Practice

Complete the table below with the appropriate forms of regular verbs. Type of Verb

Past Tense

General

Examples 日本語

Present

Past

Past Participle

add -ed

歩く

walk

walked

Ends in -e

add -d

使う

Ends in consonant + -y

Change -y to -i and add -ed

勉強する

Ends in short vowel + consonant

Double final consonant and add -ed

止まる

The verbs in the table below are irregular. Write their forms in the appropriate columns. 日本語

Present

Past

Past Participle

である

is / am / are

was / were

been

する持つ来る思う食べる

Correct the mistakes In the composition below, there are six tense-agreement mistakes. The first has been corrected for you. Find the other five, and correct them. was

My favorite trip were to a ski camp. My classmates and I take a bus to Tottori in the southwest part of Japan. After we arrived, we went to a nice hot spring to relax. I share a room with three of my friends at the hotel. The hotel we stayed at was near the ski slopes. We spend the next two days skiing. The ski resort is called Hyonosen. I am terrible at skiing at first, but my friends helped me a lot, so now I am quite good. Writing Manual 29

English Writing Manual

Verb forms

English Writing Manual

Singular and Plural Nouns

English nouns can be countable or uncountable. Countable nouns must be in the plural form if you are talking about more than one. If you use words like many, a few, or some in your writing, make sure the nouns that follow are in the plural form if they are countable. When you are talking about things in general, you should also use the plural form. I like reading mystery novels. I often go to Internet cafĂŠs. I like dogs and cats. Be careful with food and fruit. These nouns are normally uncountable. We ate a lot of food. I have decided to eat more fruit because it is healthy. The countable forms are only used when you want to stress that you are talking about many different kinds.

You can buy many different foods in Asian markets. I ate a lot of tropical fruits when I was in Singapore. Plurals are used in negative sentences for things that would normally be plural in an affirmative sentence. There are no convenience stores in my town. There were no interesting books in the library. However, if the thing is something of which there would normally only be one, use the singular form in negative sentences. In our hotel room, there was no TV, and there were no towels. Remember also that singular countable nouns need a determiner like a, the, my, his, this, or that. This is still true even if there is an adjective before the noun. I bought a new bicycle. He put his book on the desk. Can you pass me that red pen, please?

30â&#x20AC;&#x192; Writing Manual

Practice

Write the plural forms of these nouns. Some of them are irregular. If you do not know the answer, use your dictionary to check. Example:

city

1) child

cities

6) tooth

2) box

7) deer

3) friend

8) foot

4) class

9) country

5) leaf

10) woman

English Writing Manual

Plural forms

Correct the mistakes These sentences contain mistakes. Rewrite them correctly on the lines below. Example: Taro left a few hour ago.

Taro left a few hours ago.

11) I want to have many child in the future. 12) I love animals, especially cat and dog. 13) There was no customer in the department store. 14) I am not hungry because I ate a lot of foods at lunch. 15) In my free time, I like to read comic book.

Writing Manualâ&#x20AC;&#x192;31

English Writing Manual

❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏

❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏

Checklist

Your name and student number are written in the top right-hand corner of the page. The title is in the center of the page and has capital letters for all of the main words. One line has been skipped below the title. The first line of the paragraph is indented. Equal margins have been left on both sides of the paper. The writing is double-spaced. Every sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period ( . ), a question mark ( ? ), or an exclamation point ( ! ). Commas (

, ) and periods ( . ) look very different.

Every sentence has a subject and a verb.

Every sentence expresses a complete thought. No sentence starts with and, but, or, or so. Every place that needs a comma has a comma. There are no unnecessary commas. (Check because clauses.) All verbs agree with their subjects. All verbs are in the correct tense. The singular and plural forms of nouns are used correctly. All singular countable nouns have a determiner. Letters that should be capitalized are capitalized; letters that should not be capitalized are not. There is a good balance of simple, compound, and complex sentences. There are no spelling mistakes.

32 Writing Manual

Practice English Writing Manual

This composition contains ten mistakes. Find them using the checklist on the opposite page. Go through the items one by one. When you finish, compare your answers with your partnerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s answers. You do not need to correct the mistakes; just find them.

Writing Manualâ&#x20AC;&#x192;33

How to Use the Model Paragraphs This part of the book has 10 topics. In each topic, there are seven examples of student writing. These are called “model paragraphs.” The Read to Write system has four main steps.

Words & phrases means single words, multi-word units, phrases, and even sentences that you can use without making any changes. After you finish reading each model, write new words and phrases in the Words & Phrases box. If you need to use your dictionary, make sure that you find the correct translation for the context.

As you read the model paragraphs, you will notice sentences that you can adapt to use in your own writing by changing one or more words. When you find a sentence like this, underline it in the model and put angle brackets < > around the words that can be changed. Change the words in brackets as necessary, and write the new sentence in the box. Remember that if you change verbs and nouns, you may also My Sentences need to change other words to agree with them. Here is an example.

Do not worry if you find it difficult to identify patterns at first. Look for language that you can understand but could not have produced yourself.

When you have read all the models on one topic, write your own paragraph using both the new English you have learned and the English you already knew on loose-leaf paper. Use the checklist on p. 32 to check your writing before you hand it in.

After your teacher has checked your paragraph, rewrite it on the

My Paragraph

page.

Before you read the models, use the exercises on the next page to practice identifying sentence patterns. 34 Model Paragraphs

Read to Write Practice Read the sentences below. Identify the patterns by putting angle brackets < > around the words that can be changed, and then write a new sentence on the line below. The first one has been done for you as an example. 1) I was born in <Hamamatsu> in <Shizuoka>. I was born in Kuwana in Mie. 2) I am studying law at Tokyo University. 3) I live with my parents and my brother. 4) My blood type is “O,” and my birthday is February 18th. 5) I went to Tokyo with my friend from high school last weekend. 6) I played the trumpet for the first time when I was in elementary school. 7) I have been playing baseball since I was twelve years old. 8) Toyota City is the home of the Toyota Motor Corporation. 9) I used to have a friend called Eri when I was in kindergarten. 10) I have never been to Tokyo Disneyland, but I am planning to go there next summer.

Model Paragraphs 35

English Writing Manual

モデルの使い方この本には１０個のトピックがあり、７つずつ英作文のモデル（Model Paragraphs）が含まれています。Read to Write では、下の４つのステップに従って学習していきます。

モデルを読み、わからない単語やフレーズを Words & Phrases に書き出し、意味を調べます。１つの単語には複数の意味があるので、文脈に合ったものを書きましょう。ただし、読み続ければ意味がわかる場合もあるので、最後まで読んでから辞書を使いましょう。

モデルの中には、少し変えれば自分でも使える表現がたくさんあります。そういう表現を見つけたら、直接モデルに線を引き、置き換えられる単語に＜＞をつけましょう。次に自分の情報と My Sentences 入れ替えて、新しい文をに書き出しましょう。単語を置き換えると、ほかの単語も形を変えなければならない場合が多いので、特に動詞と名詞の形に注意しましょう。

置き換えられる部分を見つけるのは難しいので、すぐにできなくても心配しないでください。「読めばわかるけど自分では書けなかった」という表現に注目しましょう。置き換える場所がわからないときは、先生に確認しましょう。

５つのモデルを読み終えたら、Words & Phrases や My Sentences に書き出した英語と、自分の知っている表現をうまく混ぜながら、トピックに合う自分の英作文をルーズリーフに書きます。提出する前に p. 131 にあるチェックリストを見ながら確認しましょう。

先生のチェックが終わったら、 My Paragraph に清書します。それでは、実際の Read to Write に挑戦する前に、p. 35 で少し練習しましょう！

36 Model Paragraphs

Example

Two Names My name is unusual because you can read it in two ways. The Chinese character means “<love>,” but it can be read as either “<Ai>” or “<Megumi>.” Even Japanese people are not sure how to read my name. There is another girl in my class who writes her name with this character. She is Ai, and I am Megumi. <Our teacher> sometimes gets <our names> wrong. (66 words)

Phrases Words & &Phrases Patterns

unusual Chinese character either A or B

珍しい漢字 AかBか

Even Japanese people are not sure how to read my name.

日本人でさえ、私の名前をどう読むかわからない。

get ... wrong

〜を間違える

My Sentences

The Chinese character means “good health,” but it can be read as either “Takeshi” or “Ken.” People sometimes get my name wrong.

Model Paragraphs 37

Self-Introductions (1)

My Self-Introduction Topic

My name is Keiko Hibino. I am 20 years old, and I come from Hida in northern Gifu. I am a first-year student at Daisuki University, and I am studying economics.

My parentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; house is a long way from my university, so I live by myself in Nagoya. I like living by myself, but I get a bit homesick sometimes. I have two sisters, but they are much older than I am. They are both married, and I have two nieces and

two nephews. I am looking forward to seeing them at New Year. My oldest sister lived in the United States for two years before she got married. I have never been abroad, but I hope to go to the US someday. (123 words)

Words & Phrases

5 6 7 My Sentences

8 9 10

38â&#x20AC;&#x192; Model Paragraphs

Self-Introductions (2)

Nice to Meet You Topic

My name is Mai Hirakawa. I am from Okazaki in Aichi. Okazaki is a thirty-minute

train ride south of Nagoya. I have lived there since I was born. I am studying law in college, but I am also very interested in English. I did a homestay in Australia last summer, and I hope to go back there next year, so I am studying English hard at

the moment. I live with my parents and my brother. My father works for the city government, and my mother is a homemaker. My brother is a high school student. He and I used to fight a lot when we were younger, but we get along well now. (113 words) Words & Phrases

3 4 5 6 7

My Sentences

8 9 10

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Self-Introductions (3)

This is Me Topic

My name is Tomohiro, but my friends just call me Tomo. I go to a vocational school for art and design. I am hoping to become a graphic designer in the future.

I live with my family in Mie Prefecture. It is a nice place to live, but my school is in Nagoya, so I have a two-hour commute. Some of my friends live by themselves near the school, but my parents do not want me to live alone. I do not have any brothers

or sisters, but I have a beautiful dog called Taro. He is a golden retriever, and he is five years old. I take him for a walk every morning before I go to school. (119 words)

Words & Phrases

5 6 7 My Sentences

8 9 10

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Self-Introductions (4)

My Life Topic

My name is Yusuke Suzuki. I am 19 years old, and I have a twin brother. His name

is Daisuke. We look like each other, but we have very different personalities. He loves sports, but I am more interested in English. I study English in college, and I also go to an English conversation school three times a week. My dream is to live and work

in a foreign country after I graduate. I have liked English since I went to Canada with my family when I was in junior high school. I want to learn English so that I can make friends with people from other countries. (108 words) Words & Phrases

3 4 5 6 7

My Sentences

8 9 10

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Self-Introductions (5)

About Tomoe Topic

My name is Tomoe Honda. Honda is a very common name in Japan, and it is famous throughout the world because of the Honda Motor Company. I was born in

Kyoto, but I moved to Tokyo when I was in junior high school because of my fatherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s job. I still have friends in Kyoto, and I go back there sometimes to visit them. My hobby is playing the guitar, and I am in a band with three of my friends from high

school. We have been together for six months. We are not very good yet, but we practice very hard. We are planning to do our first live show next month. (112 words)

Words & Phrases

5 6 7 My Sentences

8 9 10

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Self-Introductions (6)

About Me Topic

My name is Emi Sakakibara. My blood type is O, and my birthday is February

18th. I was born in Fukuoka, but now I live in Aomori with my parents and my younger sister, Hiromi. I am a student, and I have a part-time job in a convenience store near my house. I live quite near my school, so I do not have to get up early

in the morning. I am studying English because I love watching foreign movies. My favorite movies are “Back to the Future” and the “Harry Potter” movies. I also like watching English TV dramas, such as “Prison Break” and “Entourage.” (106 words) Words & Phrases

3 4 5 6 7

My Sentences

8 9 10

Model Paragraphs 43

Self-Introductions (7)

Ryuji Okuda

ă&#x20AC;&#x20AC;

Topic

My name is Ryuji Okuda. I come from a small town called Kamagaya, which is just to the east of Tokyo. I am studying business management at a university in

Tokyo, and I am in my second year. I am in the baseball club at my university. We have to practice almost every day, and we have games every weekend, so it is very tough. I sometimes get in trouble with my teachers because I do not have enough

time to do my homework. I have a younger brother called Shota. He plays baseball, too. We practice together in a park near my house on Saturdays. (106 words)

Words & Phrases

5 6 7 My Sentences

8 9 10

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My Paragraph

Topic

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

My Paragraphâ&#x20AC;&#x192;45

Family (1)

My Family

There are five people in my immediate family: my father, my mother, my older brother, my younger sister, and me. My fatherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mother also lives with us, so six

Topic

people live in our house. My older brother is called Ichiro, and he is a student at another university. He is studying to become a dentist. My younger sister is Airi, and she is in junior high school. She loves sports, and she is in the volleyball club. We

also have a pet dog called Happy. Happy is one year old, and we love her very much. She is like a member of our family. (104 words)

Words & Phrases

5 6 7 My Sentences

8 9 10

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Family (2)

Introducing My Family I live with my mother and my older sister in Aomori City. My father lives in Tokyo

because of his job, so I do not see him very often. I miss him, so I always look forward to his visits. My sisterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s name is Shiori, and she works in a department store. We get along very well, and I often borrow her clothes, but I sometimes wish I had a

Topic

brother as well. My mother is 45, but she looks much younger. People sometimes think that she is my sister. I take after my mother, but my sister looks more like my father. (103 words) Words & Phrases

3 4 5 6 7

My Sentences

8 9 10

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Family (3)

My Mother

My parents are divorced, so I live with just my mother. My father lives in Kagoshima now, so I do not see him very often. I am an only child, so when I was

Topic

young, I used to wish that I had a brother or a sister to play with. My mother runs a coffee shop near our house. She is very busy all the time, but she enjoys her job, and she is always cheerful. I respect her a lot. When I have a problem, I always talk

to her. She gives me good advice and always encourages me. I want to be like her in the future. (109 words)

Words & Phrases

5 6 7 My Sentences

8 9 10

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Family (4)

Brothers and Sisters I have two older brothers and one younger sister. The oldest brother is married

and lives in Okinawa. His name is Tatsuro, and he is 29. I went to stay with his family last year. His wife is very nice, and his children are very cute. My other brother is 25. His name is Kento. He works for a car company, but I am not sure

Topic

exactly what he does. He loves cars, and he sometimes takes me driving. My younger sister is called Yumiko. She is only 16, so she is a high school student. We often fight because she spends too much time in the bathroom. (108 words) Words & Phrases

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My Sentences

8 9 10

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Family (5)

My Mother and Father

I live by myself near my university, so I do not see my family very much. I miss them a lot. People say that I look like my mother, but I think my character is more

Topic

like my fatherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. My father and my mother live in Osaka, and they run a restaurant together. My mother is a wonderful cook. My parents are very busy because they work hard to support our family. When I was in high school, I used to argue

with them a lot, but I am very ashamed of that now. When I go home for my next vacation, we are going to go to a hot springs resort together. (113 words)

Words & Phrases

5 6 7 My Sentences

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Family (6)

This is My Family Let me introduce the people in my family. My father is 52, and he works for

an advertising company. He is tall and thin, and he is going bald. He smokes and drinks a lot, so I worry about his health. He teaches me a lot, so I look up to him. My mother works for a cosmetics company, so she knows a lot about make-up and

Topic

clothes. She gives me a lot of good advice about fashion. She looks much younger than she is. My mother and my father have a very good relationship. I hope I will be as happy as they are when I get married. (109 words) Words & Phrases

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My Sentences

8 9 10

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Family (7)

My Parents

My mother and father got married quite late, so they are older than many of my friends’ parents. They met when they were working at the same company, and

Topic

they got married seven years after that. I was born five years after my parents got married, and my younger brother was born three years later. My mother’s name is Minako. Her maiden name was Fujii. My father’s name is Teruo. They are

both quite short, so my brother and I are not very tall, either. My father is thin, but my mother is quite chubby. She is very good at cooking, especially baking desserts, so we always have lots of nice things to eat. (114 words)

Words & Phrases

5 6 7 My Sentences

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52 Model Paragraphs

My Paragraph

1 Topic

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

My Paragraphâ&#x20AC;&#x192;53

Hometowns (1)

Seto

My hometown is Seto. Seto is a medium-sized city in Aichi Prefecture in central Japan. It is on the border between Aichi and Gifu, and it is about thirty minutes

from Nagoya by car. Seto has a population of about 130,000. In English, the Chinese characters for Seto mean “the place where the river runs quickly.” My hometown is known for its pottery and ceramics, and it has a big festival called

Topic

the “Setomono Matsuri.” This festival takes place in September every year, and it attracts visitors from all over Japan. Seto also has a city museum and a big park, so it is an interesting place to live. (109 words)

Words & Phrases

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54 Model Paragraphs

Hometowns (2)

My Hometown I come from Toyota, which is famous as the home of the Toyota Motor

Corporation. Many of the people in my hometown work for Toyota or other companies in the Toyota group. Actually, my father works for Toyota, and my mother used to work there before she got married. Because the Toyota company

pays a lot of taxes, my hometown has a lot of money, so the facilities are very good. For example, there is a big stadium that is used for soccer, baseball, and concerts. However, living in Toyota has some disadvantages, too. For example,

Topic

there are a lot of factories, so the air quality is not very good. (110 words) Words & Phrases

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My Sentences

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Hometowns (3)

My Village

I was born and raised in a small village in the south of Shizuoka Prefecture. Everyone in the village knows everyone else. My house has a small but beautiful

garden, and it is surrounded by trees and rice fields. Most of the people in my village are farmers. My grandparents grow green tea in the fields around our house. My village is an inconvenient place to live because there is no station, and

Topic

the nearest bus stop is a 20-minute walk from my house. However, there are advantages to living in a small village. For example, it is very quiet, the air is very clean, and you can see the stars clearly at night. (114 words)

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Hometowns (4)

Midori Ward I live in Midori Ward, which is a suburb of Nagoya. Nagoya is in the Chubu region

of Japan, and it is the third largest city in the country. More than two million people live in Nagoya. Midori Ward is about thirty minutes from the center of the city, but there is no subway, so you have to take a train or bus to get there.

In Midori Ward, a lot of people own their own houses, so there are many housing developments. Midori Ward is a nice place to live because there are many shops and interesting places to go. I hope that I will be able to live in Midori Ward all my life. (116 words) Words & Phrases

Topic

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My Sentences

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Hometowns (5)

Living in a Big City

I live in Tokyo, which is the capital city of Japan. I live on the fifth floor of an apartment building near the center of the city. From my house, you can see Tokyo

Tower. There are lots of subway stations and shops near my apartment, so it is a very convenient place to live. My junior high school and my high school were very close to my home, so I was able to walk to school. There are a lot of people in Tokyo,

Topic

so it sometimes feels very crowded, but there are some parks and open spaces as well. I often go to a park near my house with my friends or my family on weekends. (118 words)

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Hometowns (6)

Moving I lived in a small town until I was ten years old, but now I live in Osaka, which is a

big city. We moved to Osaka because of my fatherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s job. There are lots of factories, tall buildings, people, and cars. It is a very convenient place to live, but it is also very noisy, and the air is not very clean. My father likes living here because our house

is close to his office, but my mother often says that she wants to move. I feel the same as my mother, so when I finish university, I want to move back to my old hometown. (107 words) Words & Phrases

Topic

3 4 5 6 7

My Sentences

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Hometowns (7)

An Interesting Place to Live

I come from Nagashima in Mie Prefecture. The river Kiso runs through my town, and there are a lot of factories. Nagashima is known locally for Nagashima

Spaland, which is an amusement park and hot springs resort. At Nagashima Spaland, you can ride roller-coasters or swim in one of the big pools. There is a big shopping mall, and many people come from Nagoya to shop there. There is

Topic

also a flower garden that has a special display of Christmas lights in December. Nagashima is easy to get to because the Higashi Meihan expressway runs past it, so I hope you will come to visit someday. (106 words)

Words & Phrases

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My Paragraph

1 2 Topic

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My Paragraphâ&#x20AC;&#x192;61

School Life (1)

Central University

I am a student at Central University, and I am in my second year. I am in the Department of British and American Culture in the Faculty of Foreign Studies.

Central University is a private university, and it has about ten thousand students. The main campus of the university is in Nagoya, but there is also another campus in Gifu. Central is well known for language education, especially English. My

university is a Buddhist university, so some of the teachers are monks. There are many international students, and we have sister schools in other cities and countries. I chose this university because my high school teacher recommended it.

Topic

(108 words)

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5 6 7 My Sentences

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School Life (2)

My University I go to City University. City University is a national university located near the

center of Nagoya in Aichi Prefecture. I live in Gifu, so I go to school by train. It takes me about an hour. It is difficult to get into City University, so I had to study very hard when I was in high school to pass the entrance examination. I am in my first

year, and my major is law, but I also have to take English classes. My university has a lot of different clubs. I belong to the American Football Club. It is a lot of fun, but the training is very tough. I enjoy my university life. (114 words) Words & Phrases

3 Topic

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School Life (3)

Studying at a Women’s University

My university is a private women’s university. I chose it because I went to the university’s high school. My high school teacher gave me a recommendation, so

I did not have to take an entrance examination. I am in my first year, and I am studying childhood education. I want to be an elementary school teacher after I graduate. I have classes every day from nine o’clock. I usually finish at half past five,

but I do not have any classes on Wednesday afternoons. I have a lot of homework from all of my classes, so I do not have time for a part-time job.

Topic

(105 words)

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64 Model Paragraphs

School Life (4)

My School Life I enjoy my school life because I have a lot of friends. We all take the same

classes, so we spend a lot of time together. We usually hang out or go shopping after school. Our teachers are nice, but some of them are very strict, and they give us a lot of homework. My favorite class is history because I like to learn about the

past. I do not like mathematics or English. Some of the students in my school are not really interested in studying, and they talk a lot during the classes. Our school is nice, but I wish we had more clubs, especially a dance club. (110 words) Words & Phrases

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School Life (5)

Tests

My school life is very hard at the moment because I have to study for my tests. This year, I am taking extra classes because I want to get a teaching license. Those

classes are very difficult, and I have a lot of homework. I am really worried about the final tests because if I do not pass them, I will not be able to get my teaching license. The most difficult class I am taking this year is psychology. The lectures

are not very interesting, and I often do not understand what the professor is saying. I hope I pass the test. I do not want to fail this class!

Topic

(111 words)

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School Life (6)

A Great Place to Study My university is quite new, and it has very good facilities. There is a sports

center with a swimming pool, a big bookstore, and a large cafeteria with a coffee shop. There is also a parking lot for students, so many of my friends drive to school. The buildings are very clean and spacious, and the classrooms are comfortable. All

of the students at my university have their own computer, and you can access the Internet anywhere on campus. In the center of the campus, there is a nice green area with a pond and some trees. Many students go there to relax or hang out with

friends. It is particularly beautiful in spring and fall. (116 words) Words & Phrases

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School Life (7)

My Busy School Life

I am very busy at school because I belong to two clubs. The first of these is the tennis club. We have practice every evening and games on weekends, so I play

tennis almost every day. It is very tough, but I have made a lot of friends in my club. I am also a member of the club that organizes the school festival, so I am very busy in the fall semester. I think that being in a club helps you to learn about teamwork,

so it will be useful for my future. Next year, I will have to start job-hunting, so I might have to quit my clubs if I get too busy.

Topic

(115 words)

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My Paragraph

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Friends (1)

My Best Friend

My best friend is Kaori. She is the same age as I am, and we have been friends since we were children. I can talk to her about anything, and I trust her completely.

If I have a problem, she is the first person I talk to. We talk about boyfriends, school, work, and family problems. We went to the same elementary and junior high schools, but we went to different high schools. Now we go to different universities,

but I see her every day because her house is very close to mine. We sometimes walk

(113 words)

to the station together in the morning. I am sure that we will be friends for life.

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My High School Friends My closest friends are my friends from high school. We were all in the baseball

club, and we spent a lot of time together. We always supported and encouraged one another, so our team was very strong. I was especially good friends with two people from the club. Takuro was the best baseball player, so we all looked up to him. Junichi

was very smart, so he used to help us with our school work. I do not know why they liked me! We go to different universities now, but we always get together when I go back to my hometown. I am looking forward to seeing them again in a few weeks.

(113 words)

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Friends (3)

Chibi

My best friend’s name is Naomi, but I sometimes call her “Chibi” because she is very small. She gets angry when I call her that. I met her when I entered this

university, but it feels like we have been friends for longer. She lives alone near the school, so we often hang out at her apartment. She is very good at cooking, so she makes dinner for me once or twice a week. Some people are surprised that we are

friends because we are very different. For example, I am very outgoing, but Naomi is quite shy. Even though we are very different, we get along really well, and we never fight. I enjoy spending time with her. (119 words)

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Friends My friends are very important to me. They always help me when I have a problem,

and they give me lots of support and encouragement. We are all interested in fashion, so we give each other advice about clothes. We sometimes fight, but we always make up very quickly. If I need help, I know that I can rely on them. One of my

friends plays basketball, so we all go to cheer him on when he plays. I am in a band, and my friends always come to hear me when I play a gig. I know that we will always be there for each other. (107 words) Words & Phrases

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Friends (5)

My Australian Friend

I have a good friend who lives in Australia. I met her last year when I went there to study English. She lived in the house next to my homestay family. At first, it

was difficult for me to talk to her because my English was not very good, but she was very kind and patient. We became close friends very quickly. When I returned to Japan, we both cried and cried. I still keep in touch with her now. We email each

other several times a week, and she sometimes calls me. She said that she is coming to Japan next year, so I am really looking forward to seeing her again. (113 words)

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A Misunderstanding I used to have a best friend called Eri, but we had a fight last year, and she

has not spoken to me since then. She was angry because she thought I liked her boyfriend, but that was not true. Actually, he asked me to go out with him, but I turned him down. I called and texted Eri many times to explain, but she did not

reply. I think that she is still angry with me. Eri and I went to the same high school, but now we go to different universities, so I never see her. I hope I will have a chance to explain my side of the story someday. (113 words) Words & Phrases

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Making Friends

I just entered this university, so I have not made any real friends yet. Of course, I have met a lot of people, but I do not know them very well. Actually, I am quite

shy, so I find it difficult to make friends. Some people feel lonely if they do not have friends, but I do not mind being by myself. If I feel lonely, I can chat with people on the Internet. That is really interesting for me because I can talk to people from all

over Japan, and even people from other countries. I usually do not mind being by myself, but I still feel lonely sometimes. (110 words)

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Part-Time Jobs (1)

My Part-Time Job

I have a part-time job in a convenience store. I have been working there for six months. The people I work with are very friendly, and the boss is not too strict, so

we have a lot of fun. I usually work two or three times a week. The hourly pay is 800 yen, so I earn around 50,000 yen per month. I usually work in the evenings and on weekends, but I also work some mornings during school vacations. Working in a

convenience store is interesting because you meet a lot of different people. I have learned a lot of things from my part-time job. (106 words)

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Part-Time Jobs (2)

Working in a Family Restaurant I work part-time as a waitress in a family restaurant. Although I am employed

as a waitress, I sometimes have to do other jobs like cleaning the kitchen and working the cash register. I really hate cleaning the kitchen! I started working in the restaurant when I was in high school, so I have been doing this job for three years.

My coworkers are mostly the same age as I am, so we sometimes go out together after we finish work. The manager of the restaurant is nice, but he often gets angry and shouts at us. The pay is not very good, so I might start looking for another job

in the near future. (115 words) Words & Phrases

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Part-Time Jobs (3)

Teaching

I work part-time as a private tutor. I teach math and English to junior high school students. My job is to help them prepare for high school entrance

examinations. At the moment, I have four students. I work Monday evenings, Saturday mornings, and Sunday afternoons. I get paid 1,200 yen per hour, which is quite good compared to other jobs. I am saving money because I want to get a

driverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s license and buy a car next year. Teaching is an interesting job, but some of my students do not like to study, so it can be difficult at times. I enjoy teaching now, but I do not want to be a teacher in the future. (116 words)

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Looking for a Job I used to work at a gas station, but I quit last month, so now I am looking for a

new part-time job. I enjoyed my last job, but it was very cold in the winter. I do not want another job where I have to work outside. One of my friends said that he can get me a job in the bar where he works, but I do not want to work at night. Some of

my other friends work at a cram school, but I do not like teaching. Finding a parttime job that suits me is not easy, but I need to earn money because I want to study abroad next year. (115 words) Words & Phrases

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Part-Time Jobs

I have never had a part-time job, and I am not looking for one now because I am too busy with my school work. Most of my friends have part-time jobs, so

they have more money than I do, but they do not have enough time to do all their homework. My parents give me an allowance every month, so I have enough money for clothes and other things. My mother is happy that I do not have a part-time

job, because she wants me to concentrate on my studies. However, my father says that I should get a part-time job before I graduate, so I might look for one in a few months. (114 words)

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Working in a Wedding Ceremony Hall I have a part-time job in a wedding ceremony hall. I work all day every Saturday

and Sunday, so it is very tiring, but I do not mind because I enjoy the work. I make about 100,000 yen per month, but I spend most of it on clothes and music. The job is interesting because I have to do a lot of different things. My coworkers

are all older than I am, but they are very kind. I have learned a lot from them. Unfortunately, my boss is not very nice, and he shouts at me all the time. I still like my job, but I am thinking about quitting because of him. (113 words) Words & Phrases

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A Great Job

My part-time job is working in an “izakaya,” which is a Japanese-style bar. I got the job last year through a friend. We sell many kinds of food and drinks. My

jobs are cooking, mixing drinks, and waiting tables. I have been working there for a year, and I love it. The customers are very interesting, and foreigners sometimes come to our bar, so I have to speak English. At the moment, the bar is closed for

renovations, so I am not working this month. The bar is going to re-open in two weeks. I am looking forward to going back to work. (103 words)

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Free Time (1)

The Lacrosse Club

I am in the lacrosse club at my university, so I spend most of my time playing or practicing lacrosse. We have club meetings or practice every day after school, so I

often do not get home until eight oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;clock. I played lacrosse for the first time when I entered this university. I joined the club because my friend asked me to go with her. She quit the club after a couple of months, but I am still a member. I have made a

lot of new friends through lacrosse. This summer vacation, we are going to have a lacrosse camp for a week. I am really looking forward to it. (111 words)

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Free Time (2)

Music In my free time, I like to listen to music. Listening to music is very relaxing, so

it helps me to get rid of stress. My father bought me an iPod for my birthday last year, and I have more than 1500 songs on it now. I like to listen to many different kinds of music, but my favorite is J-pop. I used to like Bâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;z, but at the moment, I am

really into Exile. I listen to their songs every day. I went to see them in concert last year in Osaka, and I am going to see them again in Tokyo during winter vacation.

(106 words) Words & Phrases

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Free Time (3)

My Free Time

I do not have much free time these days because I am very busy with club activities and my part-time job. I have to work until ten every evening on weekdays,

so I usually have free time only on weekends. When I do have some free time, I like to spend it hanging out with my friends. We sometimes go shopping for clothes, but we do not have much money, so we usually just go to karaoke or play pool. This

summer vacation, we are planning a trip to Tokyo Disneyland. I have never been there before, so I am really excited about it. (104 words)

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Free Time (4)

My Favorite Sport I love soccer, so in my free time, I play soccer with my friends or watch soccer

games on TV. I am a striker, so I have to train a lot to keep fit. I started playing soccer for a local team when I was in elementary school. I have improved a lot since then. My favorite player is Shunsuke Nakamura. He plays for Celtic in

Scotland. I love the way he plays because he is very creative and skillful. I want to become a great player like him in the future. This weekend, my team is playing in a tournament. I hope I play well and that my team wins. (111 words) Words & Phrases

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Free Time (5)

The Internet

In my free time, I like to surf the Internet. My favorite site is YouTube. YouTube is a great site because you can watch thousands of different videos from all over the

world. I am interested in Formula 1, so I often watch videos of races. YouTube is also a good place to find music videos. Another site I often visit is Mixi, which is a social networking site. On Mixi, I can chat with people I know and make new friends. I spend

a lot of time updating my profile and reading my friendsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; profiles. When I am surfing the Net, I often forget the time, so my mother sometimes gets angry at me. (115 words)

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Free Time (6)

Shopping In my free time, I like to go shopping with my mother or my friends. I especially

like to go shopping with my mother because she almost always buys me new clothes. My friends and I do not have much money, so we usually just window shop. We like to look at clothes, shoes, and jewelry. My favorite place to go shopping is

Jazz Dream in Nagashima, but it is a long way from my house, so I cannot go there as often as I would like. When I go shopping, I forget about my problems, so it helps me to relax. (102 words) Words & Phrases

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Free Time (7)

My Boyfriend

I spend all of my free time with my boyfriend. I really love him! His name is Kentaro, and we have been together for six months. I met him at my part-time job.

He is smart and funny, and he makes me laugh. He is one year older than I am, and he has a car, so he takes me to lots of places. Last weekend, we went to the beach with some friends. We played volleyball and had a barbecue. On my birthday, he gave

me some gold earrings. I was so happy! This summer vacation, we are planning to go

(112 words)

to USJ together. Being with him makes me very happy.

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Childhood Memories (1)

A Happy Childhood

I am lucky because I had a very happy childhood. I grew up in a small village where everybody knew everybody else. My friends and I all went to the same school, and

we used to play together every evening and every weekend. Our favorite games were “Tag” and “Hide-and-Go-Seek.” One time, we were playing by a river, and my friend fell into the water. We had to jump in to help him because he was not a good

swimmer. It was scary, but we all laughed about it afterwards. When I was 16, my family moved away, but I still keep in touch with my childhood friends. (108 words)

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Childhood Memories (2)

My Parents When I was little, I spent a lot of time with my parents. My father was very busy,

but he tried to spend as much time as possible with me and my mother. We used to go to amusement parks, have picnics, and eat out at restaurants. My mother and father really like camping, so we went to the mountains most weekends. My father

taught me how to fish, and my mother taught me about plants and flowers. Once, we took a trip to Hokkaido. We stayed there for a week. It was nice, but it was a bit cold. I had a wonderful childhood. (105 words) Words & Phrases

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Childhood Memories (3)

Strict Parents

When I was a child, my parents were very strict. I was not allowed to play video games until I was 16, and I did not have a cell phone until I came to college. My

friendsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; parents were not so strict, so they all had cell phones in high school. I was really jealous of them. Most of my friends used to hang out after school, but my mother always made me stay home and study. When we were in high school, my

friends had money because they had part-time jobs, but I was not allowed to work.

(117 words)

When I have children, I will not be as strict with them as my parents were with me.

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Childhood Memories (4)

Growing Up When I was a child, I was very different from how I am now. As a child, I was really

quiet and shy, and I did not have many friends. I always stayed home and watched TV or helped my mother. My character changed when I joined the baseball club in junior high school. In the baseball club, we had practice every day after school.

It was really tough, but I made a lot of new friends. Actually, I became very good at baseball, and it made me stronger and more confident. I think that baseball changed my life and made me who I am today. (106 words) Words & Phrases

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Childhood Memories (5)

Moving

When I was a child, my family moved a lot because of my fatherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s job. I was born in Kyushu, but we moved to Tokyo when I was only five years old. We moved

again when I was eight, and we lived in Akita until I was eleven. After that, I lived in Sendai and Kyoto before coming to Nagoya. Moving so much when I was a child was difficult because I had to change schools many times, but now I think that it was

good for me. I think that my childhood experiences taught me how to make friends and get along with people. (105 words)

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An Unhappy Childhood I did not have a very happy childhood because I was a very weak child. I had two

operations when I was only three years old. I am not sure what was wrong with me, but my mother said that I almost died. A few years after that, I got sick again, and I was in the hospital for three months. I had a very high fever, and I could not

eat anything. When I was ten, I fell down the stairs and broke my leg. After that, I could not walk or go to school for two months. Now, I am very healthy, but I think my parents worried a lot about me when I was younger. (118 words) Words & Phrases

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Living in the US

My family moved to the US when I was a baby, and I spent my childhood in New York. My younger brother and sister were both born in the US. I went to

an American elementary school, but I also went to a Japanese school on the weekends to study Japanese. My family moved back to Japan when I was 14, so I had to go to a Japanese junior high school. It was very difficult for me because it

was very different from my American school. I sometimes wished that I had never lived in the US, but now I realize that living in another country was a very valuable experience for me. (114 words)

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Trips & Travel (1)

My School Trip

When I was in junior high school, I went on a school trip to Kyoto. There were about 150 students and 11 teachers on the trip. We traveled to Kyoto by bus,

and we stayed in a hotel near Kyoto Station. On the first day, we went to look at some temples in the morning. In the afternoon, we went to a museum. On the second day, we climbed a mountain and then visited some World Heritage Sites.

That night, we stayed up all night chatting and eating snacks. The teachers were very angry with us. We were very sleepy the next morning, but we enjoyed the trip. (108 words)

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Trips & Travel (2)

A Family Trip When I was a child, my family took a trip to New Zealand. We flew from Tokyo to

Singapore and then from Singapore to Christchurch. We stayed at a hotel in the center of the city for the first two days and did a lot of sightseeing. On the third day, we took a bus to Queenstown. The scenery was amazing! We stayed there for

one night, and then we took a tour to Milford Sound. The tour guide was from New Zealand, but he spoke Japanese really well. We met a lot of nice people on the tour. I want to go back to New Zealand someday with my friends. (108 words) Words & Phrases

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Trips & Travel (3)

A Great Weekend

Last summer, I went to Tokyo Disneyland with my sister. We left on Friday night, and we took a bus to Tokyo. We stayed in a big hotel at the resort. Our room

was on the 18th floor, and it had a really nice view. The next day, we went on all the rides, and we had our picture taken with Mickey Mouse. In the evening, we watched the Electric Parade of all the Disney characters. After that, we had dinner at a

French restaurant. The food was wonderful! My sister paid for the trip because it was my birthday. I hope we can go back there again next year. (110 words)

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Trips & Travel (4)

Hokkaido This summer, I am going on a trip to Hokkaido with my friends from college. We

are going to rent a car and drive from Sapporo to Obihiro. After that, we are going to drive up to Lake Mashu and stay there for two days. We are going to stay in a youth hostel because it is cheaper than a hotel. There are a lot of hot springs in

that area, so we are going to relax and take it easy. After that, we are going to drive up to Abashiri and then come back to Sapporo the next day. It is going to be a long trip, but I think we will have a lot of fun. (118 words) Words & Phrases

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Trips & Travel (5)

A Scary Moment

When I was in elementary school, I went to a camp on Mt. Ontake. On the first day, I said goodbye to my mother and got on the bus with my friends. It took us

three hours to get there. We stayed in a small lodge near the top of the mountain. That night, we heard a strange noise. It was so dark that we could not see anything. We thought it was a ghost, and we were really scared. Then, one of my

friends got out of his bed and turned on the light. When the light came on, we saw that it was just a small mouse running across the floor. We were very relieved! (117 words)

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Trips & Travel (6)

Traveling around the World I have never been abroad, but my dream is to travel around the world. That is

why I am studying English now. The country I most want to go to is Britain because I am very interested in history, and I want to see all the old buildings. I especially want to see the Tower of London and Big Ben. After I go to Britain, I want to travel

around Europe. I want to see the Louvre Museum in Paris, the canals of Venice, the Coliseum in Rome, and lots of other famous places. I want to eat pizza in Italy and drink wine in France. It will be an expensive trip, so I need to start saving money now. (120 words) Words & Phrases

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Trips & Travel (7)

Visiting My Father

My father is working in the United States, and last year, I went to visit him with my mother. I had never been on a plane before, so I was very scared, but the flight

attendants were very nice and made me feel at home. The flight took 11 hours. It was very long, but I had a great time watching all the movies and playing games. My mother was very tired, so she slept for most of the flight. My father came to the

airport to meet us and took us to his house. I was surprised because it was much bigger than our house in Japan. I was very happy to see my father again. (117 words)

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Dreams & Plans (1)

My Future Job

After I graduate from this university, I want to be a flight attendant because I think it would be a really interesting job. Flight attendants always look good, and

they can speak English really well. If I become a flight attendant, I will be able to travel all over the world and meet lots of people from other countries. I know that it is difficult to become a flight attendant because it is a very popular job, so I am

studying very hard to improve my English now. I will do whatever it takes to achieve

(117 words)

my goal.

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Dreams & Plans (2)

Thinking about the Future I am not sure what I want to do in the future, but I am thinking about it now.

When I was a child, I wanted to be a doctor, but I gave up on that idea because my grades were not good enough. Last year, I was thinking about becoming a tour guide, but I am not interested in that anymore. My teachers say that I need to

think about my future, so I sometimes worry because I do not know what I want to do. I hope I will be able to make up my mind before I graduate from this university.

(104 words) Words & Phrases

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Dreams & Plans (3)

Marriage

In the future, I am going to find a husband and have lots of children. I come from a big family, and my parents are very happy, so I want to be like them. When I get

married, I want to have the ceremony in Hawaii. I want to wear a white dress and invite all my friends and family to the wedding. After I get married, I want to go to Europe for my honeymoon. I do not want to work, so I have to find a rich husband! I

want to have at least three children, but I do not mind if they are boys or girls.

(109 words)

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Dreams & Plans (4)

Studying Abroad My dream is to study abroad, but it is difficult because it is very expensive. I am

working hard and saving money now, but I do not know if I will be able to save enough before I graduate. If possible, I would like to go to the United States and study in California. I am interested in computers, so I would like to study information

technology at an American university. Another problem for me is that my English is not very good. If I want to study in the US, I will have to improve my English. I hope that I will be able to overcome these problems. (109 words) Words & Phrases

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Dreams & Plans (5)

Becoming a Concert Pianist

If I can, I want to become a concert pianist like my mother. I have been taking piano lessons since I was three years old, and I practice for three or four hours

every day. I enjoy playing the piano because I love playing beautiful music. My favorite composers are Beethoven and Chopin. I have already taken part in a lot of competitions, and I have won some prizes. Next month, I am going to take part in a

big competition in Tokyo. If I win that competition, I will be able to make a CD, so I am

(106 words)

practicing very hard now. Wish me luck!

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Dreams & Plans (6)

Finding a Job In the future, I hope to find a job where I can use English. If I can, I would like to

work for a big Japanese company with branches in other countries. To do this, I need to get a good TOEIC score, so I am studying English very hard now. My father works for Toyota, and he worked in Malaysia and Thailand before he got married. I

like cars very much, so I would like to work for Toyota too, but it is very difficult to get a job with that company. If I cannot get a job with a car company, I would like to work in a hotel or maybe find a job as a tour guide. (120 words) Words & Phrases

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An Impossible Dream

My dream is to become a professional baseball player. This has been my dream for as long as I can remember, but I realize now that it is not very realistic. I am

in the baseball club at my university, but even though I train very hard, many of the other players are better than I am. If I could be a professional baseball player, I would like to play for the Yomiuri Giants and then play in the American Major

Leagues. I am a pitcher, so my favorite player is Hideki Matsui. I think that it is important to have a dream even if that dream is impossible. (109 words)

Words & Phrases

5 6 7 My Sentences

8 9 Topic

116â&#x20AC;&#x192; Model Paragraphs

My Paragraph

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Topic

My Paragraphâ&#x20AC;&#x192;117

英語ライティングマニュアル

レイアウト

英語のレポートを書くときは、レイアウトが間違っていると不合格になることがあります。「レイアウト」とは、ページの見た目のことです。下記の例をよく見てから、次のページのキーポイントを読みましょう。

1 3

4 5

118 英語ライティングマニュアル

2) タイトルはページの中央に書き、単語の始まりは大文字にします。ただし、タイトルの最初と最後にくる場合を除いて、前置詞や冠詞は小文字にします。代名詞は大文字で始めます。

A Perfect Day Choosing a Present My Journey to School Describing My Room 3) タイトルの下は１行空けます。 4) １行目の先頭の単語を１センチほど字下げします。

英語ライティングマニュアル

1) 名前はローマ字でページの右上に書きます。学籍番号はその下に書くこと。

5) 文字は罫線にしっかり沿って書きます。文字が線の上に浮いたり、下に沈んだりしないこと。 6) 文章は１行おきに書きます。 7) ピリオドの後は改行をしません。そのままその行の終わりまで書き続けてから、次の行に進みます。 8) ページの左側には２センチほどの余白を空けます。鉛筆で線を引かず、目測で判断すること。（本書では、皆さんが自分の例文を書くスペースを残すために、パラグラフの余白を空けていませんが、ルーズリーフなどに書く場合は、必ず余白を空けること） 9) 右側の余白は、できるだけ左側の余白と合わせます。ただし、行によって多少のずれがあってもかまいません。 10) ページの下部に単語数を書きます。

英語ライティングマニュアル 119

英語ライティングマニュアル

大文字の使い方

英語では大文字・小文字の区別は重要です。誤った大文字の使用は減点の対象となります。すべてのルールを覚えるのは難しいですが、ここでは基本的なルールを紹介します。 1) センテンスの最初の文字は必ず大文字で始めます。 2) 人・場所の名前は、必ず大文字です。 ( John Smith, Professor Davies, Tokyo Station) 3) 曜日・月・祭日の名前は大文字にします。 ( Monday, March, Christmas, Halloween, Labor Day) 4) 季節の名前はすべて小文字です。 ( summer, winter) 5) 国・国籍・言語は大文字にします。 ( Japan, Chinese, French) 6) 学校の科目名はすべて小文字です。ただし、言語の名前だけは大文字で始めます。 ( mathematics, social studies, English, physical education [11を参照])

7) I は必ず大文字ですが、you、his、her、our、theirs などはすべて小文字です。 8) バンドや歌手名の場合は頭文字だけを大文字にします。

DREAMS COME TRUE Dreams Come True

9) 川の名前には表記の仕方が２つあります。 ( the Shinano River, the river Shinano) 10) 南・北などの方位は原則として小文字ですが、地名の一部として用いられる場合は、大文字にします。 ( the north of Japan, South Dakota) 11) 頭字語は大文字にします。

( the USA, the UK, USJ, PE [ physical education ] )

120 英語ライティングマニュアル

センテンスとは？

センテンスには、必ず主語と動詞が必要です。さらに、意味が完結していなければなりません。この2 つのポイントを満たしていないものは、センテンスとは言えません。ただし、Stop! や Don’t worry. などの命令文は例外です。命令文は、主語がなくても、センテンスとして認められます。主語と動詞があっても、意味が完結していない不完全な部分は「節」と呼ばれ、センテンスではありません。(if you go、when they return など) 上記の2つのポイントを満たしていない、不完全な文章を誤って書くことが多くあります。よくある間違いは for example と because を使う場合です。

We visited many cities. For example, Paris and Rome.

英語ライティングマニュアル

英語のセンテンスは大文字で書き始め、ピリオド（ . ）、疑問符（ ? ）、または感嘆符（ ! ）で書き終えます。

上の例の For example から始まる部分には主語も動詞もないので、これではセンテンスとは言えません。正しく直すには、主語と動詞を加える必要があります。

For example, we went to Paris and Rome.

さらに、英語のセンテンスは意味が完結していなければいけません。

I decided to go home. Because I was tired. because から始まる節は、意味が不完全なので、センテンスとして認められません。正しく直すには、前のセンテンスからそのまま続けて書きます。

I decided to go home because I was tired. because の使い方は p. 60 で詳しく説明しています。

英語ライティングマニュアル 121

英語ライティングマニュアル

単文

「単文」とは、主語（Ｓ）と動詞（Ｖ）の組み合わせが１つしかないセンテンスのことです。最もシンプルな単文は、ＳＶだけのものです。

I know. They left. It rained. 単文はＳ、Ｖのどちらか、または両方が２つ以上になる場合もあります。Ｓが２つあっても、それらのＳがＶを共有していれば、単文です。同様に、Ｖが2つある場合も、それらのＶがＳを共有していれば単文です。

My mother and father play tennis. (主語が2つ、動詞が１つ SSV) My brother likes baseball and plays for a local team. (主語が1つ、動詞が2つ SVV) My mother and my sister like Korean TV dramas and watch them every night. (主語が2つ、動詞が2つ SSVV）上記の例は、どれも２つの文に分けることができないので、単文です。分けようとすると、ＳまたはＶが足りない部分ができてしまいます。

My brother likes baseball. And plays for a local team. （後半に主語がない）新しいＳやＶを加えると、単文は「重文」（接続詞を使って単文と単文をつなげてできるセンテンス）に変えることができます。

My brother likes baseball and plays for a local team. ( SVV) My brother likes baseball, and he plays for a local team. ( SV, and SV) 重文の構成は pp. 58-59 で詳しく説明しています。

122 英語ライティングマニュアル

単文と接続詞

and は肯定文において、肯定的な要素を接続するために使います。

I like pizza and hamburgers.（好き＋好き） I play tennis and golf.（する＋する）上記の例のように２つの要素を接続する場合は、コンマは不要です。しかし、３つ以上の要素を述べる場合は、Ａ, Ｂ, and Ｃのように、最初の２つはコンマで区切り、最後の要素の前にだけ and を入れます。

I like playing baseball, and watching TV, and listening to music. ( A, and B, and C） I like playing baseball, watching TV, and listening to music. ( A, B, and C）

英語ライティングマニュアル

and、but、or は単文の要素をつなげることができます。

but は文の要素を対照するために使います。

I like popular music but not classical music.（好き＋好きではない） I can play the piano but not the guitar.（できる＋できない） or は否定文において、否定的な要素を接続するために使います。

I do not like pizza or hamburgers.（好きではない＋好きではない） I do not have any brothers or sisters.（いない＋いない）さらに、or は代案や選択肢を述べるためにも使うことができます。

I want to be a teacher or a computer programmer in the future.

英語ライティングマニュアル 123

英語ライティングマニュアル

重文と接続詞（1）

「重文」とは and、but、or、so などの接続詞を使って、単文と単文をつなげて作るセンテンスのことです。接続詞の前にコンマをつけて続けます。

John is married.（単文）+ He has two children.（単文） = John is married, and he has two children.（重文） and、but、or、so は接続詞で、文と文を接続する働きをします。したがって、ピリオドの後に続ける新しいセンテンスの書き出しには使いません。

John lives in Tokyo. Jim lives in Osaka. （ピリオドの後に接続詞なし) John lives in Tokyo, and Jim lives in Osaka. （コンマと接続詞） John lives in Tokyo. And Jim lives in Osaka. （ピリオドと接続詞）

「でも」や「しかし」から文を始めたいときは、but の代わりに however を使います。however の後にはコンマをつけます。

I like to watch soccer on TV. But I do not like to play it. I like to watch soccer on TV. However, I do not like to play it.

接続詞を使って重文を作るときは、以下のルールに従いましょう。 1. １つの重文に、接続詞は多くても２つまで。 My mother likes cats, and I like dogs, but my father does not like animals, so we do not have any pets.（接続詞が多い）

My mother likes cats, and I like dogs. However, my father does not like animals, so we do not have any pets.（ 2文に分ける）

2. 1つの重文で、同じ接続詞をくり返さない。

My mother likes cats, and I like dogs, and my sister likes rabbits.（ andを２回使っている） My mother likes cats, I like dogs, and my sister likes rabbits.（ andを１つ取る）

124 英語ライティングマニュアル

重文と接続詞（2）

My mother likes swimming and tennis, and my father plays baseball, but I do not like sports. ( SV, and SV, but SV) I live a long way from school, so I have a two-hour train ride every day, but I enjoy the journey. ( SV, so SV, but SV) and は肯定の単文２つ、または否定の単文２つを接続します。

I play the guitar, and my brother plays the piano. I do not drink, and I do not smoke. （同じ内容を単文で書く場合は or を使います：I do not drink or smoke.）

英語ライティングマニュアル

以下は重文の正しい例です。

but は肯定の単文と否定の単文を接続します。

I like pizza, but I do not like hamburgers. I do not sing, but I play the guitar. 文脈によっては、and か but の選択で、相手に伝わる意味合いが変わることもあります。

My father likes tennis, and my mother likes golf. ( 親は両方ともスポーツが好き) My father likes tennis, but my mother likes golf. ( 親の趣味は違う) or は代案や選択肢を接続します。

I might study tomorrow, or I might go shopping. so は理由と結果を接続します。

I was tired, so I went to bed early. 重文における so の使い方は p. 60 で詳しく説明しています。注意：コンマだけで単文と単文を接続することはできません。コンマの後に新しい主語と動詞を入れる場合は、必ず接続詞も使うこと。

I have a driver’s license, I do not have a car.

I have a driver’s license, but I do not have a car. 英語ライティングマニュアル 125

英語ライティングマニュアル

because と so の使い方

because と so はある出来事の「理由」とその「結果」を接続します。英語では、「理由」と「結果」を1つのセンテンスにまとめなければなりません。つまり、日本語のように「〜です。なぜなら…」や「〜です。だから…」と、2つの文に分けることはできません。

I put on a jacket. Because I was cold. I put on a jacket because I was cold.

I was cold. So I put on a jacket.

I was cold, so I put on a jacket.

so を使うときは、「理由」の部分が「結果」の部分の前に来ます。順番を入れ替えると、文の意味が変わってしまいます。

I put on a jacket, so I was cold. I was cold, so I put on a jacket.

because を使う場合は、「理由」と「結果」の順序を入れ替えることができます。「理由」が後ろの場合、because の前にはコンマはいりません。「理由」が先なら、because の節の後にはコンマが必要です。

I put on a jacket because I was cold. Because I was cold, I put on a jacket. しかし、意味を明確にするために、because の前にコンマを置くことがあります。

I think John left early, because I could not find him. because の前にコンマを置くことによって、「なぜジョンが早く帰ったのか」ではなく、「なぜ話者がそう思ったのか」ということを明確にしています。複文でのコンマの使い方については、p. 61 で詳しく説明しています。

126 英語ライティングマニュアル

複文

I am going to stay home tomorrow if the weather is bad. I am going to stay home tomorrow の部分はＳもＶもあり、完結した意味を述べています。話し相手にこの部分だけを言っても、意味は伝わります。しかし、if the weather is bad の部分は、ＳとＶがあっても、それだけでは意味不明です。この部分だけを言った場合、相手はあなたの発言がまだ終わっていないと解釈するでしょう。それ自体で、意味が完結している部分を「主節」（independent clause）と呼び、意味が完結していない部分を「従属節」（dependent clause）と呼びます。主節が先に置かれる場合は、そのままコンマなしで従属節を続けます。

I will call you when we arrive at the airport. I am not going to her party even if she invites me. I decided to study in Australia because it was the cheapest place. ただし、関係代名詞の非制限用法（主に which や who）を使って、単に主節に情報をつけ加える場合は、関係代名詞の前にコンマを置きます。

We stayed in Atlanta, which is the state capital of Georgia. I spoke to John, who had just come back from the US. 従属節を先に置く場合は、その節の後にコンマが必要となります。

When we arrive at the airport, I will call you. Even if she invites me, I am not going to her party. Because it was the cheapest place, I decided to study in Australia.

英語ライティングマニュアル 127

英語ライティングマニュアル

「複文」は重文と同様に、２つ以上のＳとＶの組み合わせがありますが、重文とは異なり、それ自体では意味が完結していない部分も含んでいます。

英語ライティングマニュアル

主語と動詞の一致

英語では、主語に合わせて動詞の形を変える必要があります。例えば、 work という動詞の主語が「I」ならば I work とすればよいのですが、主語を「he」に変えると he works のように、動詞に 3人称単数現在の s をつけなければいけません。日本人が書いた英文を見ると、動詞の形が主語と一致していないものを多く目にします。主語と動詞の形を合わせるときは、主語を代名詞に変えて考えてみると間違いを避けることができるでしょう。

my brother = he my sister’s dog = it my brother and my sister = they １つの主語が２つの動詞と組んでいるときは、両方の動詞の形を主語に合わせなければいけません。

My brother likes skiing and goes to Hokkaido every year.

everyone と everybody の意味は複数ですが、he、she などと同じ単数扱いをします。ただし、代名詞を使う場合は、they になるので、動詞の形は複数扱いをします。

Everyone likes him. (They like him.) no one と nobody も同様です。

No one wants to work on Saturday. また、単数・複数のどちらで考えてもよい主語もいくつかあります。例えば、family という単語は、イギリス英語では、My family like... 、My family likes... と、どちらでも言うことができますが、アメリカ英語ではほとんどの場合 My family likes... と、単数扱いをします。

128 英語ライティングマニュアル

時制の一致

The man stood up and looked around. He was very tired. 英語は、動詞の形をそろえる性質があるので、過去の話ならすべての動詞を過去形にします。

We went to Hawaii, and we stayed in a beautiful hotel. The hotel was called “Paradise Gardens.” たとえ、このホテルの名前が今でも変わらず「Paradise Gardens」だとしても、過去の出来事について書いているので、was called と過去形にします。ただし、動詞を過去形にすると誤解を招く場合は例外です。

英語ライティングマニュアル

英語は、時制によっても動詞の形を変えなければいけません。例えば、過去の出来事について述べる場合は、次のように書きます。

I went to my grandfather’s house last week. My grandfather’s name is Ichiro. もし、My grandfather’s name was Ichiro. と書いてしまうと、お祖父さんが亡くなったように聞こえてしまうため、現在形を使う方が適切です。過去の話で現在形を使う場合もありますが、基本的には「過去の話なら過去形を使う」ということを意識しましょう。なお、現在形も要注意です。動詞の現在形を使うと、「ずっと変わらない事実や状態」、または「習慣的に行うこと」についての話になります。このような意味を伝えたいときだけ現在形を使いましょう。

英語ライティングマニュアル 129

英語ライティングマニュアル

名詞の使い方

英語の名詞には、数えられるもの（可算名詞）と数えられないもの（不可算名詞）があります。2つ以上の可算名詞について述べる場合は、複数形を使わなければいけません。特に many、a few、some などの単語を名詞の前に置く場合は、名詞の形に注意しましょう。ある特定のものについてではなく、一般的なものについて話す場合は、名詞の複数形を使います。

I like reading mystery novels. I often go to Internet cafés. I like dogs and cats. food と fruit は要注意です。これらは通常、不可算名詞として扱います。

We ate a lot of food. I have decided to eat more fruit because it is healthy. 「色々な種類の」と強調したいときにだけ、複数形を使います。

You can buy many different foods in Asian markets. I ate a lot of tropical fruits when I was in Singapore. 否定文でも、可算名詞は複数形にします。

There are no convenience stores in my town. There were no interesting books in the library. また、否定文では、普段複数あってもおかしくないものは複数形にしますが、普段1つしかないものについては単数形を使います。

In our hotel room, there was no TV, and there were no towels. 単数の可算名詞の前には、a、the、my、his、this、thatなどの適切な冠詞や限定詞をつけます。名詞の前に形容詞があっても必要です。

I bought a new bicycle. He put his book on the desk. Can you pass me that red pen, please?

130 英語ライティングマニュアル

チェックリスト

英語ライティングマニュアル 131

英語ライティングマニュアル

❏❏ 名前と学籍番号がページの右上にきれいに書かれている。 ❏❏ レポートのタイトルがページの中央に書かれおり、主な単語が大文字から始まっている。 ❏❏ タイトルの下が１行空いている。 ❏❏ １行目が字下げされている。 ❏❏ 左右に同じ幅の余白がある。 ❏❏ 文章が１行おきに書かれている。 ❏❏ すべてのセンテンスが大文字から始まり、ピリオド、または疑問符か感嘆符で終わっている。 , とピリオド（）の区別がはっきりしている。 ❏❏ コンマ（） ❏❏ すべてのセンテンスに主語と動詞がある。 ❏❏ すべてのセンテンスが完結した意味を表している。 ❏❏ 接続詞 (and, but, or, so) から始まっている文がない。 ❏❏ 必要なところにコンマが入っている。（because の節を確認） ❏❏ 不要なところにコンマが入っていない。 ❏❏ すべての動詞の形が主語と一致している。 ❏❏ すべての動詞が正しい時制になっている。 ❏❏ 名詞の単数形と複数形が正しく使われている。 ❏❏ すべての単数の可算名詞の前に適切な冠詞や限定詞が置かれている。 ❏❏ 大文字と小文字が正しく使われている。 ❏❏ 文章全体で単文、重文、複文がバランスよく使われている。 ❏❏ スペルミスがない。

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乱丁・落丁の場合はお取り替えいたします。発行所

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発行年月日印刷

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