Read to Write Compositions (Second Edition) by englishbooks.jp

Read to Write Compositions Second Edition

Ian Munby & Dorothy E. Zemach

A teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s guide for this book is available from www.btbpress.com

Read to Write Compositions Second Edition Ian Munby & Dorothy E. Zemach ÂŠ BTB Press, 2016 First printing March 2016 Published by BTB Press (www.btbpress.com) Edited by David Barker Cover design by Paul Lewis Design and layout by Paul Lewis

Acknowledgments Thanks to Mutsumi Kawasaki, Douglas Moore, and Haruka Nomura for their help with the proof-reading. In memory of Richard Munby, who used to love to talk about anything with anyone, anywhere.

2â&#x20AC;&#x192; Read to Write Compositions

Contents

How to Use This Book ........................................................................ 4 Composition Writing Manual

1 Hooks ............................................................................................6 2 Topic Sentences ............................................................................8 3 Supporting Sentences ................................................................10 4 Concluding Sentences ...............................................................12 5 Transitions ..................................................................................14 6 Formal Language ...................................................................... 16 7 Sentence Variety ........................................................................18 8 Commas ......................................................................................20 9 Hedging ......................................................................................22 10 Avoiding Vague Language .......................................................24 11 Avoiding Repetition ..................................................................26 P Plagiarism ...................................................................................28 C Checklist......................................................................................30 How to Use the Models..........................................................................31 Model Compositions

Example Composition.................................................................. 32/33 Topic 1: Advantages & Disadvantages.............................................34 Topic 2: Love-Hate Relationships......................................................48 Topic 3: Compare & Contrast............................................................62 Topic 4: Then & Now..........................................................................76 Topic 5: Problems & Solutions...........................................................90 Topic 6: For & Against......................................................................104

英作文マニュアル............................................................................. 118-130

Read to Write Compositions 3

How to Use This Book Read to Write Compositions is intended to be a stepping stone between paragraph writing and essay writing. It is aimed at students who have mastered the basics of English sentence construction, but who need practice arranging their thoughts into coherent arguments and presenting them in an academic style. If some of your students are still having problems with basic sentence construction, refer them to the English Writing Manual by David Barker <www.btbpress.com>, which makes an ideal supplement to this book. The compositions in the first five units of this book are written in a two-paragraph format. The aim of this is to accustom students who have only ever written single paragraphs to ordering topics and structuring arguments. The compositions in the final unit are written in a three-paragraph style. Having worked through this book in its entirety, we believe that students will have a solid foundation from which they will be ready to move on to more advanced academic essay writing. The Composition Writing Manual at the beginning of this book explains a number of key points that students need to be aware of before they start the course. The points are numbered so that you can refer students to specific sections as necessary. For example, if you suspect that a student has copied and pasted something from a website, you can simply write “P” on their paper to direct them to the section on plagiarism. If you think they are struggling to write topic sentences, write “3” in order to refer them to that part of the manual. Some parts of the manual may be difficult for learners to read in English, so a Japanese version has been included at the end of the book. One effective way of introducing the manual is to assign one point to each pair or group of students in the first class, and then have them give a short presentation on it to their classmates. Once students are familiar with the basic conventions and rules of composition writing, they will be ready to start reading the model compositions. As the title of this book suggests, the idea is that students read a number of example compositions that have been written by learners like them, but checked and edited by teachers. As they read, they gather the language they need before attempting to write compositions of their own. Students should write the language they pick up from each model in the appropriate box on the corresponding right-hand page. An example of the kinds of things that students might find in the models is given on page 33.

Words & Phrases

Students use this box to write new words and expressions along with their Japanese translations. Encourage them to write the whole “chunk” surrounding the word(s) and not just the word by itself.

Transitions

The appropriate use of transitions is a key skill for learners to develop if they are going to write structured, coherent compositions. Each model composition contains transitions between clauses, transitions between sentences, and transitions between paragraphs. 4 Read to Write Compositions

Encourage students to pick out from each model only the ones that they have not met before. This will force them to review continually. Note that in order to understand how the transitions are used, it may be a good idea in some cases for students to write the clauses or sentences that come before and after the transitions as well as the transitions themselves.

Patterns

Patterns are the underlying structures of sentences. Identifying useful patterns requires students to read with “X-ray glasses,” seeing through the surface meaning and down to the structure below. They will naturally find this difficult at first, but with practice, they should be able to pick out patterns that they can adapt in order to create new sentences of their own. For example, if students read the sentence A freeter is a person who chooses to work parttime instead of getting a full-time job, they should be able to identify the pattern a person who chooses to <verb> instead of <verb -ing>. A student who has spotted this pattern would then be able to write a sentence like I chose to look for a job instead of studying abroad. The same student could further extend this by substituting a verb like decide for choose. Students who learn to reverse-engineer English in this way will be able to write sentences that are both correct and natural. This is the key to the “Read to Write” principle. When students have analyzed all the models in a unit and made a note of language items to use later, have them choose a topic from the list at the end of the unit and write a composition on loose-leaf paper. This is partly to avoid excessive erasing and re-writing in the book, but also to avoid the necessity of you having to carry heavy textbooks home to mark. As you check the papers, remember that you can save a lot of time by directing students to the various sections of the manual simply by writing numbers, so it is worth familiarizing yourself with its contents. After you have given feedback, students can work together to peer-edit one another’s compositions. When students have corrected their compositions, have them write the final version on the My Composition page at the end of the unit. This will serve as a record for future reference for the student who wrote it. It may also be interesting and productive to have students show their compositions to their classmates. This introduction is meant to provide general guidelines for teachers. For more detailed information, download the Teacher’s Guide from www.btbpress.com, and feel free to contact us at <info@btbpress.com> if you have any questions or comments. Ian Munby & Dorothy E. Zemach

Read to Write Compositions 5

Composition Writing Manual

Hooks

A hook is a sentence at the beginning of a composition that aims to catch the reader’s attention. There are several ways to do this. 1) With an interesting fact or statistic: More Americans have died from domestic gun violence than have been killed in every war in the country’s history, added together. 2) With a surprising or interesting statement: Dropping out of college was important to Steve Jobs’ success. I love my boyfriend, but I have already decided not to marry him. 3) With a quotation or saying: “A friend in need is a friend indeed.” The American poet Robert Frost once wrote, “Good fences make good neighbors.” (You can search for quotations online with a search like friendship + quotation.)

4) With a question: Do you know what percentage of households in Japan no longer have a landline telephone? Be very careful with questions. Do not choose a question: • for which the answer is unknown or will not be answered in your composition; instead, ask a question that you will answer.

✘ How can we stop wars forever? ✔ Do you know how many wars are currently being fought? • for which the answer is obvious, or already known to your readers. Ask a question that will make readers want to read your composition in order to find the answer.

✘ Who is the Prime Minister of Japan? ✔ What world leader has been in power for the longest amount of time? • that your readers might answer with a simple “yes” or “no,” and then lose interest; instead, ask a question that makes readers think about your topic.

✘ Would you ever want to adopt a baby? ✔ Can you guess the main reason why the adoption rate is increasing? Hooks can be hard to write, so some people prefer to write the entire composition first, and then add the hook last. Note that hooks are optional, so not every composition needs to have one. 6 Read to Write Compositions

Practice

Judging hooks Which hook is better? Circle either a) or b). 1) a) Do you know what “globalization” means? b) “It has been said that arguing against globalization is like arguing against the laws of gravity.” (Kofi Annan) 2) a) When I stepped off the train, I could not believe what I saw in front of me. b) This composition is going to be about my high school trip to Hokkaido. 3) a) My best friend once told me, “It is really hard to get a job after you graduate.” b) Last year, a company recruiter at a top university offered some surprising advice for job-seekers. 4) a) Having a long-distance relationship is difficult. That is why I do not advise getting involved with someone far away.

Composition Writing Manual

b) The famous saying, “Absence makes the heart grow fonder” implies that distance is not a barrier to relationships. 5) a) Do you know what the biggest reason is for the falling birthrate in Japan? b) Do you want to have children in the future? Why or why not? Choosing hooks Match each hook to the appropriate topic in the box below. 6) _____ I looked at the ticket in my hand and smiled: Istanbul, Turkey! 7) _____ “He is the richest who is content with the least,” said Socrates. 8) _____ Quick—your house is shaking violently. What do you do first? 9) _____ Plane crashes grab the headlines, but actually, traveling by car is far more dangerous. 10) _____ Do you think you know what is in your hotdog? Think again. a) disaster preparation

b) food additives

c) a memorable vacation

d) money/wealth

e) transportation

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Composition Writing Manual

Topic Sentences

In academic writing, most paragraphs contain a “topic sentence” that summarizes the main idea of the paragraph. The topic sentence is often the first or second sentence of a paragraph, but it may also come at the end of the paragraph (common) or in the middle (unusual). If the topic sentence is not the first sentence in the paragraph, it is usually preceded by a hook (see p. 6) or by one or two introductory sentences. These are good topic sentences: • • •

Studying abroad is not always an effective way to learn a foreign language. Being a member of a large family taught me how to negotiate and how to cooperate. Tokyo is a better city in which to look for work than my hometown because it is larger and has more opportunities.

These are not topic sentences:

✘ This paper is about studying abroad. ✘ I have a large family. ✘ Tokyo is bigger than my hometown. In Japanese, it is common to say what you are going to write about before you begin. This is not necessary in English. Do not write sentences like these:

✘ I am going to write about the problem of bullying in schools. ✘ I will discuss the advantages and disadvantages of having a car. In a one-paragraph composition, or in the first paragraph of a longer composition, the topic sentence often follows the “hook” or introductory sentences. The topic sentence sometimes shows the main ideas that will be discussed in the entire composition. Here is an example: Studying abroad is expensive, but the benefits gained are invaluable. From this sentence, the reader knows that the topic is “studying abroad”; that the writer believes studying abroad is a good experience; that the first paragraph will talk about expenses; and that the second paragraph will talk about benefits. In a composition of more than one paragraph, the topic sentence is usually the first sentence of each following paragraph. • • •

The second advantage of living in a dormitory is that you meet many people. However, studying abroad will not necessarily lead to a higher level of English. On the other hand, owning a car is also a big responsibility.

8 Read to Write Compositions

Practice

Recognizing topic sentences Check (√) the five sentences that are strong topic sentences. 1) My major is electrical engineering. 2) 3D printing can help small businesses save time and money. 3) Living in a dormitory keeps young people from learning skills necessary for independence. 4) Working a summer internship can give you money, work experience, and selfconfidence. 5) In the evenings, I usually relax by watching television. 6) Studying abroad is not necessary to become a good English speaker. 7) In this paper, I am going to explain three reasons to go to graduate school. 8) “How to save money while still living comfortably” is the topic of my composition. 9) Three simple time management tricks can help you find two to three more hours in every day. Locating the topic sentence Underline the topic sentence in this paragraph. What do you think is the most dangerous animal in the world? You might be surprised to learn that it is the mosquito. The mosquito is the world’s deadliest animal because of the diseases it spreads. In fact, more than one million people die every year because of mosquito bites. Most of these deaths are due to malaria. In addition, mosquitoes carry diseases such as dengue fever and West Nile virus, which can also be fatal.

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Composition Writing Manual

Supporting Sentences

The topic sentence states the subject and your opinion about that subject. The other sentences in the paragraph are called “supporting sentences.” They explain and give more information about your topic sentence. The topic sentence is general; supporting sentences are more specific. Every supporting sentence should be about the topic of your paragraph. There are several types of supporting sentences. For the following explanations, imagine that the topic sentence of the paragraph is: Just living in an English-speaking country does not mean that you will automatically learn English.

Details / examples / explanations

These explain or give specific information about the idea in the topic sentence. These sentences are sometimes introduced with expressions such as One reason is… , This is because… , or For example,…. (See p. 14 for more information on transitions.) One reason is that not much English is needed for daily activities such as riding the bus or buying food. You will say the same few sentences over and over again, but you will not engage in varied and meaningful conversations. In addition, students who feel homesick might find friends from the same country and speak their native language. Thanks to the Internet, it is easy and tempting to email and chat with friends back home instead of making new friends.

A short narrative or story

This type of support, also called an “anecdote,” is a short personal story. It can be about you—the writer—or someone you know about. When I spent a semester in Australia, I asked for a homestay. I thought if I were living with an Australian family, I would speak English with them every day. However, when I met the family, I found out that they had just moved to Australia from Japan! In fact, their daughter was in my English class. We sometimes did our homework together—in Japanese.

Information from other people or publications

This type of support is more common in research papers than in compositions based on your own knowledge or ideas. However, as you read in English and think about how main ideas are supported, you are sure to notice this method. Approximately 30 percent of students surveyed in the study abroad program at Daisuki University felt that living in an English-speaking country did not significantly improve their English ability. Reasons for this included living with a roommate from the same country, lack of opportunities to interact with local people, and not having enough time to spend on homework and assignments.

10 Read to Write Compositions

Practice

The function of supporting sentences Are these statements true or false? Write “T” for True or “F” for False. 1) ____ In one paragraph, there are more supporting sentences than topic sentences. 2) ____ An expert’s opinion can be used in a supporting sentence. 3) ____ Supporting sentences show a variety of opinions about the topic. 4) ____ A topic sentence is more general than a supporting sentence. 5) ____ There can only be one type of supporting sentence in a paragraph.

Appropriate support Check (√) the four best types of support for a paragraph about why smoking is harmful. ____ The name of a disease caused by smoking

Composition Writing Manual

____ How many years you have been smoking ____ How many different brands of cigarettes are sold in Japan ____ A doctor’s explanation of why second-hand smoke is dangerous ____ A story about why you started smoking ____ A narrative about a close friend who died of lung cancer ____ An explanation of how growing tobacco takes farmland away from food crops ____ A friend’s opinion about why cigarettes taste bad ____ A comparison between cigarette prices in Japan and Canada

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Composition Writing Manual

Concluding Sentences

The â&#x20AC;&#x153;concluding sentenceâ&#x20AC;? is the final sentence in a paragraph. It summarizes your main ideas. Concluding sentences are most common in the last paragraph of a composition, or as the final sentence of a long one-paragraph composition. Note: a short paragraph or a body paragraph might not have a concluding sentence. The concluding sentence will often be similar to the topic sentence. However, even if you are stating the same ideas, it is important to say them in a slightly different way. Here are some example concluding sentences for the topic sentences on p. 8.

Topic sentence: Studying abroad is not always an effective way to learn a foreign language.

Concluding sentence: Because of the stress of culture shock and the distractions of sightseeing, you might not learn as much English on a trip abroad as you would working hard in a classroom at home.

Topic sentence: Being a member of a large family taught me how to negotiate and how to cooperate.

Concluding sentence: The skills I learned working together with the members of my family prepared me to bargain and discuss issues at work.

Topic sentence: Tokyo is a better city in which to look for work than my hometown because it is larger and has more opportunities.

Concluding sentence: Because the types of companies I want to work for are located in Tokyo, I believe that relocating there is the best thing I can do for my career. A concluding sentence can also offer a prediction about the future or a call to action, as long as it is based on information provided in the composition. Clearly, a new recycling program must be introduced at our university in order to reduce waste and save money.

12â&#x20AC;&#x192; Read to Write Compositions

Practice

Recognizing concluding sentences Are these good concluding sentences? Write “Y” for Yes or “N” for No. 1) ____ Another idea is to encourage more university students to take part-time jobs. 2) ____ In conclusion, this has been my composition about traffic problems. 3) ____ Because of the stress I felt in class, lack of time in my life, and constant physical injuries, I think I made the right decision to quit practicing karate. 4) ____ If you want a companion who is entertaining and loyal, a dog is an excellent choice. 5) ____ To sum up, because of social, political, and economic differences, I do not think North and South Korea will be united in my lifetime. 6) ____ Furthermore, using public transportation instead of private cars would result in cleaner air.

Writing concluding sentences Write a concluding sentence to go with the following topic sentences. 7) Taking care of a pet is a good experience for children for two reasons. _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ 8) It is necessary to ban genetically modified food because it is dangerous to people and to agriculture. _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ 9) Traveling abroad can teach you about other countries, your own country, and yourself. _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ 10) Three qualities make me admire my grandfather more than any other role model. _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

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Composition Writing Manual

Transitions

Transitions are words or phrases that connect one idea with another. They help your reader understand the relationship between your sentences. This chart shows some common functions of transitions. Add Information in addition furthermore also moreover

Give Reasons / Examples for example for instance the first / second reason is… one explanation is that…

Show an Order first / next / then / finally when before / after / during at the same time

Compare / Contrast in comparison in contrast on the other hand however nowadays / these days / formerly (to show a

contrast between then and now)

fortunately / luckily / unfortunately (to contrast an advantage and a disadvantage)

Transitions can appear in many different positions in a text. Here are some of the most common. 1) To join two clauses I did not think about what classes to take before I arrived in Australia. 2) To connect two sentences I made many new friends by joining clubs. For instance, I joined the Outdoors Club and went on their winter ski trip and several hiking trips. 3) To move from one paragraph to another These are all ways that you can make friends in a foreign country. However, making friends is not the only way to improve your English while studying abroad. Another effective way is to … Note that in 3), the first sentence of the new paragraph makes a reference to the idea (making friends) mentioned in the previous paragraph.

14 Read to Write Compositions

Practice

Choosing transitions Circle the correct transition. 1) Trains are more comfortable than planes. (Moreover / However), they are slower. 2) Water shortages are a major problem worldwide. (For instance / Nowadays), Sanaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;a, the capital city of Yemen, is expected to run out of water in 2020. 3) Farmers enthusiastically used the chemicals to kill insects that ate their crops. (In comparison / Unfortunately), those chemicals also killed the bees that pollinated their crops. 4) Wearing formal clothes to an interview makes a good impression on your interviewer. (Next / Furthermore), it will make you feel like a professional. 5) As recently as half a generation ago, email was the most popular form of communication. (These days / In contrast), texting and instant messaging are more common. Using transitions Connect the two sentences with a transition. (There may be more than one answer for some of the questions.) 6) Too much salt in your diet can cause health problems. ( salt can also be bad for you.

), a lack of

7) Exploring space might help us find more precious minerals. ( might help us find places for people to live.

), it

8) Even a decade ago, people had to pay for an Internet connection at home. ( ), there are a lot of free Wi-Fi spots in most major cities. 9) It is easy to find a lot of information on the Internet. ( is trustworthy.

), not all of it

10) To create your own blog, you have to register for a site. ( can begin writing posts and adding photos.

), you

Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;15

Composition Writing Manual

Formal Language

Academic writing is more formal than the type of writing you do in, for example, an email to a friend. While the conventions below are not “rules,” they are typical features of academic writing. 1) Avoid abbreviations.

✘ The 1st time you download new software, you should read the manual. ✔ The first time you download new software, you should read the manual. Instead of etc., use the expressions and so on, such as, or including.

✘ It is important to use solar, wind, water, etc. because they are clean energy sources. ✔ It is important to use solar, wind, water, and so on because they are clean energy sources. ✔ It is important to use clean energy sources such as solar, wind, and water. ✔ It is important to use clean energy sources, including solar, wind, and water. 2) Avoid contractions.

✘ she’d ✔ she would ✘ that’s ✔ that is ✘ can’t ✔ cannot 3) Where possible, use a single verb instead of a two- or three-part phrasal verb.

✘ Busy teachers cannot put up with constant interruptions to their classes. ✔ Busy teachers cannot tolerate constant interruptions to their classes. 4) Do not use informal spellings that imitate conversational pronunciation.

✘ The new building is gonna cost three million dollars. ✔ The new building is going to cost three million dollars. 5) Limit the use of I. Use it only where you are talking about a personal experience. It is not usually necessary to use phrases such as I think… or I believe…; since you are the author of your composition, the reader already knows it contains your opinions.

✘ I think it is important to have a part-time job in college to gain practical work experience. ✔ It is important to have a part-time job in college to gain practical work experience. 16 Read to Write Compositions

Practice

Classifying language Find the formal expressions and write them in the column on the left. Then write the matching informal expressions across from them on the right. wanna I was pleased look up to

OTOH love, good-bye

see ya :-) want to

Formal

admire sincerely, on the other hand

Informal

__________________________

Formal language Rewrite the sentences below to make them more formal. 7) In my opinion, the situation isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t really all that great. _________________________________________________________________________ 8) To save electricity, we need to like turn off lights, etc. _________________________________________________________________________ 9) The new mgr of the dept. is Mr. Kimura. _________________________________________________________________________ 10) Hiya Bill, great to see ya last night!!! _________________________________________________________________________ 11) i cant wait 2 c u again _________________________________________________________________________ Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;17

Composition Writing Manual

Sentence Variety

It is important to have a good balance of sentence types in your writing. If all your sentences are very short and simple, your writing will look childish. On the other hand, if all of your sentences are long and complicated, your writing will be difficult to read. Here are the main types of sentence that you will use in your writing.

Simple Sentences

Simple sentences are ones that have a single subject/verb group. The saltwater crocodile is the largest of all living reptiles.

Simple sentences can have multiple subjects, multiple verbs, or both. Saltwater crocodiles live in rivers in the wet season but move down to estuaries in the summer.

Both saltwater crocodiles and freshwater crocodiles live in rivers.

Compound Sentences

Compound sentences are made by joining two or more simple sentences using a comma and a coordinating conjunction such as and, but, or so. Saltwater crocodiles live in rivers in the wet season, but they move down to estuaries in the summer. S

Note that and, but, so, and or are not normally used to begin sentences in academic writing. Use transitions like In addition, However, and Therefore instead.

Complex Sentences

Complex sentences have an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses that add information. Independent clauses can stand alone, but the dependent clauses would not have a complete meaning by themselves. Saltwater crocodiles are often hunted because their skins are valuable.

independent clause

dependent clause

Because their skins are valuable, saltwater crocodiles are often hunted.

dependent clause

independent clause

Saltwater crocodiles generally bask in the sun during the day, preferring to hunt at night.

independent clause

18â&#x20AC;&#x192; Read to Write Compositions

dependent clause

Practice

Sentence types Write “S” if the sentence is simple, “C” if it is compound, and “CX” if it is complex. 1) ____ Although nuclear energy can be cheap, it is potentially dangerous. 2) ____ The benefits of public transportation outweigh the inconveniences. 3) ____ He did his work poorly, and he also stole money from the company. 4) ____ It is important to reform adoption laws because many children are lacking permanent homes. 5) ____ I hope to graduate next June and then find a job a few months later. 6) ____ The citizens complained about the lack of services, yet they voted against a tax increase.

Clauses Write complete sentences that include the following dependent clauses. You may put the dependent clause first or second. 7) after he found out the truth _________________________________________________________________________ 8) because it is expensive _________________________________________________________________________ 9) standing on the corner _________________________________________________________________________ 10) since she was too short _________________________________________________________________________

Read to Write Compositions 19

Composition Writing Manual

Commas

There are many rules for using commas correctly—more than can be covered in this book. However, here are some common and useful rules that you should know. Use a comma to: 1) Separate items in a list. I have visited France, England, and Germany. (A, B, and C) 2) Join two simple sentences that are separated by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so: remember them by remembering the word FANBOYS). • •

The university is going to increase tuition fees, so students will have to pay more from next year. A subway system is a convenient method of transportation, but not every major city has one.

3) Do not use more than two coordinating conjunctions in one sentence, and do not use the same conjunction twice. Do not use a comma to join two sentences with other types of connectors. Instead, start a new sentence.

✘ Bamboo fibers are very strong, moreover they are inexpensive to produce. ✔ Bamboo fibers are very strong. Moreover, they are inexpensive to produce. 4) Set off introductory sentence elements such as transitional phrases or long prepositional phrases. • • •

However, the new program has one significant disadvantage. On the other hand, living in a dormitory has some important benefits. In another three or four hundred years, people will probably have settled on other planets.

5) Surround an appositive—a noun phrase that describes another noun in the sentence. Dr. Bernard, a world-famous cancer specialist, talked about the importance of quitting smoking. (Dr. Bernard = a world-famous cancer specialist) An appositive can also come at the end of the sentence. The importance of quitting smoking was explained by Dr. Bernard, a world-famous cancer specialist.

20 Read to Write Compositions

Practice

Recognizing mistakes Write “C” if the sentence is correctly punctuated and “I” if it is incorrect. Then correct the incorrect sentences. 1) _____ Bottled water is convenient, however, the associated trash makes it a poor choice for the environment. 2) _____ Some students work at a volunteer job or internship because they want to get valuable work experience. 3) _____ After living in Europe for many years I got used to hearing a lot of different languages. 4) _____ It is hard to go to school full-time, and work a part-time job. 5) _____ The colors of the Italian flag are red, white, and green.

Composition Writing Manual

Placing commas Put commas in the following sentences. 6) Three things I think are a waste of money are smoking cigarettes drinking expensive wines and buying luxury brands. 7) Before you can drive your new car you need to purchase insurance. 8) Credit cards are very convenient. On the other hand many people cannot manage them well. 9) Senior officials were convicted of financial crimes but they were not sent to jail. 10) People who post personal information to social media sites which are famous for poor standards of privacy can experience problems such as harassment and identity theft.

Read to Write Compositions 21

Composition Writing Manual

Hedging

It is important in academic writing to be as truthful and accurate as you can. For this reason, avoid statements that claim something is always or never a certain way. For example, if you are writing about the effects of air pollution on health, it is not accurate to say, “Air pollution makes people sick.” Your reader will wonder—All people? Always? How much pollution? If your reader thinks of exceptions (Hmmm. I breathed very polluted air in Mexico City, and it didn’t seem to hurt me), then he or she might distrust the rest of your claims too. Here are some common ways to soften these types of statements with “hedging.” 1) Use modals such as might or could.

✘ Air pollution makes people sick. ✔ Air pollution could make people sick. 2) Use words such as some, all, most, many (as long as you believe they are accurate). Air pollution can make some people sick. Many cities have a problem with air pollution.

3) Use expressions such as tend to, some of the time, and in some situations. Air pollution tends to make people sick. Air pollution has been shown to make people sick in some situations. 4) Add more information to qualify your statement. Air pollution can make people sick if they already suffer from respiratory conditions. Air pollution can make people sick if it reaches extreme levels. Avoid sweeping generalizations such as Everybody knows that…, It is obvious that…, or Research shows that… unless you can say specifically what research you are talking about.

22 Read to Write Compositions

Practice

Hedging and syntax Add the hedges into the sentences, and make any necessary changes. 1) Getting a sun tan will give you skin cancer. (could) _________________________________________________________________________ 2) Assuming a position of power causes politicians to become corrupt. (tends to) _________________________________________________________________________ 3) Women keep their maiden name when they get married these days. (some) _________________________________________________________________________ 4) Teenagers who play video games have poor posture. (many)

Composition Writing Manual

_________________________________________________________________________ 5) Lowering the speed limit on that highway will save lives. (might) _________________________________________________________________________ Hedging and meaning Match the sentences with an appropriate hedge. One hedge is not used. 6) People who download illegal music will be forced to pay large fines 7) I am going to buy a laptop, a tablet, and a new desktop computer 8) You should not drink water from this stream 9) You cannot get a visa to Algeria 10) Your teacher will be angry if you talk to the person next to you

a) if their prices drop significantly. b) unless you submit an application. c) if you are not supposed to be working together. d) without a better idea. e) if they are caught. f) without boiling it for 20 minutes.

Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;23

Composition Writing Manual

Avoiding Vague Language

Whenever possible, avoid words that do not clearly explain what you mean. For example, if you write Electrical engineering is a good career, your reader does not know what you mean by “good.” Do you mean well-paying? Interesting? Useful to society? Popular? Easy? Here are some ways to avoid vague language. 1) Use precise vocabulary. One way to replace vague language is to check the vague word in a thesaurus—a dictionary of words that have similar meanings. You can buy a paper thesaurus or use one online. If you choose a word that you have not used before from a thesaurus, check with a dictionary or your teacher to make sure you understand that word’s shades of meaning and how it is used.

✘ Eating too much sugar is bad. ✔ Eating too much sugar is unhealthy. ✘ Kimiko is a nice person. ✔ Kimiko is a kind and generous person. 2) Give specific information.

✘ The Canada lynx is a big wild cat. ✔ The Canada lynx is a type of wild cat that weighs about 10 kilos and is about 50 centimeters tall.

✘ It takes a long time to become a doctor in the United States. ✔ To become a doctor in the United States, a person must go to university for four years,

medical school for another four years (or longer), and then complete a residency for three to five years.

3) While it is sometimes necessary and appropriate, the verb be can often be replaced by something stronger or more interesting.

✘ I was at home all weekend. ✔ I stayed home all weekend. ✘ Dr. Matthews was a famous historian. ✔ Dr. Matthews taught history at the University of Washington and wrote three popular history books about the 1920s.

24 Read to Write Compositions

Practice

Recognizing vague language What is wrong with the following sentences? Write the letter of the problem. Problems can be used more than once. a = Some vocabulary is not precise. b = The information is not specific enough. c = The “be” verb is weak here. 1) _____ My family was in Germany for three years. 2) _____ An elm is a tree. 3) _____ That movie was really bad. 4) _____ You need a good TOEFL score to get into an American university. 5) _____ Junichiro is a boy.

Avoiding vague language Rewrite the sentences so that they are not vague. Use information from your imagination. 6) This book is hard. _________________________________________________________________________ 7) It takes a long time to get to the mountains. _________________________________________________________________________ 8) My mother was at Mitsubishi for 15 years. _________________________________________________________________________ 9) My hair looks bad today. _________________________________________________________________________ 10) Kanae is a good friend. _________________________________________________________________________

Read to Write Compositions 25

Composition Writing Manual

Avoiding Repetition

In English, good writers try to avoid repeating words or phrases that they used in the previous sentences. There are several ways of doing this. 1) Synonyms Synonyms are words that have a similar meaning. You can find synonyms for words in a thesaurus. In the examples below, the words plus and benefit are used in order to avoid repeating advantage. One advantage is… Another plus is… The final benefit is… In the following examples, a number of and several are used in order to avoid repeating some. Some people believe that… A number of writers have pointed out that… Several critics have argued that… 2) Auxiliary verbs Auxiliary verbs can be used in English to avoid repeating a main verb phrase. In the following examples, do, does not, and will are used to replace like snowboarding, speaks English, and be able to afford one. People who do not like snowboarding often cannot understand the feelings of those who do. Is it better to have a teacher who speaks English, or one who does not? The danger is that some people will not be able to afford one, whereas others will. 3) Rewording Another method of avoiding repetition is to use a phrase instead of a word. In these examples, this time of the year and the holiday season are used to avoid repeating Christmas, and gets me down is used to avoid repeating feel depressed. Christmas is supposed to be a happy event, but I often feel depressed at this time of the year. There is something about the holiday season that gets me down.

26 Read to Write Compositions

Practice

Recognizing synonyms Underline the two words or phrases that have a similar meaning. There might be more than one pair in some sentences. 1) Some people celebrate Christmas for religious reasons, others for cultural reasons. 2) One method is to boil the water first. Another way is to cook the meat first. 3) The end of the school year is a time most students feel happy, yet I am rarely cheerful then. 4) Cats are famous for always disliking water, yet this is not true of all felines. Using auxiliary verbs Circle the correct auxiliary verb. 5) Those who love risky sports cannot understand the feelings of those who (do / do not). 6) If you cannot accept the salary, we will find another candidate who (can / does). 7) Citizens who have full-time jobs should pay more taxes than people who (do not / have not). Avoiding repetition Rewrite the sentences to avoid repetition. 8) Although people know air pollution is dangerous, they still travel to cities that have problems with air pollution. _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ 9) One good point about the new proposal is that it saves money. Another good point is that it is easy to implement. _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ 10) Using paper bags can cause problems for the environment, but using plastic bags can also cause problems for the environment. _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;27

Composition Writing Manual

Plagiarism

When they write about a topic in English, students sometimes copy text from the Internet and paste it into their composition. This can happen because the student does not really understand the topic, because he or she cannot think of anything to write, or simply because he or she is lazy. Copying other people’s writing is called “plagiarism,” and it is considered to be a very serious matter in Western countries. Students who copy writing from other sources and pretend that it is their own can be expelled from college. In some cases, it can even be a criminal offense! At the very least, someone who plagiarizes someone else’s work will fail the course they are taking. If your teacher is from a Western country, he or she will probably have very strong feelings about plagiarism. It is also plagiarism if you ask another student to write your composition and then pretend that you wrote it yourself. Of course, it is okay to ask friends for help, but the final draft must be written in your own words. Most teachers will also consider it to be plagiarism if you give them a piece of writing that you have already submitted for another class. This is called “self-plagiarism,” and it may also lead to you receiving a failing grade. The most important thing to realize is that it is very easy for teachers of students whose first language is not English to spot plagiarism. Your teacher knows what kind of English you are capable of producing, and if your writing is too natural or too highlevel, or if it uses advanced vocabulary and grammar perfectly, he or she will recognize instantly that you have copied it from somewhere else. If your teacher suspects that your writing has been copied from the Internet, he or she can check quite easily simply by googling your sentences. Remember that plagiarism is a very serious offense in Western countries, and it will not be tolerated in your English writing classes.

Avoiding Plagiarism

The best way to avoid plagiarism is to summarize ideas using your own words. This is called “paraphrasing.” Paraphrasing is not easy, but it is your responsibility as a writer to make sure that your composition is all your own work. Here are two examples of ways in which the explanation contained in the first two paragraphs of this page could be re-written. When you write a composition in English, you must not copy sentences from the Internet. If you do, your teacher will be very angry, and you might fail the course. Some students copy English sentences from the Internet when they write their compositions, but you might get into serious trouble if you do this.

28 Read to Write Compositions

Practice

Identifying plagiarism Check (â&#x2C6;&#x161;) the actions that are plagiarism in English. 1) ____ You read an article online. Later, you write your opinion about that article. 2) ____ You write a report on coal mining. For some technical information, you cut and paste a few paragraphs from Wikipedia. The arguments and opinions are all your original ideas. 3) ____ You buy a research paper on the topic of high speed trains from an online site and submit it. The paper you buy uses quotations but says where they come from. 4) ____ You use a composition that you wrote in high school for a different class at university. 5) ____ You write a composition for a university class on the same topic that you researched in high school, but it is longer, has some new information, and is written a little differently. 6) ____ You have no ideas about your topic. You talk with several friends, and find that you agree with a few of them. You write your paper in your own words, but your ideas were influenced by your discussion. Paraphrasing Which is the best paraphrase of these popular English sayings? Circle either a) or b). 7) Out of sight, out of mind. a) Outside vision, outside thought. b) You forget people or things you do not see often. 8) There are many paths up the mountain. a) You can do something in many different ways. b) A lot of roads lead up this tall hill. 9) Better late than never. a) It is better to be late than never to be late. b) Even if the deadline has passed, you should still finish the task. 10) The apple does not fall far from the tree. a) Children behave similarly to their parents. b) A piece of fruit drops near the tree it grew on.

Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;29

Composition Writing Manual

C Checklist ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏

You have written your name, your student number, and any other information required by your teacher. The title of your composition is in the center of the page. All the main words of the title begin with a capital letter. If you have written a “hook,” it follows the rules on page 6. Each paragraph contains a topic sentence. Each paragraph contains supporting sentences that give more detail about the topic sentence. The final paragraph of the composition ends with a concluding sentence that restates your main idea in different words. You have used a variety of transitions to connect your ideas. The style of your writing is formal. You have used a variety of sentence types. No sentences start with and, but, or so. There are no contractions (I’d, don’t, etc.). All of your commas are used correctly and look clearly different from periods. You have softened statements where necessary using the techniques described on page 22. You have chosen appropriate and precise vocabulary. All the words in your composition have been spelled correctly.

30 Read to Write Compositions

The Read to Write system has four main steps. 1) Read each model composition. Make sure you understand the meaning. 2) Identify words and phrases, transitions, and patterns that you would like to use. 3) Combine your own ideas with the language you have learned to write your own composition. 4) Check your writing using the checklists on p. 30. (Japanese version on p. 130.) When you read the models, first check the meanings of words and phrases that you do not know. “Words & Phrases” means single words, multi-word units, phrases, and even sentences that you can use without making any changes. Wait until you have finished the whole composition before checking new items, as the meaning of the parts that you do not know may become clear if you continue reading. If you need to use your dictionary, make sure that you find the correct translation for the context. Transitions are words that connect ideas. Remember that transitions can connect clauses, sentences, and paragraphs. Identify all the transitions in the model, and write them in the box with their translations. “Patterns” are pieces of language that you can use to make new sentences by changing some key words. When you find a useful pattern in a model composition, put angle brackets < > around the words that can be changed. Here is an example. Original sentence

In the United Kingdom, November 5th is called “Guy Fawkes Night” or ”Bonfire Night.” Pattern

In <the United Kingdom,> <November 5th> is called <“Guy Fawkes Night”> or <”Bonfire Night.”> New sentence

In Japan, July 7th is called “Tanabata” or “Star Festival.” Do not worry if you find it difficult to identify patterns at first. Learning how to do this is one of the aims of this class. Look for language that you can understand but could not have produced yourself. Ask your teacher if you need help. Read the example analysis of a model composition on p. 33.

Read to Write Compositions 31

Composition Writing Manual

How to Use the Models

Example Composition

Taro Suzuki 5B 301949 Guy Fawkes Night In the United Kingdom, November 5th is called “Guy Fawkes Night” or “Bonfire Night.” It is an important festival in the British calendar. The day is named after a man who tried to blow up the government buildings in 1605. Fortunately, he was arrested before the bomb exploded, so no one was injured. In spite of the fact that many people had been in danger, the government decided to make the day a holiday to celebrate the plot’s failure. At one time, the festival was strongly connected with religion, and it often ended in violence. Now, however, it is generally a peaceful festival that is enjoyed by people of all ages. There are a number of customs associated with Guy Fawkes night. The main focus of the evening is a big fire, which is why the occasion is also known as Bonfire Night. On the days before November 5th, children build a dummy to represent Guy Fawkes. On the evening of the day itself, they burn it on top of the fire. November 5th is also celebrated with fireworks. In the past, families used to set off fireworks in their gardens. Nowadays, however, most people go to large public firework displays. If you ever visit the UK in early November, you should take the opportunity to experience the atmosphere of Guy Fawkes Night.

(223 words)

The notes on the opposite page are examples of how this model could be analyzed. When you read the models, you should look for language that is new or useful to you. Pay particular attention to sentences that you can understand, but that you could not have written yourself.

32 Read to Write Compositions

Words & Phrases

bonfire たき火 dummy マネキン・人形 be arrested 逮捕される plot

set off（花火を）打ち上げる

策略 religion 宗教

the fact that…

〜のこと

be strongly connected with …

〜と強く関連している

take the opportunity to experience …

機会を活かして、〜を経験する

Transitions

In spite of …

にも関わらず

At one time … 昔 Nowadays … 最近では

Patterns

In <the United Kingdom,> <November 5th> is called <“Guy Fawkes Night”> or <”Bonfire Night.”> The focus of <the evening> is <a big fire.> <November 5th> is also celebrated with <fireworks.> If you ever visit <the UK> in <early November,> you should take the opportunity to experience the atmosphere of <Guy Fawkes Night.>

Read to Write Compositions 33

Advantages & Disadvantages ➊

Being a “Freeter” In Japan, a “freeter” is a person who chooses to work part-time instead of full-time. There are both advantages and disadvantages to this lifestyle. One of the main advantages is that you have a lot of free time, so you can pursue hobbies and interests that are not career-related. For example, young people who want to become musicians can use their free time to practice, play gigs, or take lessons. In a similar way, people who are interested in travel can work for a short period and then go on a trip when they have saved enough money. Another benefit to not having steady work is that you can try different jobs until you find one that suits you. Of course, there are disadvantages to being a freeter as well. Most of these concern money. Without a regular income, it is almost impossible for a freeter to get a bank loan to buy a house. For men, this means that it may be difficult to get married, let alone support a family. In addition, freeters do not have job security, and they can easily be fired with little or no notice. A final disadvantage is that freeters tend to have very low status in Japanese society, and many people look

Topic

down on them. All in all, I believe that the disadvantages of being a freeter outweigh the advantages, so I am going to try to get a full-time job when I graduate. (242 words)

2 3 4 5 6 34 Read to Write Compositions

Words & Phrases

Transitions

Topic

1 2

Patterns

3 4 5 6 Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;35

Advantages & Disadvantages â&#x17E;&#x2039;

Living with Your Parents as an Adult In Japan, it is common for young people to live with their parents until they get married. In contrast, young people in many other countries usually prefer to move out and live by themselves or with friends after they finish full-time education. One argument in favor of living with your parents is that you can save time and money. For instance, you do not have to worry about cooking, cleaning, or doing the laundry. In addition, you do not have to pay for food, electricity, or rent. Another benefit is that you always have someone to take care of you if you get sick or injured. Similarly, if your parents are unwell, you will be there to help them. However, living with your parents when you are grown up also carries a number of drawbacks. For example, you may never learn how to do basic household chores. As long as you live at home, you will find it difficult to learn to stand on your own two feet because you depend on your parents in more ways than you realize. Another problem is that you cannot spend time at home with your friends in private. It may also be difficult for you to stay out late at night, and you may even have a curfew. On balance, I think that living with your parents is a good idea for university

Topic

students, but everyone should become independent after they graduate and start working. (242 words)

2 3 4 5 6 36â&#x20AC;&#x192; Read to Write Compositions

Words & Phrases

Transitions

Topic

1 2

Patterns

3 4 5 6 Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;37

Advantages & Disadvantages â&#x17E;&#x152;

The Pros and Cons of Car Ownership It is somewhat surprising that so many young people in Japan today are choosing not to own a car. If you have a car of your own, you can go anywhere you like, anytime you like. There is no need to waste time walking to train stations and bus stops, and no need to check timetables or wait around for buses and trains. Another plus is that you can carry heavy things, such as camping, fishing, or skiing equipment. In fact, it is very difficult to enjoy these kinds of activities without a car. When you look at it like this, owning a car seems to be a passport to joy and freedom for you, your friends, and your family. Of course, there are also some downsides to owning a car. First and foremost is the fact that a car costs a lot of money to buy and maintain. After buying your vehicle, there are still many other costs to consider, such as insurance, gasoline, parking expenses, car tax, and regular safety checks. Furthermore, there are many risks associated with driving. Every year, thousands of motorists are killed or seriously injured in traffic accidents. A third problem is that by driving a car you contribute to global warming. Before you buy a car, you should make sure you can

Topic

afford both the purchase and the maintenance, and you should think hard about road safety. If you decide that you want one, buy an eco-friendly car to limit the damage you do to the environment.

(254 words)

3 4 5 6 38â&#x20AC;&#x192; Read to Write Compositions

Words & Phrases

Transitions

Topic

1 2

Patterns

3 4 5 6 Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;39

Advantages & Disadvantages ➍

The Smart Choice In 2012, it was estimated that the number of smartphone users in Japan had surpassed the number of people using the older feature phones. It is easy to understand why more people are choosing to use smartphones when you consider the number of incredibly useful functions they offer. The main advantage that smartphones have over feature phones is their ability to run “apps,” or programs made by third-party developers. These can perform a huge range of tasks from converting currencies and calculating stock prices to playing games and drawing pictures. Owning a smartphone means that you can install as many of these apps as you want, and many of them are free. Interestingly, however, there are still a large number of people who refuse to give up their old phone. They claim that smartphones are too complicated and difficult to use, especially for children and older people. They also point out that smartphones have a much shorter battery life than feature phones. Whereas a feature phone can be used for several days without charging, most smartphones need to be recharged every night. There is also the problem of cost. Smartphones

Topic

require an Internet connection, and when combined with the cost of phone calls, this can result in a bill of more than 10,000 yen per month. In the long run, however, lower costs and improvements in battery technology will make it inevitable that

feature phones will become obsolete. (240 words)

3 4 5 6 40 Read to Write Compositions

Words & Phrases

Transitions

Topic

1 2

Patterns

3 4 5 6 Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;41

Advantages & Disadvantages ➎

Should English Teachers Speak Japanese? Do you think it is better to have an English teacher who speaks your language or one who does not? Some people would argue that if your English teacher does not know your language, your speaking skills are likely to develop more quickly because you will have to use English to communicate with him or her. A lot of students might be tempted to use Japanese if they know that their teacher can speak it, but that will not be an option if the teacher cannot. There is also the worry that bilingual teachers might end up using Japanese a lot in the classroom simply because it is quicker and easier for them to do so. This will lead to an overall reduction in the amount of English the students hear. If your teacher cannot speak Japanese at all, however, you may encounter some problems. The most obvious of these is that explanations of grammar and vocabulary will take much longer. Your teacher will also be less likely to know which points are going to be difficult for you, and you will not be able to ask questions in Japanese. You might also have problems understanding your teacher’s explanations. A final point to consider is that having a teacher who does not speak

Topic

your language can be quite demotivating and frustrating if you cannot understand anything despite having studied English for six years in junior high and high school. Overall, it is difficult to decide which kind of teacher is more effective. In an ideal

world, it would probably be best to learn English from both monolingual and bilingual teachers.

(270 words)

4 5 6 42 Read to Write Compositions

Words & Phrases

Transitions

Topic

1 2

Patterns

3 4 5 6 Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;43

Advantages & Disadvantages ❻

Going to a Cram School Cram schools are private schools that offer classes for children after regular school hours and during the holidays. Millions of Japanese children attend these schools in the hope of improving their test scores and their grades. There are several advantages to attending a cram school. To begin with, if you study at a cram school, you can spend much more time studying the subjects on which you need to focus. What is more, the teachers can offer you good advice on which high schools or universities to try for, and how to pass their entrance examinations. With perseverance and expert guidance from the teachers, you may be able to enter a prestigious university. There are also a number of drawbacks to studying at a cram school. For instance, you will have less time to take part in club activities and develop friendships at school. On top of that, you may become too tired to study effectively, either in the daytime or in the evening. While you sacrifice many hours of the best days of your life, your parents have to pay for the lessons with their hard-earned money. They may feel disappointed if you do not get good results. In

Topic

other words, you may end up wasting your free time, and your parents may end up wasting their money. Before you decide to go to a cram school, you should think about it carefully and talk it over with your family.

(241 words)

3 4 5 6 44 Read to Write Compositions

Words & Phrases

Transitions

Topic

1 2

Patterns

3 4 5 6 Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;45

Suggested Topics for “Advantages & Disadvantages”

Topic

1 2 3 4 5

Life in General • Being famous • Being a man • Being rich

• Being tall • Being a woman

Education / University / Career • Going to university • Studying online • Using an electronic dictionary

• Belonging to a club • Running your own business

Family • Having brothers • Being an only child • Being a single parent

• Having sisters • Having children

Transportation • Cycling • Taking a holiday abroad • Traveling with a group of friends

• Traveling by plane • Traveling alone

Home • Living in the countryside • Living in a house • Living alone

• Living in a big city • Living in an apartment

Lifestyle / Entertainment • Watching movies at home on DVD • Buying CDs (compared with downloading music) • Owning a cell phone • Social networking (Facebook, Twitter, etc.) • Shopping online

6 46 Read to Write Compositions

My Composition

Topic

1 2 3 4 5 6

Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;47

Love-Hate Relationships ➊

My Part-Time Job There are two things I love about working part-time, and two things I hate about it. The first thing I love about having a part-time job is that I can get a lot of experience doing different jobs, such as working in convenience stores and cafés. I am sure this experience will be useful when I start job-hunting. Second, working has taught me the value and importance of money. Now, when I go shopping and find something I want to buy, I tend to think of the price of things in terms of the number of hours I would have to work to buy it. On the other hand, I sometimes hate doing my part-time job and wish I could quit. My job takes up a lot of my free time, as I have to work three or four hours a day. It leaves me feeling exhausted, and I have no time to study or go out with friends. Another issue is that I sometimes have problems with my co-workers because I have to work with many different kinds of people. Some of them are really difficult to get along with, but I have to tolerate them regardless. Generally speaking, I enjoy working part-time, but I sometimes wonder if it is really worth the time and effort.

(215 words)

Topic

2 3 4 5 6

48 Read to Write Compositions

Words & Phrases

Transitions

1 Topic

Patterns

3 4 5 6 Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;49

Love-Hate Relationships â&#x17E;&#x2039;

Snowboarding There are two reasons why I think snowboarding is the greatest sport in the world, and two reasons why I have mixed feelings about it. To begin with, snowboarding is a fantastic way to enjoy a day out with friends or family. You can have a good, long chat in the car on the way up to the ski grounds and on the ski lifts. Second, snowboarding helps you appreciate nature and the great outdoors. When the sky is blue, nothing compares with the view of the mountains and the thrill of zooming down the slopes in the fresh air. One thing I do not like about snowboarding is the cold. When you are snowboarding, you might not feel too bad at first because you are having such a good time. However, if you get caught in a cold wind when riding on the lifts, it can be very uncomfortable. A second reservation I have about snowboarding is that it is dangerous, and you can easily get hurt. Because I have only been snowboarding for three years, I am still not very good at it. I often fall over and end up with bruises all over my body. Also, I sometimes crash into other snowboarders and skiers, especially when the slopes are crowded on weekends. If I can improve my

snowboarding skills, I think I will enjoy it more. (229 words)

Topic

2 3 4 5 6

50â&#x20AC;&#x192; Read to Write Compositions

Words & Phrases

Transitions

1 Topic

Patterns

3 4 5 6 Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;51

Love-Hate Relationships â&#x17E;&#x152;

Is Swimming the Best Way to Keep Fit? Is it possible to love something and hate it at the same time? That is how I feel about swimming. There are two reasons I adore swimming, and two reasons I cannot stand it. The main reason I love it is that I usually feel relaxed and refreshed after I go swimming. If something is worrying me, I usually forget all about it the moment I get into the pool. Another thing I love about swimming is that it keeps me in good shape. It is a simple way to stay fit, and you will not need to worry about putting on weight if you go to the pool regularly. I often notice how good the bodies of other swimmers look. Having said that, there are times when I cannot face going to the pool. One reason is that the temperature of the water is usually very cold. Even though I eventually get used to it, there is no way to avoid the shock when I first step into the water. It is such an unpleasant feeling. Another reason I hate swimming is that my hair gets badly damaged by the chlorine in the water. I had my hair dyed black two weeks ago, but it has already faded to its former color. As much as I love swimming, I am thinking about looking for some different ways to keep fit.

(229 words)

Topic

2 3 4 5 6

52â&#x20AC;&#x192; Read to Write Compositions

Words & Phrases

Transitions

1 Topic

Patterns

3 4 5 6 Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;53

Love-Hate Relationships â&#x17E;?

Good Dog, Bad Dog There are two things I love about my dog and two things I wish I could change. The best thing about her is that she makes me feel happy. Just looking at her lovely, sparkling eyes cheers me up instantly. When I stroke her fluffy coat, it is like therapy, and I forget all my troubles. Second, taking her for a walk every day helps me keep fit and healthy. Walking along the river with her on cool summer evenings gives me the energy I need to study or do housework at the end of the day. Naturally, however, keeping a dog also has its challenges. One problem with my dog is that she barks a lot. Whenever she sees cars, strangers, or other dogs, she starts to howl. It is difficult to get her to stop, and this leaves me feeling frustrated sometimes. The second issue is that her fur falls out all over the house. I know it is only natural and not her fault, but I sometimes tire of having to vacuum the house every day. Occasionally, we find dog hair in our meals, and I find this absolutely disgusting. In spite of these problems, however, I will always love my dog, so I will try not to worry too much about her barking and her hair. (220 words)

1 Topic

2 3 4 5 6

54â&#x20AC;&#x192; Read to Write Compositions

Words & Phrases

Transitions

1 Topic

Patterns

3 4 5 6 Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;55

Love-Hate Relationships â&#x17E;&#x17D;

A Time of Joy? Generally speaking, I love Christmas, but I sometimes feel down around this time of year. To begin with the positive points, Christmas is a great family event because we do so many things together. For example, we decorate the Christmas tree and the living room. We also put colored lights outside the front door of our house and in our garden, and we enjoy the family tradition of making and eating a massive cheesecake. Another reason I love Christmas is that many stores have sales, so I often buy clothes at discount prices. However, there is also a downside to Christmas. For example, I think it is a very wasteful time because people use so much electricity. When I walk around town and see all the colored lights, I wonder how it will affect the environment in the future. When I return home and see my own house lit up, it makes me feel guilty. Another reason I sometimes dread the Christmas season is that I see so many young couples walking arm-in-arm around town. If I see them when I do not have a date, I feel left out and lonely. Having said all of that, even though I have a love-hate relationship with it, Christmas will always be the most important event of the year

for me. (219 words)

Topic

2 3 4 5 6

56â&#x20AC;&#x192; Read to Write Compositions

Words & Phrases

Transitions

1 Topic

Patterns

3 4 5 6 Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;57

Love-Hate Relationships ❻

Learning English It is probably fair to say that I have a love-hate relationship with English. I began learning the language with my mother when I was only five years old. She used to show me pictures and tell me the names of things in English. She also used to play me English songs and show me English DVDs. Of course, I did not think of this as study, and I really enjoyed making the sounds of English. After I entered elementary school, I started going to an English conversation school once a week. The teacher was from Australia, and we had a lot of fun. If anyone ever asked me what I thought of English, I always replied, “I love it!” Unfortunately, my experience of learning English in junior high and high school was not so positive. In our classes, we just studied grammar and translated English sentences into Japanese. We never did any speaking, and we never had any fun. Of course, I understand now that our teacher was trying to prepare us for the high school and university entrance exams, but those classes changed the way I felt about English. By the time I reached high school, I hated English and never wanted to study it again. Now that I am in university, I am enjoying some of

1 Topic

my English classes, but I still don’t like the ones where we just study for tests. Consequently, I find it difficult to answer now when people ask me whether I like English.

(251 words)

3 4 5 6 58 Read to Write Compositions

Words & Phrases

Transitions

1 Topic

Patterns

3 4 5 6 Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;59

Suggested Topics for “Love-Hate Relationships”

People

• A friend • A boyfriend / girlfriend • A celebrity

Places

• My hometown • My university • A holiday destination

Times of the Year • April • Birthdays • Winter

Technology

• Cell phones • Social networking • Email

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Food & Drink

• Alcohol • Chocolate • Cooking

Education

• School (in general) • Sports class • School events

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• A family member • A teacher

• My high school • My workplace

• New Year • Summer

• Computers • The Internet

• Fast food • Dieting

• Clubs • School vacations

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Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;61

Compare & Contrast ➊

Same Country, Different Worlds For the first twelve years of my life, I lived in Sapporo in the northern part of Japan, but after that I moved to Tokyo because of my father’s job. Of course, being Japanese cities, Sapporo and Tokyo have a lot in common. Both of them have a busy downtown area where you can see the same stores and restaurants. Naturally, you will also see the same brands and advertisements for the same companies. There are a lot of cars and people around the centers of both cities, and both also have subways and train systems that are convenient, cheap, and easy to use. In spite of these similarities, however, there are some important differences. The most noticeable of these is that Sapporo is laid out in a grid pattern, so it looks like an American city, with wide roads and a “block” system for addresses. Tokyo, on the other hand, is a very old city, with narrow roads and a very irregular street pattern. Another major difference is that the subway in Tokyo gets much more crowded than the subway in Sapporo. In fact, the Tokyo subway can get so packed in the mornings that people have to be pushed onto the trains! Although Sapporo and Tokyo are both in Japan, I sometimes feel as though they are in different countries.

(222 words)

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Compare & Contrast ➋

A Tale of Two Cities: Tokyo and London Tokyo and London are both capital cities, and they have a great deal in common. First of all, they are both rated among the world’s most important financial centers. For example, Tokyo has the world’s third largest stock exchange, and London has the fourth. Another similarity is that they are often ranked among the world’s most expensive places to live. Thirdly, both cities are home to famous monarchies. In Tokyo, the Imperial Palace and surrounding gardens occupy more than three square kilometers of land. Similarly, Buckingham Palace, the official residence of the British royal family, covers a large area of central London. Finally, both cities were severely damaged in air raids during the Second World War. About twenty thousand people died in London during the Blitz, and more than five times that number died in the bombing of Tokyo. However, there are several key differences between the two cities. First, London has a much longer history than Tokyo. Indeed, it was founded as a capital city by the Romans more than two thousand years ago. In contrast, Tokyo did not become the capital of Japan until 1868. A second difference is that London has

significantly more public park space than Tokyo. Although there are many beautiful parks in Tokyo, London is less densely populated and has around twenty times more parkland. Finally, while both cities are international, London is more cosmopolitan

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than Tokyo. Over fifty percent of young Londoners have at least one parent who was born overseas. In spite of their differences, both cities are undoubtedly great places to live or visit. (264 words)

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Compare & Contrast ➌

Two Popular Characters There are two key similarities between Hello Kitty, the fictional character cat, and the cartoon dog Snoopy. They are both small white animals that symbolize friendship, happiness, and a carefree life. Because they are so cute, they have been immensely popular in Japan, the USA, and many other countries for several decades. Another thing they have in common is that both of them are extensively used in advertising. For example, Snoopy has tied up with MetLife, a life insurance company, and Mister Donut. Similarly, pictures of Kitty can be found on countless Japanese products such as bags, pencil cases, and even laptop computers. Nevertheless, there are three significant differences between Kitty and Snoopy. The first is that their paths to fame were very different. Whereas Kitty was originally designed as a character to boost sales of consumer goods, Snoopy started his career in the cartoon series “Peanuts.” Second, Kitty lives in a world where there are no humans, only small animals such as cats and rabbits. In contrast, Snoopy is Charlie Brown’s pet, and he lives in a world with fictitious humans. Third, Kitty and Snoopy are popular with different groups of people. Kitty

tends to be liked by girls, but boys do not normally buy Kitty goods. Snoopy, on the other hand, is loved by a wide range of age groups, and by both sexes. Despite their differences, the points they have in common make it easy to understand why both

characters are so popular.

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(246 words)

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Compare & Contrast ➍

Red Wine and Sake There are two key similarities between red table wine and sake, or Japanese rice wine. First, both wine and sake have very long histories, dating back centuries. As a result, they each hold an important place in the cultures, and even the religions of the countries where they are brewed. For example, red wine is central to many Christian and Jewish religious ceremonies. Similarly, sake is drunk by the bride and groom at traditional Shinto weddings. Second, although both wine and sake are usually drunk cold, both can also be enjoyed as warm beverages. While mulled wine is famous in Christmas markets throughout Germany, “atsukan,” or hot sake, is a very popular drink in winter in Japan. However, there are four important differences between wine and sake. Firstly, the fermentation process for sake is much more complicated than the fermentation process for wine. For example, no additives are required for winemaking. Secondly, although both wine and sake are stored in wooden barrels, Japanese sake brewers prefer cedar because it gives a special flavor. In most western countries, oak is used. Thirdly, unlike sake, it is customary to mix wine with

other things. For instance, herbs are added to mulled wine, and fruit and lemonade are added to wine to make “sangria,” a Spanish beverage. The only things ever added to sake are gold flakes. Finally, while red wine is made in many different countries,

most rice wine is made in Japan. Despite their differences, red wine and sake are both culturally important in the countries where they are drunk.

Topic

(259 words)

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Compare & Contrast ➎

Two Styles of Wrestling When you hear the word “wresting,” what type of wrestling do you think of? Two of the most popular types are sumo and pro-wrestling. There are four key similarities between sumo and pro-wrestling. The first is that, unlike Greco-Roman wrestling, neither is an Olympic event. The second is that the purpose of both sports is to dominate your opponent, either by throwing him to the ground or by pushing him out of the ring. The sports also share a number of common rules. For example, while slapping is allowed, punching is forbidden. Finally, unlike other sports such as boxing, video can used in both sumo and pro-wrestling to decide the outcome of a bout when the referee is unsure. However, there are important differences between these two styles of wrestling. First, although there is a women’s world sumo championship, women do not generally take part in the sport. In contrast, there have been many female pro-wrestling superstars, such as the Canadian Trish Stratus. A second difference is that in sumo, wrestlers must follow a formal code. For example, they have to wear their hair in a topknot and wear a traditional belt called a “mawashi,” whereas

pro-wrestlers can wear whatever they like. A third difference is that a sumo bout usually lasts only a minute or two, whereas a pro-wrestling contest can continue for more than thirty minutes. Although they are different in some respects, it is

easy to see why fans of one are often also interested in the other.

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(252 words)

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Compare & Contrast ❻

Two Warlords There are several similarities between the warlords Oda Nobunaga (15341582) and Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1537-1598). First and foremost, historians generally agree that they were two of the most influential figures in the unification of Japan as we know it today. A further similarity is that neither of them ever achieved the title of “shogun.” They both rose to power due to their excellence on the battlefield, and there are plenty of examples of their military genius. Nobunaga built dummy soldiers made of straw and dressed them well enough to confuse and defeat his enemies, and Hideyoshi diverted a river to flood and capture Takamatsu Castle. Despite their similarities, there are three key differences between these two great men. The first concerns their background. Whereas Nobunaga was the son of a warlord, Hideyoshi was born into a peasant family. The second difference was their attitude to Christianity. Nobunaga accepted the Christian religion and deepened diplomatic ties with European countries. Hideyoshi, however, saw Christianity as a threat to his regime and put twenty-six Christians to death in Nagasaki in 1597.

The final difference is in the way they died. Hideyoshi died of illness, but Nobunaga committed “seppuku,” or ritual suicide, following betrayal by one of his generals. Despite their differing backgrounds and ideologies, experts agree that both are

extremely influential characters in Japanese history.

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(220 words)

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Suggested Topics for “Compare & Contrast”

Education • • • • • •

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Public school vs. private school Cram school vs. regular school Elementary school vs. junior high school Junior high school vs. high school High school vs. university Vocational college vs. university

Western Style vs. Japanese Style • Food • Movies • Music

• Fashion • Art

Two Different People • Two family members • Two celebrities • Two superheroes

• Two friends • Two writers

Arts & Entertainment • Original movie vs. sequel • Movie vs. the book it was based on • The original version of something vs. the remake • Two different actors in the same role (James Bond, Superman, etc.) • Manga vs. novels Two Different Places • Two areas of Japan • Two famous tourist spots • Two countries

• Two holiday destinations • Two Japanese landmarks

Food & Drink • Two fast food restaurants • Two convenience stores • Two supermarket chains

• Two soft drinks • Two family restaurants

74 Read to Write Compositions

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Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;75

Then & Now ➊

The Taste of Broccoli For most of my life, I hated broccoli. I could not stand either its smell or its taste. When I was in kindergarten, my mother would often put some in my lunchbox. I used to hate finding it there when I opened the box at lunchtime. Since there was a rule that we could not play outside until we had finished our lunch, I sometimes ended up going out with my mouth full of this horrible vegetable. My mother wanted me to eat broccoli because she knew it was good for me, so she decided to cover it with mayonnaise. Unfortunately, this did not help, and I could not eat broccoli no matter how it was disguised. Time went by, and I became a university student and moved from Kyoto to Sapporo. I loved the taste of the local food in Hokkaido, such as “ramen,” “kaisen don,” and barbecued lamb. My favorite, however, was soup curry. There are plenty of soup curry restaurants in Sapporo, and I visited as many as I could. Finally, I came across one that I really liked, and I asked a waitress what the best topping was. “It’s broccoli,” she replied. Obviously, I was in two minds about this recommendation, but I ordered it anyway. It was delicious. Since that day, I have never had a problem with

broccoli. Thanks to soup curry, I now enjoy the vegetable that I used to hate. (238 words)

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Then & Now ➋

The Old Me and the New Me Looking back at my life, I realize that I did not change very much until I was sixteen years old. In my childhood years, I used to be negative and unsociable. Because both my parents were teachers and worked all day, I spent a lot of time alone. When I was not at school, I just stayed in my room and read hundreds of books and comics. When I was ten, my parents decided that they wanted me to be more cheerful and active, so they persuaded me to join a baseball team. Although I later also joined the baseball club in junior high school, my personality did not change at all. The turning point came in high school when I visited Toronto and New York on a short holiday. Although it was a real challenge to communicate in English, it was an exciting experience. Everything was fresh and interesting—the people, the culture, the buildings, and the history. After I returned, I knew I would probably not go abroad again for a long time, so I began to seek excitement and stimulation in my daily life in Japan. As a result, I became more positive, and perhaps even more assertive. With this new outlook, I find I enjoy life now much more than I used to.

(217 words)

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Then & Now â&#x17E;&#x152;

My Hometown The area around my house in my hometown has completely changed. When I was a child, there were not many houses in my neighborhood. There was a strong sense of community, and we knew our neighbors very well. It was a great place to grow up because there were lots of places to play. In particular, the playground equipment in the elementary school ground was wonderful. I used to make secret bases there with my friends. For older children, there was a fantastic athletics field. There was also a lot of wildlife. In the summer, I used to spend hours and hours on the footpaths between the rice fields catching big bullfrogs. In the fall, I would run around the vacant land chasing dragonflies with a net. Now, though, everything has changed. New houses are being built one after another, and the new residents hardly seem to know each other at all. Most of the playground equipment has been taken away because it was considered too dangerous, so the children no longer have anywhere to play. Even the track and field facilities slowly deteriorated and were finally pulled down. What is more, you hardly ever see any wildlife these days. Although my hometown has developed and become

a more convenient place to live in many ways, the changes have made me feel a little sad. (226 words)

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Then & Now â&#x17E;?

My Relationship with My Mother When I was a child, my mother was incredibly strict. As soon as I did something wrong, she would yell at me. One day, when I was five years old, I hit my friend and made her cry. I was worried that I was going to be in trouble, so I ran away from kindergarten. My teacher soon found me and brought me back to the school, where my mother was already waiting. I will never forget the way she screamed at me. This is not to say, however, that she was always angry. Although it often seemed to me as if she did not like me very much, I do remember that she occasionally praised me affectionately as well. It made me so happy when she smiled at me. Now that I am nineteen years old, my relationship with my mother has changed a lot. This may be partly because she is busy taking care of my brother, who is six years younger than me. Whatever the reason, she is generally much calmer than she used to be. She no longer gets angry or flies into a rage. Although I feel relieved about this, I also feel slightly guilty about my feelings towards her when I was young. Looking back now, I think it was because she was so strict with me that I became strong-willed and independent, and I am sorry for causing her so much

trouble. However, there is one way in which my mother has not changed at all. She still has a very nice smile, and it still makes me happy to see it. (269 words)

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Then & Now ➎

Changing Attitudes towards Nuclear Power Before March 11, 2011, many people in Japan considered nuclear power to be safe, clean, and cheap. Despite the accident in 1986 in Chernobyl, governments around the world continued to develop nuclear power generation because they believed that this accident was caused by problems with Soviet technology. Compared with the damage caused to the environment by the burning of fossil fuels, the nuclear option was an attractive one. In addition, people were told that uranium was cheaper than the coal, gas, and oil used in traditional power stations. In Japan, nuclear power plants also brought many benefits to the local communities that hosted them, with many of them becoming rich. When the tsunami struck the Fukushima nuclear power plant in 2011, the public’s attitude to nuclear power changed overnight. People came to realize that it was neither safe nor clean. They also realized that it was not even cheap when the costs of storing used fuel and cleaning up after an accident were taken into consideration. As a result of the disaster, the governments of Germany and France decided to review their policies and scale down their dependence on nuclear

power. In contrast, the Japanese government has not yet stated a clear policy on power generation. Following the disaster at Fukushima, all nuclear power plants were shut down, but some were started up again one year later. One thing that is

abundantly clear is that many more Japanese people are opposed to nuclear power than ever before.

(247 words)

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Then & Now â?ť

The Changing Status of Women in Japan Compared to that of men, the social status of women in Japan was very low at the end of the Second World War. While their husbands worked, women were expected to stay at home and take care of their children, their parents, and even their husbandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s parents. Very few women had full time, paid employment. Furthermore, women were not allowed to vote, and they had no opportunity to appeal against injustices. However, thanks to the efforts of individuals such as Raichou Hiratsuka and Fusae Ichikawa, and thanks also to the influence of the United States, women were given suffrage in 1945. From this point on, their status began to improve. Women gradually started to establish themselves not only in politics, but also in the professions. Today, Japanese women are much closer to achieving the goal of equality with men. Many companies now allow women to come back to work after they have had children, and both men and women can take paid vacation for childcare. Also, more fathers are willing to spend time with their children than ever before. Furthermore, the percentage of women who go on to higher education is far higher than before

the war. This has resulted in more women assuming leadership roles in a variety of academic and professional fields. Although there is still a long way to go, Japanese women of today unquestionably have a higher status in society than their mothers

or their grandmothers did. (241 words)

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Suggested Topics for “Then & Now”

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People • A sportsman / sportswoman • A celebrity • A friend

• A sports team • A family member

Places • My hometown • A tourist spot • My favorite place

• A country • A building

Public Attitudes to… • Smoking • Celebrities • Having children

• Education • Marriage

My Feelings About… • A person • A place • A celebrity

• A food or drink • A sports team

Transportation • Bicycles • Trains • Air travel

• Cars • Subways

Technology • Computers • TV • The Internet

• Music players • Cell phones

5 6 88 Read to Write Compositions

My Composition

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Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;89

Problems & Solutions â&#x17E;&#x160;

The Problem of Urban Crows In Japan, whatever the season, you may be woken up very early in the morning by the loud, harsh cawing of crows in your garden, or even on your balcony. Later on, when you make your way along the street to work or school, you may notice pieces of household garbage lying all over the sidewalk. Nearby, you will see these huge birds fighting over the scraps they have stolen from your garbage bags. If you disturb them, they may attack you with their sharp claws. To make matters worse, their numbers are increasing year by year. Is there anything that can be done about the crow problem? To date, three solutions have been suggested. The first strategy is to attach blue nets to utility poles at garbage collection points so that garbage bags can be covered. Unfortunately, this does not work very well because crows can eat trash directly through the nets. The second solution is to remove their nests. This is effective, but nest removal is a slow and time-consuming operation, and there are thousands of crows in every city in Japan. A third solution is to offer cash rewards to people who shoot crows. While this may be a good method in the countryside,

it is not a suitable way to deal with the problem in cities, for obvious reasons. The most effective strategy would be to make sure that all household garbage is placed inside secure containers at trash collection points. This way, crows would not be

able to eat domestic food waste, and their numbers would surely decline. (263 words)

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Problems & Solutions â&#x17E;&#x2039;

Anyone for Breakfast? According to a survey conducted by one Japanese university, 30 percent of its students skip breakfast almost every day. Indeed, this seems to be a problem with university students all over Japan. There are three main reasons for this unhealthy lifestyle. First, students often oversleep and do not have time to eat anything before going to class. Second, since a lot of students live by themselves, they have difficulty managing their own eating habits. Third, most college cafeterias do not open until late in the morning. This trend is a problem because students who attend morning lectures on empty stomachs are unlikely to have the energy to concentrate and study properly. There are three potential ways to deal with the problem. The first is to encourage students to get up earlier. Even ten or twenty minutes would be enough time to eat a light breakfast. The second possibility is to educate students through courses in diet and nutrition. The third solution is to open the school cafeterias earlier in the morning. This third way of tackling the problem would be, in my opinion, the most likely to succeed, especially if events were organized

in the restaurant. For example, concerts or comedy shows could help to draw in customers and make breakfast time an exciting social occasion. If more students began the day with a good meal, they might become livelier and more productive in

their morning classes. (237 words)

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Problems & Solutions â&#x17E;&#x152;

Stopping the Illegal Fossil Trade Today, large numbers of dinosaur fossils are being illegally excavated all over

the world. In China and Mongolia, where scientists have been discovering many important new dinosaur sites, illegal digging is a serious problem. Every year, hundreds of precious fossils are smuggled out of the country and sold to private collectors. A complete Tyrannosaurus skeleton can sell for several million dollars.

Although the trade is illegal, it is not always possible to prove where a skeleton came from. To make matters worse, it may not be possible to prove that the bones were exported after bans on exports were imposed. Museums and scientific groups sometimes raise money to buy fossils in auctions, but the fossils usually have limited scientific value because there is no data from the excavation site. What can we do to protect dinosaur fossils? Experts have suggested two ways to deal with the problem. First, existing laws against the illegal fossil trade need to be enforced more effectively. To do this, there must be more cooperation, both local and international, between law enforcement agencies, customs officials, and auction houses. Although providing

the necessary training might be difficult, and corruption is a major obstacle, these problems are not insurmountable. The second approach is to encourage volunteers to protect fossils at the sites. For example, at one big dinosaur site at Tanba in

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Hyogo Prefecture, volunteers organize patrols to discourage illegal digging. This is effective because it raises awareness about the problem among the public. It is to be hoped that the volunteer group system will spread to other important sites around the world in the future. (269 words)

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Problems & Solutions â&#x17E;?

Dealing with Coastal Erosion In my hometown, the amount of sand on the beach is decreasing year by year due to coastal erosion. There are two reasons for this. The first is that fine gravel is being taken from the beach for use in the manufacture of concrete. The second reason is the construction of dams that stem the supply of sands from the mountains to the lower reaches of the rivers. In the past, this supply of fresh sand from the rivers was enough to replace sand washed away by tidal currents or blown away in storms. At present, the problem is so bad that the beach is no longer open to swimmers in the summer. This has resulted in a decline in the number of tourists, which has badly affected the local economy. There are four possible solutions to the problem. First, gathering gravel from the beach for concrete making must be banned. Second, barriers need to be built at regular intervals along the beach. These are walls that run down the beach and into the sea. Although they do not look very nice, they prevent sand from being washed away, which is why they are used in beach resorts all over the world. The third solution is to bring in sand from other areas to replace the sand that has been

lost. The final solution is to build sand dunes behind the beach. These would act as wind breaks to prevent the sand from being blown away. However, bringing in new sand and building dunes will not make any difference unless barrier walls are built

first. In other words, it is clear that solving this problem will require a combination of effective strategies.

(282 words)

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Problems & Solutions â&#x17E;&#x17D;

Kicking Bullying out of Schools In October 2011, a thirteen-year-old middle school student in Shiga Prefecture committed suicide following severe bullying by at least three of his classmates. The case threw the problem of bullying at schools in Japan under the spotlight, but not for the first time. In February 1986, a Tokyo schoolboy of the same age took his own life as a result of constant harassment. Despite huge media attention, the 2011 case showed that nothing has been done about the problem in the intervening years. Furthermore, with 144,054 cases of bullying at schools reported to the Ministry of Education between April and September 2012, the problem appears to be getting worse. Commentators in the media have suggested a number of ways of dealing with the issue. For example, the idea of sending bullies away to special farms has attracted some interest. School troublemakers would be given a taste of hard work and a chance to reflect upon their bad behavior. Recently, there has also been a great deal of enthusiasm for a new website where school children can report cases of bullying. The root of the bullying problem, however, probably lies in the fact that,

with forty students in one classroom, class sizes in Japan are much too large. In this situation, teachers cannot be expected to know what is going on between their pupils, let alone deal with their problems. Currently, Japan spends less money

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per head than any other developed country on education. With smaller classes and more teachers, children could be supervised more effectively, and the number of bullying cases would decline. (263 words)

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Problems & Solutions ❻

Paying for NHK TV

In Japan, like in the UK, all households with televisions are required by law to pay for a TV license. In Japan, the national broadcaster is called “Nippon Hoso Kyokai,” or “NHK.” About 96 percent of NHK’s revenue comes from the sale of these licenses, which cost about 2,300 yen a month for the right to view both satellite and terrestrial channels. The problem is that since there are no fines for non-payment, around a quarter of households with TVs do not pay. This represents a massive loss of income for the state-owned TV corporation. As it stands, some people who do not watch NHK still pay, while others watch the channel but refuse to purchase a license. It is clear that this system is flawed, and that something must be done about it. In order to deal with the problem, two approaches have been suggested. The first is to introduce penalties for viewers who do not pay. The idea is based on a system used in the UK where television detector vans catch people who are watching without a license. First time offenders have to pay a fine, but repeat offenders can be jailed. However, many people complain that this system is too

severe. The second idea is to ask viewers to buy access codes instead of licenses. This method would certainly be more effective because it would be impossible to view NHK programs without paying. The only obstacle is the principle of public

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broadcasting and NHK’s mission to broadcast as widely as possible. Nevertheless, the fee collection system is not working, so surely it is only a matter of time before pre-paid access codes are introduced. (276 words)

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Suggested Topics for “Problems & Solutions”

Society • Drugs • Low birth rates • Domestic violence

• Suicide • Homelessness

The Environment • Global warming • Garbage disposal • Nuclear waste

• Pollution • Deforestation

Education • The test system • Class sizes • English education

• Corporal punishment • Teacher workloads

Health • Smoking • Obesity • Paying for healthcare

• Alcoholism • Anorexia

Technology • Overuse of cell phones • Cyber-bullying • Children’s access to the Internet

• Internet security • E-waste

Driving • Drinking and driving • Using cell phones while driving • Older drivers

• Not wearing seatbelts • Not using child seats

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My Composition

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For & Against ➊

Arguments For and Against Introducing Daylight Saving Time Since the accident at the Fukushima nuclear power plant, lawmakers in Japan have been discussing ways to save energy. One suggestion has been to introduce daylight saving time (DST) and put the clocks forward one hour in the summer. This system has been adopted in most major industrialized countries, so many feel that it is now time for Japan to follow suit. What are the arguments for and against increasing the amount of daylight in the evening in summertime? Proponents of DST claim that the system would bring several benefits to the country. First and foremost, they say that the amount of energy used in the evening could be cut significantly by reducing the need for artificial light. They also claim that the economy would be boosted if more people went out to shops and cafés to take advantage of the extra hour of daylight after finishing work or school. Finally, they suggest that the number of traffic accidents among both drivers and pedestrians would decrease if it got dark one hour later. Opponents of the scheme argue, however, that introducing DST would not make any difference. First, they argue that putting the clocks forward would not save

much power because artificial light is used even during the daytime in schools, offices, and shops. Second, they claim that people would be unlikely to change their lifestyles much with just an extra hour of daylight. In fact, most salaried workers

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would probably not want to be seen leaving work while it is still light outside, and many would choose to remain at their workplace. Finally, while they concede that there would be fewer traffic accidents in the evening, they point out that there would be a corresponding increase in fatalities in the dark early mornings. In conclusion, although the idea of DST is attractive in some respects, it would

probably be better to look for other ways to save energy. (319 words)

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For & Against ➋

Changing the Start of the School Year Japan is one of only seven countries that starts its school year in April. Recently, however, there have been calls to move the beginning of the academic year to September to bring Japan into line with most of the rest of the world. Indeed, of Japan’s 744 universities, 200 already provide opportunities for students to enroll in September. Although some experts in education oppose the plan, many argue that there are good reasons for changing the academic calendar. Supporters of the change have put forward three arguments for a fall start. The first is that a fall start would mean universities in Japan could organize oneyear exchange programs with universities in other countries more easily than is possible at present. The second is that it may benefit thousands of high school students who fail the January entrance examinations. Under the new system, these so-called “ronin” would have another chance to take the exams in June or July. Finally, high school graduates could gain useful experience during the “gap” time between graduating high school and starting university. For example, they could travel, study, or work abroad.

In contrast, opponents have voiced a number of concerns about the proposed change. To begin with, very few students have chosen to enroll in September at colleges where it is already possible to do so. Added to this, there is no proof

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that the change would attract more international students. The vast majority of Japanese universities have very low numbers of foreign students and no courses in English for students with no Japanese language skills. Finally, critics say that delaying the date of university entrance would simply mean that students would waste a year of their lives. As a result, parents might have to support their children

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for five years instead of only four. On balance, it would probably be prudent to study the effects of the change at a small number of universities before adopting it on a national basis. (326 words)

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For & Against â&#x17E;&#x152;

The Use of Cell Phones in Schools These days, ownership of a cell phone is common among young people, even elementary school students. Indeed, it has become acceptable to use them almost anywhere. However, one issue that troubles both parents and teachers is the question of whether schoolchildren should be allowed to bring their phones to school, and in particular, whether they should be allowed to use them in the classroom. Many people are in favor of free access to mobile technology at school for the following reasons. First, cell phones can be used to prevent crime. For example, youngsters can call the police or someone they know if something happens to them on their way to school. Also, some cell phones have GPS functions, so parents can know where their children are at all times. In addition, since most cell phones can access the Internet, they can be a valuable source of learning, giving children access to a wealth of information from countless sources. However, many people, particularly teachers, are against allowing children to bring cell phones to school. The main argument is that children would use

their phones for sending and receiving text messages, playing games, or social networking during lessons. Children have also been known to use their phones for bullying or sending hate mail to their classmates. Another reason teachers think

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cell phones should be banned is that students can use them for cheating on class assignments and tests. Finally, because cell phones have cameras, students can make videos of their teachers in secret and upload them to YouTube. For these reasons, many people believe that children should be allowed to take their phones to school, but that they should be required to keep them in their lockers during

school hours. (288 words)

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For & Against ➍

The Tattoo Taboo Tattoos in Japan have long been associated with organized crime groups known as “yakuza.” In order to exclude members of these criminal gangs, many spas and sports clubs in Japan refuse entry to customers with tattoos. Despite this negative association, however, tattoos are becoming more popular, especially among young women. At the same time, discrimination against people with tattoos appears to be on the rise. For example, it may be difficult for them to find employment, get a bank loan, or take out life insurance policies. Is it time to end the tattoo taboo? It is widely argued that barring people with tattoos from public baths and swimming pools is unfair. For one thing, many people with ink artwork on their bodies are decent, law-abiding citizens. Added to this, as taxpayers they contribute to the funding of the public swimming pools in which they are not allowed to swim. Besides, Japan seems to be the only nation in the world that tolerates this form of discrimination. It seems strange that a country would be willing to deny its citizens the right to follow an exciting global fashion, and to copy the lifestyle of celebrities

such as David Beckham. On the other hand, there are many arguments for maintaining the ban. With regard to spas and sports clubs, private businesses may find that without a ban,

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they would lose customers. This is understandable because some people may find it uncomfortable to be sitting in a bath next to someone who might be a criminal. Second, there is evidence in cities like Osaka that criminal gangs are using their connections to find jobs for their members in the public sector. In other words, barring people with tattoos is an acceptable way to limit the influence of the

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yakuza in public life. Although there are strong arguments for removing the ban, I believe that it should be maintained, as the fight against organized crime is clearly a more important consideration than fashion. (328 words)

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For & Against â&#x17E;&#x17D;

Should Universities Enforce the Attendance Rule? Universities in Japan generally have a rule that students must attend at least two thirds of the classes in order to receive credit for a course. In practice, this means that a student must attend a minimum of ten out of fifteen classes in a semester or risk automatic failure. However, while some professors keep a record of attendance, it seems that others turn a blind eye to their absentee students. There are several reasons why some students disagree with strict attendance policies at college. To begin with, they say that they are too busy working at their part-time jobs or taking part in club activities to attend class regularly. Others complain that their lectures are boring, and that there is no point in attending. Additionally, they point out that strict attendance rules force students to come to class even when they are sick, so these people end up spreading diseases to the rest of the class. The final argument is that many universities are in big cities where there are often problems with public transportation in winter, so it may be simply impossible for a number of students to get to class on time. Nonetheless, other students feel that attendance rules should be strictly

applied. The most common reason they give is that those who miss classes usually do not have a good excuse for being absent. Most students who cut class do so simply because they oversleep. Furthermore, if a large number of students are

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absent every week, it makes it difficult for teachers to provide continuity in the course. Finally, those who support strict attendance rules point out that students who skip classes do not learn the material, so they are wasting their time at university. All things considered, I believe that students who skip too many classes should not be allowed to receive credit for courses at university.

(312 words)

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For & Against ❻

Is Space Exploration Worth the Money? According to one source, a total of 35 billion dollars is spent every year on space exploration in the world today. The money covers the costs of both manned missions, such as the International Space Station, and unmanned missions like NASA’s latest Mars rover. Although the latter project appears to have been a success, it follows decades of failure. For example, in 1999, NASA lost contact with an unmanned spacecraft that cost 165 million dollars to build. Critics of space exploration argue that these expeditions should not be continued for three reasons. First, they claim that it is extremely unlikely that scientists will ever find anything in space that could be useful for mankind. Although some scientists believe that Mars could support life, opponents say that there is nothing on the planet except rocks. Second, they feel that the money should be spent on more important projects on Earth, such as reducing global poverty. Finally, they point out that many countries only spend money on space exploration in order to enhance national prestige. It seems absurd that a country like India, with 30 percent of its population living on about fifty cents a day or less,

has plans to launch its own Mars mission. In contrast, others strongly disagree with these viewpoints. To begin with, they say that we need to continue exploring in order to answer important questions.

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For example, even if there is no life on Mars or other planets, we should try to find out if there ever was. Furthermore, the amount of money spent on these missions is quite small as a percentage of national budgets. To put the sum in perspective, Americans spend much more money on alcohol and gambling every year than NASA spends on its space programs. Also, they argue that the problem of global poverty

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could not be solved simply by abandoning space exploration. Taking all of these arguments into consideration, I believe that we should continue to explore our universe. (329 words)

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Suggested Topics “For Against” Suggested Topics forfor “For && Against”

Society • • • •

Is it right to use animals for medical testing? Should rich people pay more tax? Should there be special laws for the detention of terror suspects? Should the death penalty be abolished?

Education • • • •

Should university entrance exams be abolished? Should the sexes be educated separately? Should English be taught in elementary schools? Should high school students be allowed to have part-time jobs?

Technology • • • •

Should the Internet be censored? Is it acceptable to download copyrighted material for free? Should parents monitor their children’s cell phones and computers? Is it okay to check your boy / girlfriend’s phone?

Health

1 2

• • • •

Should we move to an “opt-in” system for organ donation? Should euthanasia be made legal? Should the tax on tobacco be raised? Should smoking be banned in public places?

Japanese Issues

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• • • •

Should Japan allow more immigration? Should the age of consent in Japan be lowered to eighteen? Should American bases be kept in Okinawa? Should Japan amend Article 9 of the constitution?

Family • • • •

Should parents always tell the truth to their children? Should mothers with young children have jobs? Should brothers and sisters share a bedroom? Should parents be allowed to smoke in front of their children?

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My Composition

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Read to Write Compositionsâ&#x20AC;&#x192;117

書き出し

英作文マニュアル

読み手の興味を引くには、主に次の4つの方法があります。

1) 興味深い事実や統計 More Americans have died from domestic gun violence than have been killed in every war in the country’s history, added together. 2) 意外な、または興味深い意見 Dropping out of college was important to Steve Jobs’ success. I love my boyfriend, but I have already decided not to marry him. 3) ことわざや格言 “A friend in need is a friend indeed.” The American poet Robert Frost once wrote, “Good fences make good neighbors.” インターネットで検索すると、英語のことわざや格言を見つけることができます。例えば、「友情」についての作文であれば、「friendship + quotation」で検索しましょう。 4) 読み手に問いかける Do you know what percentage of households in Japan no longer have a landline telephone? 質問を投げかけるときは注意が必要です。下記のような質問は避け、読み手を考えさせるような質問をしましょう。 • 答えのない、または作文・小論文中に答えが出てこない質問 x How can we stop wars forever? o Do you know how many wars are currently being fought? 必ず、作文・小論文中であなたが答えられる質問をしましょう。 • 答えが明らかなもの、または読み手がすでに答えを知っている質問 x Who is the Prime Minister of Japan? o What world leader has been in power for the longest amount of time? 読み手に続きを読みたいと思わせるような質問をしましょう。 • 簡単にYes / No で答えられ、興味を失ってしまうような質問 x Would you ever want to adopt a baby? o Can you guess the main reason why the adoption rate is increasing? 118 Read to Write Compositions

2 トピックセンテンス英作文では、各パラグラフにそのパラグラフの内容を要約する「トピックセンテンス」が含まれています。

• • •

トピックセンテンスではない例 x This paper is about studying abroad. x I have a large family. x Tokyo is bigger than my hometown. 日本語では、何について書くのかを先に説明するのが一般的ですが、英語では必要ありません。下記のような文章は避けましょう。 x I am going to write about the problem of bullying in schools. x I will discuss the advantages and disadvantages of having a car. 英作文の最初のパラグラフでは、トピックセンテンスはよく書き出しや導入部分に続きます。トピックセンテンスは、これから書く主題の前置きになることもあります。 Studying abroad is expensive, but the benefits gained are invaluable. この文から、主題が「留学」だということ、筆者が「留学は良い経験になる」と思っていること、最初のパラグラフは「留学費用について」だということ、そしてその次のパラグラフは「留学することのメリットについて」だということが分かります。複数のパラグラフから成る英作文では、各パラグラフの最初の文章がトピックセンテンスになることが多いです。 • • •

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英作文マニュアル

よいトピックセンテンスの例

英作文マニュアル

3 サポーティングセンテンス各パラグラフのトピックセンテンスは、主題と筆者の主題に対する意見を表す文章です。それ以外の文章はサポーティングセンテンスといい、主題について詳しく説明したり、筆者の主張を支える補足文です。トピックセンテンスは全体の要点をまとめたものですが、サポーティングセンテンスはもっと具体的な内容です。すべてのサポーティングセンテンスは主題に関するものでなければなりません。サポーティングセンテンスにはいくつかの種類があります。次のトピックセンテンスに対するサポーティングセンテンスを見てみましょう。 Just living in an English-speaking country does not mean that you will automatically learn English. 詳細・具体例・説明具体的な例を挙げたり、理由を述べたりして、トピックセンテンスの内容を詳しく説明します。（接続 One reason is...やThis is because...、For example,...などの表現がよく使われます。表現については122ページを参照）

One reason is that not much English is needed for daily activities such as riding the bus or buying food. You will say the same few sentences over and over again, but you will not engage in varied and meaningful conversations. In addition, students who feel homesick might find friends from the same country and speak their native language. Thanks to the Internet, it is easy and tempting to email and chat with friends back home instead of making new friends. 実話や体験談実話や、自分や自分の周りの人の体験談などを加えてトピックセンテンスの内容に説得力を持たせます。 When I spent a semester in Australia, I asked for a homestay. I thought if I were living with an Australian family, I would speak English with them every day. However, when I met the family, I found out that they had just moved to Australia from Japan! In fact, their daughter was in my English class. We sometimes did our homework together—in Japanese. ほかの人からの情報や参考文献参考文献などからの情報を加える方法は、筆者自身の知識や考えに基づく文章よりも、よく研究論文などで使われます。効果的にトピックセンテンスに説得力を持たせることができるので、一般的な文章を書くときにも役立ちます。 Approximately 30 percent of students surveyed in the study abroad program at Daisuki University felt that living in an English-speaking country did not significantly improve their English ability. Reasons for this included living with a roommate from the same country, lack of opportunities to interact with local people, and not having enough time to spend on homework and assignments. 120 Read to Write Compositions

4 結論結論はトピックセンテンスとほぼ同じ内容になりますが、違う表現を使って言い換えることが大切です。以下は、119ページのトピックセンテンスに対する結論の例です。【トピックセンテンス】 Studying abroad is not always an effective way to learn a foreign language. 【結論】

英作文マニュアル

結論を述べる文章はパラグラフの終わりに置かれ、筆者の言いたいことを要約します。通常、最後のパラグラフに置かれます。パラグラフが1つしかない英作文では、最後の文章で結論を述べます。短いパラグラフや本論の部分に結論が置かれることはあまりありません。

Because of the stress of culture shock and the distractions of sightseeing, you might not learn as much English on a trip abroad as you would working hard in a classroom at home.

【トピックセンテンス】 Being a member of a large family taught me how to negotiate and how to cooperate. 【結論】 The skills I learned working together with the members of my family prepared me to bargain and discuss issues at work.

【トピックセンテンス】 Tokyo is a better city in which to look for work than my hometown because it is larger and has more opportunities. 【結論】 Because the types of companies I want to work for are located in Tokyo, I believe that relocating there is the best thing I can do for my career. 作文のテーマに合っていれば、今後の予測や行動を起こすことを呼びかける内容で終わってもかまいません。 Clearly, a new recycling program must be introduced at our university in order to reduce waste and save money.

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英作文マニュアル

5 接続表現

接続副詞などの接続表現は文と文、またはパラグラフとパラグラフをつなぐ「つなぎ言葉」です。筆者の言いたいことを読み手に伝わりやすくします。以下の表を参考にしてください。

追加情報 in addition furthermore also moreover

理由・例 for example for instance the first / second reason is… one explanation is that …

順序

比較・対比

first / next / then / finally when before / after / during at the same time

in comparison in contrast on the other hand however nowadays / these days / formerly (過去と現在の比較を表す) fortunately / luckily / unfortunately (利点と欠点を対照する)

接続副詞は文のいろいろな場所に置くことができますが、下記の1～3が最もよく使われる場所です。 1) 節と節をつなぐ I did not think about what classes to take before I arrived in Australia. 2) 文と文を関連付ける I made many new friends by joining clubs. For instance, I joined the Outdoors Club and went on their winter ski trip and several hiking trips. 3) パラグラフの移行 These are all ways that you can make friends in a foreign country. However, making friends is not the only way to improve your English while studying abroad. Another effective way is to... 新しいパラグラフの最初の文章は、前のパラグラフの内容に触れます。（ここでは「友だちを作ること」）

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6 公式的な言語英作文は友人に送るメールよりももっと公式的なものです。下記に挙げる慣習はルールではありませんが、英作文ではよく使われる形式です。

「〜など」と言いたいときは、etc.ではなくand so on、such as、includingなどの表現を使いましょう。 x It is important to use solar, wind, water, etc. because they are clean energy sources. o It is important to use solar, wind, water, and so on because they are clean energy sources. o It is important to use clean energy sources such as solar, wind, and water. o It is important to use clean energy sources, including solar, wind, and water. 2) 短縮形を使わない x she’d o she would

英作文マニュアル

1) 省略形を使わない x The 1st time you download new software, you should read the manual. o The first time you download new software, you should read the manual.

x that’s o that is x can’t o cannot 3) 2〜3語から成る句動詞ではなく、できるだけ1単語の動詞を使う Busy teachers cannot put up with constant interruptions to their classes. x o Busy teachers cannot tolerate constant interruptions to their classes. 4) 口語的な表現を避ける x The new building is gonna cost three million dollars. o The new building is going to cost three million dollars. 5) 「I」の使用を控える個人的な経験を話すときにだけIを使い、I think...やI believe...などの表現を使いすぎないようにしましょう。 x I think it is important to have a part-time job in college to gain practical work experience. o It is important to have a part-time job in college to gain practical work experience.

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英作文マニュアル

7 センテンスの種類いろいろなタイプのセンテンスを使って文章のバランスを考えます。短いセンテンスばかりを使うと幼稚な文章になり、長くて複雑なセンテンスばかりを使うと読みづらい文章になってしまいます。下記に挙げる3種類のセンテンスをバランス良く使いましょう。【単文】単文とは、主語（S）と動詞（V）の組み合わせが1つしかないセンテンスのことです。 The saltwater crocodile is the largest of all living reptiles.

1つの主語に対して動詞が複数ある場合（SVV）、1つの動詞に対して主語が複数ある場合（SSV）もあります。 Saltwater crocodiles live in rivers in the wet season but move down to estuaries in the summer. S

Both saltwater crocodiles and freshwater crocodiles live in rivers.

S V

【重文】重文とは、単文と単文を等位接続詞（and、 but、so など）でつないだセンテンスのことです。接続詞の前にはコンマを置きます。 Saltwater crocodiles live in rivers in the wet season, but they move down to estuaries in the summer. S V

S V

英作文では、and、but、so、orから文章を始めることはあまりありません。等位接続詞ではなく、In addition、However、Thereforeなどの接続表現を使いましょう。【複文】複文とは、主節と情報を付け加える役目をする従属節から成り立っているセンテンスのことです。主節はそれだけで意味が成り立ちますが、従属節はそれだけでは意味が成り立ちません。 Saltwater crocodiles are often hunted because their skins are valuable.

主節

従属節

Because their skins are valuable, saltwater crocodiles are often hunted.

従属節

主節

Saltwater crocodiles generally bask in the sun during the day, preferring to hunt at night.

主節従属節

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8 コンマコンマの使用には非常にたくさんのルールがありますが、ここでは代表的な使い方を紹介します。 1) リストの項目を区切る

2) 等位接続詞の前に置き、単文と単文をつなぐ等位接続詞にはfor、and、nor、but、or、 yet、soがあります。「FANBOYS」と覚えることもできます。 • •

The university is going to increase tuition fees, so students will have to pay more from next year. A subway system is a convenient method of transportation, but not every major city has one.

3) 1つの文章の中で使える等位接続詞は2つまでです。また、同じ接続詞を2回使ってはいけません。接続副詞を使うときは、コンマは使わずに新しく文章を始めます。 x Bamboo fibers are very strong, moreover they are inexpensive to produce. o Bamboo fibers are very strong. Moreover, they are inexpensive to produce. 4) 文頭のつなぎ表現の後につける • • •

5) 同格の補足情報を囲む Dr. Bernard, a world-famous cancer specialist, talked about the importance of quitting smoking. (Dr. Bernard = a world-famous cancer specialist) 同格の補足情報は文末に置くこともできます。 The importance of quitting smoking was explained by Dr. Bernard, a world-famous cancer specialist.

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英作文マニュアル

I have visited France, England, and Germany. (A, B, and C)

英作文マニュアル

9 断定的な表現を避ける英作文では、できるだけ正確な事実を書くことが重要になります。「いつもこうである」、または「決してそうではない」と断定してしまうような文章は避けた方がいいでしょう。例えば、大気汚染が健康に及ぼす影響について、「大気汚染によって人は病気になる」と書いてしまうと、読み手は「すべての人が？いつも？どのくらいの汚染で？」といったような疑問を持つでしょう。もし、読み手が「私はメキシコシティーで汚染された空気を吸ったけど、病気にはならなかった」というような例外を思いついたとしたら、あなたのほかの意見も信用してもらえないかもしれません。下記のような表現を使って断定表現を避けましょう。 1) might や could を使う x Air pollution makes people sick. o Air pollution could make people sick. 2) some、all、 most、many などの表現を使う Air pollution can make some people sick. Many cities have a problem with air pollution.

3) tend to、some of the time、 in some situations などの表現を使う Air pollution tends to make people sick. Air pollution has been shown to make people sick in some situations. 4) 条件などの情報をつけ加える Air pollution can make people sick if they already suffer from respiratory conditions. Air pollution can make people sick if it reaches extreme levels. その研究についての深い知識がない限り、Everybody knows that… や It is obvious that…、Research shows that… などの大ざっぱな一般論は避けましょう。

126 Read to Write Compositions

10 曖昧な表現を避ける

1) 正確な表現を使う曖昧な表現を避ける方法の1つは、類語辞典（同じような意味を持つ言葉をまとめた辞典）を使うことです。紙媒体のものやオンライン辞書もあります。今まで使ったことのない言葉を類語辞典から選んだときは、普通の辞書で調べ直したり、先生に確認したりして、意味の微妙な違いやその単語がどのように使われているのかを必ず理解しておいてください。 x Eating too much sugar is bad. o Eating too much sugar is unhealthy. x Kimiko is a nice person. o Kimiko is a kind and generous person.

英作文マニュアル

読み手を混乱させるような曖昧な表現はできるだけ避けましょう。例えば、Electrical engineering is a good career. という文章では、goodがどういう意味で使われているのかが曖昧です。このgoodは、「給料のいい」とも取れるし、「おもしろい」、「社会に役立つ」、「人気がある」、「簡単」など、いろいろな意味に解釈できるので、筆者の言いたいことがはっきり読み手に伝わりません。

2) 具体的に述べる x The Canada lynx is a big wild cat. o The Canada lynx is a type of wild cat that weighs about 10 kilos and is about 50 centimeters tall. x It takes a long time to become a doctor in the United States. o To become a doctor in the United States, a person must go to university for four years, medical school for another four years (or longer), and then complete a residency for three to five years. 3) be 動詞の代わりに一般動詞を使う be 動詞はもっと意味の強い、ほかの一般動詞に置き換えられることがあります。 x I was at home all weekend. o I stayed home all weekend. x Dr. Matthews was a famous historian. o Dr. Matthews taught history at the University of Washington and wrote three popular history books about the 1920s. Read to Write Compositions 127

英作文マニュアル

11 くり返しを避ける英語のライティングでは、同じ単語や表現のくり返しを避ける方が好まれます。下記に挙げる3つの方法を参考にしてください。 1) 類義語を使う類義語とは、同じような意味を持つ言葉のことです。類義語は類語辞典を使うと簡単に見つけることができます。下記の例では、plus と benefit は advantage という単語のくり返しを避けるために使われています。 One advantage is... Another plus is... The final benefit is... 次の例では、a number of とseveral は some のくり返しを避けるために使われています。

Some people believe that... A number of writers have pointed out that... Several critics have argued that... 2) 助動詞を使う助動詞（法助動詞を含む）を使って同じ動詞のくり返しを避けます。下記の例では、do はlike snowboarding、does not は speaks English、will は be able to afford one の代わりに使われています。 People who do not like snowboarding often cannot understand the feelings of those who do. Is it better to have a teacher who speaks English, or one who does not? The danger is that some people will not be able to afford one, whereas others will. 3) 別の表現を使って言い換える熟語や慣用句など、別の表現を使って同じ単語のくり返しを避けます。下記の例では、this time of year と the holiday season は Christmas のくり返しを避けるために使われ、gets me down は feel depressed のくり返しを避けるために使われています。 Christmas is supposed to be a happy event, but I often feel depressed at this time of the year. There is something about the holiday season that gets me down.

128 Read to Write Compositions

P 盗用他人の書いたものをコピーすることは「plagiarism（盗用）」と呼ばれ、欧米ではとても重大な問題です。インターネットを含め、他人の文章をコピーして自分の文章として使用すると、大学を退学になることもあります。時には、犯罪行為と見なされることもあります！少なくとも、盗用をした学生は単位を落とすことになるでしょう。特に欧米出身の先生は、盗用に対してとても厳しい意見を持っているので気をつけてください。他の人にレポートを書いてもらうことも盗用になります。もちろん、友人などに助言を求めるのはかまいませんが、最終的には自分の言葉で書かなくてはなりません。また、すでにあるクラスに提出したレポートを別のクラスに再提出するのもいけません。これは「self-plagiarism （自己盗用）」と呼ばれ、他人の文章をコピーするのと同様に単位を落とすことになるかもしれません。先生にとって、母国語が英語でない学生の盗用を見抜くのはとても簡単なことです。担当の先生はあなたの英語能力をよく知っています。あなたの文章がいつもよりも自然でハイレベルなものだったり、いつもは使わないような難しい表現を使っていたり、文法ミスがまったくなかったりしたら、先生はあなたが誰かの文章をコピーしたことにすぐ気がつくでしょう。盗用をしているかどうか疑わしいときは、先生はあなたの文章の一部をインターネットで検索して調べることができます。盗用は欧米では重大な問題です。日本の大学でも許されません。盗用を避ける最も良い方法は、自分自身の言葉を使って内容を要約することです。これは「paraphrasing （言い換え）」と呼ばれます。自分の言葉で言い換えることは簡単ではありませんが、あなたのレポートは自分自身の力で書かなくてはなりません。次の文章は、28ページの第1、2段落の内容をもっと簡潔に言い換えたものです。 When you write a composition in English, you must not copy sentences from the Internet. If you do, your teacher will be very angry, and you might fail the course. Some students copy English sentences from the Internet when they write their compositions, but you might get into serious trouble if you do this.

Read to Write Compositions 129

英作文マニュアル

英語でレポートを書く際に、インターネットからの文章をそのままコピーして使う人がいます。これは、トピックをよく理解していない人、書くことが思いつかない人、またはただ単にやる気がない人などによくあることです。

英作文マニュアル

C チェックリスト

❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏ ❏❏

名前、学籍番号など、必要事項がすべて記入されている。タイトルはページの中央に書かれている。タイトルの主要語が大文字で始まっている。書き出し部分が118ページのルールに沿って書かれている。各パラグラフにトピックセンテンスが1つ含まれている。各パラグラフにトピックセンテンスを補足するサポーティングセンテンスが含まれている。最後のパラグラフがトピックセンテンスを別の表現で言い換えた結論で締めくくられている。接続副詞などの接続表現を使って論点の移行をしている。公式的な文体で書かれている。文章全体で単文、重文、複文をバランスよく使っている。 and、but、 so などから始まっている文章がない。 I’d、don’t などの短縮形を使っていない。コンマを正しく使用し、ピリオドとの区別がはっきりしている。 126ページの説明に従って、断定的な表現を避けている。適切で正確な表現を使って事実を述べている。スペルミスがない。

130 Read to Write Compositions

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Read to Write Compositions 131