Father Love and Child Development by Todd Bryant

Father Love and Child Development: History and Current Evidence Author(s): Ronald P. Rohner Source: Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol. 7, No. 5 (Oct., 1998), pp. 157-161 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of Association for Psychological Science Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20182529 Accessed: 09/12/2010 16:18 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=assocpsychsci. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

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CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 157

Horowitz, M.J. (1986). Stress response syndromes (2nd ed.). New York: Jason Aronson. Howe, M.I., Courage, M.I., & Peterson, C. (1995). recall of traumatic Intrusions in preschoolers' events. Psychonomic Bulletin & Re childhood view, 2, 130-134. Jacobs, W.J., Laurance, H.E., Thomas, K.G.F., Luz cak, S.E., & Nadel, L. (1996). On the veracity traumatic of recovered and variability memory. Traumatology, 2(1) [On-line]. Avail able: http://rdz.stjohns.edu/trauma/traurnaj. html. Jacobs, W.J., & Nadel, L. (in press). Neurobiology of reconstructed memory. Psychology of Public Policy and Law. Janet, P. (1889). L'automatisme psychologique. Paris: Alean. P., & K?llai, J., K?cz?n, G., Szab?, I., Moln?r, study to op Varga, J. (1995). An experimental spatial orien erationally define and measure tation in panic agoraphobia subjects, general control groups. and healthy ized anxiety Behavioural and Cognitive Psychology, 23,145-152. F. (1975). Short-term Kinsbourne, M., & Wood, memory processes and the amnesic syndrome. InD. Deutsch & J.A. Deutsch (Eds.), Short-term memory (pp. 258-291). New York: Academic Press. Kirschbaum, C, Wolf, O.T., May, M., Wippich, W., D.H. (1996). Stress- and treat & Hellhammer, elevations of cortisol levels as ment-induced in sociated with impaired declarative memory healthy adults. Life Sciences, 58,1475-1483. from the LeDoux, J.E. (1995). Emotion: Clues brain. Annual Review of Psychology, 46,209-235. Luine, V., Villegas, M., Martinez, C, & McEwen, stress causes reversible B.S. (1994). Repeated performance. impairments of spatial memory Brain Research, 639, 167-170. Lupien, S.J., de Leon, M., de Santi, S., Convit, A., Tarshish, C, Nair, N.P.V., Thakur, M., Mc R.L., & Meaney, Ewen, B.S., Hauger, M.J. levels during human aging (1998). Cortisol atrophy and memory predict hippocampal Nature deficits. Neuroscience, 1, 69-73. E.A., Frackowiak, R.S.J., & Frith, CD. Maguire,

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Father Love and Child Development: History and Current Evidence Ronald

for the Study of Parental Acceptance

Studies,

of Connecticut,

University

Storrs,

and Rejection,

School of Family

Connecticut

Abstract as much or Six types of studies show that father love sometimes explains as does mother more of the variation in specific child and adult outcomes with is associated love father love. Sometimes, however, statistically only and after control of adjustment, development specific aspects offsprings' of these facts was of mother love. Recognition ling for the influence clouded historically ing in America. Keywords father love; paternal

by the cultural

acceptance;

of fatherhood

construction

parental

acceptance-rejection

1998 American

chobiology of cognition (pp. 185-210). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Teyler, T.J., & DiScenna, P. (1985). The role of the in memory: A hypothesis. Neu hippocampus roscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 9, 377-389. B. Vaher, P., Luine, V., Gould, E., & McEwen, on spatial (1994). Effects of adrenalectomy and dentate gyrus mor memory performance phology. Brain Research, 656, 71-76. van der Kolk, B. (1994). The body keeps the score: of and the evolving psychobiology Memory stress. Harvard Review of Psychia posttraumatic try, 5, 253-265. van der Kolk, B., & Fisler, R. (1995). Dissociation nature and the fragmentary of traumatic and exploratory memories: Overview study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 505-525. S., Squire, L.R., Amaral, D.G., & Su Zola-Morgan, zuki, W.A. (1989). Lesions of perirhinal and cortex the that spare parahippocampal and the hippocampal formation amygdala impairment. Journal of produce severe memory I Neuroscience, 9, 4355-4370.

in every major ethnic Research (Rohner, 1998b), group of America in dozens internation of nations so and with several hundred ally, cieties in two major cross-cultural

P. Rohner1

Center

I Nadel, L., Willner, J., & Kurz, E.M. (1985). Cogni context. In P. and environmental tive maps Balsam & A. Tomie (Eds.), Context and learning (pp. 385-406). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. O'Keefe, J., & Nadel, L. (1978). The hippocampus as a cognitive map. Oxford, England: Oxford Uni versity Press. Rolls, E.T. (1982). Neuronal mechanisms underly of asso ing the formation and disconnection ciations between visual stimuli and reinforce ment In C.C. Woody in primates. (Ed.), Conditioning (pp. 363-373). New York: Plenum Press. Schacter, D.L., & Tulving, E. (1994). Memory sys tems 1994 (pp. 369-394). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Shobe, K.K., & Kihlstrom, J.F. (1997). Is traumatic memory special? Current Directions in Psycho logical Science, 6, 70-74. Squire, L.R., Cohen, N.J., & Nadel, L. (1984). The consoli medial temporal region and memory In H. Weingartner dation: A new hypothesis. & E.S. Parker (Eds.), Memory consolidation: Psy

(Rohner 1975, 1986, 1998c; surveys Rohner & Chaki-Sircar, 1988) sug ev and that adults children gests differ of erywhere?regardless ences in race, ethnicity, gender, or to respond culture?tend same the way when tially

in essen they ex

and father

to be loved or their parents. The over by bulk of research dealing whelming and rejec with parental acceptance on mothers' tion concentrates be however. Until havior, recently, the

theory

possible has been

Psychological

Society

perience unloved

themselves

influence largely

father

ignored.

love

Here,

158 VOLUME 7, NUMBER 5, OCTOBER 1998 on

concentrate the

influence

evidence of

fathers'

behaviors?or ther love?in relation

simply, fa to the social,

and

emotional, ment and

cognitive develop of children, functioning and adult offspring. I focus primarily, but

adolescents,

Moreover, not on exclusively, which information about both or about both

their

showing love

fathers

families

for

is available

rejection accep (Rohner,

tance-rejection theory 1986, in press). Paternal acceptance includes such feelings and behav iors (or children's of perceptions and behaviors)

feelings nurturance,

warmth,

as pa affec

and con on the rejection, other hand, is defined as the real or or withdrawal absence perceived of these feelings and behaviors. Re as includes such jection feelings and coldness, indifference, hostility toward the child. Paternal rejection as a may be expressed behaviorally lack of affection toward the child, as or verbal or physical aggression, as Paternal neglect. rejection may also be experienced in the form of undifferentiated that is, rejection; there may be situations in which tion, cern.

support, Paternal

that

their

fathers

male

(or significant caregivers) not really care about, want, or love there may not them, even though be observable behavioral indicators that the fathers are ne showing or aggres unaffectionate, glecting, sive

toward

them.

Mother

comfort,

The widely

held of

America?especially two 1970s?has

cultural

con

fatherhood

to the prior strands. Histori

cally, the first strand fathers are ineffective,

that asserted often incom and maybe even petent, biologi to unsuited the cally job of child rearing. (The maternal counterpoint to this is that women are geneti for child care.) The cally endowed second strand asserted that fathers' on child influence is development or at the most very unimportant, or indirect. (The mater peripheral nal is that here counterpoint mother love and competent mater nal care provide that everything children need for normal, healthy Because researchers development.) internalized these cultural beliefs as their own fa beliefs, personal thers were essentially ignored by mainstream behavioral science un til late in the 20th century. The

Biller, H.B. (1993). Fathers and families: Paternal factors in child development. Westport, CT: Auburn House. Booth,

A.,

Crouter,

A.C.

through the 1990s, however, seen a revolution in recogniz fathers and the influence of ing their love on child development.

have

Reading

(Eds.).

(1998).Men in families: When do they get involved? What difference does it make? Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Lamb, M.E. (Ed.). (1997). The role of the father in child development. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Rohner, R.P. (1986). (See References)

Three interrelated lines of influ ence I have discussed elsewhere (Rohner, 1998a) seem to account for this revolution. The net effect of these influences has been to draw to the fact that father love attention sometimes inde explains a unique, of the variation in pendent portion

Published

by Cambridge

University

and the portion explained by love. In fact, a few recent that father love is suggest

mother studies

the sole significant of predictor after removing specific outcomes, the influence of mother love.

STUDIES SHOWING THE INFLUENCE OF FATHER LOVE

1970s

Recommended

over

outcomes,

FATHERHOOD AND MOTHERHOOD ARE CULTURAL CONSTRUCTIONS

struction

child

specific above

love

(maternal acceptance-rejection) in the same way. defined

of youths' perceptions fathers' and mothers'

and acceptance paternal as construed in parental

ternal

feel

and mothers?

is parenting. My principal objective to identify evidence about the rela tive contribution to de offspring of father love vis-?-vis velopment mother love. I define father love in terms of

such

individuals

Press

Six types of studies (discussed at in Rohner, greater 1998a) length a demonstrate strong association between father love and aspects of offspring

Studies

development.

Looking Exclusively in the Influence Love

Variations Father

at of

ex of the studies looking at the varia influence of clusively tions in father love deal with one of two topics: gender role develop of ment, especially sons, and father involvement. Studies of gender role development emerged promi Many

nently

in the 1940s

through searchers

fathers correlated

the 1970s. assessed

and

continued re Commonly, the

masculinity

and

of sons, and then the two sets of scores. were sur Many psychologists at to first discover that no prised consistent results from emerged this research. But when they exam ined the quality of the father-son relationship, they found that if the between masculine fa relationship thers and their sons was warm and indeed more loving, the boys were masculine.

searchers

Later,

found

however,

that the masculin of fathers per se did not seem to ity make much difference because to seemed to the conform "boys sex-role of their culture standards when their relationships with their fathers were warm, of regardless

CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 159

'masculine'

how

the fathers were"

(Lamb, 1997, p. 9). is the sec involvement Paternal in which there has ond domain amount of re been a substantial on

the tions in father have concluded search

influence

of varia

studies love. Many that children with

involved fathers, in relation highly to children with fa less involved thers, tend to be more cognitively and clined more

competent,

socially toward

gender

(1995) is one of these studies. These a national authors employed to 12640 of sample 16-year-olds in two-parent families. They that perceived love paternal as predictive of and caring was life satisfac sons' and daughters' their sense of well tion?including was maternal love and being?as living found

stereotyping,

Mother

(i.e., direct in paternal engagement teraction with the child), availabil or for child care ity, responsibility with these associated that was it outcomes. Rather, ap positive

cover

pears that the quality of the father of fa child relationship?especially the greatest ther love?makes 1998).

Father

Love

1997; Veneziano

Is as Important

Love

Mother

in of studies The great majority one or a deal with this category four of the following combination adoles issues children, among adults: cents, and young (a) per and adjust sonality psychological issues of ment problems, including self-concept

tional

and

stability,

self-esteem,

emo

and aggression;

(b)

in especially problems, and academic school; (c) cognitive issues; and (d) psy performance em Recent studies chopathology. analyses have ploying multivariate conduct

to conclude researchers allowed behav that fathers' and mothers' each associated iors are sometimes with uniquely The work of and Hill Norton,

and significantly outcomes. these Young,

Miller,

Love

Outcomes

psychologically and the like. But adjusted, is not neces "caring for" children same the thing as "caring sarily about" them. And a closer exami nation of these studies suggests fact of that it was not the simple

(Lamb,

and psychological prob but also with health lems, however, and well-being. Amato (1994), for a in found national example, to closeness sample that perceived a fathers made contribu significant tion?over and above the contribu

caring.

Father

empathie,

difference

behavioral

tion made by perceived to mothers?to adult

less

better

& Rohner,

I order) & 1990; Rohner (Fowler, in Brothers, press). to be Father love appears not associated uniquely just with

Predicts Better

Specific

Than

tress As

statistical proce complex dures have become more common place in the 1980s and 1990s, it has common to dis also become more the

influence

explained love. Studies drawing sion tend to deal with

(i.e., to overall

Father

Love

tistics

have

love. Most dealt with

ated with

and Garrison-Jones's that adolescents'

conclusion

fathers' faction with to a lowered

(a per and be in havioral instability, especially in and relationships interpersonal

(1992) satis support was incidence of sat whereas

symptoms, depressive with mothers' isfaction support was not. Barnett, Marshall, and Pleck (1992), too, found that when measures of both of the quality

of emotional

self-image)

Society

father

cohesion was positively the absence of de with in adolescents. symptoms pressive with These results are consistent

of bor

Psychological

symptoms

Moreover,

adolescent associated

in the etiology implicated disorder derline personality

1998 American

of adolescents. and McPherson

depressive

adolescents.

Barrera

these

that father-child (1993) concluded con conflict but not mother-child flict (in each case, after the influ ence of the other was statistically was positively associ controlled)

deceit destruction, property and fulness, theft) (Rohner, 1998c). Fathers are also being increasingly

father

studies have and be psychological of

havioral problems For example, Cole

mals,

ality

that

concluded

love is the sole significant predictor after re of specific child outcomes, mother influences of the moving

abuse), depression depressed and behavior emotion, problems, and ex conduct disorder including behaviors (including ternalizing toward people and ani aggression

I form of borderline personality dis-

In the 1990s, a handful of studies sta using a variety of multivariate

by mother this conclu one or more

and borderline person severe less (a organization

Is the Sole

Outcomes

Specific

and

pattern

dis

psychological

Predictor

Significant

father

four issues among of the following and young adolescents, children, and psycho adults: (a) personality (b) problems, adjustment logical conduct problems, (c) delinquency, For ex and (d) psychopathology. that evidence is mounting ample, salient in fathers may be especially of such forms of the development as substance psychopathology use and and abuse alcohol (drug

vasive

happiness, low psychological

well-being).

a unique, love explains indepen in spe dent portion of the variation and adult cific child outcomes, over the portion of and above variation

and

life satisfac

daughters' tion, and

Love

that

closeness sons'

mother-son

ships

were

and

father-son

entered

relation

simultaneously

160 VOLUME 7, NUMBER 5, OCTOBER 1998

into a regression equation, only the was related father-son relationship to adult sons' psycho significantly (a summed measure logical distress of anxiety and depression). Love Moderates

Father

of Mother

Influence

the Love

of small but growing number that fa concluded have and is moderates thers' behavior interacts moderated with) by (i.e., A

studies

other

within

influences

the family. only one

however, Apparently, study so far has addressed

the is

sue of whether

mother love has dif on ferent effects specific child out on the level of comes depending father love. This study, by Fore hand and Nousiainen (1993), found that when mothers were low in ac scores on impact

fathers'

ceptance, no had

acceptance

significant But competence. cognitive youths' when mothers were high in accep scores tance, fathers' acceptance a dramatic

made

difference:

low acceptance thers with tended to have children with cognitive

competence, fathers accepting

Fa scores

poorer whereas tended to

highly have children with substantially ter cognitive competence. Paternal Parenting Associated Outcomes or Both

Versus

bet

Maternal

Is Sometimes With Different for Sons, Daughters,

I kinds

(1986) found that daugh ters' self-esteem was best predicted support general by their mothers' but by (e.g., praise and approval)

Thomas

their

fathers'

Sons'

physical

about

by predicted (e.g., shared activi companionship ties) and by their fathers' sustained contact up the boys (e.g., picking for safety or for fun). in this research a that shows category single pat behav tern of paternal love-related ior may be associated with one out other

sons and a different For ex for daughters. and Epstein ample, Jordan, Radin, nur that paternal (1975) found was turance associated positively come

for

outcome

with boys' but not girls' perfor mance on an IQ test. Finally, the third egory

in this cat type of research shows that the influence of a

of paternal love pattern single more be related behaviors may a given with associated strongly outcome of off for one gender ex For than for the other. spring ample, fathers'

Eisman love

(1981) reported and

and

the child.

Three

different

factors tions paternal and maternal effects on similar or different for children. This specific outcomes contra recommendation explicitly seen in pub dicts a call sometimes

have

lished

their mothers'

Second,

only by separating data in this way can dis scientists that behavioral cern when condi and under what

was

however,

self-esteem,

best

thers (and other significant males, as well as moth when appropriate) ers in future research, and then to the data for pos analyze separately effects. It is sible father and mother

affection.

acceptance

that corre

lated more highly with daughters' than with sons' self-concept.

conceptual evidence Nonetheless, grounds. serious that research suggests in the be should raised questions that as future about the possibility sociations between love-related outcomes and child may parenting depend on the gender of the parent and

research shows that one pattern of paternal love-related and a different pattern of behavior behavior love-related maternal a with be associated may single or in sons, daughters, outcome and Barber For example, both.

in this cat of the studies Many were in the 1950s egory published and 1960s, and even earlier. Many of them may be criticized on meth odological

tend to be found

of studies

this category. First, some

to merge data and mothers' parent

research fathers'

ing behaviors. to note it is important Finally, in and limitations several problems the existing research on father love. For example,

seems though it clear that father love

even

unmistakably an important makes contribution to offsprings' and development not it is psychological functioning, at all clear what nisms

generative mecha these contributions.

produce In particular, it is unclear is sometimes ther love

fa why more

with associated strongly specific outcomes than is mother offspring it is unclear why love. And pat versus maternal terns of paternal parenting different

with may be associated outcomes for sons, or children of both gen

daughters, ders. It remains for future research to inquire directly about these is sues. Until then, we can know only that father love is often as influen some tial as mother love?and times

so.

Note 1. Address

DISCUSSION

The data reported here are but a minuscule part of a larger body of that father love is work showing heavily implicated not only in chil dren's

and

Parental

Acceptance

and

Rejection,

School of Family Studies, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-2058; e mail:

rohner@uconnvm.uconn.edu

http://vm.uconn.edu/~rohner.

adults'

psychological and health, but also in well-being an array of psychological and be havioral This evidence problems. the need to include fa punctuates

Published

correspondence

Ronald P. Rohner, Center for the Study

by Cambridge

University

Press

References Amato, P.R. (1994). Father-child relations, mother child relations and offspring psychological in adulthood. Journal of Marriage well-being and the Family, 56, 1031-1042.

CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 161 Fowler, S.D. (1990). Paternal effects on severity of borderline psychopathology. Unpublished doc of Texas, Austin. toral dissertation, University Jordan, B., Radin, N., & Epstein, A. (1975). Paternal in pre behavior and intellectual functioning school boys and girls. Developmental Psychol ogy, 11, 407-408. Lamb, M.E. (1997). Fathers and child develop ment: An introductory overview and guide. In M.E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of thefather in child development (pp. 1-18). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Rohner, R.P. (1975). They love me, they love me not: A worldwide study of the effects of parental accep tance and rejection. New Haven, CT: HRAF Press. Rohner, R.P. (1986). The warmth dimension: Founda tions of parental acceptance-rejection theory.New bury Park, CA: SAGE. Rohner, R.P. (1998a). The importance of father love: History and contemporary evidence. Manuscript submitted for publication. Rohner, R.P. (1998b). Parental acceptance-rejection http://vm. bibliography [On-line]. Available: uconn.edu / -rohner Rohner, R.P. (1998c). Worldwide mental health corre

of Barber, B., & Thomas, D. (1986). Dimensions fathers' and mothers' supportive behavior: A case for physical affection. Journal ofMarriage and the Family, 48, 783-794. Barnett, R.C., Marshall, N.L., & Pleck, J.H. (1992). and the asso Adult son-parent relationships distress. Jour ciations with sons' psychological nal of Family Issues, 13, 505-525. C. (1992). Fam Barrera, M., Jr., & Garrison-Jones, ily and peer social support as specific corre lates of adolescent depressive symptoms. Jour nal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 20, 1-16. A.E. (1993). Relation of Cole, D., & McPherson, to adolescent depression: family subsystems a new family assessment strat Implementing egy. Journal of Family Psychology, 7, 119-133. Eisman, E.M. (1981). Sex-role characteristics of the parent, parental acceptance of the child and child self-concept. (Doctoral dissertation, Cali at fornia School of Professional Psychology Los Angeles, 1981). Dissertation Abstracts Inter national, 24, 2062. S. (1993). Maternal Forehand, R., & Nousiainen, in and paternal parenting: Critical dimensions adolescent functioning. Journal of Family Psy chology, 7, 213-221.

of Colorado,

University

Boulder, Colorado

space.

LSA

goes

beyond

co-occurrence

pair-wise

cor

that best relate every word of meaning bodies of text, from learning comparable as humans on vocabulary and subject

matter

simulated many tests, accurately aspects of human judgment and tomea and been successfully behavior based on verbal meaning, applied sure the coherence success content of text. The surprising and conceptual and language. of LSA has implications for the nature of generalization

Keywords latent semantic lexicon;

and can effec meaning text compre human tively replace in hension several educational ap passage

to find latent dimensions to every other. After and passage LSA has scored almost as well relation

Young, M.H., Miller, B.E., Norton, M.C., & Hill, J.E. (1995). The effect of parental supportive behaviors on life satisfaction of adolescent off spring. Journal ofMarriage and the Family, 57, 813-822.

sis (LSA). Although far from per as a theory of fect or complete accu and LSA meaning language, of aspects rately simulates many human understanding of word and

(LSA) is a theory of how word meaning?and analysis and of from statistics of experience, derived other possibly knowledge?is a of words. Given is represented combinations how passage meaning by LSA combines the thousands of and text, way representative large sample are used in thousands to map a point for each into a of contexts of words semantic

R.A., & Rohner, R.P. (1998). Perceived and involvement, paternal warmth, paternal in a rural, adjustment youths' psychological biracial southern community. Journal ofMar riage and the Family, 60, 335-343.

Veneziano,

responding psychological learning theory called Latent Semantic Analy

Abstract Latent semantic

common

Rohner, R.P., & Brothers, S.A. (in press). Perceived rejection, psychological maladjust parental and borderline disorder. ment, personality Emotional Abuse. Journal of Rohner, R.P., & Chaki-Sircar, M. (1988). Women and children in a Bengali village. Hanover, NH: Press of New England. University

Thomas K. Landauer1 of Psychology,

and rejection. Rohner, R.P. (in press). Acceptance In D. Levinson, J. Ponzetti, & P. Jorgensen (Eds.), Encyclopedia of human emotions. New York: MacMillan.

tent mysteries of verbal meaning. a math have been exploring cor ematical and model computer

Learning and Representing Verbal Meaning: The Latent Semantic Analysis Theory Department

lates of parental acceptance-rejection: Review of cross-cultural and intracultural evidence. Manu script submitted for publication.

analysis; latent semantic machine learning; knowledge;

mean By age 18, you knew the more than 50,000 words that ing of you had met only in print. How

indexing; simulation

did

assessments ships

between

semantic words,

relation

passes exams

col after

lege multiple-choice a textbook, and makes it assess to the possible automatically content of factual essays as reliably "reading"

expert

humans.

THE LATENT SEMANTIC ANALYSIS THEORY that? My colleagues that we may have this and some other persis

children learn recognition vocabu from humanlike makes text, lary

LSA; learning; meaning;

you do and I think cracked

other things, it plications. Among mimics the rate at which school

1998 American

Psychological

Society

The

relies on and mathematical

formal LSA model

sophisticated